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Journal of Research in Technical Careers
December 2017, Vol. 1, No. 2.

© Authors

Developing Multicultural Self-awareness Through a
Transformative Learning Experience

Cynthia Bezarda, Sara A. Shawb
aBasic Academy of International Studies; bUniversity of Nevada, Las Vegas

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the ways that a change in perspective can create a better
understanding of cultural identity. This study addressed: (1) How does a self-awareness transformative learning experience
develop critical cultural competence in career and technical education instructors? (2) How does the practice of critical
reflection construct career and technical education instructors’ ability to develop self-awareness of critical cultural
competence? (3) How does involvement in critical discourse construct career and technical education instructors’ ability to
develop self-awareness of critical cultural competence? A three-phase professional development experience rooted in
multicultural education provided key elements of transformative learning.

Keywords: career and technical education, transformative learning theory, multicultural education, identity development,
career development

“Becoming a teacher means (1) transforming an
identity, (2) adapting personal understanding and ideals
to institutional realities, and (3) deciding how to express
one’s self in classroom activity” (Rodgers & Scott,
2008, p. 732).

Introduction

Historically, Career and Technical Education (CTE)

instructors have been responsible for preparing their
students to enter and succeed in the workforce.
Expectations for CTE instructors have drastically
changed since the initial introduction of vocational
education. The challenges that they face in the twenty-
first century include accommodating career development
needs and future employment opportunities; meeting
higher academic achievement standards in math,
sciences, communication, and technology; preparing
students to demonstrate higher order skills in reasoning,
problem-solving, and collaborative work; being held to a
demand of greater accountability; ongoing curriculum
revisions; and serving a more diverse student population
(McCaslin & Parks, 2002).

CTE instructors “have always faced the challenge of
educating students with diverse needs and abilities”
(Reese, 2005, p. 15) and are at the helm of preparing
future high-growth industry employees. This creates a
crucial need for multicultural-educated instructors.
Multicultural education recognizes different points of
views, provides ethnic minorities with a sense of
belonging, and reduces stereotypes and prejudices that

can hinder student achievement (Gay, 2010; Banks,
2004).

Identifying the Problem

The typical CTE instructor comes from business and

industry where hands-on, occupational work experience
makes them an expert in their field (Ruhland & Bremer,
2002). While rich in occupational experience, many CTE
instructors lack traditional teacher preparation experience
(McCaslin & Parks, 2002). This may contribute to a
teaching environment in which the CTE instructor is less
able to respond to the needs of a diverse student
population than those individuals with a traditional
teacher preparation background. The gaps presented by
this nontraditional entry into the educational field can be
addressed by additional learning opportunities for the
CTE instructor.

The anatomy of today’s secondary classroom has
changed and is expected to continue changing (Hoy &
Hoy, 2006). By the year 2020, it has been projected that
66 percent of the students in our classrooms will be
children of color. CTE instructors will face many
challenges including working with students that have
different racial, cultural and ethnic backgrounds from
their own (Hoy & Hoy, 2006). With this increase in
diverse student population it has become a priority to help
instructors acquire the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and
dispositions that are needed to be effective in the diverse
classroom (Cooper, He, & Levin, 2011; Chou, 2007;

36https://doi.org/10.9741/2578-2118.1011

Gay, 2010; Grant, Elsbree, & Fondrie, 2004; Ladson-
Billings, 2001).

Previous studies indicate a relationship between
instructors’ attitudes, behaviors and the achievement of
students (Brophy & Good, 1984). Questions to ponder
may be: If a CTE instructor’s race, ethnicity, social class,
or culture differs from the students that they are teaching,
how are they to understand and effectively educate the
racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse CTE student?
How can our CTE instructors appropriately deal with
stereotypes of racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse
students as they prepare them to enter the workforce?
How can these CTE instructors ensure each student is
valued and treated respectfully in their classroom?

Background of the Problem

To fit the needs of the twenty-first century, the

Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE)
created a report of how an updated education system
should look (ACTE, 2006). The report proposed that CTE
should be modified to do the following:

(a) support students in the acquisition of rigorous
core knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes needed
for success in postsecondary education and the high-
skilled workplace, (b) engage students in specific
career-related learning experiences that equip them
to make well-informed decisions about further
education and training and employment
opportunities, and (c) prepare students who may
choose to enter the workforce directly after high
school with levels of skills and knowledge in a
particular career area that will be valued in the
marketplace (Stone, 2010, p. 1).
To improve student achievement in the twenty-first

century, a beyond-knowledge understanding of diversity
by CTE instructors is necessary (Cooper et al., 2011;
Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2007). Cooper and
colleagues define this beyond-knowledge understanding
of diversity as critical cultural competence. Critical
cultural competence is based on “critical reflection of
self, students, families, and communities” (p. xv).

For this research study, the American Evaluation
Association (AEA) definition of cultural competence was
used:

Cultural competence is not a state at which one
arrives; rather, it is a process of learning, unlearning,
and relearning. It is a sensibility cultivated
throughout a lifetime. Cultural Competence requires
awareness of self, reflection on one’s own cultural
position, awareness of other’s positions, and the
ability to interact genuinely and respectfully with
others. (AEA, 2011, p. 3)
Research has indicated culturally competent

educators can improve the academic and occupational
success of diverse students (Gay, 2010; Grant et al., 2004;
Ladson-Billings, 2001. With a foundational
understanding of critical cultural competence, educators

can create fair and impartial classrooms that nurture
academic achievement (Cooper et al., 2011).
Development of critical cultural competence can be best
achieved through ongoing learning opportunities (Cooper
et al., 2011). Learning opportunities rooted in the
transformative learning theory complements the
definition of cultural competence used in this research
study.

Purpose of the Study

To be successful in the classroom for all students,

CTE instructors need to foster personal growth and
development as well as focusing their attention on
developing students (Cranton, 1996; Zeichner & Liston,
1996). Research has indicated culturally competent
educators can improve the academic and occupational
success of diverse students (Gay, 2010; Grant et al., 2004;
Ladson-Billings, 2001) However, little attention has been
given to how development of multicultural self-
awareness may influence CTE instructors’ development
of critical cultural competence. The purpose of this
research study was to examine transformative learning
experiences of CTE instructors, specifically focusing on
the development of multicultural self-awareness.
According to Mezirow (1991), adult educators have a
responsibility to help their students (i.e., CTE instructors)
become more “imaginative, intuitive, and critically
reflective of assumptions; to become more rational
through effective participation in critical discourse; and
to acquire meaning perspectives that are more inclusive,
integrative, discriminating, and open to alternative points
of view” (p. 224).

Brief Review of Literature and
Theoretical Framework

As educators, we look to multicultural education to

provide a path of creating an instructional practice that
provides equal opportunities for all students in the
classroom. A significant purpose of multicultural
education is reduction of stereotyping and prejudice
(Banks, 1981), which is necessary for students to develop
the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to
participate in the workforce and in society.
Transformative learning theory guided this research
study. Additionally, Erikson’s theory of identity
development was used to demonstrate the importance of
identity and vocational development during adolescence.

Transformative Learning Theory. Transformative
learning can be described as the action of closely
inspecting one’s beliefs, values, and assumptions in order
to gain understanding and develop new knowledge
(Mezirow, 1990, 2000). Changing the way one looks at
current and past events can spark the beginning of
personal and social growth that then materializes into
transformation (Mezirow, 1990).

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Journal of Research in Technical Careers

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For the past 25 years, transformative learning theory
has been a growing field in adult education (Taylor,
2007). Transformative learning theory is uniquely adult,
abstract and idealized, and grounded in the nature of
human communication (Taylor, 2007 It focuses on the
ability of the learner to interpret, verify, and then redefine
their past experiences to change their current opinions,
perspectives, and responses (Imel, 1998; Mezirow, 1996;
Taylor, 2007). Transformative learning offers a
framework through which we can identify the essence
and degree of a desired perspective transformation
(Mezirow, 1990). Transformative learning theory is a
well-liked adult learning theory that faculty in higher
education can use to design and promote experiences in
their classrooms that may challenge students to analyze
their current perspectives and develop different
perspectives that may guide new ways of acting
(Mezirow, 1996). Adult educators can design learning
experiences that seek to transform their students’
knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Transformative
learning theory offers a credible lens through which this
process can be viewed.

Erikson’s Identity Development Theory. In the

field of psychology, Erik Erikson is considered a
foundational theorist. Erikson’s theory is presented in
eight stages, beginning with infancy and ending with
mature age. The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory has to do
with identity development. Erikson (1963) defined
identity as “the ability to experience one’s self as
something that has continuity and sameness and to act
accordingly” (p. 42). Erikson was instrumental in
presenting vocational development as an essential and
critical part of adolescent development (Vondracek,
Schulenberg, Skorikov, Gillespie, & Wahlheim, 1995).
This is important to this research study as high school
CTE instructors are working with students during
adolescence.

Multicultural Education. Multicultural education
is a way of teaching and learning founded on democratic
values that create cultural oneness (Bennett, 1998). The
major goal of multicultural education is to recreate the
practices of educational institutions so that all students
have an equal opportunity for achieving academic
excellence (Banks, 2004). It is an instructional and
teaching model that fuses the “history, cultural traditions,
social norms, life experiences, and learned contributions
that members of nondominant groups have made to all
aspects of society” (Clark, 2013, p. 1502). Multicultural
theorists are very interested in the interaction between
race, class, and gender and how those interactions impact
education (Banks, 1998; Grant & Sleeter, 1988). The
theories and practices of multicultural education manifest
in the promotion of social change.

Critical Cultural Competence. Culture can be

described as the way humans act or interact and may
include a combination of thought, communication,
actions, customs, beliefs, and values (Catoe, 2010).
Competence is possessing the required skill, knowledge,
qualification, or capacity to function within a certain
circumstance (Competence n.d.). The development of
critical cultural competence is when behaviors, attitudes,
and policies come together in a system, agency, or
profession and enable that system, agency, or profession
to effectively participate in cross-cultural situations
(Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989). The five
essentials elements of a culturally competent system are
“(1) valuing diversity, (2) having the capacity for cultural
self assessment, (3) being conscious of the dynamics
inherent when cultures interact, (4) institutionalizing
cultural knowledge, and (5) creating new ways to deliver
an understanding of the differences between and within
cultures” (Cross, et al., 1989).

Table 1. Mezirow’s Ten Phases of Transformative Learning

Step Transforming Dimension
1 A disorienting dilemma
2 A self-examination with feelings of fear, anger, guilt, or shame
3 A critical assessment of assumptions
4 Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared
5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions
6 Planning a course of action
7 Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plan
8 Provisionally trying new roles
9 Building competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships
10 A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s perspective

Adapted from “Transforming Dimensions of Adult Learning” by Jack Mezirow, 1991, Copyright 1991 by John Wiley
and Sons.

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Bezard and Shaw: Developing Multicultural Self-awareness

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While theorists have presented different approaches
and models of multicultural education (Banks, 1998;
Nieto & Bode, 2008; Grant & Sleeter, 2006), they all
stress the importance for educators to: (a) participate in
critical self-reflection about their assumptions and
cultural beliefs, (b) cultivate a rich and meaningful
understanding of student diversity and assets, and (c)
look upon the funds of knowledge brought with the
students from their community culture and heritage as
pertinent to their educational path (Cooper et al., 2011).
Cooper and colleagues (2011) combined these concepts
to develop a foundation for developing critical cultural
competence. The goal for developing or enhancing
educators’ critical cultural competence is to “impact
instructional practices and to promote the achievement of
students, especially those who are culturally, ethnically,
and linguistically diverse” (Cooper et al., 2011, p. 6)
(Figure 1).

Self-awareness. To acquire cultural knowledge of
self is part of developing culturally appropriate
pedagogical techniques in the classroom (Spindler &
Spindler, 1993). To further expound on development of
self knowledge, Howard (1999) states that success comes
with personal reflection during transformation. Howard
(1999) suggested that by understanding our past and how
it has shaped certain racial myths, we can rectify our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors as they relate to human
diversity.

Research Questions

This research study explored how developing

multicultural self-awareness through a transformative
learning experience can impact CTE instructors’
approaches in the classroom. The primary question that

guided this research study was: How does a self-
awareness transformative learning experience develop
critical cultural competence in CTE instructors? Two
ancillary questions were also considered: 1) How does the
practice of critical reflection construct CTE instructors’
ability to develop self-awareness of critical cultural
competence? 2) How does involvement in critical
discourse construct CTE instructors’ ability to develop
self-awareness of critical cultural competence?

Approach to the Study

The research chosen for this study was qualitative
inquiry as it creates a situation where the researcher
develops a meaningful and rich understanding of a
participant’s experience (Green & Thorogood, 2014).
Empirically, qualitative research methods have been
predominant in the field of transformative learning as
Mezirow (2009) stated “to understand communicative
learning, qualitative research methods are often more
appropriate” (p. 59). For the field of transformative
learning theory employment of the qualitative method is
necessary to “explore the problem, honor the voices of
participants, map the complexity of the situation, and
convey multiple perspectives of participants” (Creswell
& Plano Clark, 2011, p.7). Furthermore, how much the
phenomenon has been studied influences the research
method that is chosen (Merriam, 1988).

More specifically, this was a qualitative, bounded,
case study (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 1988) that
attempted to add to the current knowledge base on CTE
instructors’ development of multicultural self-awareness
through transformative learning experiences. A case
study is chosen when (a) “how” or “why” questions are
being posed, (b) the investigator has little control over

Table 2. Erikson’s Theory of Identity Development
Stage Period Crisis Positive Resolution

1 First year Trust vs. mistrust Sense of security

2 Second year Autonomy vs. shame/doubt Sense of independence

3 3 – 5 years Initiative vs. guilt Balance between spontaneity and
restraint

4 6 years to puberty Industry vs. inferiority Sense of self-confidence

5 Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion Unified sense of self

6 Young adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation Form close personal relationships

7 Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Promote well being of others

8 Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair Sense of satisfaction with life well

lived
Adapted from “Identity and the Life Cycle” by Erik Erikson, 1959, Psychological Issues, 1, p. 22. Copyright 1959 by
Norton.

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events, and (c) the focus is on a contemporary
phenomenon with a real-life context” (Creswell, 2013,
p.2). Qualitative studies are exploratory and enable the
researcher to study participants in natural settings
(Creswell, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). The
researcher has an opportunity to access in-depth
information and to uncover pertinent knowledge that may
not emerge if using controlled methods. This research
study is bounded as the boundaries are the activities that
the participants are involved in during a specific time and
place (Creswell, 2013).

As an attempt to understand human behavior, the
research used the interpretative approach. Green and
Thorogood (2014), state that an aspect to understanding
human behavior is being able to view people’s
interpretation of their world. The philosophical approach
used in this research is that of phenomenology (Creswell,
2013; Merriam, 1988). This research attempted to report
the common meaning for several individuals as they
experience the phenomena of a transformative learning
experience (Creswell, 2013; Merriam, 1988).

Methodology

This research study took place in a public university

in the southwest region of the United States. Institutional
Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained to conduct

this research. This qualitative study involved three
phases. Phase I and Phase II were designed to ignite the
transformative learning process. Phase III consisted of
face-to-face interviews with research participants.

Participants and Rationale for Participant

Sample. Convenience and purposeful sampling was used
(Creswell, 2013). As this study gained access to
participants from a specific geographic area convenience
sampling is employed (Merriam, 1998). This study
included CTE instructors who were enrolled in an
accredited public postsecondary university in the
southwest region of the United States. This setting is an
accredited postsecondary institution where business and
industry licensed CTE instructors can earn the mandatory
12 semester credit hours towards their license.

The selection of the instructors was based on their
willingness to participate in the study and the ability of
instructors to meet with the researcher and attend
individual and group sessions. Since the focus of this
study was on transformative learning experiences of
business and industry CTE instructors, instructors
currently attending courses to maintain their business and
industry license at a public university qualified to
participate in this research study. This straightforward
selection of participants who are likely to provide
appropriate and useful data (Green & Thorogood, 2014)

Figure 1. Goal of Teacher Critical Competence. Adapted from “Teacher Critical Competence” by Cooper et al., 2011,
Developing Critical Cultural Competence, p. 7. Copyright 2011 by Corwin. Note: this research study focused on educator-
self development.

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Bezard and Shaw: Developing Multicultural Self-awareness
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follows the method of purposeful sampling in qualitative
research (Creswell, 2013; Coyne,1997). Research sample
selection is important in qualitative research as it affects
the quality of the research (Coyne, 1997; Merriam, 1998).
According to Patton (1990), “the…logic and power of
purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich
cases for study in depth” (p. 169). Patton (1990) goes on
to state that “qualitative inquiry typically focuses in depth
on relatively small samples, even single cases, selected
purposefully” (p. 169).

A questionnaire was used to gather information
about participant demographics. Participant names have
been changed (Table 3).

Role of Researcher. The first author on this paper

was the sole researcher in this research study, the
custodian of all data, and the data analyzer.
Responsibilities included developing and implementing
all aspects of the research study, including developing the
transformative learning experience, participant
recruitment and consenting, creating all interview
questions, conducting all the participant interviews, and
transcribing the interviews. To ensure objectivity and
validity of data analysis, the assistance of an experienced
research faculty member through an intercoder
agreement was used.

Phase I. Phase I consisted of the introduction to

research; collection of demographic and background
information; identification of student, school, and
curriculum information; past participation in diversity
training; completion of Harvard’s Implicit Association
Test; and engagement in self-reflection through
formulated questions. This phase began the ten-phase
transformation process Mezirow (1995) articulates in the
transformative learning theory. The first phase is a
disorienting dilemma. This dilemma represents the first
of three key themes of Mezirow’s transformative learning
theory experience – participants have an experience that
does not fit with their pre-existing meaning structure,
causing a disorienting dilemma. As long as our
experiences match our current way of thinking we tend to
not participate in transformative learning (Mezirow,
1995). In this phase of the study, students completed the
Implicit Association Test (IAT). This phase also
addressed aspects of the second of the theory’s themes –
critical reflection. After experiencing a disorienting

dilemma through critical reflection there is a self-
examination with feelings of guilt or shame and a critical
assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic
assumptions (Mezirow, 1991)

Implicit association test. The Implicit Association
Test (IAT) is an instrument used to investigate thoughts
and feelings that people may be unwilling or unable to
report (Project Implicit, 2011). IAT was chosen because
it is a valid instrument for measuring hidden racial and
gender biases. Research has shown that those who show
a strong IAT effect are more likely to demonstrate overt
racist behavior (Nosek, Greenwald, & Banji, 2007).

Phase II. Phase II consisted of a PowerPoint

presentation on developing critical cultural competence,
activities that began to help all participants explore
personal characteristics and beliefs, a follow-up group
meeting that included group discussion questions, and
questions from Kember et al. (2000) were used to assess
critical reflection. This helped the participants focus on
the first insights required for developing instructors’
critical cultural competency: understanding themselves.
This phase addressed aspects of the second of the theory’s
themes, critical reflection, as well as the third of the
theory’s themes, rational discourse (Mezirow, 1991). The
activities that the participants complete begin the steps of
exploring personal characteristics and beliefs. Answering
the reflection questions facilitates self-examination and
critical assessment that are aspects of the second of the
theory’s themes. As there is a group discussion after the
activities, the third theme, rational discourse, provides
opportunity for exploring with others the newly
discovered misunderstanding between assumptions and
reality, specifically, grasping one’s discontent, sharing
the process of transformation, and understanding that
others have negotiated a similar change. This exchange
allows for exploration of options for new roles,
relationships, and actions with others.

PowerPoint presentation. This presentation
introduced the participants to the definition of cultural
competence used for research study, a foundational
understanding about diversity through the lens of
Milner’s five conceptual repertoires of diversity,
including the steps necessary to go beyond knowledge of
diversity, and Edward T. Hall’s iceberg analogy of
culture.

Table 3. Participant Demographics
Participant Age Race/Ethnicity Gender

Jim 34 White Male
Lauren 54 European/White Female
Sarah 34 Korean/Asian Female

Samuel 54 Black Male
Julianne 29 White/Irish Female
Alexis 55 Caucasian Female
Kelly 33 Asian Female
Scott 50 Caucasian/White Male

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Autobiography activity. Autobiographies provide a
way for the instructor to use facts as they begin to
investigate themselves (Cooper et al., 2011). The
objective of this activity was to provide participants with
an opportunity to share how they perceive themselves in
relation to aspects of cultural beings, and to explore their
own cultural assumptions (Cooper, et al., 2011).

Bio-poem. Bio-poems are a simple and effective way
for the participants to express how they want others to see
them as they choose the words that describe themselves,
their interests, and their lives (Cooper et al., 2011). The
objective of this activity was to provide participants with
an opportunity to express what they want others to know
about themselves (Cooper, et. al, 2011).

Privilege walk. A privilege walk gives the
participants an opportunity to discover diversity within
themselves and to uncover preconceived notions and
beliefs about others (Cooper et al., 2011). The objective
of this activity was to provide participants with an
opportunity to understand the intricacies of privilege
(Cooper et al., 2011). Participation in the privilege walk
reveals how certain perceptions associated with race,
ethnicity, class, gender, ability, and religion are forms of
privilege for some and not for others (Cooper et al.,
2011).

Group discussion. Cranton (1994) states that
educators need to participate in conversation with others
in order to be exposed to different views and to decide if
those views are logical. Furthermore, Mezirow (2000)
suggests that to foster effective rational discourse, a safe
and accepting environment that is free from judgment is
necessary in order to reduce and ease the possible
psychological and emotional distress the participants may
encounter. As the researcher facilitated the
transformative learning experience, every attempt to
create the best conditions in which to nurture discourse
was made. As the researcher facilitated the group
discussion, use of a note-taker was used to ensure
accurate dictation of the dialogue.

Phase III. Phase III consisted of individual, face-to-

face, semi-structured interviews. Interview questions
were designed to assess information about how self-
awareness through a transformative learning experience
changed their perceptions. This final interview attempted
to take a rich and meaningful look at the possible
transformative learning experience of the participant.
Phase I and Phase II provided opportunities for
disorienting dilemmas which is the first of the theory’s
phases. These dilemmas or a-ha moments can be all at
once or gradual over time and display a disconnect
between our understanding and reality.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

From the collected data an in-depth understanding

was gained of how self-awareness can be obtained
through transformative learning experiences. During the

analysis stage, the researcher reviewed field notes and
face-to-face interviews to determine the emergence of
themes. More specifically, the researcher sought
indigenous themes that characterized the experience of
the research participants.

Data analysis included analyzing interviews,
document analysis, and participation observations.
According to Creswell (2013), there are six steps to take
when analyzing the qualitative data: organize and prepare
(transcribe), read through all the transcribed data to
understand the overall meaning, code and label the data
in chunks, organize the chunks of codes or labels into
smaller numbers of categories and themes, identify the
themes found in the interview data, and make
interpretation or meaning of the data.

In order to ensure a rich, robust, comprehensive, and
well-developed study it is recommended to use multiple
data sources (Denzin, 1978; Patton, 1999). Triangulation
involves using multiple data sources to produces
understanding. The types of triangulation used in this
research study are triangulation of sources (comparing
people with different points of view), analyst
triangulation (using multiple analysts to review findings),
and theory/perspective triangulation (using multiple
theoretical perspectives to examine and interpret the data)
(Denzin, 1978; Patton, 1999). The use of multiple data
sources also serves to enhance each data source as it
provides the data collected in one area to shed light on
data collected in another area (Creswell, 2013; Merriam,
1988).

Findings and Implications

Important to the field of CTE are the major findings

concerning the primary research question: How does a
self-awareness transformative learning experience
develop critical cultural competence in CTE instructors?
All eight of the research participants experienced at least
one of the ten phases of transformative learning (see
Table 1) as it pertains to development of multicultural
self-awareness and critical cultural competence. There
were also findings that aligned with advanced
transformative learning as two of the participants made
changes to their approaches in the classroom based on
this transformative learning experience. Examples
included changes in communication with students,
changed graphic representation of students, and
awareness of student names. Since the professional
development aspect of this research study employed
critical thinking, personal reflection, critical discourse,
and mentoring it is not an unexpected finding that some
levels of transformative learning transpired (King, 2005;
Taylor, 1998). Since transformative learning is a
uniquely individual experience, it was not an unexpected
finding that not all participants responded the same to the
learning experience (King, 2005; Taylor, 1998).

The first ancillary question was: How does the
practice of critical reflection construct CTE instructors’

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ability to develop self-awareness of critical cultural
competence? Findings indicated underdeveloped
personal reflection skills in the research participants.
Personal self-reflection is the process that enables the
adult learner to question the accuracy of assumptions and
beliefs that are rooted in past experiences. For adult
learners to have the ability to reflect on one’s own
practice, to grow, and change professionally is to be an
effective practitioner (Cranton, 1996; Mezirow, 1991;
Sparks, 1999). In analyzing the personal reflections of the
research participants, answers to the reflection questions
lacked depth and failed to delve into particants’ practice,
as participants answered questions with “yes” and “no”
responses.

The second ancillary question was: How does
involvement in critical discourse construct CTE
instructors’ ability to develop self-awareness of critical
cultural competence? Findings indicated that CTE
instructors were able to engage in critical discourse when
provided the correct environment. Research participants
shared: “People became more open and more acceptable
and less judgmental after a while,” “It was a safe
environment where we trusted each other,” and “there
was an intimacy in the classroom provided by the
researcher.” To foster effective rational discourse, a safe
and accepting environment that is free from judgment is
necessary in order to reduce and ease the possible
psychological and emotional distress the participants may
encounter (Mezirow, 2000). It was the role of the research
to provide the correct environment to foster positive
critical discourse for the research participants.

The findings of this research study support the
prioritization to help CTE instructors acquire the
attitudes, knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are
needed to be effective in today’s classroom (Cooper et
al., 2011; Chou, 2007; Gay, 2010; Grant et al., 2004;
Ladson-Billings, 2001). To be effective in today’s
classroom, CTE instructors need time and opportunities
to develop, master, and reflect on effective ways of
working with their students. Professional development
for educators teaching future CTE instructors may be
necessary to develop the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and
dispositions to guide CTE instructors to be more effective
in today’s diverse classroom.

According to Judith Warren Little (1994), a model
of instructor professional development that is primarily
focused on expanding well-defined and skillful
classroom practice is not adequate to the demanding
vision of today’s teaching and schooling. Instructors in
the twenty-first century needs to have the skills that serve
diverse learners effectively (Cooper et al., 2011; Darling-
Hammond, 2006). Milner (2010) states that preparing
today’s instructors for diversity, equity, and social justice
are perhaps the most demanding and taxing job facing the
field of higher education.

This research study was designed as professional
development focusing on developing self-awareness

through a transformative learning experience. The
findings imply that through a transformative learning
experience research participants developed a greater
understanding of the perceptions they hold, the values
they take to the classroom, and the beliefs they have about
career and technical education. Since adult learning is
considered a lifelong journey, continuing to create and
provide learning opportunities that focus on developing
critical cultural competence in CTE instructors will help
nurture and support student achievement.

Recommendations for Further Research

While this study did not examine every aspect of

developing multicultural self-awareness through
transformative learning experiences, the results did
provide a basis for future research on the topic.

Additional studies that address continued
development of critical cultural competence are needed
and suggested here.

A longitudinal qualitative research study could be
conducted to determine if after the initial transformative
learning experience, research participants continued the
development of professional critical cultural competence.

A longitudinal qualitative study spanning at least
one year and designed as a three-phase continuum
professional development on critical cultural competence
could be conducted to determine if ongoing professional
development in critical cultural competence is beneficial
to CTE instructors by building on prior learning
experiences.

Further examination of the development and use of
personal reflection skills of CTE instructors could also be
considered. An exploratory sequential mixed methods
research study (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011) designed
to examine the development of reflection skills in CTE
instructors could be conducted in order to determine how
many CTE instructors use personal reflection, whether
there is a need to develop personal reflection skills, and
the best way to develop those skills.

A replication of this study that includes CTE
instructors beyond their first year of teaching could be
developed. As a large portion of CTE instructors do not
enter the classroom through the traditional instructor
preparation programs the first year in the classroom is
spent learning day-to-day operations such as methods,
classroom management, and administrative duties.
Attitudes, knowledge, and skills develop and change
beyond the first year of teaching that could affect the
results of the research study.

Lastly, any of these studies could be applied to other
instructors who have entered the classroom via an
alternative route to licensing. These research studies
would address the importance of multicultural education
for all of today’s instructors – Alternative Route to
Licensure, Teach For America, and even substitute
teachers.

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Journal of Research in Technical Careers
https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/jrtc/vol1/iss2/5

Conclusion

Transformative learning can be described as the

action of closely inspecting one’s beliefs, values, and
assumptions in order to gain understanding and develop
new knowledge (Mezirow, 1990, 2000). Changing the
way one looks at current and past events can spark the
beginning of personal and social growth, which then
develops into a transformation.

Overall, analysis of the descriptive data, personal
reflections, group dialog, and face-to face interviews
found that seven of the research participants in this study
had begun to experience phases one through five of
Mezirow’s transformative learning. Findings also
showed that two research participants experienced phases
five and six of Mezirow’s transformative learning.
Analysis of the data indicated the key factors of
transformative learning (critical thinking skills, personal
self-reflection, classroom discussions and dialogues, and
mentoring) were utilized to produce the transformative
learning experience. However, there were findings that
indicated personal reflection skills were underdeveloped.
This lack of personal reflection skills may halt the ability
to reflect on one’s own practice, to grow, and change
professionally.

Beyond delivering education, the focus of this
research study was to shape change in self-understanding
and basic “ways of knowing” (King, 2005, p. 2). Creating
an environment for CTE instructors to understand
themselves and their world in new ways can open the
door for new perceptions – perceptions that lead to
cultural competence. An introduction to the key elements
of transformative learning promotes shifts in
understanding (King, 2005). Research participants were
able to question their previously held perceptions, beliefs,
and values in order to develop the attitudes, knowledge,
skills, and dispositions to be successful in their diverse
classrooms.

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Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(1), 21–32
C© 2009 The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children

The Effectiveness of a Color-Coded, Onset-Rime Decoding Intervention
with First-Grade Students at Serious Risk for Reading Disabilities

Sara J. Hines
Hunter College (CUNY)

This study was an investigation into the effectiveness of a color-coded, onset-rime–based
decoding intervention with first-graders at serious risk for reading disabilities using a single-
subject multiple probe design. Students increased their ability to decode instructional words on
average 73% over baseline. For novel words from instructed rime patterns, scores increased by
an average of 56%. Transfer at the vowel level to uninstructed rime patterns was limited, with
scores improving by an average of 29%. Students maintained decoding gains at 1-week and
1-month maintenance. While acknowledging the difficulty in predicting reading disabilities
based on first-grade performance, the effectiveness of the early intervention is a promising
step in finding an instructional approach that is successful with the most at risk or disabled
students who often do not respond to effective remedial programs.

Learning to read is a prerequisite for success in our literate so-
ciety. However, for a significant number of young children,
mastering the initial skills of decoding is difficult. Begin-
ning readers who are poor decoders usually continue to fall
behind in reading, which negatively affects their overall aca-
demic performance, self-esteem, and motivation (Elbaum &
Vaughn, 2003; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Unfortunately,
currently accepted remedial approaches to decoding instruc-
tion, although successful for the majority of learning disabled
or at-risk readers, fail to significantly improve the skills of a
sizable number of readers (Lovett, Warren-Chaplin, Ransby,
& Borden, 1990; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1997a). In
a study with severely at-risk kindergarten children (bottom
12% in phonological processing skills) who received 46.7
to 48.1 hours of tutorial instruction, Torgesen et al. (1999)
reported that, although the scores of children in the most ef-
fective condition were within the average range on all reading
measures, there was still a substantial proportion of children
whose word-level reading skills did not improve. Such results
suggest a need for a different instructional approach with the
most at-risk or disabled readers, who are often nonresponders
to generally effective remedial instruction.

Most research investigating effective remedial decoding
instruction over the past 20 years has involved phoneme-
level instruction (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Bradley &
Bryant, 1983; Torgesen, 2001; Torgesen, Wagner, Rashotte,
Alexander, & Conway, 1997b; Vellutino, Scanlon et al.,
1996). The focus on phoneme-level instruction results from
consensus in the field that children with reading disabili-
ties typically have weak phonemic awareness (Blachman,
1994; Bradley & Bryant, 1978, 1983; Share, 1995; Torgesen
et al., 1997a). However, a number of researchers (Haskell,
Foorman, & Swank, 1992; Levy & Lysynchuk, 1997; Lovett,
1991; Peterson & Haines, 1992) suggested that, because dif-

Requests for reprints should be sent to Sara J. Hines, 3355 Ritten-
house St., NW, Washington, DC 20015. Electronic inquiries may be sent to
shine@hunter.cuny.edu.

ficulties with phoneme level subword and subsyllabic units
may be central to the word recognition failures of readers
with dyslexia, researchers should investigate the relative ef-
fectiveness of remedial reading instruction at subword levels
other than the phoneme, such as the onset-rime level.

In accord with that suggestion, using a single subject de-
sign across first-grade participants, I investigated the effec-
tiveness of an instructional program emphasizing rimes or
word families rather than grapheme–phoneme relationships.
The program also incorporated a color-coding system to vi-
sually emphasize the rime patterns for additional decoding
support. Although the first-grade participants in the study
were not identified as learning disabled, due in part to their
young age and lack of school experience, they were selected
because of their high-risk status based on screening perfor-
mance and teacher recommendations.

Onset-Rime Instruction

Definition of Onsets and Rimes

Onsets and rimes are composed of individual phonemes. An
onset in a syllable is the initial consonant(s) (e.g., the c in
cat); the rime comprises the vowel and consonants that follow
(e.g., the at in cat). Traditional or synthetic phonics instruc-
tion requires the matching of graphemes to phonemes, and
then the sequential blending of those individual phonemes
into words; when encountering an unknown word hat, a child
would identify and blend the individual phonemes /h/, /a/,
and /t/ into hat. Onset-rime instruction, on the other hand,
involves the analysis and substitution of word parts from
known words to unknown ones at the onset-rime level; when
encountering the unknown word hat, a child would identify
the common rime with the known word cat and substitute
the initial /h/ sound for /c/ to decode (Levy & Lysynchuk,
1997; Goswami, 1993; Savage, Carless, & Stuart, 2003).
Onset-rime instruction typically involves the introduction of

22 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

instructional words by rime or word family (e.g., cat, rat,
bat, fat). As opposed to rhymes, which sound alike but do
not necessarily look alike, rimes are consistent both visually
and auditorily.

Advantages of Onset-Rime Instruction

There are a number of reasons why initial reading instruction
at the rime level may be more successful with students with,
or at risk for, severe reading problems than instruction at the
phoneme level. One argument relates to the accessibility of
the rime. According to Adams (1990), it is relatively easy
to break the onset away from the rime, but difficult to break
either the onset or the rime into its phonemic components.
Difficulty in segmenting phonemes may be because separate
sounds merge in words and are not easily identified as individ-
ual sounds when listening to speech (Juel & Minden-Cupp,
2000). In contrast, according to Anthony, Lonigan, Driscoll,
Phillips, and Burgess (2003), children have a natural ability
to hear onsets and rimes.

Another argument supporting initial onset-rime–level in-
struction for struggling readers relates to the consistency
of the rime unit. Although the English language is alpha-
bet driven, with many regular grapheme–phoneme corre-
spondences, the relationship between the spoken and writ-
ten codes is complex and frequently irregular (Levy &
Lysynchuk, 1997). The simple one-to-one correspondence
between graphemes and phonemes found in transparent lan-
guages like Spanish or German does not apply to written En-
glish, particularly at the vowel level. The vowel may change
in accord with the final consonant(s) in a syllable (Goswami,
1999; Moats, 2000). Treiman, Mullinnex, Bijeljac-Babic,
and Richmond-Welty (1995) carried out a statistical analysis
of the links between spellings and sounds in CVC (conso-
nant/vowel/consonant) words in English and found that rime
units had more stable pronunciations than individual vowel
graphemes or initial consonant plus vowel units. Stanbach
(1992) analyzed the rime patterns of the 17,602 words in the
Carroll, Davies, and Richman (1971) word frequency norms
for children and found that all of the 17,602 words can be
classified into 824 rimes, of which 616 occur in common
rime families. These data support the consistency of the rime
unit in typical reading materials children encounter.

The consistency of the rime in relation to the vowel sug-
gests another argument because onset-rime instruction avoids
short vowel confusion. One of the most difficult areas of
phonics instruction is short vowel mastery. According to
Goswami (1993), vowel misreading is twice as prevalent as
consonant misreading for beginning readers. Adams (1990)
stated that phonic generalizations about the pronunciation of
individual vowels and vowel digraphs are “frustratingly un-
reliable” (p. 320); however, vowel sounds are usually quite
stable within rime patterns.

Instruction with onsets and rimes also requires less facility
with blending, another stumbling block for children. Rather
than having to identify and then blend the phonemes r-a-t
together to make rat, the child only needs to substitute the r
in rat for the c in cat. O’Shaughnessy and Swanson (2000)
suggested that children respond better to remedial strategies
that use larger phonological units (i.e., rimes) that reduce

the memory demands of blending sounds together to form
words.

Finally, onset-rime instruction as a beginning reading pro-
gram is in accord with the developmental model of phono-
logical sensitivity proposed by Adams (1990), as well as
Goswami (1993), a model supported by the research of
Stahl and Murray (1994) and Anthony, Lonigan, Driscoll,
Philips, and Bergess (2003). According to this developmen-
tal model, children’s phonemic awareness progresses from
larger to smaller linguistic units (i.e., from words to sylla-
bles, to onsets and rimes, to individual phonemes). Anthony
et al. (2003) suggested that this developmental model of
phonological sensitivity be used to design instruction.

The above arguments in support of onset-rime instruc-
tion suggest its appropriateness for early intervention. Many
researchers stress the importance of early reading interven-
tion (Jenkins & O’Connor, 2002; Torgesen et al., 2001). A
number of recent studies have shown that many children
identified as at risk for reading failure in kindergarten and
first grade and provided with effective instruction developed
proficient reading skills. Torgesen et al. (2001) reported that
effective early intervention programs have the capacity for
reducing the expected incidence of reading failure from 18%
to between 1.4% and 5.4%.

Effectiveness of Onset-Rime Instruction

Although research is limited, particularly in the United States,
some researchers assessed the relative effectiveness of onset-
rime–level instruction in comparison with instruction at other
word and subword levels. Research with normally developing
beginning readers was inconclusive (Christenson & Bowey,
2005; Haskell et al., 1992; Walton & Walton, 2002), indicat-
ing that both grapheme–phoneme–level and onset-rime–level
instruction were superior to whole-word instruction.

According to Bruck (1992) it appears, however, that the
path to reading achievement may be different for students
with or at risk for reading disabilities. She found that,
as word recognition improved for children with dyslexia,
they acquired appropriate levels of onset-rime awareness but
showed persistent deficits in phonemic awareness and in
knowledge of spelling-sound correspondence. Researchers
looking specifically at the relative effectiveness of onset-
rime–based instruction with children with or at risk for read-
ing disabilities generally found support for onset-rime in-
struction (Levy & Lysynchuk, 1997; Savage et al., 2003;
Walton, Walton, & Felton, 2001). Interpretation, however,
was compromised by noncomparable interventions, and dif-
ferent amounts of treatment times. In accord with the re-
search with normally developing beginning readers, research
involving students with or at risk for disabilities indicates
the necessity of knowledge of grapheme–phoneme corre-
spondence for success with rime-based analogy instruction,
a view supported by Ehri (1998).

Color-Coding of Rime Patterns

Transfer of Instructional Gains

Learning words taught during instruction, however, is not
the only measure of the effectiveness of an intervention.

LEARNING DISABILITIES RESEARCH 23

According to Share (1995, 2004) instruction must result in
children’s acquiring access to the code of reading to allow
phonological recoding of uninstructed words. Students must
acquire what Share calls the “self-teaching” mechanism to
transfer knowledge about the reading of instructional words
to effectively decode uninstructed words. Acquiring this abil-
ity to transfer skills to decoding uninstructed words follow-
ing reading instruction is a significant problem for students
with or at risk for disabilities (Lovett, Barron, & Benson,
2003; Lovett et al., 2000). Therefore, according to Lovett
et al. (2003), evaluating the effectiveness of an intervention
involving students with reading problems requires measure-
ment of mastery of instructional words as well as transfer
effects to decoding uninstructed words.

If onset-rime instruction is an appropriate method to ap-
proach decoding instruction for students with serious read-
ing problems due to its assumed accessibility and relative
effectiveness, then the onset-rime instructional method must
incorporate techniques that encourage children with or at risk
for disabilities to draw rime-based analogies to decode unin-
structed words. Although research indicated that children
with or at risk for disabilities could be taught to successfully
use onset-rime analogies to decode, research also indicated
that such children often do not do so without instruction en-
couraging such analysis (Goswami, 1999; Greaney, Tunmer,
& Chapman, 1997).

Color Coding to Enhance Transfer

Possibly the limited transfer and failure of students with or
at risk for reading disabilities to use analogies about rime
units to decode is due to the fact that the rime is not salient
enough for them to draw generalizations. One way to improve
the effectiveness of onset-rime instruction is to make the
rime patterns more explicit with a color-coding system that
highlights those pattern similarities.

Research on Color-Coding

Research investigating the use of color cues to improve the
achievement of students with learning disabilities is limited
and is not definitive regarding its effectiveness. Goodman
and Cundick (1976) found color codes effective in teaching
Hebrew letters, and Van Houten and Rolider (1990) found
that instruction with color coding improved children’s abil-
ity to identify numbers and learn multiplication facts. Doyle
(1982), however, determined that training with color cues did
not decrease children’s letter reversals. In investigations into
the effectiveness of color and onset-rime instruction, Levy
and Lysynchuk (1997) found that accenting the rime with
red print led to faster learning, but Levy (2001) found that
the use of red highlighting of the rime was no more effec-
tive than simply blocking the rime unit. She also found that
assigning distinct colors to rime patterns did not improve
outcomes; however, words color coded by rime were “scat-
tered across the set of 48 items” (p. 371) rather than blocked in
color-coded rimes. According to Levy, visual pattern support
within the print itself can help struggling readers. She sug-
gested future research investigating the effect of visual sup-
port linking the rime to its pronunciation to enhance transfer.

Current Study

In light of the above research and theoretical arguments, I in-
vestigated the benefit of onset-rime instruction for fostering
mastery and transfer of word reading skills with first-grade
students at serious risk for reading failure. Words were intro-
duced by rime pattern with a color-coding system to enhance
the salience of the rime and link it to its pronunciation. Each
rime pattern was coded a different hue controlled by short
vowel (i.e., all short a patterns are a different shade of blue;
short e patterns, a different shade of red). Based on the lit-
erature, I expected that the intervention would substantially
improve the students’ ability to read instructional as well as
novel words from instructed rime patterns. I expected much
weaker transfer at the vowel level to uninstructed rime pat-
terns because the intervention stressed using known rime
pattern words to decode novel words and did not focus on
isolation of the vowel. Furthermore, the pronunciation of the
vowel is often dependant upon the final consonant in a CVC
syllable (Goswami, 1999; Moats, 2000).

The following were the research hypotheses:

1. A color-coded, onset-rime decoding intervention will
be effective in improving performance on taught words
for students at serious risk for reading disabilities.

2. Students will transfer their ability to decode instruc-
tional words to novel short vowel words from instructed
rime patterns (near transfer).

3. Students will transfer their ability to decode instruc-
tional words to novel short vowel words from unin-
structed rime patterns (far transfer).

4. Students will maintain their decoding skills for instruc-
tional and transfer words 1 week and 1 month after
instruction ends.

METHOD

Setting and

Participants

School Setting

The first-grade participants attended an elementary school
in the eastern United States. The school population was
predominately middle class (15.2% FARMS) with moderate
ethnic diversity (65.3% White, 14.4% African American, 6%
Hispanic, and 14% Asian). The total first-grade population
was 87 students.

Training Setting

The training sessions were in an empty classroom down the
hall from the first-grade classrooms, limiting distractions and
affording privacy to the students. Also, conducting the train-
ing outside the classroom helped assure that the training did
not generalize to the other participants. The participants and
I sat at right angles to one another at a three-cornered table.
This arrangement allowed the recording of data without the
child being aware of his/her errors.

24 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

Classroom Reading Instruction

The county curriculum for first grade emphasized developing
phonemic awareness and phonics skills. The curriculum also
included instruction of high-frequency words. Both teachers
primarily used a Guided Reading Approach in their class-
rooms, recording errors as children read leveled books aloud.
Phonics was taught directly or incidentally, depending upon
the classroom. All of the children had attended kindergarten
in the school. The kindergarten curriculum emphasized letter
identification, high-frequency words, phonemic awareness,
and phonics. Kindergarten phonics instruction introduced
consonants, consonant blends, vowels, and vowel combina-
tions according to the published curriculum.

Participant Selection

Targeted participants were those first-grade students most at
risk for reading problems. Parents of all first-graders (N = 87)
received an introductory letter and informed consent form re-
questing permission to screen their children for participation
in the intervention. A large number of parents (55) did not
return the permission slips, possibly in part because the let-
ter and consent form stated that the intervention targeted
children at risk for reading problems. Those students who
received parental permission (n = 32) were screened for par-
ticipation. The selection criteria were (a) ability to identify
80% of the 24 letter names (upper and lower case) used in the
intervention, (b) ability to provide 75% of the 22 consonant
sounds for letters included in intervention words, and (c) in-
ability to decode the 44 CVC/CVCC words included in the
intervention with accuracy above 15%. Of the children who
were granted parental permission, six students were selected
for the intervention. The children selected were determined
to be among the seven most at-risk first-graders on the ba-
sis of screening performance, confirmed by their teachers
and school personnel. One child was not selected because he
did not have sufficient knowledge of letter names or conso-
nant sounds. All students selected had been referred to the
school’s pre-referral team. Of the six selected students, one
was not included in the final study because of excessive ab-
sences from school; another was excluded because winter
break temporarily interrupted her intervention. Therefore,
four children were participants.

Table 1 presents information concerning the participants’
performance on screening measures in relation to the entire
sample of first-graders receiving parental permission. The
majority of students (28 of 32) who were screened were
considered to be at some risk by their teachers. Therefore,
comparison data on the entire sample are not reflective of the
total first-grade population.

Participants

John, a male Caucasian, was 6.3 years old in September of
first grade. John had been recommended by his first-grade
teacher for a pre-referral evaluation because of concerns
about his reading progress. As a result, he was receiving

TABLE 1
Participant Performance on Screening Measures

Variable John Tammy Arthur Maria Group M (SD)

Letter Identification
(max = 24)

21 20 20 22 22.47 (1.70)

Consonant Sounds
(max = 22)

17 19 20 20 20.25 (2.17)

Instructional Words

(max = 44)

2 5 6 6 19.31 (11.69)

Note. Group is students receiving parent permission to participant in
intervention for at-risk first-graders (N = 32).

10–15 minutes of individualized instruction consisting pri-
marily of flash card drill with high-frequency words four
times a week with a para-educator or parent volunteer.

Tammy, a Hispanic female, was 6.1 years old in September
of first grade. Tammy’s teacher had recommended that she
have a pre-referral evaluation due to reading problems and as
a result she was also receiving 10–15 minutes of individual-
ized instruction consisting primarily of flash card drill with
high-frequency words four times a week with a para-educator
or parent volunteer.

Arthur, a male student of mixed race, was 6.3 years old
in September of first grade. Due to concerns about his at-
tention and progress in reading and math, Arthur’s teacher
had sent a request for academic support to the pre-referral
team. However, Arthur was not yet receiving any additional
instructional support.

Maria, a Hispanic female, was 6.0 years old in Septem-
ber of first grade. Maria had been recommended to the pre-
referral team earlier in the school year due to general teacher
concerns. However, Maria was not receiving academic
support.

None of the 87 students in the first grade had been identi-
fied as having a disability under the Individuals with Disabil-
ities Education Act including the four study participants.

Research Design and Procedures

Single Subject (Multiple Probe)

The study was a single-subject multiple probe across par-
ticipants. In multiple baseline designs, experimental control
is established by systematically introducing the independent
variable into a series of behaviors, conditions, or subjects
in a staggered manner. If change in the independent variable
only occurs when the intervention is introduced, experimental
control is established (Tawney & Gast, 1984). Multiple-probe
designs are a variation of multiple-baseline designs during
which baseline data are collected intermittently rather than
continually.

Independent Variable and Instructional Materials

The independent variable was a color-coded, onset-rime read-
ing intervention targeting the decoding of short a and short e
CVC/CVCC words. The instructional materials were books

LEARNING DISABILITIES RESEARCH 2

5

TABLE 2
Book Titles and Corresponding Rime Words

Dan Pat Dad Pam and Sam
Dan Pat Dad Pam
man cat pad Sam
ran rat had am
van bat sad jam
can sat mad ham

at bad
Nat

The Pet Ben Ned Nell
pet Ben Ned Nell
met ten bed bell
get den red well
wet men fed fell
let pen tell
bet
yet

1–8 of the Rime to Read series for beginning readers (Hines
& Klaiman, 2002). The books were organized by rime pat-
terns with each pattern coded a different hue controlled by
short vowel (i.e., all short a patterns are a different shade of
blue; all short e patterns are a different shade of red). Four
rime patterns per short vowel were introduced and practiced
in separate books. A list of the titles and rime pattern words
from books 1–8 are included in Table 2. The books were
organized with a cumulative list of targeted rime words on
the left-hand page and story text using new and old rime
pattern words on the right-hand page. A limited number of
basic sight words necessary to advance the story line were
previewed in a box on the right-hand page and provided to the
child as required. The final page of each book was a review
of all mastered rime family words by pattern without color
coding.

The title of each book introduced the main character
whose name/identity contained the rime (e.g., Pat, The Pet).
All illustrations on the cover and throughout the books were
printed in black and white, with the exception of depictions
of the title characters, who were dressed in the same color as
the corresponding rime pattern to serve as keywords. When
title characters returned in illustrations of subsequent books,
they retained their color coding.

Dependent Variables

There were three dependent variables. The first was the ability
to read instructional CVC/CVCC words from the eight short
a and e rime patterns; the second was the ability to read
uninstructed short a and e CVC/CVCC words from instructed
rime patterns (near transfer); the third was the ability to read
short a and e CVC/CVCC words from uninstructed rime
patterns (far transfer).

Measures of Instructional Gains

There were three researcher-designed measures, one for each
of the dependent variables. Words in all measures were pre-

sented in random order without color coding. The data-
collection method was a frequency count scored as to the
percentage of words read correctly.

Measure 1 was 20 of the 44 CVC/CVCC included in the
intervention materials, randomly selected without replace-
ment. Five versions of the measure were prepared. This mea-
sure of instructional words was administered multiple times
during baseline, following training to measure instructional
gains, and at 1-week and 1-month maintenance.

Measure 2 was eight near-transfer words from instructed
rime patterns, one per rime pattern, randomly selected from
a list of possible words. Measure 3 was six far-transfer words
from uninstructed rime patterns, three short a and three short
e words, randomly selected from a list of possible words.
One version of each of these two measures of transfer was
prepared. The measures were administered once before the
intervention, once following training, and at 1-week and
1-month maintenance.

Instructional Procedures

Each student was seen individually four or five times a week
for instruction. In each session, the child read one of the
eight Rime to Read books, while the researcher followed a
detailed intervention script that included a correction proce-
dure developed specifically for the study. If a child required
the correction procedure more than five times in books 1–4,
or eight times in books 5–8, the book was reread during the
following session. No child read a book more than two times.
After completion of a book on a given day, the session ended.

After completion of the short a books (1–4), and then short
e books (5–8), the child read flash cards with the targeted
words from the four rime families printed one to a card with
color coding. The child was instructed to sort the words into
word families, read the words as sorted, and then read the
words after shuffling into random order. If the child made an
error on any of these tasks, the researcher supplied the correct
response. The same sequence was then repeated without color
coding. Regardless of performance, this activity was only
completed once in the color-coded and once in the black
print condition.

Instructional time varied considerably for the four stu-
dents. John repeated every book and received 16 instruc-
tional sessions of approximately 30 minutes each.

Tammy

and Arthur both repeated one book and received nine in-
structional sessions of approximately 15 minutes each.

Maria

never needed to repeat a book and received eight instructional
sessions of approximately 15 minutes each.

Reliability and Validity

Inter-Rater Reliability

The administration of baseline and post training measures
was audiorecorded. An independent rater listened to and
scored 33% of data-collection sessions for the instructional
measure, and 100% of the data-collection sessions for the
transfer measures. Inter-rater reliability was calculated for
each administration and then averaged for each of the three

26 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

measures. The following formula was used (Tawney & Gast,
1984):

Lower number of correct responses

Higher number of correct responses
×

10

0

The reliability was 86% with a range from 67% to 100%
for the measure of instructional words, 89% with a range
from 75% to 100% for the measure of near-transfer words,
and 91% with a range of 67% to 100% for the measure of far-
transfer words. The broad range for reliability resulted from
the fact that at baseline the children received very low scores
on the measures. Therefore, minimal scoring differences re-
sulted in low reliability scores. For example, although the
raters scored only one item differently on the measure of in-
structional words (i.e., 2 versus 3 of 20 words read correctly)
the reliability score was 2/3 or 67%.

Treatment Fidelity

Treatment fidelity was measured by audiorecording each ses-
sion and having an independent rater listen to the first two
sessions with participant 1 and then 33% of the subsequent
sessions (randomly selected across participants) to determine
whether or not the intervention script and correction proce-
dures were followed with fidelity. Treatment fidelity was rated
for each selected session using a rubric designed for this pur-
pose. The first two sessions were reviewed immediately to
identify any problems with fidelity. Overall fidelity of treat-
ment was 96% on average with a range from 87% to 100%.

RESULTS

Figure 1 presents the percentage of instructional words cor-
rect for each of the four participants on measures adminis-
tered during baseline, after instruction, and at 1-week and
1-month maintenance. Figure 2 presents the percentage of
near-transfer words correct for each of the four participants
on measures administered during baseline, after instruction,
and at 1-week and 1-month maintenance. Figure 3 presents
the percentage of far-transfer words correct for each of the
four participants on measures administered during baseline,
after instruction, and at 1-week and 1-month maintenance.
The results are also presented in Table 3 (instructional words)
and Table 4 (transfer words).

John

Regarding instructional words, during baseline John earned
a mean score of 4% with a range from 0% to 5% correct.
Following the intervention, he received a mean score of
70% with a range from 60% to 80%. His performance was
70% correct at 1-week maintenance and 65% correct at 1-
month maintenance. For near-transfer words, John improved
his score from 0% at baseline to 50% correct. He also earned
this score at 1-week maintenance. At 1-month maintenance,
his score improved to 63% correct. For far-transfer words,
at baseline John read 0% of the words correctly. After in-

struction, he read 17% of these words correctly. His score
improved to 33% at 1-week and 1-month maintenance.

Tammy

Regarding instructional words, during baseline Tammy
earned a mean score of 7% with a range from 0% to 15% cor-
rect. Following the intervention, she received a mean score
of 79% correct with a range from 70% to 85%. Her per-
formance at 1-week maintenance was 75% correct, and at
1-month maintenance was 80% correct. On the measure of
near-transfer words, at baseline Tammy read 0% of the words
correctly. After the intervention, her score improved to 50%
correct. She also earned this score of 50% at 1-week and
1-month maintenance. At baseline, Tammy read 0% of the
far-transfer words correctly. After instruction, she read 17%
of these words correctly. She maintained her score of 17%
at 1-week maintenance and improved to 33% at 1-month
maintenance.

Arthur

Regarding instructional words, at baseline Arthur earned a
mean score of 12% with a range from 5% to 20% correct.
Following the intervention, he received a mean score of 88%
with a range of 80% to 90%. His performance at 1-week and
1-month maintenance was 90% correct. At baseline, Arthur
scored 0% on the measure of near-transfer words. After the
intervention, his score improved to 63% correct. He also
earned this score at 1-week maintenance. At 1-month main-
tenance, his score improved to 75% correct. At baseline,
Arthur read 0% of the far-transfer words correctly. After in-
struction, he read 33% of these words correctly. His score
remained at 33% at 1-week and 1-month maintenance.

Maria

For instructional words, Maria earned a mean baseline score
of 13% with a range from 5% to 20% correct. Following the
intervention, she received a mean score of 91% with a range
from 85% to 100%. Her performance at 1-week maintenance
was 95% and 1-month maintenance was 85% correct. At
baseline, Maria scored 13% on the measure of near-transfer
words. After the intervention, her score improved to 75%
correct. At 1-week maintenance, her score dropped to 63%,
but returned to 75% correct at 1-month maintenance. At
baseline, Maria read 0% of the far-transfer words correctly.
After instruction, she read 50% of these words correctly. Her
score of 50% was maintained at 1-week maintenance and
improved to 67% at 1-month maintenance.

DISCUSSION

Intervention Effectiveness

The results of the study regarding the learning of in-
structional words were positive for all students. The four

LEARNING DISABILITIES RESEARCH 27

Instructional Words

-5

0
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Baseline Post-Int. Maint.

JOHN

-5
0
5

10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

TAMMY

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

ARTHUR

-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

MARIA

%
C

o
rr

ec
t

Sessions

FIGURE 1 Percentage of instructional words correct.

28 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

%
C

or
re

ct

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100

MariaArthurTammyJohn

Near-Transfer Words

Baseline

Post-Int.

Maint. 1

Maint. 2

Student

FIGURE 2 Percentage of near-transfer words correct.

-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
MariaArthurTammyJohn

Far-Transfer Words

Baseline
Post-Int.
Maint. 1
Maint. 2
Student
%
C
or
re
ct

FIGURE 3 Percentage of far-transfer words correct.

LEARNING DISABILITIES RESEARCH 29

TABLE 3
Instructional Words: Percent Correct

Student John Tammy Arthur Maria

Baseline 05 05 10 15
05 15 15 20
00 05 20 15
05 00 10 10

10 15 15
05 05 05

15 10
10 15

15
10

Mean 04 07 12 13

Post-Intervention 60 70 90 95
65 85 90 85
75 70 85 90
80 85 90 100

85 80 95
90 80

95
Mean 70 79 88 91

Maintenance 1 70 75 90 95
Maintenance 2 65 80 90 85

TABLE 4
Transfer Words: Percent Correct

Student John Tammy Arthur Maria

Near Transfer
Baseline 00 00 00 13
Post-Int. 50 50 63 75
Maint. 1 50 50 63 63
Maint. 2 63 50 75 75

Far Transfer
Baseline 00 00 00 00
Post-Int. 17 17 33 50
Maint. 1 33 17 33 50
Maint. 2 33 33 33 67

students increased on average 73% over baseline (range
64% to 78%). The finding that the intervention was effec-
tive in teaching instructional words supports results from
a number of researchers who found onset-rime–based in-
struction effective with children with or at risk for read-
ing disabilities (Levy & Lysynchuk, 1997; O’Shaughnessy
& Swanson, 2000; Savage et al., 2003; Walton et al.,
2001).

The results of this intervention regarding transfer of de-
coding skills to uninstructed words were also positive for
words from instructed rime patterns. Students increased their
scores on the near-transfer measure from baseline to post-
intervention by an average of 56% (range 50% to 63%). As
expected, strong transfer to novel words from uninstructed
rime patterns was not found for three of the students. Stu-
dents improved their scores on the measure of far-transfer
words by an average of 29% (range 17% to 50%). The trans-
fer pattern of the four students is consistent with Levy and

Lysynchuk’s (1997) finding of transfer to words from in-
structed rime patterns. It is contradicted by the finding of
Muter, Snowling, and Taylor (1994) that children could not
decode novel words that shared the rime with a cue word
unless the cue word was present.

The student with the strongest transfer of gains to words
from uninstructed rime patterns postintervention (50%) was
Maria, who achieved one postintervention score of 100% for
instructional words. This is in keeping with the research of
Levy and Lysynchuk (1997) and Compton et al. (2005), who
stressed the importance of mastery learning for acquiring
transfer. Possibly transfer would have improved for the other
students if the criteria for advancement to the next book
had been stricter or if training had continued until they had
achieved 100% mastery on probes of instructional words.

The finding that gains for instructional as well as near-
and far-transfer words were generally maintained at 1-week
and 1-month maintenance is positive and supports the effec-
tiveness of the program. The evidence of strong maintenance
is in accord with the findings of Levy and Lysynchuk (1997)
that gains from onset-rime instruction were well maintained.
This finding of maintenance of gains for instructional as well
as transfer words is important given the contradictory find-
ings of Bruck and Treiman (1992) that acquisition of reading
skills, although fastest with onset-rime instruction (compared
with instruction organized at other subword levels), showed
the poorest maintenance of skills.

An interesting finding in this study is that for three of the
four students near-transfer scores, and for two of the students
far-transfer scores increased between 1-week and 1-month
maintenance. Possibly the instructional emphasis on com-
mon elements (rimes) and using knowledge of known words
to decode unknown words prompted the students to adapt
their decoding approach over time and take better advantage
of classroom instruction. This explanation is in keeping with
the suggestion of Greaney et al. (1997) that children with
reading disabilities have the ability to draw analogies to de-
code successfully but, unlike normally achieving readers, do
not spontaneously use that ability.

Fading of Color Coding

Although the instructional materials were consistently color
coded by rime pattern, examiner probes were administered
without color coding of the words. There was no systematic
fading of the color coding in this study. The children’s only
encounters with the words without the color codes prior to
administration of the probes were when they read the review
page of pattern words at the end of each book and when they
read the words on flash cards in the black print condition.
Because all four participants in this study were able to read
the pattern words on the back cover of the book and on the
flash cards with few errors, it indicated that fading was not
required. The children’s performance on examiner probes
supported this conclusion. This finding is at odds with the
research of Goodman and Cundick (1976), who used color-
cues to teach Hebrew symbols and found that a systematic
fading procedure was required. However, it is in accord with
the research of Van Houten and Rolider (1990), who used

30 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

color cues to teach number identification and multiplication
facts to students with learning disabilities and determined
that fading of the color cues was not necessary.

Possibly a systematic fading procedure was not required in
this current study because the intervention script intention-
ally contained little reference to the color-coding element.
The color coding was intended as visual support for catego-
rization and discrimination, rather than as a verbal label. In
addition, the use of shades of the same color (e.g., four shades
of blue, four shades of red) in the color-coding system did not
encourage overreliance on the color cues to identify the word
families. In contrast, the colors assigned to symbols in the
Goodman and Cundick (1976) study were distinct (e.g., red,
green) and the color name was easily substituted for identifi-
cation of the unfamiliar symbols to name the corresponding
nonsense word.

Amount of Instructional Time and Risk Status
of Students

The results are important for two reasons. Of primary impor-
tance is the fact that the intervention was effective in teaching
instructional words and near-transfer words for all students
in spite of their risk status and very weak performance on
screening measures. The four participants were among the
most at risk of a total school first-grade population of 87
students. In other research with young at-risk populations,
Walton et al. (2001) selected the lowest 40% of 77 first-
graders, and O’Shaughnessy and Swanson (2000) selected
second-graders who scored below the 25th percentile on the
Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised for their study.
Levy and Lysynchuk (1997) worked with the lowest 100 of
150 first-grade and kindergarten students, and Savage, Car-
less, and Stuart (2003) chose the lowest 25% of all first-grade
students as participants. The results from the other studies
may not represent the performance of children at risk for the
most severe disabilities. In addition, the fact that the inter-
vention was effective is important given the total amount of
instructional time, which was 2 hours for Maria, 2 1

4
hours

for Tammy and Arthur, and 8 hours for John. Although the
intervention was limited to short a and e rime patterns, the
instructional time compares well to that required in other
studies (Levy & Lysynchuk, 1997; O’Shaughnessy & Swan-
son, 2000; Savage et al., 2003; Walton et al., 2001).

Limitations

A limitation is that I delivered the intervention and collected
effectiveness data. Ideally, an individual unfamiliar to the par-
ticipants would have done data collection. Another limitation
is that, due to the multifaceted nature of the intervention, it
is impossible to isolate the effectiveness of the individual
elements, in particular the color coding. A final limitation is
that the study did not offer any information concerning the
relative effectiveness of the intervention in comparison with
other programs, such as an equivalent program organized at
the level of the phoneme.

Suggestions for Future Research

Future research should evaluate the effectiveness of the color
coding. The relative effectiveness of the program in compar-
ison with a program organized at the level of the phoneme
should also be evaluated. Future research should also inves-
tigate whether the intervention would be more effective if
the criterion for advancement to a new book was changed to
100% mastery (Compton et al., 2005; Levy & Lysynchuk,
1997) and/or books could be repeated more than once. An-
other area for future research is an investigation of the ef-
fectiveness of the program with older students identified as
learning disabled rather than at-risk first-graders. Future re-
search should also determine if the program would be equally
effective if expanded to include rime patterns from all five
short vowels rather than just a and e. Finally, the effective-
ness of the intervention in a small group format to improve
instructional efficiency should be evaluated.

Implications for Practice

The study demonstrated the importance of instructional pace
on the success of children most at risk for reading disabilities.
John, who appeared to be the most at-risk student at baseline,
required approximately four times more instructional time (8
versus 2 or 2 1

4
hours) than the other students to move through

the sequence of books. Had he not been allowed to learn at
this pace, his progress might have been much less.

The intervention procedure could be adapted in a number
of ways in response to student performance. As discussed
above, multiple repetitions of books and flash card words
could be allowed. In addition, to improve transfer at the vowel
level, another step could be added. A possible additional
instructional approach is a word ladder with changes to the
onset, to the final consonant, and to the vowel (e.g., bat, rat,
ran, run) as used by Hines, Speece, Walker, and DaDeppo
(2007).

Finally, and most important for research and practice, the
study indicated that first-graders at serious risk for reading
problems can make progress in acquiring beginning read-
ing skills given relatively short-term, one-to-one instruction
using a color-coded, onset-rime approach. This is important
given previous findings that the most at-risk and disabled
students often do not respond to remedial programs proven
effective with less at-risk students. Recognizing that early
identification of students with learning disabilities is plagued
by over- and underidentification, the effectiveness of the pro-
gram with significantly at-risk first-graders in a typical ele-
mentary school is a promising step in finding an approach to
decoding that is successful with the students who have tra-
ditionally been left behind not just by traditional classroom
instruction but by remedial approaches as well.

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LEARNING DISABILITIES RESEARCH 31

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32 HINES: COLOR-CODED, ONSET-RIME

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About the Author

Sara J. Hines is an assistant professor at Hunter College in New York. She received her Ph.D. in Special Education from the
University of Maryland in 2006. Prior to earning her doctorate, she was an educator of students with learning disabilities, with a
specialization in reading instruction, for over 20 years. Her primary research interest is effective reading instruction for students
with or at risk for learning disabilities.

INCREASING READING COMPREHENSION OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS

THROUGH FLUENCY-BASED INTERVENTIONS

Veda S. Neumann, B.A.
Dorothy K. Ross, B.A.
Anita F. Slaboch, B.A.

An Action Research Project Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the

School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirement for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Teaching and Leadership

Saint Xavier University & Pearson Achievement Solutions, Inc.

Field-Based Master’s Program

Chicago, Illinois

May, 2008

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………….….……iii

CHAPTER 1: PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTEXT …………………………..…………1

General Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………..…….……1

Immediate Context of the Problem ……………………………………………….…..…..1

Local Context of the Problem ………………………………………………………………15

National Context of the Problem ………………………………………………….……..19

CHAPTER 2: PROBLEM DOCUMENTATION …………………………………………..…..20

Evidence of the Problem ………………………………………………………………….20

Probable Causes ………………………………………………………………………….27

CHAPTER 3: THE SOLUTION STRATEGY ………………………………………………….37

Review of the Literature …………………………………………………………………37

Project Objective and Processing Statements ……………………………………………43

Project Action Plan ………………………………………………………………….…..43

Methods of Assessment ………………………………………………………………….44

CHAPTER 4: PROJECT RESULTS ……………………………………………………….……47

Historical Description of the Intervention ………………………………………….……47

Presentation and Analysis of Results …………………………………………………….53

Conclusions and Recommendations …….……………………………………………….63

REFERENCES ……………………….…………………………………………………….……67

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………….….77

Appendix A: Student Survey… …………………………………………………………….77

Appendix B: DIBELS………… …………………………………………………….…..78

ii

Appendix C: Choose-A-Title….………………………………………………….………79

Appendix D: Paired Reading…………………………………………………………….80

Appendix E: Echo Reading………………………………………………………………81

Appendix F: Choral Reading…………………………………………………………….82

Appendix G: Poetry Reading…………………………………………………………….83

Appendix H: Reader’s Theater……………………………………………………………84

iii

ABSTRACT

The authors of this action research project report implemented oral reading fluency-based
interventions for the purpose of improving students’ reading comprehension. Six students in
grade three, six students in grade five and six students in grade six participated in the study from
Monday, August 27 through Friday, December 7, 2007.

Researchers observed that in the targeted reading groups, deficiencies in any element of oral
reading fluency were associated with reading comprehension problems. The teacher researchers
used the following tools to document evidence; Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills (DIBELS) Oral Reading Fluency (ORF), which indicated that 50% of students at Site A
and 83% of students at Site B were below benchmark score for oral reading fluency. The
comprehension based assessment (Choose-A-Title) resulted in 61% of the students choosing the
incorrect title. As a result of the student survey, it indicated that 17% of the students responded
“almost never” when asked “I think others like my reading”. Students’ struggles with accuracy,
rate, and prosody revealed deficiencies that inhibited the processing of meaning.

The interventions implemented were three 20-minute weekly sessions consisting of one session
of reader’s theater activities including choral reading, echo reading, and poetry, and two sessions
of partner reading during which student pairs engaged in repeated oral reading and reading along
silently while listening as oral reading was modeled. Teachers are encouraged to model fluent
reading illustrating proper rate and accuracy. Reading and rereading exercises such as reading
with a model reader, choral reading, reader’s theater, and partner reading can improve fluency
(Vaughn & Linan-Thompson,

2004).

As a result of the interventions, students demonstrated increased awareness of the three elements
of oral reading fluency: accuracy, rate, and prosody. Students practiced self-monitoring these
elements while participating in paired reading and cooperative learning groups. The post data
revealed that there was a decrease in students’ positive responses to “I read with expression and
feeling”. Thirty-three percent of students responded “almost always” on pre documentation and
28% on post documentation. The “usually” category declined from 50% to 44%. Students
responded best to interventions that involved repeated reading in the form of rehearsal followed
by performance, such as choral poetry reading and reader’s theater. Students demonstrated
engagement in the activities while becoming more realistic in self-evaluation

1

CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTEXT

General Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this action research project was to improve reading comprehension

through oral reading fluency. Students’ problems with reading comprehension are revealed

through difficulty with one or more of the three elements of oral reading fluency: automaticity,

accuracy, and prosody. Fluency rates were determined through DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency

assessment. Comprehension was assessed by requiring students to identify the main idea of a

grade-level passage. Students reported their attitudes about oral reading by responding to a six

question survey.

Immediate Context of the Problem

Site A

Site A is a parochial elementary school established in 1957 located in a northwest suburb

of a major city. This parish was established in October of 1955. At that time, the pastor

envisioned the creation of a “fully functioning faith community” encompassing the church, a

convent, a rectory, and school. The parish school opened its doors for classes in September of

1957 for grades 1-6. As the school population increased to about 1,000 students, construction of

three additions were underway including eight classrooms, two balcony classrooms, and a junior

high wing. Today, the day school services over 500 students and includes preschool,

kindergarten, and grades 1-8. Grades 1-4 are self-contained instructional classrooms and grades

2

5-8 are departmentalized. An extended-day after school program is also available. The faculty

consists of 41 teachers and includes full-time instructors of library, physical education,

computer, art, and music. The school has co-curricular coordinators or directors including an

athletic director, band coordinator, and choral coordinator. Co-curricular programs include

foreign language, student council, student newspaper, student yearbook and service outreach

groups (Site A school website, 2007).

The school’s total student body includes a population of 507. Of these 507 students, 252

(50%) are males and 255 (50%) are females. The graduation rate at Site A is consistent at 100%

yearly. The students display an average-daily attendance rate of 96%, with a mobility rate of 8%

transferring out and 16% transferring in, and a truancy rate of 0%. The predominate ethnic

representation is caucasian. The ethnicity breakdown is shown in Table 1 (Site A school report,

2006).

Table 1

Ethnicity at Site A (n=507)

Black/African Native

Asian American Caucasian Hispanic Multiracial

American

% 3 1 80 5 12 0

n 13 3 407 24 59 1

The school’s teaching staff consists of 28 full-time teachers. Of the full-time teachers, 2

(7%) are males and 26 (93%) are females. There is a total of three teacher aides working at Site

3

A. Of these three aides, one (33%) is working full time, and two (66%) are working part time.

All of the teaching staff are Caucasian. The percent of teachers with masters degrees is

approximately 22% (n=28). The average years of employment is at six years. There is a 19.5:1

student to teacher ratio and the teachers have a 97% average-daily attendance rate (Site A school

report, 2007).

Daily instruction involves all core subjects including religious education, language arts,

mathmatics, science, and social studies. In the curriculum the greatest emphasis is in

Communication Arts across grade levels. The breakdown of instructional minutes is shown in

Table 2 (Site A handbook,

1997).

Table 2

Breakdown of Instructional Minutes

Students in grades 3, 5, and 7 take the Terra Nova Multiple Assessment Achievement

Tests as mandated by the Archdiocese of Chicago. This test differs from the California

Curriculum Area Primary Level Intermediate Level Upper Level

Religious Education 150 150 175

Art/Drama/Music 120 120 120

Communication Arts 850 650 550

Health/Physical
Education

130 130

130

Mathematics 200 200 225

Science 100 200 225

Social Studies 100 200 225

4

Achievement Test or the Iowa Test of Basic Skills because 20% of the test students are required

to provide a written response as opposed to a multiple choice option (Site A home report, 2006).

The Terra Nova scores indicate that Site A’s students score at or above the national

norms in all subjects and at all grade levels. Terra Nova Achievement test results based on

national percentiles for 2005/2006 years are shown in Table 3 (Site A home report, 2006).

Table 3

Terra Nova Achievement test Results Based on National Percentiles. 2005/2006 Comparison

Grade 3 Grade 5 Grade 7

Reading 66/79 83/85 81/76

Language 70/77 84/86 89/86

Mathematics 77/83 78/83 83/76

Total 73/83 82/85 87/81

Science 60/78 65/80 71/77

Social Study 67/68 75/81 85/80

School personnel includes a principal, an assistant principal, 28 full-time teachers (PK-8), 3

teachers aides (PK), 2 librarians, 3 secretaries/clerks, and 3 janitors and or maintenance workers.

There are a total of 100 volunteers. Of these volunteers, 20 (20%) work on a regular basis, 70

(70%) work periodically, and 10 (10%) work with Pre-K only. There is no registered nurse on

the staff (Site A school report, 2006).

Site A is affiliated with the Catholic Church and has many programs available which help

5

to serve the school community. Programs like Rainbows for all God’s Children and Kids Who

Care, assist those who are in need in the school community and beyond. Rainbows for all God’s

Children is a year-long discussion for students of have experienced a loss through either death or

divorce. Fourth through eighth grade students participate in service learning projects, coordinate

the Saint Angela’s Christmas party, as well as, the Christmas bazaar. In addition, each year a

theatrical production, Summer Stock, is performed by 5th through 8th grade students. The show

is cast in the spring and rehearsals continue through the summer. This program introduces

students to the elements of staging including set design and building, lighting, choreography, and

acting (Site A family directory, 2006).

The building complex includes the church, a rectory and gathering space, 33 classrooms,

1 science lab, 1 computer lab, 2 gymnasiums, 1 faculty lounge, 1 business office, 4 meeting

rooms, 1 art room, 1 music room, 1 library, a playground and another parking lot play area (Site

A school website).

The school has an approved technology plan in place. The school has a local area

network and uses a wireless network. All administrators, teachers, and librarians have access to

the internet. Students have monitored access to the internet. Teachers and parents have access to

Pearson Centerpoint, which is a software program that maintains grades for students. In

addition, a school e-mail system is utilized (Site A technology survey, 2006).

6

Site B

Site B is a parochial school located in a northwest suburb of a major city. The school has

been a vital part of the community since 1925. It attracts students from a variety of the

surrounding areas. While 63% (n=452) live within 1.5 miles of the school, 37% (n=268) live

more than 1.5 miles from the school. Of the 720 students who attend the school, 52% (n=377)

are male and 48% (n=343) are female. The predominate ethnic representation is Caucasian. The

ethnicity breakdown is shown in Table 4 (Site

B school report, 2006).

Table 4

Ethnicity at Site B by Percentage (n=720)

Black/African Native
Asian American Caucasian Hispanic Multiracial American

% 2 0 94 3 1 0

n 15 0 677 23 5 0

At this time, 0% of the students are English Language Learners (ELL), even though 1%

(7) of Site B’s students was born outside of the United States. As there is no food service

program, 0% of the students receive free lunches and 0% receives reduced lunches. A

scholarship fund provides full tuition assistance for 1% (5) of the students and partial tuition

assistance for 1% (4) of Site B’s students. The average student daily attendance rate is 99% (Site

B school report, 2006).

7

Of the 37 teachers at Site B, 100% are Caucasian and 100% are female, 41% (15) have a

masters degree and 100% have a bachelors degree. The average teacher’s salary is $34,000.00

and the mean year of employment is nine. There is a 17/1 student to teacher ratio and the

teachers have a 95% average daily attendance rate (Site B school report, 2006).

Site B is a traditional 9/10 month school year with preschool, prekindergarten, and

kindergarten self contained and 1st through 8th departmental. Programs are offered in art,

library, physical education, computer, and LD/Remedial. Co-curricular programs are offered in

athletics, band, chorus, foreign language, student council, school newspaper, school yearbook,

and Rainbows. Site B offers a before school and extended day program for prekindergarten

through 8th grade. In 2003 Site B received certificates from the Illinois State Board and The

Office of Catholic Education (Site B school brochure, 1998). Site B’s institutional development

plan includes a school improvement plan, long range planning, and endowment fund (Site B

school report, 2006). In the curriculum the greatest emphasis is in Communication Arts across

grade levels. The breakdown of instructional minutes is described in Table 5 (Site B handbook,

1997).

8

Table 5

Weekly Instructional Minutes

The Terra Nova scores in Table 6 indicate that Site B’s students score at or above the

national norms in all subjects and at all grade levels. Although all students of the Archdiocese

take the same test each year, schools do not receive results with comparisons to other parochial

schools. Since local public schools do not take the same test, comparisons with schools districts

are not possible (Site B home report, 2006).

Curriculum Area Primary Level Intermediate Level Upper Level

Religious Education 150 150 175

Art/Drama/Music 120 120 120

Communication Arts 850 650 550

Health /Physical
Education

130 130

130

Mathematics 200 200 225

Science 100 200 225

Social Studies 100 200 225

9

Table 6

Terra Nova Achievement Test Results Based on National Percentiles 2005/2006 Comparison

Site B’s administrative staff consists of a principal and an assistant principal. There are

six teacher aides employed at Site B, 67% (4) of whom have earned a bachelors degree and 33%

(2) having earned some college. A full time staff member is employed for art, music, physical

education and technology. Site B employs one librarian, one business manager, three

secretaries/clerks, and three janitors/maintenance. Site B has co-curricular programs in athletics,

band, chorus, foreign language, student council, school newspaper, school yearbook, and

Rainbows. Additional activities that contribute to a well rounded educational experience include:

sharing activities with inner city schools, scouting, art club, chess club, Battle of the Books,

acolyte service, scholastic competitions, and fine arts presentations (Site B school report, 2006).

The original building for Site B was built in 1925. It is still standing today and is now

considered the Elementary Grade Center which houses preschool through 4th grade. In the

1960s, a second building was constructed across the alley from the original and it is now

Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7
Number Taking Test 69 77/74 62/58 81/75 68/64
Reading 76 77/81 87/79 80/76 80/84
Language 78 81/75 83/86 82/81 88/92
Math 76 70/75 79/79 76/88 85/83
Total Score 78 76/78 84/84 82/83 85/87
Science 64 72/75 80/83 79/81 81/84
Social Studies 79 82/89 90/89 81/83 88/89

10

considered the Upper Grade Center and houses 5th through 8th grade. In 2002 a 7.5 million

dollar renovation was completed on both buildings which added 5 classrooms, science lab, art

room, computer lab, library, parish life center, and meeting rooms. Replacement windows, air

conditioning, and updated wiring for technology were also installed (Site B school report, 2006

& school brochure, 1998).

Site C

Site C is a K-5 public school in the same suburban community. Opened in 1950 and

expanded in 1995, Site C is one of five K-5 buildings. The Site C student enrollment of 399

includes 51% (n=205) boys and 49% (n=194) girls. Ethnicity at Site C is reported in Table 7.

Table 7

Ethnicity at Site C by Percentage (n=399)

Other information about the student population is reported in Table 8.

Table 8

Other Information by Percentage (n=399)

Asian

Black /
African

American

Caucasian

Hispanic

Multiracial

Native

American

4.8

0.0

93.5

1.3

0.5

0.0

Low-Income

Limited-English
Proficient

Chronic
Truancy

Mobility

Attendance

1.0

1.3

0.0

2.3

95.1

11

The total of 37 teachers at Site C includes 34 (91.9%) females and 3 (8.1%) males. The

24 teaching assistants are female. One teacher is Asian-American, and the remainder of the Site

C teaching staff is Caucasian.

There are three regular education classes of each grade level at Site C. Two kindergarten

teachers provide three half-day sessions, staffing two morning classes and one afternoon class.

Two additional classrooms serve kindergarten and first grade students with special physical or

learning needs. Each special needs classroom is staffed by a teacher and assistants, with a total of

two teachers and seven assistants working in the special needs K-1 classrooms. The autism

resource program is staffed by two teachers and eleven assistants, divided into one primary and

one intermediate classroom. A full-time early intervention position is shared by two teachers.

One half-time teacher provides pullout support in reading or math for low-achieving second and

third grade students. An instructional resource program for students identified for special

education services is staffed by two teachers with three assistants. A teacher who divides time

between two schools provides enrichment in math and reading to high ability primary students

who participate in weekly pullout groups. One teacher provides daily math and reading

instruction for gifted intermediate students.

The Site C staff includes three physical education teachers, two art teachers, two

music teachers, and a foreign language teacher who divides time between two schools. The

Learning Resource Center (LRC) is headed by a director who is also a certified teacher. Two

half-time assistants and a full-time technologist complete the LRC staff. Additional staff

members include two speech pathologists and two half-time social workers. A physical therapist

and an occupational therapist work with the special needs population. Site C also houses a

special education facilitator.

12

The district’s average annual teacher salary is $61,257. Teachers have an average of 11.9

years teaching experience. At Site C, 25 (69%) teachers hold master’s degrees and 12 (31%) are

at the bachelor’s level. Districtwide, the pupil – certified staff ratio is 12 to 1. Class sizes in

regular education rooms range from 16 students per kindergarten classroom to 25 fifth grade

students per classroom.

The core subjects at Site C are English / language arts, mathematics, science, and

social science. The core subjects are taught daily, as shown in Table 9.

Table 9

Grades 1-5 Daily Instructional Minutes

English / language arts 144
Mathematics 57
Science 30
Social Science 30

All students participate weekly in one 45-minute art class and two 30-minute music

classes. Students in grades 1 through 5 have four 30-minute physical education classes per week.

Kindergartners have three 30-minute physical education classes a week. Beginning in second

grade, students participate in the Foreign Language in the Elementary School program.

French is taught in classrooms for 30 minutes twice a week.

Overall Illinois Standards Achievement Test performance at Site C in 2004-2005 was

87.7%, slightly above the district level of 87.5%. Table 10 shows improvement in the percentage

of ISAT scores meeting or exceeding standards in 2004-2005 compared with 2003-2004.

13

Table 10

Percentage of ISAT Scores Meeting or Exceeding Standards

Grade Subject 2003-2004 2004-2005

3 Reading 80.0 86.5
3 Math 91.8 100.0
4 Science 81.4 92.0

Site C’s principal has served since 1999, and will soon complete her doctorate. The

average annual salary of an administrator in the district is $120,313. There is no assistant

principal at Site C, but one classroom teacher and one instructional resource teacher are

designated to provide assistance when need arises. The office is staffed by one full-time

secretary and one half-time office assistant. A registered nurse works as the full-time health

assistant. These staff members are female. A full-time maintenance team of three men oversees

the building and grounds. The staff members listed above are Caucasian except for one non-

certified member of the office staff who is Asian-American.

Site C is the location of the district’s STRIVE resource rooms. The STRIVE program

serves students with autism and related disorders, supporting inclusion and providing special

education services. Students with special needs are included in regular classroom activities as

much as possible, and they are further integrated into the student community through

voluntary peer-to-peer outreach programs such as the Circle of Friends model.

Site C is a single story building located in a neighborhood in which most houses were

built after World War II. The school property is one block wide and two blocks deep. Originally

L-shaped, the building received an addition in the mid-1990s that provided a new LRC, a

separate computer laboratory, a second gymnasium, and additional classrooms. The renovation

resulted in the building’s present rectangular configuration. The four hallways surround a central

14

courtyard that has been the focus of improvement projects in which teachers, students, and

parents have collaborated. Over several years these teams have added features such as

landscaping and a small pond, along with paths, benches, and a picnic table.

The construction project completed in 1995 included a computer laboratory to

accommodate all the students in a class, with teachers scheduling time as needed. In addition,

every classroom is equipped with at least five student computers. Recently, a laptop cart that

can be reserved for classroom use has been added to the available technology resources.

There is a blacktop and an intermediate playground at the northeast end of the building.

Another blacktop adjoins the primary playground at the southwest corner of the building. The

remaining land consists of a large grassy field that is used for physical education activities and

extracurricular activities such as park district youth soccer practices and games.

Based on examining evidence about the population demographics of the community in

which Sites A, B, and C are located, the teacher researchers are confident that students’ reading

comprehension difficulties are not related to economic and social status. Reading instruction that

focuses on decoding skills and lower order thinking neglects the development of reading

comprehension in the true sense of reading for meaning. In many cases, students are not taught

strategies that build a framework for reading comprehension by engaging in higher order

thinking (Zimmerman & Hutchins, 2003).

Through informal observation and DIBELS scores Site A and B teachers report that the

majority of their students who struggle with comprehension perform in the low average to below

average range in reading ability. Their comprehension concerns can most likely be linked to poor

reading foundation skills such as decoding, phonemic awareness, and fluency skills.

At Site C, many students are well-prepared to acquire decoding skills. Primary teachers

15

have incorporated guided reading practices into the daily reading block, using DIBELS

assessments in August, January, and May to measure individual growth. Students are screened

for weekly challenge pullout on the basis of DIBELS scores and performance on special

classroom identification lessons incorporating reading comprehension and higher order thinking,

followed by running records with a comprehension component. Students who demonstrate good

comprehension also have high DIBELS scores. Other students with equally high DIBELS scores

do not demonstrate good reading comprehension. Teachers at Site C find that implementing

reading instruction to improve students’ reading comprehension is challenging and complex.

Poor decoding skills are the cause of some students’ reading comprehension problems, but good

decoding skills are not always associated with good

comprehension.

Local Context of the Problem

Site A, Site B, and Site C are all located in the same northwest suburban area. The

community has a population of 37,274 people. The 2000 census listed the population as 38,114

indicating the population has remained relatively stable. The median income is $82,092 and the

median age is 42. Per the census, 92% of the population graduated from high school and 46%

graduated from college.

There are 13,438 households and an average household size of 2.6 persons. The crime

index suggests the risk of certain types of crime occurring in this community as compared to the

national average. The national average for each crime equals a score of 100. The total crime

index equals 37 of which the following categories are listed; Personal (28), Murder (7), Rape

(38), Robbery (11), Assault (51), Property (54), Burglary (61), Larceny (64), and MV Theft

16

(27). The census listed an employment rate of 97%. The work force is considered 81% white

collar and 19% blue collar. The types of employment are shown in Table 11.

Table 11

Type of Employment by percentage

Manager/Professional 50

Sales/Administration 30

Production/Repair 7

Operators/Laborers 5

Service Occupation 8

Sites A, B, and C are located in a suburb a few miles northwest of a major city.

Convenient access to the city contributed to the growth of the town from its beginnings in the

nineteenth century as a small farming community. In the 1870s a businessman secured a rail

connection between the small town and the city. Well-maintained nineteenth century homes that

still ring the uptown area were constructed in the years that followed, as locally grown produce

and manufactured goods were sent into the city by rail and the local economy grew.

Home building expanded from this central area, taking over farm land through the first

three decades of the twentieth century. The Great Depression that began in 1929 halted growth

until around 1950, when the post-World War II building boom pushed into undeveloped land to

the north, west, and south.

Sites A and C serve neighborhoods in the south and west areas while Site B serves the

central uptown area of postwar expansion. During the second half of the twentieth century

17

Georgians, ranch styles, and split level homes lined the blocks, with a few white frame

farmhouses scattered among them. In recent years, the unavailability of building lots and

continuing demand for the area’s proximity to the city and the regional airport have driven a

market for replacing existing homes with larger ones. Most recently, the city is implementing a

redevelopment plan renovating the town’s uptown area with new retail establishments and

restaurants.

The city has several recreational facilities including a leisure center, a community center,

an ice arena, a driving range, batting cages, a nature center, a senior center, a dog park, a skate

park, an art center, and three swimming pools.

The mission statement of Site A expresses the following.

Mary, Seat of Wisdom, believing that our children are our greatest resource, is committed

to both excellence in education and the holistic development of the child. An integral part of

Mary, Seat of Wisdom is the faith community, which actively involves itself in the fostering of

Christian values and serves as a role model of Catholicism in action. Mary, Seat of Wisdom

strives to empower its students with the knowledge, values, and skills which will enable them to

become active participants and effective leaders in both the church and world community.”

The mission statement of Site B expresses the following.

St. Paul of the Cross Parish School is committed to reach out through prayer, service,

and education to the needs of the community. In this supportive atmosphere, students

are encouraged and challenged by the partnership of parents and teachers to use their

unique abilities to be lifelong, contributing Catholic Christians.

18

The public elementary school district has an enrollment of 4,400 K-8 students. The

mission of the district is “to enable all students to achieve their full potential as they develop

the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to live successful, socially responsible lives in a changing

global economy.” The mission statement of Site C expresses that “In partnership with the

community, (Site C’s) mission is to provide opportunities that challenge all children to reach

their potential in a safe and supportive environment.” At the district level and at the building

level, the slogan “Meeting the Needs of the Whole Child” reflects a philosophy of promoting

social and emotional development along with academic growth.

A superintendent oversees the district’s two 6-8 middle schools, five K-5 elementary

schools, and one early childhood special education center. Two assistant superintendents serve

the district. Their responsibilities are divided, with one assistant superintendent for curriculum

and instruction, and one assistant superintendent for human resources. Each middle school has a

principal and an assistant principal. The five K-5 schools and the early childhood center are

headed by principals. The two largest K-5 buildings share one assistant principal.

In 2003-2004, local property taxes provided $35,582,243 toward expenditures of

$46,514,806. Despite efforts to control expenses, expenditures continued to outpace sources of

revenue. The passage of a referendum in 2007 averted the need to cut $1,500,000 from the 2007-

2008 budget. The most recent previous referendum passed in 1996. The focus of that successful

campaign was to build a second middle school.

In the K-5 buildings, there are at least five student computers and one computer for the

teacher in each classroom. Computer laboratories in K-5 schools accommodate about 30 students

during sessions scheduled by the teachers. Laptop carts are the latest convenience for bringing

technology into the classroom. The carts are equipped with 20 laptops. There are six laptop carts

19

at each middle school and there are at least two laptop carts at each K-5 building.

The demographic statistics confirm the teacher reasearchers’ observations that students’

deficiences are not related to economic and social issues. The majority of students at Sites A, B,

and C come to school well prepared for learning.

National Context of the Problem

Research reveals that elementary-school children exhibit reading insufficiency to such a

degree that it affects their ability to successfully learn (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

When students struggle to read fluently, cognitive processes are affected and students fail to fully

process meaning (Rasinski, 2004). Improvement in the fluency elements of accuracy, rate, and

expression increase students’ reading comprehension because dysfluency is an indicator of

problems with reading comprehension (Kuhn, 2004).

20

CHAPTER 2

PROBLEM DOCUMENTATION

Evidence of the Problem

The purpose of this action research project was to improve reading comprehension by

promoting the development of students’ oral reading fluency. Eighteen students in grades third,

fifth, and sixth participated in the study from Monday, August 27 through Friday, December 7,

2007 during their reading class. The teacher researchers used the following tools to document

evidence; Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Oral Reading Fluency

(ORF), a student survey, and a comprehension based assessment (Choose-a-Title).

Documentation occurred from September 3, 2007 through September 7, 2007.

Student Survey

The purpose of this instrument was to assess students’ attitudes toward their own oral

reading fluency. All 18 participants received and completed the survey during their reading class

on September 4, 2007 for a 100% return rate. To introduce the survey the teacher researchers

modeled oral reading fluency by reading an age appropriate poem. Students were asked to focus

on rate, accuracy, and prosody. The survey consisted of six positively phrased statements

addressing students’ self-assessment of their own oral reading. The likert scale included the

following choices; almost always, usually, sometimes, and almost never. A copy of the student

survey can be found in Appendix A.

The first statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I am able to

read all of the words”. Ninety-four percent could almost always (83%, n=15) or sometimes

(11%, n=2) be able to read all of the words. One student responded “usually”. No students

responded “almost never”. Please refer to Figure 1.

21

Almost Never
0%

Sometimes
(n=2)
11%

Usually
(n=1)
6%

Almost
always
(n=15)
83%

Figure 1; Survey Statement “I am able to read all of the words”

The second statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I pay

attention to punctuation marks”. Sixty-seven percent could sometimes (17%, n=3) or usually

(50%, n=9) pay attention to punctuation marks. Six students responded “almost always” (33%,

n=6). No students responded “almost never”. Please refer to Figure 2.

Almost Never
0%

Almost
always
(n=6)
33%

Sometimes
(n=3)
17%

Usually
(n=9)
50%

Figure 2; Survey Statement “I pay attention to punctuation marks”

The third statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I read with

expression and feeling”. Sixty-seven percent could sometimes (17%, n=3) or usually (50%, n=9)

read with expression and feeling. Six students responded “almost always” (33%, n=6). No

students responded “almost never”. Please refer to Figure 3.

22

Almost Never
0%
Almost
always
(n=6)
33%
Sometimes
(n=3)
17%
Usually
(n=9)
50%

Figure 3; Survey Statement “I read with expression and feeling”

The fourth statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “My

reading is smooth and not too fast or not too slow”. Ninety-four percent could almost always

(50%, n=9) or usually (44%, n=8) read smoothly and not too fast or not too slow. One student

responded “sometimes”. No students responded “almost never”. Please refer to Figure 4.

Almost Never
0%

Sometimes
(n=1)
6%

Usually
(n=8)
44%

Almost
always
(n=9)
50%

Figure 4; Survey Statement “My reading is smooth and not too fast or not

too slow”

The fifth statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I am able

to answer questions about what I read”. Eighty-three percent could almost always (44%, n=8) or

usually (39%, n=7) are able to answer questions about what they read. Three students responded

“sometimes”. No students responded “almost never”. Please refer to Figure 5.

23

Almost Never
0%

Almost
always
(n=8)
44%

Usually
(n=7)
39%

Sometimes
(n=3)
17%

Figure 5; Survey Statement “I am able to answer questions about what I read”

The sixth and final statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I

think others like my reading”. Four students responded “almost always” (22%). Five students

responded “usually” (28%). Six students responded “sometimes” (33%). Three students

responded “almost never” (17%). Please refer to Figure 6.

Almost Never
(n=3)
17%

Sometimes
(n=6)
33%

Usually
(n=5)
28%

Almost
always
(n=4)
22%

Figure 6; Survey Statement “I think others like my reading”

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Assessment

The purpose of this instrument was to assess students’ fluency rates compared to

benchmark scores of the national average. All 18 participants received and completed the

24

DIBELS assessment during the week of September 4, 2007. The DIBELS assessment was

administered to six sixth grade students at Site A, six third grade students at Site B, and six fifth

grade students at Site C. Depending on the students’ scores, they were determined to be at risk,

some risk, or low risk. A copy of the DIBELS assessment can be found in Appendix B.

The following data was collected at Site A. One student was considered at risk (17%),

two students were considered some risk (33%), and three were considered low risk (50%). Please

refer to Figure 7.

Low risk
(n=3)
50%

Some
risk

(n=2
)

At risk
(n=1)
17%

Figure 7; Site A DIBELS Assessment Results

The following data was collected at Site B. Two students were considered at risk, three

students were considered some risk, and one student was considered low risk. Please refer to

Figure 8.

Low risk
(n=1)
17%

Some risk
(n=3)
50%

At risk
(n=2)
33%

25

Figure 8; Site B DIBELS Assessment Results

The students at Site C were in an above-level reading group; all six students scored in the

low risk category.

Choose-A-Title

The purpose of this instrument was to assess students’ reading comprehension based on

their ability to identify the main idea of a passage. All 18 participants engaged in the activity in

their reading classes on September 5, 2007. Students read a passage silently, and then selected

from a list of possible titles, attempting to identify the title that best conveyed the main idea.

Students at Site A and C read a sixth grade-level passage while students at Site B read a third

grade-level passage. A copy of the Choose-A-Title assessment can be found in Appendix C.

The following graph includes the data from all three sites. Please refer to Figure 9.

Incorrect
Title

(n=11)
61%

Correct Title
(n-7)
39%

Figure 9; Choose-A-Title Assessment Results

26

Summary

Based on our data collected we determined that 78% (n=14) of the students surveyed

indicated a lack of confidence in their oral reading skills. In assessing fluency rates, it was

determined that 56% (n=10) of the students were at benchmark for grade level. Yet, when

analyzing the comprehension assessment, 61% (n=11) did not successfully comprehend the

grade level passage.

Reflection

We found that the documentation tools provided information that indicated two problems

within implications for reading instruction. First we found that some students were deficient in

decoding skills. Their reading fluency was negatively impacted due to a lack of automaticity. We

agreed that these students needed direct instruction and practice in specific decoding skills. We

also found that successful decoding did not ensure adequate comprehension. Some students who

read fluently lacked the comprehension skills required to determine the main idea. These

students needed direct instruction to develop comprehension strategies. In our research project

we provided opportunity to engage in repeated reading of enjoyable materials such as poetry and

reader’s theater dialogues. These lessons combined decoding skills with instruction relating to

main idea, supporting details, and sequence.

27

PROBABLE CAUSES

Reading is a complex process that is crucial to students’ academic success. According to

Sloat, Beswick, and Willms (2007), students who do not learn to read during the primary grades

will probably never read well. Furthermore, students with low literacy skills have less access to

the regular curriculum, and they are prone to poor self-esteem, low motivation, behavioral

difficulties, and academic underachievement (Sloat et al., 2007)). Nationwide, there are many

disillusioned students; the reasons why they struggle with reading are vast, making it difficult to

find solutions (Ambe, 2007). The long-term consequences of inadequate reading instruction have

national implications. Currently, 25% of U.S. adults are functionally illiterate, unable to read the

directions on a medicine bottle or a note from their child’s school (Fuchs et al., 2001).

Understandably, the question of how to improve literacy is receiving intense attention, and is the

subject of much research and debate.

Effective Reading Instruction

Reading teachers face a number of problems as they strive to implement effective

instruction. Henk, Moore, Marinak, and Tomasetti (2000) noted that school professionals often

experience difficulty as they attempt to work together toward the identification and

accomplishment of common literacy goals. According to Sloat et al. (2007), “Reading is a

complex process and that complexity is reflected in the range of philosophies, pedagogies,

curricula, and programs available to guide early elementary reading instruction” (p.523). Sloat et

al. concluded that with so many options available, and with the constraints imposed by limited

resources and students’ diverse skills, practitioners and researchers face the crucial question of

how best to ensure that children learn to read well in their early years. Vaughn, Klingner, and

Bryant (2001) stated that the student population in the general education classroom has become

28

very diverse. The classroom environment, materials, and the teacher’s practices must support

literacy development for students representing a wide range of ability and background.

Academic diversity creates challenges for the general education teacher; some teachers avoid

dealing with the students who fall at the extremes of the range, teaching mainly to the middle

group (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998). When students’ learning needs are not met, gaps in reading

achievement widen as struggling readers lose confidence (Fuchs et al, 2001). Failing to

experience success when they engage in literacy activities, students lack motivation to continue

reading. Students who experience lowered confidence and poor self-esteem often add behavior

concerns to the demands on teachers’ time (Ambe, 2007; Fuchs et al., 2001).

In order to teach reading, teachers must draw on knowledge of children, learning styles,

and the reading /learning process, combined with ongoing assessments, as they make a series of

complex decisions that influence and mediate literacy (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). Unfortunately,

teachers often lack the assessment skills necessary for proper collection and organization of

student data used as a means of reflecting on instructional interventions (Conderman & Strobel,

2006). Additionally, teachers have inadequate time to devote to analyzing students’ reading

errors

(Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003).

Davidson and Myhre (2000) reported that although teachers had

access to many assessments to determine how well a student is reading, many of these methods

were teacher- or district-developed; consequently the assessments were not tested for validity or

reliability. Seven years later, Sloat et al. (2007) stated that while teachers still relied extensively

on informal assessments, “they expressed a desire to augment these approaches with measures

that provided empirically-derived learning benchmarks, concrete data on children’s progress, and

clear evidence of where children were struggling” (p.524).

29

Early Literacy is Essential

According to Vaughn et al. (2001), the nation is putting emphasis on early intervention

with reading instruction so that students are capable readers by the third grade. Due to pressure

from educational and political influences, younger students are expected to have their reading

skills assessed (Paris, 2002). This movement is driven by evidence that students who do not

acquire phonemic awareness for successful reading achievement will not fully benefit from

reading instruction (Allor, Gansle, & Denny, 2006), and that low reading scores have been linked

to weaknesses in phonics and phonemic awareness skills (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998; Vaughn,

Hughes, Schumm, & Klinger, 1996). Consequently, K-3 instruction in many schools has focused

heavily on phonemic awareness, phonics, and word recognition (Teale, Zolt, Yokota, Glasswell,

& Gambrell, 2007). Teale et al. stated that elementary school literacy programs have become

mechanized and test-driven rather than content- and meaning-driven because of an overemphasis

on the results on standardized testing to determine literacy progress (p.499). Despite public and

professional attention to the issue of implementing effective reading instruction, Schmoker

(2006) concluded that “current practice is very much at odds with the best we know about

helping students to become authentically literate” (p.76).

Schmoker (2006) stated that the current preoccupation with basic literacy prevents

students from acquiring the ability to read for meaning, which is the most important and practical

form of reading. Schmoker contended that while reading teachers are required to spend time

conducting lengthy, student-by-student reading assessments, teachers seldom use assessment

results to adjust or improve instruction. Instead, assessments are used to group or regroup

students. Schmoker also observed that authentic literacy is neglected from the earliest grades.

30

Teaching for Comprehension

Addressing concerns about literacy programming, Sloat et al. (2007) cited the need to

respect empirical evidence of what constitutes effective practice while at the same time taking

into account the involvement of students, parents, teachers, and administrators. Classroom

teachers are anxious to learn about appropriate interventions that will increase learning for their

students (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998; Vaughn, et al., 1998). Emphasis is placed on assessing primary

students’ phonics skills and phonemic awareness, but Fuchs (2005) presented evidence that

teaching phonological skills without connecting them to text is not the best practice for

increasing literacy skills (Hatcher et al., 1994). Taberski (2000) asserted that meaning, structure,

and graphophonics work best together as strategies. Taberski described the complex set of

attitudes, understandings, and behaviors involved in learning to read, and concluded that children

need to be active agents who assume responsibility for their learning. Reading instruction as

described by Harvey and Goudvis (2000) develops strategic readers who carry out self-

monitoring in the form of an inner conversation for the purpose of making sense of what they

read .

Recognizing that a possible reason for lack of reading skills is the student’s failure to be

an engaged reader and to use strategies that have been taught (Malone & Mastropieri, 1991),

reading teachers at all levels face the challenge of implementing instruction that emphasizes the

reader’s construction of meaning. (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000) Teaching comprehension strategies

is difficult for many teachers (Fuchs, et al., 2001; Pressley, 1997). Gauthier (2001) stated that

although increasing students’ comprehension is a theme that permeates all reading programs, not

much effort has been made to form a joining together of promising strategies to encourage

31

reading comprehension. Miller (2002) observed that it is essential for most books to be at

students’ instructional level so that children have the opportunity to apply strategies for

decoding and constructing meaning independently. The goal is difficult to achieve in classrooms

where teachers deal with time constraints and academically diverse student populations. Access

to appropriately engaging instructional materials are limited in some districts, and many texts

that are geared to teach reading comprehension are too obvious (Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003).

Dewitz and Dewitz (2003) observed that comprehension is influenced by text type,

method of reading, level of the reading material, and prior knowledge. According to Bolton

(2007), students must have prior knowledge of a subject in order to use top-level structures

efficiently. Ambe (2007) concluded that teachers need to spend an inordinate amount of time

building background knowledge for the struggling student. However, Dewitz and Dewitz (2003)

list over-reliance on prior knowledge as one cause of poor comprehension; other causes are

excessive elaboration, failure to make causal references, failure to properly parse syntax, and

failure to know a key vocabulary word.

Students need to be taught specific strategies to improve comprehension, and a large time

commitment is required to teach comprehension strategies correctly (Vaughn et al., 2001).

According to Goudvis and Harvey (2000), readers need specific instruction to understand how

strategies can be used to make sense of text when the meaning breaks down, and students must

learn to analyze their comprehension problems in order to choose the best strategy to use.

However, researchers Eme, Puustien, and Coutelet (2006) found that most of their student

subjects seemed unaware of inconsistencies in text, and the subjects reported being highly

confident of the accuracy of incorrect answers. Vaughn et al. (2001) cautioned that teachers need

to keep in mind that students who are taught too many comprehension strategies may become

32

overwhelmed and end up not using any. According to Maggliano (1999), some intervention

strategies may interfere with other strategies for some students (Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003).

Miller (2002) addressed the difficulties of evaluating comprehension, noting that

comprehension ability and the level of development are not linked directly to a child’s ability to

decode. Taberski (2000) recounted the experience of observing two first graders reading words

in context as they shared a book, then finding that the children were unable to decode the same

words out of context on a vocabulary page in the text. Taberski used the example to show how

young readers draw upon their knowledge of language and textual structures, along with letter-

sounds, in order to construct meaning. Teachers find that gaining insight into students’

comprehension difficulties is less clear cut than assessing difficulty with skills that have been

shown to inhibit effective fluency: basic print ability, phonemic awareness, sight word

recognition, and phonetic skills (Rinehart, 1999).

The Connection Between Reading Comprehension and Oral Reading Fluency

Research links comprehension deficiencies and reading fluency (Therrien, Wickstrom, &

Jones, 2006), and shows that a lack of reading fluency is a reliable predictor of reading

comprehension problems (Hudson, Lane, & Pullen, 2005). Fluent readers demonstrate control

over surface-level text processing, and thus are able to focus effectively on comprehension by

processing deeper levels of meaning in the text (Rasinski , 2004). Alber-Morgan, Ramp,

Anderson, and Martin (2007) stated that students who struggle with fluency avoid reading

activities, and also have problems with word recognition, comprehension, and motivation

(Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Mastropieri, Leinart, & Scruggs, 1999; Stanovich, 1986). When

readers’ ability to accurately comprehend text is impaired because they lack effective fluency,

the readers often choose not to participate in reading behaviors such as making words,

33

identifying words in texts, and writing words, as they attempt to protect themselves from

potential failure (Glazer, 2007). According to Share and Stanovich (1995), readers lacking

effective fluency skills cannot easily convert speech sounds to written language and back again

(Langdon, 2004), and as a result their personal vocabulary is limited and inhibits effective

comprehension (Torgeson, 2000). Some cases of reading disability are linked to a lack of fluency

related to word recognition skills (Moyer, 2001).

Rasinski (2004) listed accuracy in word decoding, automatic processing, and prosodic

reading as the three important dimensions of reading fluency that make students must master for

effective comprehension. Readers must be able to decode words routinely with ease; many less

skilled readers do not have the basic decoding skills necessary to secure successful reading

(Rasinski, 2003). According to Vaughn and Linan-Thompson (2004), slow word recognition

inhibits automaticity and weakens reading comprehension. Emerging readers may make

decoding errors, and they require a great deal of effort to read words correctly, so they have no

more cognitive ability to be successful with comprehension; these readers may read words

correctly but fail to connect them in a way to give meaning to their oral reading (Rasinski, 2006).

Less-skilled readers do not use effective strategies for monitoring their comprehension, and they

do not fully process information (Torgeson, 1997). LaBerge and Samuels (1974) found that

students with slow reading rates process less text, recall less information, and struggle to

integrate prior knowledge (Al Otaiba & Rivera, 2006).

34

Oral Reading Fluency as a Component of Literacy Programs

Reading fluency is an important component of literacy growth (Rasinski, 2006), but

reading fluency has been ignored in reading instruction (Kuhn, 2004). Based on research

supporting the connection between oral reading fluency and reading comprehension, teachers

and school leaders must be active in pursuing the goal of reading fluency (Rasinski, 2004), but

there are many reasons why it has been neglected. Dowhower (1991) stated that teachers were

never taught to incorporate fluency instruction as part of their reading curriculum (Richards,

2000). Fluency is perceived as a result of predetermined reading goals as opposed to being part

of the cause (Zutell & Rasinski, 1991). Lacking direct instruction, struggling readers may not

gain fluency automatically (Hudson et al., 2005). According to Vaughn and Linan-Thompson

(2004), oral reading fluency appears to be the missing link in reading instruction for most

teachers because they focus on accuracy and comprehension. Basal readers dictate that teachers

focus on word recognition, vocabulary growth, and comprehension while excluding oral fluency

(Zutell & Rasinski, 1991).

Teacher understanding of oral reading fluency, and further research of the topic, are

necessary for future success (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hosp, 2001). Fuchs et al. recommended research

on understanding the reading process and reading development, the analysis of the effects of

treatments, the appropriate instructional materials, and the identification of those needing special

attention. Teachers need ways to assess fluency in order to address individual learning needs, but

lack of training and support leaves many teachers unprepared in the area of oral reading fluency

(Rasinski, 2004). Screening measures are administered in a short time period, and may provide

inaccurate data (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006). According to Hasbrouck and Tindal (2006), some

35

educators hesitate to use fluency measures, fearing the results may holistically categorize a

student’s reading skill level (Hamilton & Shinn, 2003).

At the same time that awareness of the importance of oral reading fluency is rising,

educators may lack thorough understanding of its role in reading instruction. According to

Rasinski (2004, 2006), the current emphasis on fast reading has a negative impact on

comprehension: when students focus on speed rather than expressive reading, they do not pay

attention to meaning. The three elements of fluency are accuracy, rate, and prosody; teachers

need reliable means of assessing all three elements, and assessment results should be used to

guide instruction (Hudson et al., 2005). Readers may experience frustration and lose confidence

if material is beyond their level of oral reading fluency (Bear, 2001).

Teachers who understand that below-grade level reading skills result in oral reading

fluency problems (Al Otaiba & Rivera, 2006) seek to implement appropriate

interventions.

Statistical evidence has not been found to show that silent reading is associated with

improvement in students’ oral reading fluency (Al Otaiba & Rivera, 2006). Repeated reading has

been proven to be a positive way of increasing reading fluency, but it requires one-to-one adult

supervision, which is not always possible to achieve in a classroom (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005).

Fuchs and Fuchs (2005) observed that peer-assisted learning strategies increased oral reading

fluency for many students, but they found that 10 to 20 % of students did not respond to the

treatments. Moyer (2001) noted that the use of a repeated reading method to increase fluency

may be a dull process.

Summary

There is consensus among professionals and the public that literacy is an essential goal

for students, but educators face many challenges in implementing effective reading instruction.

36

Learning to read is a complex process, and research supports the importance of engaging

students in activities that promote the development of reading comprehension along with

decoding skills. Students’ reading comprehension is more difficult to assess than phonemic

awareness, phonics skills, and word recognition. Lack of oral reading fluency is an indicator of

students’ difficulties with reading comprehension, and oral reading fluency is an important

component of effective reading instruction. Although the three elements of fluency are accuracy,

rate, and prosody, recent emphasis has been placed on fast reading. Teachers need efficient

means of assessing their students’ reading difficulties, and teachers should use assessment results

to implement appropriate interventions.

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CHAPTER 3

THE SOLUTION STRATEGY

Review of the Literature

Children think all the time, but why don’t some think while they read? Perhaps it is

because they do not know they are supposed to be thinking while reading. A vast amount of

research has taken place concerning comprehension, but are we properly addressing

comprehension strategies in our classrooms? Comprehension is an important element at all

stages of literacy development (Taberski, 2000). Adams (1990) states that since

comprehension is the objective of reading, those who read fluently are able to focus on

meaning, hold more of the information in their working memory, and incorporate their own

background knowledge with what they have read. Research has supported the theory of

“automatic information processing”, which indicates that reading accurately and with

effective speed allows the reader to focus on the meaning of the words (Al Otaiba & Rivera,

2006). Reading fluency is one of the fundamental elements of reading success (Alber-

Morgan et al., 2007). Adams (1990) and The National Reading Panel (2000) maintain that

reading with confidence and comprehension is what opens up the opportunity for success as

our hi-tech society relies more and more on knowledgeable employees (Al Otaiba & Rivera,

2006).

The components of fluency are difficult to scrutinize in isolation. Cutler and Isard (1980)

believe fluency is a mingling of various components that cannot be distinctly isolated.

Teachers are encouraged to monitor oral reading fluency so that readers can make sense of

what they read (Bear, 2001). Research reveals that fluency is a significant component that

38

joins the gap between word recognition and comprehension (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson,

2004).

According to Bear (2001), for oral reading fluency success, four basic activities should

take place; reading with, reading to, writing, and word study. Skilled comprehenders focus

on higher-order processes: finding the meaning, identifying important ideas, and integrating

information (Eme, et al., 2006). To make students more capable of understanding high level

text, they need to be taught meta-skills that could be used whenever they needed them.

Teaching meta-skills for comprehension could make the student more independent when it

came to understanding more complex text (Anderson, 2006).

Teaching reading fluency is an essential element of reading instruction. A student’s

problem with fluency is a reliable indicator of problems with reading comprehension

(Rasinski, 2004). Accurate comprehension depends on understanding the vocabulary words

and how they connect to the text. Gardner and Lambert (1972) feel teachers need to assist

hesitant readers in choosing appropriate reading materials that will help motivate them.

(Ambe, 2007).

The best reading teachers serve as facilitators in a well-balanced literacy program

encompassing a wide variety of literacy activities that accommodate students’ individual

learning styles (Archer, 2004). It is beneficial for students to understand how a text is

structured as this understanding will aid their comprehension (Bolton, 2007). Dewitz and

Dewitz (2003) cite research that indicates students need to predict, self-question, infer,

summarize, visualize, and monitor their own comprehension (Dole, et al, 1991; Pressley &

Afflerbach, 1995).

39

Teachers are encouraged to model fluent reading illustrating proper rate and accuracy.

Reading and rereading exercises such as reading with a model reader, choral reading, tape-

recorded readings, reader’s theater, and partner reading can improve fluency (Vaughn &

Linan-Thompson, 2004).

In order to gain oral reading fluency, teachers must promote reading and rereading

instruction, which will aid in gaining effective fluency for the reader (Glazer, 2007).

Assessing the three elements of fluency (accuracy, rate, and prosody) provides information

about students’ individual learning needs and enables the teacher to choose appropriate

interventions (Hudson, et al, 2005).

Fluent readers use expression and prosody (make what they are reading sound like

spoken language), and identify words instinctively and correctly. Using prosody correctly is

an indication that the reader comprehends what they have read. When one considers the role

automaticity and prosody play in comprehension, it would seem logical that developing a

reader’s fluency will encourage increased comprehension (Hudson, et al, 2005). Accuracy,

automaticity, and prosodic instruction should occur simultaneously. Some texts such as

poetry, song lyrics, rhymes, and plays are suitable for oral reading practice. By practicing the

various text (poetry, etc.), students increase their skills in accuracy, automaticity (rate),

prosody, and comprehension (Rasinski, 2006).

Effective reading teachers use a variety of frequent assessments to keep track of student

progress for the purpose of delivering appropriate instruction (Archer, 2004). Progress

monitoring of student performance is a vital component of education so that if an instruction

method is not working with a particular student, the program can be altered to fit the needs of

that student (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005). Evidence links reading fluency to gains in reading

40

comprehension, and teachers should regularly assess students’ reading fluency and use the

information to target a range of skills (Conderman and Strobel, 2006). Teachers can use

informal or formal assessment for measuring and improving rate and accuracy (Fluency

Training, 2004). If one evaluates a student’s errors, it may be possible to determine the cause

of the problem and the student’s way of thinking. This could provide guidance in the type of

intervention (Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003).

A solution to gaining vital oral reading fluency information is through a system called

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS). DIBELS provides

measurements of basic pre-reading skills that guide the reader to fluent decoding, word-level

reading, and connected-text reading comprehension (Langdon, 2004). Oral reading fluency

norms are a useful reference for reading assessment. Norms provide the means for screening,

diagnosis, and monitoring oral reading fluency. The measurements offer insight into the

strengths and weaknesses of the reader. Teachers can use national oral reading fluency norms

as important tools for creating, applying, and assessing successful instructional programs

(Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006).

Reliable monitoring systems are necessary to meet individual learning needs (Sloat, et al.,

2007). Teachers should use the results of assessments flexibly. When a teacher assesses

students’ reading levels, it allows the teacher the opportunity to analyze the data and pinpoint

the particular program that would be beneficial for each student (Paris, 2002). The data used

to determine reading levels should include information about the students’ word recognition

skills, the text type, student background knowledge, and their ability to make inferences

(Dewitz & Dewitz, 2003).

41

According to Van den Broek, Lynch, Naslund, Ivers-Landis, & Verduin, (2003),

detecting the main idea is a good indicator of a student’s successful comprehension, and the

task of selecting the best title for a passage requires the reader to connect text elements. In a

2000 report from the National Reading Panel it was recommended that reading instruction

should include phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Research supports the practice of guided oral reading fluency instruction for increasing

reading skills. Two works cited (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1989; Mathes & Fuchs,

1994) indicate cooperative groups or pairs of students reading together can be a positive

means to provide practice with another person (Al Otaiba & Rivera, 2006).

Some ways of improving reading comprehension are cooperative learning, discussion,

and strategic questioning. “Cooperative learning is a concept that can serve as an umbrella

over several specific instructional avenues. As such, it leaves a wide range of possibilities for

implementation” (Gauthier, 2001, p. 217). Fuchs et al., (2001) document numerous studies

that maintain students’ reading ability can increase when they work cooperatively with other

students in well thought-out activities (Greenwood, et al, 1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994;

Stevens, et al, 1987). Through cooperative groups, students can be involved in a variety of

levels of the core curriculum and be exposed to optional learning approaches. Teachers are

able to address the numerous and varied students’ needs when collaborative groups are put

into action (Fuchs et al., 2001). Simmons, et al (1994) reported that reading fluency and

accuracy have increased through the use of Partner Reading (Fuchs et al., 2001).

Kuhn and Stahl’s 2003 study says the most frequently used strategy to improve fluency is

repeated readings (Alber-Morgan et al., 2007). Research reveals that repeated reading

methods have contributed to an increase in fluency for some readers. A solution to increasing

42

the rate of oral reading fluency is using multiple oral rereading in the classroom (Moyer,

2001). Research by Rasinski and Zutell (1990) determined a solution to gaining oral reading

fluency is through paired oral readings whereby two students work as a team to increase

fluency (Richards, 2000). This same article cited Miccinati (1985) that a solution to gaining

oral reading fluency is incorporating poetry in a choral reading lesson focusing on sound,

stress, duration and pitch which ultimately aids in gaining fluent oral

reading.

Research reveals how reader’s theater is an effective instructional tool that potentially

contributes to effective fluency and sight word instruction. In addition, the reader’s theater is

a forum for reading opportunities geared toward enhancing children’s interest and self-

confidence in skilled reading. Reader’s theater promotes a holistic approach for building on

fluency, sight word recognition, and awareness. There are activities available that support

reader’s theater text such as shared book experiences, echo reading, and repeated readings

allowing students additional opportunities within a wide-ranging intervention (Rinehart,

1999).

A solution to gaining oral reading fluency is through a school-based peer-tutoring

intervention for unskilled readers utilizing a program called “Listening-while-reading.” This

intervention allows the delayed reader a chance to practice or rehearse a passage through

silent reading while a skilled reader reads aloud. Finally, the delayed reader reads the passage

again, but out loud and receives a remedial response (Wright & Cleary, 2006).

The following strategies have been used to successfully improve oral reading fluency:

repeated reading, repeated reading with teacher model, repeated reading with modeling by a

more proficient peer, repeated reading, modeling with an audiotape/CD, prepactice preview,

paired reading, choral reading, shared reading, praise/attention, appropriate-level text,

43

predictable or patterned text, word drill, phrase drill, letter-naming drill, corrective feedback,

models of fluent reading, class wide peer tutoring, reader’s theater, computer, parent/school

reading program (Welsch, 2006). “When students work together, communicate their

thoughts, and seek answers to different questions, reading comprehension has a fertile setting

in which to occur.” (Gauthier, 2001, p.217).

Reading competence is vital for school success (Alber-Morgan et al., 2007). Reading

competence requires orchestrating many different elements automatically in order to acquire

success (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974, as cited in Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hosp, 2001. Reading to

children is a means to develop a love of reading, but to become skilled readers, they must be

actively engaged in the reading of connected text (Kuhn, 2004). With proper training

teachers are able to identify oral reading fluency problems and correct these deficiencies with

confidence (Zutell and Rasinski, 2001).

Project Objective and Processing Statements

During the period of August 27, 2007 through December 7, 2007, teacher researchers

incorporated partner reading and reader’s theater into reading lessons in an attempt to improve

students’ reading comprehension. The following tasks were accomplished prior to the

implementation of the project: select appropriate grade level reading passages for use with

partner reading, select appropriate grade level reading passages and poems for use with readers’

theater, train a researcher in the use of DIBELS, and create no titled passages with a list of

possible title choices for each grade level passage.

Project Action Plan

Of the 14 weeks dedicated for this project, 10 weeks of intervention took place and two

weeks of pre- and post- documentation occurred. The pre-documentation took place from August

44

27, 2007 through September 7, 2007 and included sending out and collecting parental consent

letters, copying pre-documentation tools, choosing age appropriate poems for student survey, as

well as selecting grade level passages for the various reading activities. In addition, the DIBELS

Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) and the Choose-a-Title assessments were administered and the

survey was distributed to the students. All scores and results were compiled, recorded, and

ranked as was appropriate.

The intervention took place from September 10, 2007 through November 16, 2007.

During this time, teachers paired students with compatible reading abilities and attitudes,

modeled appropriate prosody, and allowed for 20-minute partner reading activities two times per

week. One day per week teachers incorporated readers’ theatre into the lesson. Readers’ Theatre

included echo reading, choral reading, and poetry.

The post-documentation period occurred from November 26, 2007 through December 7,

2007. A final DIBELS ORF and Choose-a-Title assessment were given to the students, as well as

a final student survey. The data was compiled, analyzed, and graphed accordingly.

Methods of Assessment

The researchers used a student survey to determine students’ attitudes toward oral

reading. The survey was distributed to 18 students during the week of December3, 2007. Veda

Neumann, Dorothy Ross, and Anita Slaboch each worked with 6 students who were surveyed

during their reading period. Researchers modeled effective oral expression of a poem and drew

students’ attention to the elements of fluency: accuracy, rate, and expression. Students were then

asked to reflect on their own oral reading fluency. The survey questions were meant to elicit

students’ predictions about their ability to read aloud with accuracy, appropriate rate, and

expression. Points were assigned to each response category for a total score ranging from 6-16,

45

with six through ten indicating a negative attitude and eleven through sixteen indicating a

positive attitude. Points were assigned to each task with a range from 1-4. Students rated

themselves as performing the task almost never (1), sometimes (2), usually (3), or almost always

(4). The survey remained anonymous in order to preserve confidentiality. Its purpose was for

researchers to determine students’ attitudes toward oral reading and the results were kept in a

secure file in each teacher researcher’s classroom.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) is a formative and

summative reading measurement tool. Please refer to www.dibels.uoregon.edu for additional

information. This research tool evaluated the Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) component of

DIBELS. Its purpose was to determine baseline oral reading fluency information of a reader.

During the week of December 3, 2007, 18 students participated in the study. Veda Neumann

worked with six 5th grade students, Dorothy Ross worked with six 3rd grade students, and Anita

Slaboch worked with six 6th grade students. During the students’ reading periods they were asked

to read orally three grade-level passages. The teacher timed the reading of each passage for one

minute and the number of words read correctly was counted. The highest and lowest scores were

eliminated in the results according to DIBELS guidelines. The middle score was recorded for

each student to assess rate and accuracy. The researchers administered the test individually in a

removed area of the classroom and the results were kept confidential in a secure file in each

teacher’s classroom.

During the week of December 3, 2007, 18 students during their reading period had their

reading comprehension assessed using a researcher created extension of a DIBELS passage.

Please refer to www.dibels.uoregon.edu for additional information regarding DIBELS. Veda

Neumann worked with six 5th grade students, Dorothy Ross worked with six 3rd grade students,

46

and Anita Slaboch worked with six 6th grade students. After reading the grade-level passage, the

student was asked to choose the best title from a list of five choices, based on his or her

understanding of the narrative passage. Selecting the best title for a narrative text is a good

indicator of a child’s successful comprehension because he or she is required to identify the main

idea, and prioritize the importance of events (Van den Broek, 2003). The researchers

administered the assessment individually during class and the results were kept confidential in a

secure file in each teacher researcher’s classroom.

47

CHAPTER 4

PROJECT RESULTS

From August 27, 2007 through December 7, 2007 six sixth grade students at Site A, six

third grade students at Site B, and six fifth grade students at Site C participated in oral reading

fluency based interventions designed to improve reading comprehension. The teacher researchers

devised this action research project to address their students’ comprehension deficiencies and

negative attitudes about reading aloud. DIBELS scores, student surveys, and an assessment that

required students to identify the main idea of a passage by choosing an appropriate title

documented the existence of reading problems. Since the literature review yielded data

connecting oral reading fluency and reading comprehension, the teacher researchers

implemented interventions consisting of paired reading, reader’s theater, and echo and choral

reading.

Historical Description of the Intervention

During the week of pre-documentation, we introduced the concept of oral reading fluency

by modeling the reading of a grade-level appropriate poem. We demonstrated effective and

ineffective use of the elements of fluency consisting of rate, accuracy and prosody. Through a

discussion we elicited student recognition that effective oral reading fluency conveys the

meaning of the passage. After choosing a grade level passage appropriate for our student

population, we removed the title and assessed reading comprehension of the passage by

providing a list of possible title choices. We assessed students’ oral reading fluency by

administering Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS).

48

During the week of September 10, 2007 we introduced students to paired reading and

echo reading. We observed that the students’ responding positively to both interventions. One of

the benefits of echo reading was the elimination of accuracy problems. We encountered time

management problems with paired reading based on the varied amount of time required for pairs

to complete the task.

During the week of September 17, 2007 students participated in choral reading in

addition to the paired reading. During choral reading we observed the students’ enthusiasm for

this activity, however, we noticed difficulty in staying in unison. This highlighted the importance

of appropriate phrasing and attention to punctuation.

During the week of September 24, 2007 students participated in reader’s theater in

addition to the paired reading. During reader’s theater performance appeared to be a motivator,

providing students with an incentive to practice appropriate usage of rate, accuracy, and prosody.

During the week of October 1, 2007 students began to display negative responses to

participating in paired reading. Some students were dissatisfied with their assigned partner. Some

pairs displayed less task dedication and there was an increase in off task behavior. We concluded

that the students’ initial enthusiasm for paired reading had been based on the novelty of the

activity.

During the remaining intervention weeks we minimized the focus on the paired reading

and emphasized our focus on echo and choral reading, and reader’s theater. Students responded

positively to these interventions demonstrating improved rate, accuracy, and prosody.

During these weeks we determined that some material was more effective in engaging

students: humorous poetry, plays, and meaningful curriculum connections elicited the best

response. In the final weeks, we chose reading materials based on these observations. As the

49

novelty wore off we had to redirect and remind students that the purpose of oral reading fluency

is to convey meaning. Based on these observations we concluded that material selection was a

key element in engaging students in fluency-based interventions.

We observed that students demonstrated increasing ability to evaluate their own and their

classmates’ fluency from week to week. Students developed the ability to recognize the need for

improvement in the specific areas of accuracy, rate, and prosody. As students’ self-monitoring

skills grew, they learned to set attainable goals. The goals reflected their awareness of the

elements that enhance oral reading performance.

We found that group performance activities such as choral poetry reading and reader’s

theater motivated the students to exert their best efforts. Students were detail oriented in

identifying ways to improve their own and their classmates’ oral reading for the purpose of fully

expressing the meaning of these materials. We observed positive effects on students’ attitudes

toward their own learning as they self-monitored to set goals and evaluate progress toward those

goals. In addition the partner and group activities enhanced students’ ability to give and receive

constructive feedback. We observed the benefits of cooperative learning as students worked

together with a goal of delivering an effective group performance. Students appeared to be

motivated to improve their own skills in a collaborative rather than in a competitive way.

Students’ demonstrated pride in the group’s achievement celebrating successful performances.

We concluded that the cooperative learning based interventions were effective in fostering

individual self-esteem and positive attitudes toward group learning.

Partners engaged in repeated oral reading of selected grade-level passages as they

focused on improving elements of fluency. Two twenty minute weekly sessions of partner

reading began with teacher reading the passage aloud after directing the students’ attention to the

50

elements of fluency. As the students read along silently they heard the teacher demonstrate fluent

oral reading in which the words were accurate, the rate was appropriate, and the meaning was

enhanced through expression. Partner reading began with one student in each pair reading the

passage orally while the second student read along silently. The second partner then read the

passage orally while the first student read silently. After one round of alternating oral and silent

reading of the passage the students repeated the process. Following the reading the partners

shared reflections about improvements or struggles in specific elements of fluency. The third

twenty minute weekly session was devoted to a rotation of echo and choral reading and reader’s

theater. Please refer to Appendix B for examples of materials used during these fluency-based

interventions.

Our observations of students engaged in paired reading confirmed the findings of Winn

(2006) who noted that paired reading tasks that include repeated reading and reading while

listening engage students in collaborative growth monitoring while elements of fluency develop.

As Moyer (2001) noted, the use of a repeated reading method to increase fluency may be a dull

process. Initially our students responded to the novelty of paired reading positively. As the weeks

of intervention proceeded we observed that students lost interest unless we provided engaging

materials. We learned to choose high interest materials that promoted repeated reading in the

form of rehearsal. The best reading teachers serve as facilitators in a well-balanced literacy

program encompassing a wide variety of literacy activities that accommodate students’

individual learning styles (Archer, 2004).

Implementing this project and these interventions in my Site A classroom has revealed

thought provoking and insightful results. It is important to note that my 6th grade class was a

heterogeneous grouping unlike Site B and Site C. With these varied levels of skill, I feel it may

51

have been beneficial to connect our interventions with the curriculum (i.e. classroom textbooks,

novels, or other supplemental readers) instead of relying solely on varied random passages. With

this in mind, I would have been able to reflect on our current school curriculum and propose

changes to benefit the learning process. In addition, it became quite evident that performance

was a motivator of practicing and ultimately increasing oral reading fluency. The majority of my

students, regardless of a students’ reading skill ability related to fluency, were willing and eager

to perform in the reader’s theater activities offered in the classroom. This welcomed novelty

never tired my students and they were as excited and enthusiastic about reader’s theater at the

end of our intervention period as they were from the beginning.

This experience has enriched my character, tested my resilience, and impacted my

teaching philosophy. I have learned to be grateful for the challenging times in life for these life-

altering events reform one’s character. This experience has been life altering both professionally

and personally. Professionally I have learned that when I am dedicated to an endeavor as

profound as this action research project, I will do what it takes to successfully accomplish my

goals. Personally I have learned that past life experiences have prepared me for this moment in

time. The wisdom tied to these experiences gave me the confidence to serge toward a faith filled

future. Along the way, there were times when I feared I could not stay afloat and the tide of this

project was stronger than I. Just when I thought all was lost a buoy swept in, the tide receded,

and I was once again sailing smoothly. It was during these times that I was able to reflect on my

teaching philosophy. I began to look at my role as a teacher differently. I was no longer a

facilitator of learning, but rather an observant, and analytically driven teacher researcher. I

believe I will never be the same teacher that I was when I began this journey. Today, there exists

within me a different sense of responsibility to my students. Perhaps you can take the teacher out

52

of a “teacher researcher”, but you cannot take the “teacher researcher” out of the teacher. Once

that ball starts rolling along there’s no catching up with it.

What I have learned as a result of implementing this program and these interventions at

Site B in my classroom is that students of all ability levels are capable of responding positively

to reading fluency instruction. It was with a bit of trepidation that I ventured into this project

thinking that perhaps my special needs students would not be as proficient in this area. I look

back warmheartedly as I recall their almost daily reading of the poem “The Kids at Our School”,

the first one used in the documentation process. They voluntarily read the poem with enthusiasm

and expression while standing in line to enter their next class. The implementation of Reader’s

Theater was a tremendous motivator for my participants and something I have encouraged my

colleagues to incorporate in their classrooms. With the most recent changes in IDEA, general

education teachers are facing greater responsibility for addressing the educational needs of Tier

II students. This intervention is one that could be implemented quite easily with all grade levels.

Finally, what I have learned about myself is that I need to forgive myself for what I did not get

done and celebrate what I have accomplished. As I read through the weekly PMI’s, I kept

noticing negative comments about not enough time to complete tasks. As I reflect back and

consider the big picture, I realize I did achieve a successful mission that resulted in my students

becoming more aware of the vital components of reading fluency, which ought to result in

increased comprehension.

The students at Site C were fifth graders in an accelerated reading group. When I

introduced rate, accuracy, and prosody as the three elements of oral reading fluency, my students

expressed confidence in their decoding skills and identified prosody as an area for improvement.

During the early weeks of interventions, students demonstrated increasing awareness of the

53

details that constitute effective prosody: I noticed that constructive criticism during paired

reading activities became more specific as students analyzed the effects of phrasing and voice.

Friday ‘performance days’ generated enthusiasm, and provided students with the incentive to

make good use of the paired reading times for rehearsal. I concluded that the act of preparing for

a performance made repeated reading meaningful to the students. Students became increasingly

comfortable performing in front of the group, and the shared experience seemed to enhance their

collaborative bond. In addition to observable improvements in oral reading fluency, students

benefited from participating as performers and audience members, giving and receiving praise

and advice. As the weeks went on I felt that the activities promoted a sense of community,

encouraging the students to take responsibility for their own and their classmates’ learning. It

seemed that the focus on identifying specific elements for improvement enhanced students’

ability to set goals and self-monitor to evaluate progress.

Presentation of Analysis of Results

The purpose of this action research project was to improve students’ reading

comprehension by implementing oral reading fluency-based interventions. The teacher

researchers gathered pre- and post-intervention data consisting of students’ attitude surveys,

DIBELS scores, and results of a main idea identification activity called Choose-A-Title. The post

documentation occurred from November 26, 2007 through December 7, 2007.

Student Survey

The purpose of this instrument was to determine students’ attitudes about their own oral

reading. All 18 participants received and completed the survey in their reading classes during the

week of November 26, 2007.

54

The first statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I am able to

read all of the words”. According to the post data, 50% were almost always (n=9) able to read all

of the words while 50% were usually (22%, n=4) or sometimes (28%, n=5) able to read all of the

words.

Almost Never
0%
Sometimes
(n=2)
11%
Usually
(n=1)
6%
Almost
always
(n=15)
83%

Almost Never
0%Sometimes

n=5
28%

Usually
n=4
22%

Almost
Always
n=9
50%

Figure 10; Pre- and Post Data Survey Statement “I am able to read all of the words”

The most notable change was a decrease in the number of students responding almost

always to the statement, “I am able to read all of the words”. The pre data total of 83% (n=15)

declined to 50% (n=9) in the post data. Students responding usually to the statement increased

from 6% (n=1) in the pre data to 22% (n=4) in the post data. Students responding sometimes

55

increased from 11% (n=2) in the pre data to 28% (n=5) in the post data. No students responded

almost never in either pre- or post data.

Please refer to Figure 10 for pre- and post-data comparison.

The second statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I pay

attention to punctuation marks”. According to the post data, 56% could usually (n=10) pay

attention to punctuation marks. Forty-four percent could almost always (33%, n=6) or sometimes

(11%, n=2) pay attention to punctuation marks. No students responded “almost never”.

Almost Never
0%
Almost
always
(n=6)
33%
Sometimes
(n=3)
17%
Usually
(n=9)
50%

Almost Never
0%

Almost
Always
(n=6)
33%

Usually
(n-10)
56%

Sometimes
(n=2)
11%

Figure 11; Pre- and Post Data Survey Statement “I pay attention to punctuation marks”

56

Compared with the pre data there were no changes in the almost always and the almost

never categories. The 6% (n=1) increase in the usually category correlates with the 6% decrease

in the sometimes category.

Please refer to Figure 11 for pre- and post data comparison.

The third statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I read with

expression and feeling”. According to the post data, 50% could almost always (28%, n=5) or

sometimes (22%, n=4) read with expression and feeling. Forty-four percent could usually (n=8)

read with expression and feeling. One student (6%) almost never could read with expression and

feeling.

Almost Never
0%
Almost
always
(n=6)
33%
Sometimes
(n=3)
17%
Usually
(n=9)
50%

Almost never
(n=1)
6%

Sometimes
(n=4)
22%

Usually
(n=8)
44%

Almost
always
(n=5)
28%

Figure 12; Pre- and Post Data Survey Statement “I read with expression and feeling”

57

In the post data, decreases occurred in the almost always and usually responses: almost

always declined from 33% (n=6) to 28% (n=5), and usually declined from 50% (n=9) to 44%

(n=8). In the sometimes category there was an increase from 17% (n=3) to 22% (n=4). In the pre

data no students responded almost never compared with the post data total of 6% (n=1).

Please refer to Figure 12 for the pre- and post data comparison.

The fourth statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “My

reading is smooth and not too fast or not too slow”. According to the post data, 55% could

almost always (n=10) read smoothly and not too fast or not too slow. Twenty-eight percent could

usually (n=5) read smoothly and not too fast or not too slow. Seventeen percent could almost

never (11%, n=2) or sometimes (6%, n=1) read smoothly and not too fast or not too slow.

Almost Never
0%
Sometimes
(n=1)
6%
Usually
(n=8)
44%
Almost
always
(n=9)
50%

Almost never
(n=2)
11%

Sometimes
(n=1)
6%

Usually
(n=5)
28%

Almost
always
(n=10)
55%

58

Figure 13; Pre- and Post Data Survey Statement “My reading is smooth and not too fast or not

too slow”

The most notable change was a decline in the number of students responding usually,

from 44% (n=8) in the pre data to 28% (n=5) in the post data. The almost always response

category increased from 50% (n=9) to 55% (n=10). The almost never category increased from

0% in pre data to a post data total of 11% (n=2).

Please refer to Figure 13 for pre- and post data comparison.

The fifth statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I am able

to answer questions about what I read”. According to the post data, 72% are almost always

(33%, n=6) or sometimes (39%, n=7) able to answer questions about what they read. Twenty-

two percent are usually (n=4) able to answer questions about what they read. One student almost

never (6%) is able to answer questions about what he or she read.

Almost Never
0%
Almost
always
(n=8)
44%
Usually
(n=7)
39%
Sometimes
(n=3)
17%

59

Sometimes
(n=7)
39%

Usually
(n=4)
22%

Almost
always
(n=6)
33%

Almost never
(n=1)
6%

Figure 14; Pre- and Post Survey Statement “I am able to answer questions about what I read”

In the post data decreases occurred in the almost always and usually responses: almost

always declined from 44% (n=8) to 33% (n=6), and usually declined from 39% (n=7) to 22%

(n=4). In the sometimes category there was an increase from 17% (n=3) to 39% (n=7). In the pre

data no students responded almost never compared with the post data total of 6% (n=1).

Please refer to Figure 14 for pre- and post data comparison.

The sixth and final statement on the survey asked students to respond to the statement, “I

think others like my reading”. According to the post data, four students responded “almost

always” (22%). Five students responded “usually” (28%). Five students responded “sometimes”

(28%). Four students responded “almost never” (22%).

Almost Never
(n=3)
17%
Sometimes
(n=6)
33%
Usually
(n=5)
28%
Almost
always
(n=4)
22%

60

Almost never
(n=4)
22%

Sometimes
(n=5)
28%

Usually
(n=5)
28%

Almost
always
(n=4)
22%

Figure 15; Pre- and Post Data Survey Statement “I think others like my reading”

Between the pre- and post data there were no changes in the almost always category,

which stayed constant at 22% (n=4), and the usually category, which stayed constant at 28%

(n=5). The decrease in the sometimes category, from 33% (n=6) to 28% (n=5) correlates with an

increase in the almost never category from 17% (n=3) to 22% (n=4).

Please refer to Figure 15 for pre- and post data comparison.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Assessment
The purpose of this instrument was to assess students’ fluency rates compared to

benchmark scores of the national average. All 18 participants received and completed the

DIBELS assessment during the week of November 26, 2007. The DIBELS assessment was

administered to six sixth grade students at Site A, six third grade students at Site B, and six fifth

grade students at Site C. Depending on the students’ scores they were determined to be at risk,

some risk, or low risk.

The following post data was collected at Site A. One student was considered some risk

(17%), five students were considered low risk (83%). There were no students in the at risk

category, compared with a pre data total of 17% (n=1). The some risk category decreased from a

pre data total of 33% (n=2) to 17% (n=1) in the post data. The pre- and post data decrease in the

61

at risk and some risk categories correlate with an increase in the low risk category, from a pre

data total of 50% (n=3) to a post data total of 83% (n=5).

Please refer to Figure 16 for pre- and post data comparison.

Low risk
(n=3)
50%
Some
risk
(n=2
)
At risk
(n=1)
17%

Low risk
n=5
83%

At risk
n=0
0%

Some risk
n=1
17%

Figure 16; Pre- and Post Data Site A DIBELS Assessment Results

The following post data was collected at Site B. Two students were considered some risk

(33%), and four were considered low risk (67%).

There were no students in the at risk category, compared with a pre data total of 33%

(n=2). The some risk category decreased from a pre data total of 50% (n=3) to 33% (n=2) in the

post data. The pre- and post data decrease in the at risk and some risk categories correlate with

an increase in the low risk category, from a pre data total of 17% (n=1) to a post data total of

67% (n=4).

62

Please refer to Figure 17 for a pre- and post data comparison.

Low risk
(n=1)
17%
Some risk
(n=3)
50%
At risk
(n=2)
33%

Low risk
n=4
67%

Some risk
n=2
33%

At risk
n=0
0%

Figure 17; Site B DIBELS Assessment Results

The students at Site C were in an above-level reading group; all six students scored in the

low risk category in both pre- and post data.

Choose-A-Title
The purpose of this instrument was to assess students’ reading comprehension based on
their ability to identify the main idea of a passage. All 18 participants engaged in the activity in

their reading classes on November 27, 2007. Students read a passage silently, and then selected

from a list of possible titles, attempting to identify the title that best conveyed the main idea.

Students at Site A and C read a sixth grade-level passage while Students at Site B read a third-

grade level passage.

63

The following graph includes the data from all three sites. In pre data a total of 39%

(n=7) chose the correct title compared with an increase to 78% (n=14) in post data, correlating

with a decrease from 61% (n=11) to 22% (n=4) choosing an incorrect title.

Please refer to Figure 18 for pre- and post data comparison.

Incorrect
Title
(n=11)
61%
Correct Title
(n-7)
39%

Incorrect
Title
n=4
22%

Correct Title
n=14
78%

Figure 18; Pre- and Post Data Choose-A-Title Assessment Results

Conclusions and Recommendations

As we reviewed the months of intervention, we were interested to find that although our

teaching situations differ there were commonalities in student response. Site A was a typically

developing heterogeneous 6th grade class, while Site B was a 3rd grade resource support class,

and the Site C students were high ability 5th grade readers.

64

We conclude that making the students aware of the three elements of fluency: prosody,

rate, and automaticity contributed to their ability to self-monitor and to set goals for

improvement. Regarding the first survey question, “I am able to read all of the words”, we

attribute the notable decrease in students responding almost always to a more realistic evaluation

of their decoding skills (Figure 10).

Pre and post-data for the third, fourth, and fifth survey questions revealed a decline in the

almost always and usually categories. The third survey question was, “I read with expression and

feeling” (Figure 12), the fourth survey question was, “My reading is smooth and not too fast and

not too slow” (Figure 13), and the fifth survey question was, “I am able to answer questions

about what I read” (Figure 14). We conclude that the increase in students responding sometimes

and almost never reflects a more realistic self-assessment. We find it interesting that students

heightened awareness of areas of individual improvement did not seem to be accompanied by a

loss of confidence. Throughout the weeks of interventions, students participated enthusiastically

in group activity. Students showed great engagement in collaborative intervention such as choral

poetry reading and reader’s theater, which provided the benefits of modeling and meaningful

repetition in the forms of rehearsal and performance. Students became comfortable exchanging

compliments and constructive suggestions. We conclude that the focus on working toward

specific personal goals in a cooperative setting de-emphasized competition and resulted in

improved attitudes toward learning.

The sixth survey question, “I think others like my reading” showed almost no

change between pre and post-data (Figure 15). We believe that this would be an interesting area

for further investigation because we wonder if it reflects young children’s inability to accurately

65

interpret audience responses. Research into egocentrism in young children might provide

strategies for increasing their awareness of the responses of others.

The results of the DIBELS oral reading fluency assessment indicated that at Site A all

students but one was benchmarked (Figure 16). Site B had two students who were not

benchmarked (Figure 17). We conclude that since the students at Site B were 3rd grade emerging

readers their reading skills were not as secure or developed as a typical 6th grader’s. It should be

noted that at pre documentation there were two students at risk from Site B and one student at

risk at Site A. At post documentation all three students had moved out of that at risk category.

We conclude that the oral reading fluency interventions had a positive impact on this component

of reading.

We observe the results of the Choose-A-Title intervention indicated that there was a

notable increase in the correct title choice (Figure 18). We conclude that the weekly practice of

paired reading, echo and choral reading, and reader’s theater contributed to increased

comprehension.

Our students’ positive response to ten weeks of fluency-based interventions convinced us

that many of the activities warrant continued implementation. Performance related activities

proved to be highly motivating and we plan to continue gathering material for reader’s theater

and poetry for choral reading. Paired reading proved most effective when it was closely linked to

the curriculum, rather than as an isolated fluency activity. We plan to implement paired reading

in connection with curriculum, to make it practical and meaningful for students, facilitating

transfer of learning.

We feel that assessing students’ reading comprehension is an essential and difficult facet

of instruction. In our research the Choose-A-Title tool fell short of our expectations because we

66

questioned its validity; we had adapted material for our varied grade levels. We recommend a

standardized form of this type of assessment as opposed to a teacher created tool.

67

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Appendix A

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Appendix B

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Appendix C

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Appendix D

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Appendix E

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Appendix F

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Appendix G

84

Appendix H

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Increasing adolescents’ depth of understanding of cross-curriculum words: an

intervention study.

Abstract:

Background: There is some evidence that vocabulary intervention is effective for children,

although further research is needed to confirm this within contexts of social disadvantage.

Very little is known about the effectiveness of interventions to increase adolescent knowledge

of cross-curriculum words.

Aims: This study evaluated the effectiveness of an intervention programme designed to

develop adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum words.

Methods and Procedures: Participants were 35 adolescents aged between 12 and 14 years

who were at risk of educational underachievement with low scores on a range of assessments.

Participants received a ten-week intervention programme in small groups, targeting 10 cross-

curriculum words (e.g. ‘summarise’). This was evaluated using a bespoke outcome measure

(the Word Knowledge Profile). The study involved an AABA design, with a repeated

baseline, delayed intervention cohort and blind assessment. Intervention included both

semantic and phonological information about the target words and involved the adolescents

using the words in multiple contexts.

Outcomes and Results: Results were promising and participants’ knowledge of the targeted

words significantly increased following intervention. Progress was demonstrated on the Word

Knowledge Profile on the item requiring participants to define the word (for the summer

intervention group only). These increases in depth of knowledge were seen on taught

words

but not on matched non-taught words.

2

Conclusions and Implications: Cross-curriculum words are not consistently understood by

adolescents at risk of low educational attainment within a low socioeconomic context. A

10

week intervention programme resulted in some increases to the depth of knowledge of

targeted cross-curriculum words.

INTRODUCTION

Importance of cross-curriculum vocabulary learning

Vocabulary skills are important to classroom learning because of a) the complex and abstract

words used in the curriculum content, b) the need to use words as tools to access learning and

facilitate ‘academic thinking’, c) the role of vocabulary in processing new disciplinary

concepts and ideas, and d) the vocabulary used by teachers during oral pedagogy in

conveying information (Alexander 2006; Nagy and Townsend 2012). There is evidence for

an association between vocabulary knowledge and academic attainment. Vocabulary

assessment scores accounted for variation in academic attainment in mathematics and English

upon leaving school (Spencer et al. 2016). Knowledge of cross-curriculum words accounted

for considerable amount of variation in academic attainment on tests of reading, mathematics,

social sciences and science in a cohort of 339 12-14 year old children (Townsend et al. 2012).

Insufficient knowledge of cross-curriculum vocabulary has been associated with the

attainment gap between different groups of students based on socioeconomic background

(Gardner and Davies 2014).

Beck, McKeown and Kucan (2002) outline the importance of vocabulary knowledge for

learning, in particular cross-curriculum vocabulary (also known as Tier 2 words or general

academic words), which are abstract and occur in multiple contexts, for example coincidence,

3

industrious, fortunate, introduce. While more low-frequency subject-specific words may be

specifically taught in the classroom (e.g. peninsula, isotope, stanza), these cross-curriculum

words are used across topics in schools but may not be taught explicitly (Beck, McKeown

and Kucan 2002; Justice et al. 2014). Vocabulary interventions should target these cross-

curriculum words, given their potential impact on success within the classroom (Gregor

2009; Justice et al. 2014).

Principles of teaching cross-curriculum vocabulary

Evidence for the effectiveness of vocabulary intervention is well established during the

preschool and primary school years (Best, Dockrell and Braisby 2006; Lubliner and Smetena

2005; Justice et al. 2014; Marulis and Neuman 2010; Steele and Mills 2011) with emerging

evidence for secondary school aged children, particularly using whole-class approaches

(Lesaux et al. 2010; Snow et al. 2009). These studies typically involve children acquiring

relevant information about different aspects of a word (including semantic, phonological,

morphological, grammatical and orthographic) in order to establish clear lexical

representations (Stackhouse and Wells 2001). The rationale for this is that when children do

not develop phonological (information about the sound structure of a word) and/or semantic

knowledge (information about meaning, function and relationships with other words) about

new words, inadequate representations of words are stored, resulting in impoverished

vocabulary or difficulties with accessing and retrieving words in the lexicon quickly and

accurately (McGregor et al., 2002).

Studies have also investigated principles for teaching academic vocabulary words including

cross-curriculum words (see Nagy and Townsend 2012 for a review). Principles of rich

vocabulary instruction (Beck, McKeown and Kucan 2002) are used to support in-depth

knowledge of highly functional words. Principles include providing direct and explicit

4

definitions and attributes of words to be learned; promoting depth of processing,

opportunities for repeated exposure and use of the target word, encouraging learning of words

across contexts, and supporting children to use words in varied sentences (Stahl and

Fairbanks 1986). New word learning must happen in relation to authentic contexts, with

multiple opportunities to explore links with other words (Nagy and Townsend 2012).

Teaching word learning strategies and word consciousness is also an important component of

rich vocabulary interventions (Graves 2006). Learning a new cross-curriculum word is an

incremental process, with new knowledge deepening with multiple exposures and multiple

opportunities to use a word in new contexts (Lesaux et al. 2010).

There is a growing recognition that vocabulary interventions should promote the deep

understanding of a relatively small number of words, their elements and semantically and

morphologically related words in rich contexts (Lesaux et al. 2010: 45; Graves 2006). Depth

of processing moves from: 1) association, where a new word is learned in relation to a

definition or single context, to 2) comprehension in which a child demonstrates

understanding in a sentence or utterance, or where a child puts definitional information to

use, for example by finding an antonym; to 3) generation, in which the child produces a novel

response to a word such as an original sentence, their own definition or applying the word to

a new context (Stahl and Fairbanks 1986).

Interventions for adolescent vocabulary skills in contexts of socioeconomic disadvantage

In areas associated with social disadvantage the prevalence of language difficulties is higher

in children attending pre-school and primary school (Department for Education (DfE) 2012;

Law, McBean and Rush 2011) and secondary school (Spencer, Clegg and Stackhouse 2012)

when compared to non-disadvantaged areas and vocabulary difficulties are a particular

feature of this (Farkas and Beron 2004). In response, emerging evidence shows that older

5

children in contexts of social disadvantage can successfully learn new words through direct

intervention (Joffe 2006; 2011). Snow, Lawrence and White’s (2009) Word Generation

Project in the USA embedded instruction of five words per week across the school

curriculum with 6th – 8th grade students (aged 11-14 years) in a 24 week whole-school

programme. Five schools implemented the programme, with pre- and post-test data available

for 697 students. These data were compared to that from 319 students from three schools that

did not implement the programme. The words targeted were ‘all-purpose academic words’

(Snow et al. 2009, p 326), defined as words that occur in a range of subjects and hence have

maximum functionality across the curriculum. Adolescents in participating schools made

accelerated progress in vocabulary knowledge with higher levels of educational attainment

when compared to those in non-participating schools (Snow et al. 2009).

Similarly, Lesaux et al. (2010) delivered an 18 week vocabulary intervention programme in

middle schools in the USA. Teachers delivered the intervention to 296 children aged 11-

12

years in 13 treatment classrooms, and compared outcomes with 180 children in 8 control

classrooms. Only 24% of participants spoke only English at home. The intervention targeted

75 cross-curriculum words in whole-class intervention sessions which focused on building

depth of vocabulary knowledge via multiple meanings and morphological analysis. The study

found significant gains on a researcher-designed measure of comprehension of targeted

words and a morphological decomposition task for the intervention group but not the control

group. There were no changes to standardised measures of reading vocabulary

comprehension.

With both of these intervention studies, teachers delivered the content of the intervention in

the classroom. This has a number of advantages. As all adolescents within the class are

targeted, selection criteria and scheduling intervention sessions are not an issue. Furthermore,

the intervention embeds vocabulary instruction within the whole school curriculum, allowing

6

for repeated and consistent exposure to the target words. However, some schools may be

unable or unwilling to implement whole-school vocabulary programmes, particularly in low

socioeconomic contexts where there is increased risk of low quality schooling (Lupton 2005).

Evaluating cross-curriculum vocabulary interventions

Despite an emphasis on rich vocabulary instruction and supporting deep knowledge of taught

words, many intervention studies use outcome measures which access a relatively surface

level of word processing. For example, changes to knowledge of targeted words are

frequently assessed using multiple choice tasks, by asking participants to link targeted words

to definitions (Snow et al. 2009) or synonyms (Lesaux et al. 2010). Such tasks are suited to

being administered to large numbers of participants in short periods of time but they are

limited in that performance is likely to be mediated by literacy skills and changes to depth of

word knowledge cannot be measured over time. In contrast, Townsend and Collins (2009)

used a bespoke outcome measure in their vocabulary intervention study with 37 children who

were English language learners. Participants were asked if they had seen or heard the word

before, and then asked if they thought they knew what the word meant and to provide a

definition and an example of the word used in a sentence. This type of self-evaluation of

word knowledge has been put forward as a means of examining the incremental nature of

building word knowledge (Nagy and Scott 2000; McKeown and Beck 2004). Many

vocabulary intervention studies use bespoke assessments featuring targeted words as outcome

measures rather than standardised vocabulary assessments. This is because published

vocabulary assessments measure knowledge of general words and so are unlikely to change

following intervention focused on specific targeted words. Such assessments are also unable

to show changes to depth of knowledge of words over time. In addition, standardised

vocabulary assessment is most open to item bias on testing due to vocabulary reflecting

7

individual experiences, the language of the home and familiarity with school curricula

(Stockman 2000; Townsend and Collins 2009).

Research Aims

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention programme designed to

increase adolescents’ depth of knowledge of cross-curriculum words. It addressed the

following research question: Is an intervention programme effective in increasing

adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum words within the context of high risk of

educational underachievement and social disadvantage?

METHOD

Design

This study was a single-blind cross-over trial with random allocation to groups and blind

assessment to group status. The study was carried out during one school year at a mainstream

secondary school. In collaboration with the school, it was agreed that small-group

intervention led by the research team (rather than teaching staff) was best suited for

developing the intervention programme and for the priorities of the school at the time. This

was due to a perceived lack of staff time, resulting from necessary responses to the recent

Ofsted report (see below).

The study used a delayed intervention design, comprising an intervention group (Spring

Group) and a waiting control group who went on to receive intervention (Summer Group). A

repeated baseline of word knowledge was taken pre-intervention for both the Spring and

Summer Groups. This allowed examination of the stability of knowledge of targeted and

matched non-taught words over time, without intervention. A post-intervention assessment

was carried out for both groups, and a delayed follow-up assessment of word knowledge was

8

also carried out approximately three months later for the Spring Group. Thus, there were

four assessment time points across the study (see Table 1), with all participants being

assessed pre-intervention, immediately before intervention, and immediately after

intervention. The Spring Group was also assessed approximately three months after

intervention ended to examine maintenance of progress.

Insert Table 1 around here.

Participants

Participants attended one mainstream secondary school in an urban area of social

disadvantage. The school’s catchment area was ranked in the bottom 5% of England’s wards

in terms of socioeconomic status, using the Indices of Deprivation (McLennan et al. 2011).

These indices rank England’s 32,482 super-ordinate areas in terms of seven domains

(income, employment, health and disability, education training and skills, barriers to housing

and services, crime, and environment). In 2013, 46% of students in this participating school

achieved five or more A* to C grades including English and mathematics in their General

Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exams upon leaving secondary school. Many

options after compulsory schooling have entry requirements including obtaining five or more

GCSE grades at A*-C level including mathematics and English. This is an important

benchmark for school evaluation data as schools with fewer than 40% of pupils achieving at

this level are considered to be underperforming and in need of improvement. The school was

judged as performing inadequately by the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s

Services and Skills (Ofsted) and was in the ‘special measures’ category during the project,

meaning it was undergoing an intensive programme of school improvement.

Participant criteria were agreed in collaboration with staff at the school, as follows:

9

 In school years 8 or 9 (aged between 12 and 14 years).

 In low ability classes when curriculum subjects were ability-streamed.

 Not making expected progress in these low ability classes as determined by teacher

informal assessment and judgement.

 No statements of special educational needs, indicating no identified significant

learning needs.

 English is a first language or were bilingual but had attended all schooling in an

English speaking context.

 Not receiving existing interventions or other support within the school.

 Not currently on the caseload of speech and language therapy services.

Parental and pupil consent was obtained for 44 participants. The Spring Group initially

comprised 21 participants and the Summer Group 23 participants (this difference in number

was due to timetabling differences across Year 8 and Year 9 participants). Nine participants

left the study following the first assessment: three participants left the school, four

participants were unable to take part because of timetabling clashes, and two were school

non-attenders. This left 19 participants in the Spring Group, and 16 in the Summer Group. No

participants chose to withdraw from the study partway through the intervention.

Demographic information for all participants is summarised in Table 2, along with the mean

number of intervention sessions attended.

Insert Table 2 around here.

Independent t-tests showed that the Spring and Summer groups did not differ significantly on

age (t(42)=-1.398, p=.169) or the number of intervention sessions attended (t(33) = 2.023,

p=.051). Table 2 also shows how many participants in each group had disruptive behaviour,

as measured by the number of participants who needed referral to the school’s behaviour

10

support team during at least one of the sessions (9 in the Spring Group and 4 in the Summer

Group).

Participants completed an initial assessment session to profile their overall language skills

(see Appendix 1). In addition, the research team had access to the results of the nationally

used educational assessment Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT) which participants completed on

entry into secondary school at 11 years of age. The CAT is used as a baseline from which to

predict pupil performance in national examinations and to inform target setting. The verbal

subtest (CATV) includes tests of receptive vocabulary, sentence completion, verbal

classification, and verbal analogies which are presented in a written form. The quantitative

subtest (CATQ) assesses reasoning ability with numbers, and the nonverbal subtest

(CATNV) assesses the ability to think and reason with non-verbal material such as shapes

and designs. Standardized scores are calculated with a mean of 100 and SD of 15. Table 3

shows that participants scored significantly below the normative mean on all language and

CAT subtests. Spring and Summer intervention groups were matched on all measures of

language; independent t-tests showed that the Spring Group and the Summer Group did not

differ significantly on any of the assessment information.

Insert Table 3 around here.

Materials and measures

Cross-curriculum vocabulary selected for intervention

The intervention sessions targeted knowledge of 10 cross-curriculum words. These are

abstract words that occur in multiple contexts, referred to as Tier 2 words according to the

11

tiered system of Beck, McKeown and Kucan (2002). The Academic Word List (Gardner and

Davies 2014) was used to select words for inclusion in the study, in collaboration with

teaching staff. The resulting list consisted of 10 highly functional, cross-curriculum words

(all verbs) in use across the academic subjects taught in schools.

These 10 taught words were matched with 10 non-taught words, which were not taught

during the intervention programme (See Appendix 2). Matching was based on:

• Number of syllables, stress pattern, and number of phonemes, using the Medical Research

Council (MRC) Psycholinguistic Database (Wilson 1998). This database generates lists of

words according to criteria input by the user.

• Measures of frequency from The British National Corpus (BNC) (2007). The BNC is a

100 million-word collection of samples of written and spoken language from a wide range

of sources, designed to represent a wide cross-section of current British English.

Word Knowledge Profile

The bespoke outcome measure, the Word Knowledge Profile, examined depth of word

knowledge of the ten taught words and the ten non-taught words. This was developed to

capture change to depth of word knowledge over time, measuring participants’ phonological

and semantic knowledge about the target and control words. For each of the 20 words,

participants were asked to: repeat the word, generate a rhyming word or non-word, rate their

own knowledge of the word, provide a verbal definition of the word (resulting in the Word

Meaning Score, divided into taught words and non-taught words), to use the word in a

sentence, and relate the word to their own experiences by first saying where or when they

might hear the word, and then being asked when they would perform the word, for example

‘when might you consult something?’. Participants were also asked to spell six of the words:

12

interpret, convince, consult, generate, summarise and establish (due to time constraints it was

not possible to ask participants to spell all of the words). Thus eight components were

assessed for each word, in the order outlined above (see Appendix 4). For each word, each of

the eight components were scored correct/incorrect. A copy of the Word Knowledge

Profile

sheet and examples of correct and incorrect responses are provided on the project website

(Spencer 2016): https://adolescentvocabulary.wordpress.com/resources/how-to-evaluate-new-

word-learning/.

Correlations between the standardised language assessments and the Word Knowledge

Profile suggested that the measure had validity as a measure of vocabulary ability. For

example, Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient showed significant correlations

between the baseline Total Word Meaning Score on the Word Knowledge Profile the BPVS,

(r = 0.571, p= <0.001), CELF4UK Formulated Sentences (r = 0.493, p= 0.001) and CATV (r

= 0.511, p= <0.001) but not with the spoonerisms task from the PhAB (r = 0.209, p= 0.173),

the CATNV or CATQ (r = 0.241, p= 0.128; r = 0.239, p= 0.119) nor the CELF4UK

Recalling Sentences (r = 0.263, p= 0.084).

Intervention programme

A ten-week programme was designed, consisting of once weekly one hour-long word

learning intervention session carried out in small groups of 3-5 participants within the school

setting. Each session targeted the knowledge and use of one word. The intervention

programme incorporated principles of word-learning that have been successfully applied in

other studies, as outlined in Appendix 3 (Beck, McKeown and Kucan 2002; Graves 2006;

Justice et al. 2014; Lesaux et al. 2010; Marulis and Neuman 2010; Nagy and Scott 2000;

Snow, Lawrence and White 2009; Stahl and Fairbanks 1986). The intervention was guided by

principles of rich instruction to increase depth of knowledge of the targeted words, with an

emphasis of providing multiple opportunities to use the words in multiple contexts, engaging

13

the participants in personalising word meaning and in applying strategies for learning new

words, including morphological analysis. All session plans are freely available on a project

website (Spencer 2016): https://adolescentvocabulary.wordpress.com/example-word-

learning-session-plans/.

Each session followed a broadly similar structure, providing multiple opportunities to activate

components of the speech processing system (Stackhouse and Wells 2001). In every session

each participant was supported to think about what the target word means, what it sounds

like, to say the word aloud, to use it in a sentence and to write it down during a concept

mapping activity. Participants were supported to use suffixes and prefixes to build derivatives

of the word. Each session included an experiential activity (e.g. where they evaluated,

summarised, interpreted etc) and a main topic activity which gave them lots of opportunities

to use the word in multiple contexts. Each week, participants were given a challenge card

which reminded them to look out for the target word across the week and to use it if possible.

The next session began with participants reporting back on this challenge.

Procedure

The study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee, Human

Communication Sciences, at the University of Sheffield.

1. Assessment Procedure

Each participant was seen individually for assessment in a quiet room within the school.

Assessments were digitally recorded for later analysis and transcription. Two researchers

(both qualified speech and language therapists) administered assessments at the first

assessment point. The first assessment session lasted one hour and included the battery of

language assessments outlined in Appendix 1 as well as the Word Knowledge profile.

14

Participants could request breaks at any time during the assessment session. The Word

Knowledge Profile took between 10 and 20 minutes to complete for each participant. Post-

intervention Word Knowledge Profiles were carried out by qualified speech and language

therapists (not the researchers) and trained speech and language therapy students who were

blind to both the group status of the participants (i.e. those who had received intervention

versus the waiting control) and to the treatment status of the words (taught words versus non-

taught words). At each assessment point, two members of the research team marked 25% of

the Word Knowledge Profiles using written transcripts resulting in a 92-96% rate of

agreement overall. Any disagreements were discussed and a decision was made on the correct

response.

2. Intervention Procedure

Intervention sessions were delivered to small groups of 3-5 participants within the school

setting. Due to timetabling, participants received intervention with peers from the same

school year group. Random allocation was achieved by dividing participants into school year

groups, each participant was assigned a random number and then the anonymised numbers

were divided into two groups using Windows Excel. Within intervention groups, participants

were assigned to a small peer group for intervention sessions according to their school

weekly timetable, so that core subjects were not missed.

The first session took the form of a group discussion in order to engage all participants in the

learning process by exploring the concept of word-learning and its importance. Following the

first discussion session, the Spring Group received nine weekly one-hour intervention

sessions. Due to timetabling constraints, the Summer Group received eight intervention

sessions, thus receiving intervention for eight words. The mean number of sessions which

participants actually attended was 7.06 (SD 1.2, range 4-9); Spring Group attended a mean of

15

7.42 sessions (SD 1.1, range 5-9) while the Summer Group attended a mean of 6.63 sessions

(SD 1.2, range 4-8).

Intervention was delivered by two of the research team (SS and HL), both qualified and

experienced speech and language therapists. Treatment fidelity was ensured by designing a

lesson plan for each of the ten sessions. The researchers developed the intervention

programme together and met weekly to discuss implementation and ensure consistency

across groups.

Analysis

All quantitative data was inputted into SPSS 19 (IBM 2010) for analysis. A series of paired-

sample t-tests were conducted to evaluate the impact of intervention on different items of the

Word Knowledge Profile, as has been done in previous language intervention studies with

adolescents (e.g. Ebbels et al. 2014). Bonferroni corrections were used to avoid type I error.

Repeated measures ANOVA was not suitable because the intervention was delivered in small

groups and therefore participants’ progress may have been affected by peers’ progress.

RESULTS

Knowledge of cross-curriculum words at baseline

For the whole cohort, at baseline 1) repetition of words was a relative strength, with a mean

of 19/20 (95%) correct (range 14-20); 2) participants were able to describe the meaning of a

mean of 5.2/20 (26%) words (range 0-12), as indicated by the Total Word Meaning Score:

(combining both taught and un-taught words), as well as by participants’ own evaluation of

their word knowledge as ‘green’ (4.3/20); 3) participants were able to provide a rhyme for a

16

mean of 9.64/20 words (48%, range 0-20), with explicit instruction and the acceptance of

non-words.

At baseline, the greatest number of participants correctly reported some meaning for the word

‘exclude’ (81.8%) followed by ‘convince’ (79.5%). No participants gave a correctly scored

response to the words ‘infer’, ‘conglomerate’, ‘incur’, ‘distinguish’ nor ‘liberate’. No answers

included multiple contexts in the definitions. Furthermore, often one context was provided

across the cohorts’ responses. For example, ‘exclude’ was defined only in relation to school

exclusions for behavioural incidents and submit was defined in relation to computer tasks.

Tables 4 and 5 show the mean scores on each component of the Word Knowledge Profile,

across four assessment times for the Spring and Summer groups.

Insert Tables 4 and 5 around here.

Evaluation of the intervention

Repeated Baseline Phase – stability of outcome measure

The results of the Word Knowledge Profile for both taught and non-taught words across the

four time-points in the study are outlined in Table 4 (Spring Group) and Table 5 (Summer

Group).

The results across the repeated baseline in the study showed that there were no significant

differences at Time 1 or Time 2 baseline measures for either intervention groups on any item

on the Word Knowledge Profile. For example, t-tests on the Word Meaning component for

taught words show both the Spring Group (t (18) = -1.61, p = .13) and Summer Group (t (12)

= .49, p = .64) made no progress during the autumn term over the repeated baseline.

Spring group

17

A series of paired samples t-test compared results on the Word Knowledge Profile at

Time 2

and Time 3. This showed that the Spring Group made progress on the Word Meaning score

for taught words over the intervention phase (t (18) = -2.28, p = .035). Although this was

approaching significance, it was not significant when Bonferroni corrections were applied.

The Summer group, the waiting control group who did not receive intervention, made no

progress on the Word Meaning score for taught words (t (15) = .25, p = .81). Figure 1

compares the progress made on the Word Meaning score for taught words over the spring

term for the Spring and Summer groups.

Insert Figure 1 about here

However, the Spring Group made progress on the two other items of the Word Knowledge

Profile over the intervention phase:

1) Their ability to give a context when they might use the word increased from a mean of

4.95/20 to 10.74/20 (t (18) = -5.48, p = <.001). The eta squared statistic (2.50) indicated a

large effect size. The score for taught words increased from 2.53 (SD 1.74) at the start of the

intervention phase to 6.37 (SD 3.37) post-intervention (t (18) = -5.83, p = <.001). The score

for non-taught words did not

significantly increase over the same period.

The Summer group also made progress on their ability to give a context when they might use

the word (t (15) = -4.36, p = .002), though this did not reach significance when Bonferroni

corrections were applied. However, the Spring Group did not make more progress on this

item than the Summer Group (t (30) = -1.74, p = .092), suggesting that progress may not have

resulted from attending the

intervention.

2) Their ability to give an example of when they enacted the word (e.g. tell me about a time

when you evaluated something) increased from a mean of 4.47/20 to 7.32/20 (t (18) = -4.53,

18

p = <.001). The eta squared statistic (0.53) indicated a large effect size. The score for taught

words increased from 2.11 (SD 1.94) at the start of the intervention phase to 4.21 (SD 3.05)

post-intervention (t (18) = -4.41, p = <.001). The score for non-taught words did not

significantly increase over the same period.

The Summer group also made progress on their ability to an example of when they enacted

the word (e.g. tell me about a time when you evaluated something) but these did not reach

significance once Bonferroni corrections were applied (t (15) = -3.30, p = .008). However,

the Spring Group did not make more progress on this item than the Summer Group (t (30) =

1.90, p = <.001), suggesting that progress may not have resulted from attending the

intervention.

Summer Group

A series of paired samples t-test compared results on the Word Knowledge Profile at Time 3

and Time 4. A paired samples t-test showed that the Summer Group made significant

progress on the Words Meaning score for taught words over their intervention phase with the

Words Meaning score for taught words increasing from 2.69 (SD 1.96) at the start of the

intervention phase to 4.38 (SD 2.13) post-intervention (t (15) = -5.40, p = <.001). The eta

squared statistic (0.66) indicated a large effect size. The Spring Group, who did not receive

intervention in this period, maintained progress following their spring intervention but did not

make any further progress (t (15) = .37, p = .72). The Summer group also made more

significant progress than the Spring group during this intervention period (t (30) = -4.92, p =

<.001), and suggesting that progress on this item resulted from attending the intervention

programme. Figure 2 compares the progress made on the Word Meaning score for taught

words over the summer intervention period for the Spring and Summer

intervention groups.

Insert Figure 2 about here

19

The significance of progress on the Word Meaning item when both intervention groups are

combined

To analyse the overall effectiveness of the intervention programme, one-sample t-tests were

conducted to see if progress was significantly higher than 0 across the intervention period.

This proved to be the case for the Word Meanings for taught words following intervention

(Mean 1.17; SD 1.40; t (34) = 4.94, p = <.001), with an eta squared effect size of 0.42, but

not for the Word Meaning score for non-taught words (Mean 0.03; SD 1.04; t (34) = .16, p

=.87). Figure 3 compares the progress made on taught versus non-taught words for both

intervention groups.

Insert Figure 3 about here

Figure 4 shows the distribution of gains made in participants’ knowledge of taught words

following intervention. This chart presents the increase to the Word Meaning score for taught

words, comparing pre- and post-intervention results. It shows that five participants were able

to describe the meaning of fewer words following intervention (of note, all five participants

needed referral to the school’s behaviour support team during the intervention sessions).

Most participants were able to describe the meaning of two extra words following

intervention (n=12).

Insert Figure 4 about here

DISCUSSION

This study designed, delivered and evaluated a ten week intervention programme to increase

adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum words, delivered in small groups. Results were

promising and showed that participants significantly improved their knowledge of target

20

words, as indicated by their increased ability to describe the targeted words’ meaning during

the Summer intervention period.

Adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum words

Adolescents in this area of social disadvantage had limited knowledge of commonly used

cross-curriculum words – scoring correctly on only 25% of these words pre-intervention.

Where participants did have some knowledge of words, answers were related to one

functional context (e.g. ‘exclude’ was related to school exclusion and ‘submit’ to online

games), rather than demonstrating rich word knowledge across contexts. This is important

given the association between poor vocabulary knowledge and academic outcomes

(Townsend et al. 2012). A key priority for teaching and educational policy is therefore to

raise awareness of the need to explicitly teach cross-curriculum words, particularly with

students at risk of low educational attainment in contexts of social disadvantage.

Knowledge of cross-curriculum words was measured using the Word Knowledge Profile,

which may be useful in other educational and clinical contexts when profiling adolescent

language skills as part of a wider battery of measures. The Word Knowledge Profile’s Word

Meaning score (based on participants being asked to describe the meaning of the target word)

was positively correlated with the BPVS, the Formulated Sentences subtest of the CELF-4

and the CATV, suggesting a shared underlying construct with standardised measures of

language ability (it was not correlated with the nonverbal measure – CATNV). Further study

is needed to examine the reliability and validity of the Word Knowledge Profile in order to

establish its utility as a clinical tool.

Evaluating the intervention programme on knowledge of functional cross-curriculum words

21

An intervention programme was designed to build on evidenced principles of effective

vocabulary instruction. Cross-curriculum words were chosen due to their potential to impact

on learning across the secondary school curriculum. Participants were given many

opportunities to practice and personalise word meanings (Townsend and Collins 2009) and

were provided with explicit instruction in how to use the words in authentic speaking and

writing contexts (Nagy and Townsend 2012). The ten-week programme targeted one main

word per week, although each lesson included morphological analysis and adding suffixes or

prefixes to build related words.

The results evaluating the impact of the ten-week intervention programme on adolescents’

knowledge of cross-curriculum words were promising. Both intervention groups increased

their knowledge of the taught words but showed no progress in their knowledge of matched

non-taught words. The Spring group made progress during the spring term on two items of

the Word Knowledge Profile (when asked to describe when they would use the targeted word

and when asked when they would ‘perform’ the word, e.g. ‘when would you summarise

something?’). However, the Summer group (waiting control) also made some progress on

these two items, so the progress may not be attributable to the intervention progress.

During the summer term, the Summer group made significant progress on the Word Meaning

item, indicating that they were more able to describe and give definitions of the targeted

word. Furthermore, the Summer group made significantly more progress than the Spring

group during this intervention period. This, plus the lack of progress during the repeated

baseline period, strengthens the assertion that change in word knowledge was a result of the

intervention.

It is interesting to note that the Summer group made more progress than the Spring group on

this Word Meaning score. It is unclear why this was the case and a number of factors could

22

be relevant. Although based on established research into new word learning, this translational

project involved delivering a new programme of intervention in a real-world context for the

first time. It could be that the speech and language therapists delivering the programmes were

in some way more effective during the second implementation of the programme in the

summer term. The Spring group had more participants who required referral to the school’s

behavioural management system during the sessions (9 participants in the Spring group and 4

in the Summer group). This may have impacted on these participants’ own learning and that

of their peers during the sessions. Results may also be due to the relatively small cohort sizes

as the Spring group did make progress which was significant (p = .035) before Bonferroni

corrections were applied.

While there is an established evidence base for supporting vocabulary intervention with

young children (Lubliner and Smetena 2005; Best, Dockrell and Braisby 2006) and those

with diagnosed language impairment (Steele and Mills 2011), there is currently very little

evidence for the effectiveness of small-group vocabulary interventions aimed at adolescents,

particularly within contexts of social disadvantage. Notable exceptions include a small-group

intervention for younger adolescents targeting vocabulary and narrative skills (Joffe 2006).

Whole-class vocabulary interventions have also been evaluated: Word Generation in the

USA that demonstrated the impact of whole-school vocabulary programmes with older

children (Snow et al. 2009). This study therefore contributes to the existing small evidence-

base in this area, which is important given that developing and implementing evidence-based

practice is of increasing importance in the changing landscape of service commissioning

arrangements (DoH 2010) and an increasing need for joint working across the health and

education sectors (DfE 2012).

Although participants made a significant improvement on the Word Knowledge Profile

outcome measure, the mean number of words learnt was 1.17 during an average of 6 sessions

23

attended by participants. Progress also did not generalise to untaught matched words. Such a

small and specific change is not unusual, for example in the Word Generation, project

participants improved by an average of four out of the 40 targeted words on a multiple choice

comprehension test over a yearlong programme (Snow et al. 2009). As highlighted by Nagy

and Townsend (2012: 101), rich instruction resulting in ownership of new words is time

intensive and intervention studies therefore typically target small numbers of words. Non-

intensive instruction does not reliably increase comprehension of new words (Stahl and

Fairbanks 1986). Further research is required to investigate why this may be, for example it

could be due to the complex and abstract nature of taught words, or that verbs are more

difficult to acquire than nouns (Nash and Snowling 2006).

This study also used an outcome measure that required an advanced depth of processing of

the targeted words. Participants were asked to generate a novel response to a word,

explaining the meaning in their own words and relating the word to personal contexts (Stahl

and Fairbanks 1986). It may be that an outcome measure that was able to measure increases

in associative knowledge of the word (where the targeted words are matched with a specific

definition or context) or increased comprehension of the word (for example, by asking

participants to use definitional information to find an antonym) would be more sensitive to

progress following intervention. The intervention sessions also included significant work on

morphological analysis and participants needed support to use suffixes and prefixes to build

derivatives of the word. While the sessions targeted one word (e.g. evaluate), the session

included information on related words (e.g. positive and negative) as well as derivatives (e.g.

evaluation, evaluated) and gains in such related words were not captured by the outcome

measure.

The current study is important as it shows the investment required to remedy adolescents’

poor knowledge of academic vocabulary. This may have implications for schools and speech

24

and language therapists planning related policies and interventions. Future research is needed

to investigate the clinical significance of the findings and whether the programme is a viable,

cost effective option for schools.

Evaluation of the study and future directions

The study had a robust evaluation design and was implemented across one school year to

enable: a) multiple baseline measures to be taken, b) delayed intervention allowing

comparison of intervention group with a control group, c) the use of taught and matched non-

taught words, d) the development of a non-standardised Word Knowledge Profile to assess

the specific impact of the intervention, and e) blind assessment. However, the study design

had important limitations. The evaluation conducted was small in scale and based in one

school which means that further research is needed to investigate generalisation to other

groups of adolescents at risk of educational underachievement. Future work could investigate

whether similar or more positive results are found with other age groups, or when the

programme is delivered by other professionals within the school. A larger cohort would also

enable a more thorough examination of potential influencing factors on the outcomes of the

intervention, such as disruptive behaviour, group effects, or initial knowledge of words.

Further research could also follow-up adolescents in the classroom to see if they use their

new vocabulary knowledge outside of the intervention sessions. Indeed, an important

potential confound in the study could be that they were exposed to the target words in their

subject lessons. The situation in the participating school at the time of the study did not allow

for investigation of exposure to target words or generalisation of word knowledge in relation

to the curriculum. However, the lack of progress during the repeated baseline period does

suggest that the targeted words were not being learned in the classroom.

25

The intense nature of this intervention programme is challenging. While no participants chose

to withdraw from the programme, challenges such as timetabling sessions to minimise the

impact on participants’ core curriculum classes was difficult and school absenteeism was also

a challenge with participants missing an average of 3/9 of sessions (33%). Such challenges

meant that group sizes varied between 3 and 5, which may have impacted on equal

opportunities to engage with the programme across groups. Alternative service delivery

models are needed, and whole-school interventions or supporting school staff to deliver

intervention sessions may be more appropriate (Joffe 2006) and multidisciplinary

collaboration may increase the impact of intervention (Steele and Mills 2011). However, the

current study was based in a very challenging secondary school, which was implementing a

rigorous scheme of school improvement measures as stipulated by school regulators. When

designing the project in collaboration with this school, teachers strongly favoured a small-

group intervention for these particular adolescents over a whole-school or school-led

intervention programme. This was due to both the schools’ limited staff time and resources

and the nature of the adolescents’ difficulties requiring more targeted and specialist support

than could be given in a whole-school approach. This study therefore raises questions about

the best way to support language skills in such challenging contexts, particularly where the

resources of both secondary schools and speech and language therapy services are limited.

Notwithstanding these concerns, this study has provided evidence that a busy secondary

school was able to host and support the intervention programme, resulting in the participants

making progress.

Conclusion

Adolescents at risk of low educational attainment in a context of social disadvantage had

limited knowledge of cross-curriculum words which are commonly used in the classroom

(e.g. ‘summarise’). Adolescents were not making progress in relation to their knowledge of

26

these words without specific intervention. This is important, given the potential consequences

of poor vocabulary skills for literacy skills and educational attainment. Therefore explicit

teaching of such vocabulary is needed, particularly in secondary schools in areas associated

with social disadvantage. Delivering a small-group vocabulary intervention programme in a

busy secondary school was challenging. Despite this, the study provides evidence that the

programme was effective in increasing adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum words,

adding to the evidence base for successful language intervention for adolescents in

mainstream secondary schools.

Acknowledgements:

The study was funded by a seed funding scheme provided by the Faculty of Medicine,

Dentistry and Health at the University of Sheffield. Thank you to Carla Rohde who assisted

with some data input and assessments. Thank you to the trainee speech and language

therapists who assisted with data collection, including: Helen Cooper, Emma Tomlinson,

Frieya Capes, Emma Adams, Bianca Hopkinson, Chris Davies, Philip Gailey, and Chloe

Beech. Many thanks to the participating school and of course we are very grateful to the

participating pupils.

What this paper adds

27

What is already known on this subject

Knowledge of cross-curriculum vocabulary is important for literacy skills and for learning

in the classroom. Interventions can be effective in increasing vocabulary knowledge for

younger children and for children with diagnosed language difficulties. Research has

identified strategies and principles for intervention to increase depth of word knowledge.

Much less is known about interventions to facilitate depth of knowledge of cross-

curriculum words during adolescence.

What this study adds

A ten week intervention programme was delivered by a speech and language therapist to

small groups of adolescents in a mainstream secondary school. At the start of the

intervention, participants lacked knowledge of academic, cross-curriculum vocabulary,

potentially critical to educational success. The intervention was evaluated using a robust

study design (an AABA design, with a repeated baseline, delayed intervention cohort and

blind assessment). The intervention resulted in positive changes to participants’ depth of

knowledge of ten cross-curriculum words, indicated by increased scores on a bespoke

outcome measure.

Clinical implications

This study shows that adolescents identified by teachers as being at risk of educational

under-achievement lacked knowledge of cross-curriculum words such as evaluate,

summarise and discriminate. It provides evidence that intervention was effective in

supporting these adolescents to increase the depth of their understanding of cross-

curriculum vocabulary. Clinicians and educators may use this study: a) to justify support

for adolescents’ word learning; b) for information about interventions to increase

28

adolescents’ knowledge of cross-curriculum vocabulary; and c) to design robust

evaluations of intervention. The study’s session plans and outcome measures are also

freely available on a project website for use by practitioners.

29

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34

APPENDIX 1.Languaeg assessments administered

The following battery of assessments was administered: British Picture Vocabulary Scale 3rd

Ed (BPVS) (Dunn, Dunn, Sewell and Styles 2009) assessed receptive vocabulary; Recalling

Sentences subtest of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, fourth edition UK

(CELF4 UK) (Semel, Wiig and Secord 2006) assessed expressive language ability;

Formulating Sentences subtest of the CELF4 UK (Semel et al. 2006) assessed participants’

expressive language ability including their ability to formulate sentences of increasing length

and complexity including simple, compound, and complex sentences; Spoonerisms subtest of

the Phonological Awareness Battery (PhAB) (Frederickson, Frith and Reason 1997) assessed

phonological awareness.

35

APPENDIX 2. Information about words targeted during intervention and matched non-taught

words

Taught
words

Frequency
according
to BNC

Control
words

Frequency
according
to BNC

Number
of
Syllables

Phoneme
structure

interpret 1313 establish 5213 3 VCCVCCVC

evaluate 1087 eliminate 1100 4 VCVCVCVC

exclude 1319 exploit 1176 2 VCCCCVC

sustain 1228 submit 1224 2 CVCCVC

discriminate 446 conglomerate 331 (as a
noun)

4 CVCCCVCVCVC

infer 319 incur 324 2 VCCV

contribute 2643 distinguish 1967 3 CVCCCVCCVC

generate 1967 dominate 992 3 CVCVCVC

summarise 199 liberate 164 3 CVCVCVC

consult 5350 convince 1200 2 CVCCVCC

36

APPENDIX 3. Principles of word learning applied during intervention

 Supporting deep understanding of a relatively small number of words.

 Multiple repetitions or exposures to new words in a variety of contexts.

 Both explicit discussions of word meaning and opportunities for participants to derive

meaning from implicit information.

 Collaborative learning, working with participants to actively construct a meaning based on

their experiences.

 Multiple opportunities to use the word in different contexts.

 Focus on different aspects of a word (including semantic, phonological, morphological,

grammatical and orthographic) in order to establish clear lexical representations

(Stackhouse and Wells 2001).

 Strategies and activities to increase motivation and engagement.

 Activities in which the participants experienced carrying out the action of the verb in order

to enable mapping the word onto the action, based on previous research into verb-learning

with younger children which involve miming an action while modelling the word (Riches,

Tomasello, and Conti-Ramsden 2005).

 Development of transferable word-learning strategies, for example dictionary skills,

inferring word-meaning from context, and encouraging participants to ask when unsure of

a word.

 Facilitation of generalisation to the class or home situation, through the use of personal

challenges at the end of each session.

37

Appendix 4. Further information about items on the Word Knowledge Profile

Item Description
Word repetition Participants were asked to repeat each word after one adult model.
Rhyme
production

Participants were asked to generate a rhyming word for each word. If they were
unable to think of a real word, they were encouraged to think of a non-word. Both
real word and non-word rhymes were accepted as correct.

Spelling Participants were asked to spell six of the 20 words. Phonetically plausible attempts
were accepted as correct.

Knowledge
rating

Participants were asked to rate their own knowledge of the word according to a red-
amber-green system. They were given the following instructions (adapted from Beck,
McKeown and Kucan 2002):
Red: I do not know this word. I have not heard it before and cannot use it.
Amber: I know something about this word. I have heard it before but am not sure
how to use it.
Green: I know this word. I know what it means and can use the word.
If the participant rated the word as ‘red’, the participant was usually unable to
complete the rest of the Profile for this word.

Ability to use
the word in a
sentence

Participants were asked to use the word in a spoken sentence. This was scored as
correct if the participants produced the word as a verb in a sentence which was
syntactically and semantically correct. Sentences without an appropriate semantic
component such as I exploited something were not scored as correct.

Word meaning
task

Participants were asked to describe the meaning of each word. This was scored
correctly if the student indicated that they knew something about the meaning of the
word. Detailed definitions or multiple contexts were not required for a mark but
were noted on the Profiling sheet. Very few responses included a detailed definition;
therefore this liberal scoring procedure was adopted.

When or where
would you use
this word?

Participants were asked to think of an example of when or where they might use the
word. This was used as an indication of the participants’ engagement with the word
and the likelihood of the word being used. If the participant was able to give an
example of when they would use the word, their response was scored correctly (e.g. ‘I
would use eliminate during a computer game’).

Personal context Participants were asked to give an example of a personal context in which they had
executed the action of the word for example for evaluate ‘Can you give me an
example of when you have evaluated something?’. If the participant was able to give
an example of when they had completed the action, their response was scored
correctly (e.g. ‘I evaluated the word learning lessons in the interview’)

38

Tables and Figures

Table 1. Study design including delayed intervention and waiting control

Autumn
Term

Spring Term Summer Term

Time 1

Time 2

Time 3

Time 4

Baseline

Repeated
Baseline

– 6 weeks after
Time 1

Spring
Intervention
(10 weeks)

Assessment –
10 weeks after

Time 2

Summer
Intervention
(10 weeks)

– 10 weeks

after
Time 3

S
p
ri

n
g

G
ro

u

p
:

In
te

rv
e

n
tio

n

Standardised

assessment
and Word

Knowledge
Profile

Word
Knowledge

Profile

Yes Word
Knowledge

Profile, post-
intervention

No Word
Knowledge

Profile,
follow up

S
u
m

m
e

r
G

ro
u

p
:

D
e

la
ye

d

in
te

rv
e
n
tio

n
g

ro
u

p
Standardised

assessment
and Word
Knowledge
Profile

Word
Knowledge
Profile

No

Word
Knowledge
Profile, pre-
intervention

Yes Word
Knowledge
Profile, post
intervention

39

Table 2. Summary of participant characteristics

Spring
group N=19

Summer
group N=16

Age in years and months at start of study 12:8 (range
12:0 – 13:11)

12:11 (range
12:1 – 13:11)

Year group Year 8 15 9
Year 9 4 7

In receipt of free school meals 11 4
Gender male 11 11

female 8 5
Language Status: Pupils speaking English as an
additional language

3 0

SEN status* No SEN 14 8
SA 1 1
SA+ 4 7

Mean number of intervention sessions attended 7.42 (1.12) 6.63 (1.20)
Number of participants with disruptive behaviour 9 4

* SA = School Action level of support (additional need identified and supported by school),
SA+ = School Action Plus level of support (additional support provided by outside agency
such as a mental health team or educational psychology).

40

Table 3. Participants’ scores on the language profiling assessments and the Cognitive

Abilities Test and comparison of intervention groups

Whole cohort (n=35) Intervention
group means

Comparison of
intervention

groups
Standard

Score
Mean
(SD)

Standard
Score
Range

Comparison with the
normative mean

Spring
(N=19)

Summer
(N=16)

t-test for
equality of

means
One

sample t-
test

Cohen’s
d

t df Sig.

CAT verbal 84.20
(7.23)

66 – 96 t= -12.92
P=<0.001**

-1.05 83.79 84.69 -.36 33 .72

CAT
nonverbal

83.00
(7.16)

70 – 104 t= -13.63
P=<0.001**

-1.13 82.72 83.33 -.24 31 .81

CAT
quantitative

81.69
(8.23)

68 – 112 t= -13.16
P=<0.001**

-1.22 80.58 83.00 -.86 33 .39

BPVS 81.69
(9.51)

69 – 109 t= -11.39
P=<0.001**

-1.22 81.42 82.00 -.18 33 .86

CELF4UK
Recalling
Sentences
subtest

6.23
(2.64)

1 – 11 t= -8.

43

P=<0.001**

-1.26 6.32 6.13 .21 33 .84

CELF4UK
Formulated
Sentences
subtest

8.26
(3.71)

1 – 13 t= -2.78
P=0.009

-0.58 7.89 8.69 -.63 33 .54

PhAB
Spoonerisms
subtest

89.86
(8.40)

69 – 106 t= -7.14
P=<0.001**

-0.68 90.16 89.50 .23 33 .82

CAT, BPVS, PhAB standard scores = mean of 100, standard deviation of 15
CELF4UK scaled score = mean of 10, standard deviation of 3.
**. Correlation is significant at the <0.001 level (2-tailed).

Applying a Bonferonni correction for multiple comparisons sets the significance level at .007.

41

Table 4. Spring Group Word Knowledge Profile performance for Time 1 – 4.

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
Baseline 1 Repeated

baseline
Post

intervention
measure

Follow-up

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Word repetition (/20) 19.06 (1.52) 19.37 (1.1) 19.42 (1.9) 19.63 (1.0)
Rhyme production (/20) 10.44 (5.7) 9.37 (7.4) 9.89 (6.6) 11.47 (6.6)
Phonetically plausible spelling (/6) 4.63 (1.8) 4.47 (2.0) 4.68 (1.8) 5.11 (1.5)
Words self-
evaluated:

Red 8.89 (3.7) 8.58 (5.0) 8.16 (4.8) 8.87 (5.2)
Amber 7.16 (3.0) 5.89 (3.2) 6.26 (3.0) 6.44 (3.5)
Green 3.95 (3.5) 5.53 (3.8) 5.58 (3.8) 4.75 (3.2)

Use of word in a sentence (/20) 6.50 (3.2) 5.11 (3.6) 5.32 (3.7) 6.53 (3.7)
Word Meaning Taught words

(/10)
2.42 (1.9) 2.95 (2.0) 3.68 (2.2) 3.38 (2.1)

Non-taught
(/10)

2.63 (1.4) 2.47 (1.5) 2.58 (1.4) 2.81 (1.5)

Total (/20) 5.05 (2.9) 5.42 (3.0) 6.26 (3.3) 6.19 (3.4)
Example of
where
participant
would use this
word

Taught words
(/10)

3.26 (2.6) 2.53 (1.7) 6.37 (3.4)** 5.69 (3.1)

Non-taught
(/10)

3.05 (1.8) 2.37 (1.6) 4.37 (3.0) 3.93 (2.2)

Total (/20) 6.32 (4.2) 4.89 (3.1) 10.74 (6.1)** 10.06 (5.5)
Personal context Taught words

(/10)
2.63 (2.5) 2.11 (1.9) 4.21 (3.0)** 3.69 (2.6)

Non-taught
(/10)

2.68 (1.4) 2.32 (1.5) 3.16 (2.1) 2.50 (1.8)

Total (/20) 5.32 (3.5) 4.32 (3.0) 7.37 (4.9)** 6.35 (4.0)

** A significant change at the <0.001 level (two-tailed) when compared to the last assessment time point (e.g. Time 1 compared to Time 2, Time 2 compared to Time 3, Time 3 compared to Time 4),

Applying a Bonferonni correction for multiple comparisons sets the significance level at .001.

42

Table 5. Summer Group Word Knowledge Profile performance for Time 1 – 4.

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
Baseline 1 Repeated

baseline
Waiting
control

Post
intervention

measure
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

Word repetition (/20) 19.06 (1.52) 19.08 (1.8) 19.13 (1.5) 19.38 (1.1)
Rhyme production (/20) 10.44 (5.7) 10.38 (5.8) 11.00 (6.0) 10.69 (6.6)
Phonetically plausible spelling (/6) 4.63 (1.8) 4.69 (1.6) 4.94 (1.3) 5.27 (0.9)
Words self-
evaluated:

Red 7.13 (3.8) 8.38 (4.4) 7.38 (3.2) 7.25 (3.3)
Amber 8.06 (3.4) 6.81 (3.6) 7.31 (3.1) 6.81 (3.4)
Green 4.81 (2.9) 4.81 (3.5) 5.31 (4.2) 6.06 (4.2)

Use of word in a sentence (/20) 6.50 (3.2) 5.13 (3.8) 6.19 (2.7) 8.00 (4.0)
Word Meaning Taught words

(/10)
2.88 (1.9) 2.75 (1.7) 2.69 (2.0) 4.38** (2.2)

Non-taught
(/10)

2.94 (1.4) 2.69 (1.7) 3.19 (1.6) 3.13 (1.9)

Total (/20) 5.69 (3.1) 5.44 (3.2) 5.81 (3.4) 7.50 (3.6)
Example given
of where
participant
would use this
word

Taught words
(/10)

4.36 (2.4) 1.77 (1.2) 4.94 (2.5) 5.75 (2.1)

Non-taught
(/10)

3.79 (2.6) 2.08 (1.4) 4.37 (2.9) 3.56 (2.1)

Total (/20) 8.87 (4.6) 4.94 (4.0)* 9.31(5.1) 9.31 (3.9)
Personal context Taught words

(/10)
2.07 (1.9) 1.46 (1.7) 2.38 (1.9) 3.31 (2.0)

Non-taught
(/10)

2.79 (2.0) 1.31 (1.4) 2.63 (2.3) 2.13 (1.8)

Total (/20) 4.94 (3.6) 3.38 (3.5) 5.00 (3.9) 5.44 (3.6)
** A significant change at the <0.001 level (two-tailed) when compared to the last assessment time point (e.g. Time 1 compared to Time 2, Time 2 compared to Time 3, Time 3 compared to Time 4),

Applying a Bonferonni correction for multiple comparisons sets the significance level at .001.

43

Figure 1: Progress on Word Meaning score for taught words across Spring term

44

Figure 2: Progress on the Word Meaning Taught Words Score of both intervention groups

across Summer term.

45

Figure 3: Progress on Word Meaning score on taught versus non-taught words across the

intervention phase.

46

Figure 4: Graph to show how many words participants learned during the intervention

(progress on the Word Meaning score for taught words).

The Relationship of Emotional Intelligence

to Academic Achievement

Donna M. Rice

Abstract: Higher levels of emotional intelligence built through electives like Army JROTC are

predictive of higher levels of academic achievement. This quantitative correlational study was

conducted to explore the relationship of the grade point averages of a random sample of 486 Army

Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps high school cadets to levels of emotional intelligence as

measured by The

Personal Skills Map
®

. Research findings were that 10 of 11 emotional intelligence

skills were significantly correlated with higher grade point averages. Dewey’s pragmatism and Plato’s

idealism, which support the premise of the need for programs that help students interact with their

environment and bring out their best, served as the theoretical framework for the study. Implications

for education are that elective programs that support personal growth and learning life skills are as

important as academic skills.

About the Author: Donna Rice is the former Chief of Education for Army JROTC. She is currently

a business owner and author of a character/leadership middle school curriculum, a Certified

Advanced Facilitator, Dissertation Chair, and Committee Member at the University of Phoenix and

holds similar positions at Northcentral University

Keywords: emotional intelligence, academic achievement, personal growth, character education,

leadership, life skills

Rice, Donna M. (2018). The relationship of emotional intelligence to academic achievement.

National Teacher Education Journal, 11(1), 27-32.

Introduction

Despite laws designed to improve

the quality of education such as the No Child

Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 and the

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015,

academic achievement remains elusive.

Though most would agree covering content

will not solve the problem, they do not agree

on what will. Whereas some administrators

require advanced and remedial classes at the

expense of electives, others believe that

electives, like the Junior Reserve Officers’

Training Corps (JROTC), keep students in

school, and these administrators are less

inclined to remove opportunities for students

to be involved in them (Blake, 2016).

Despite research that indicates a positive

climate contributes to academic achievement

(Berkowitz, Moore, Astor, Benbenishty, &

Benbenishty, 2017), the pressure caused by

high-stakes testing makes scheduling

decisions difficult for administrators.

Paradoxically, raising requirements at the

national and state level in core subjects

(Tampio, 2017) and eliminating classes that

support the prosocial aspects of student

development can reduce the effectiveness of

education (Corrigan, Higgins-D’Alessandro,

& Brown, 2013). Schools should be places

where teachers help students develop not

only academically but also as humans

(Tomlinson, 2015). In this study, the

relationship between emotional intelligence

(EQ) with academic achievement is

examined. Emotional intelligence

encompasses personal and human

development built through prosocial

activities, such as teamwork, in JROTC.

Since the study occurs within the

context of Army JROTC, it is important to

provide information to better understand the

program. Established by the National

Defense Act of 1916, JROTC was designed

to teach high school students the value of

citizenship, responsibility, a sense of

accomplishment, and service to the United

States (Junior Reserve Officers’ Training

Corps Act of 1964, 2008) while instilling in

them decision-making skills that promote

their social, emotional, and physical health

(“U.S. Army JROTC,” 2018). The mission

statement, To Motivate Young People to be

Better Citizens, reflects the program’s post-

graduate focus. Approximately 314,000

Army JROTC cadets and over 4,000

instructors work and learn together in over

1700 schools. When adding other service

JROTC units, those numbers nearly double.

Many JROTC units are located in high

schools in inner cities and rural areas where

students are underserved (Perma & Mehay,

2009), and a large number are unmotivated

to learn when they first join. According to

annual surveys, grades, and test scores;

however, JROTC cadets excel academically

when compared to other students in the high

school (“U.S. Army JROTC,” 2018). A

majority of cadets learn how to be

successful not only in improving their

emotional competence, but also in academic

achievement largely due to the program

structure, the experience and character of the

instructors, and a state-of-the-art 21
st
–

century curriculum. The curriculum content

is rich in life skills, leadership, physical

well-being, and the rights and

responsibilities of citizenship. Many cadets

report they perform better in their academic

classes, not only as a result of the motivation

and inspiration they experience from their

participation in JROTC, but also because

course materials augment and reinforce their

academic subjects.

Theoretical Framework: Research Question

Public education is in crisis today.

School administrators may be mistakenly

trying to increase achievement by requiring

academic courses at the expense of elective

programs when well-chosen electives might

serve to meet the objective even better. With

states scrambling to meet or exceed legal

requirements, an unprecedented emphasis

has been placed on test scores as proof that

all students are achieving. In many

locations, school courses that do not readily

appear to contribute to academic

achievement are being squeezed out in favor

of time spent preparing for tests. School

schedules are full of courses necessary to

meet graduation requirements and of

remedial classes for those who do not pass

the courses. Despite the decades of

increasing emphasis on test scores; however,

the United States has made little progress in

academic achievement (Corrigan, 2012).

Adding to the problem of what must be

taught, students who want to attend good

universities are finding their grade point

averages will not be competitive unless they

take a full slate of honors or advanced

placement courses (which confer grade point

averages beyond 4.0). A number of these

students who want leadership experience

cannot take regular classes, much less

electives, because they need honors or

advance placement credit to be competitive.

Thus, they miss a good opportunity to

develop the life skills that will help them

navigate through their relationships, college,

a career, and life in general.

Meanwhile, many elective courses

motivate students to stay in school either

through offering a specialty or an outlet.

Ironically, the students not motivated to

achieve in school are often those who cannot

take electives because they must take

remedial classes. Meaningful data that link

EQ to achievement may help to inform

decision makers to keep elective programs

that build soft skills in the school schedule.

Students who excel academically are often

shortchanged by an educational system that,

through its infatuation with academics, has

not provided the subjects many of these

students need to become happy, productive

citizens.

To better assess this linkage, this

study focused on exploring the relationship

between levels of EQ and levels of

achievement. Specifically, the question

addressed in this research was as follows: Is

there

a relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic achievement in

JROTC? The theoretical framework of

Dewey’s pragmatism (students need to

interact with their environment to learn;

Heilig, Cole, & Aguilar, 2010) and Plato’s

idealism (that the aim of education is to

bring out the best in students to better serve

society; Joyal, 2016) supported this

question. The theory explored in relation to

EQ remains elusive as major theorists in the

field do not agree. This lack of clarity has

contributed to the difficulty in understanding

how EQ relates to educational achievement

(Perera, 2016).

Significance of the Problem

Continued research on the

importance of educating the whole child

could help to convince school officials that

electives are important (Davila, 2014), and

that a fight to save them now will be easier

than trying to reinstate them once they are

gone. Substituting credit for the subjects and

activities in JROTC (e.g. health, wellness,

physical fitness) allows more options for

students to enroll. Either way, action as

opposed to apathy is imperative if these

types of elective courses are to survive.

Administrators need ammunition to reverse

the trend toward eliminating electives and to

amend unwieldy policies that severely

restrict them. Marzano (2003), Caine and

Caine (1991), Goleman (1995), Gardner

(1993), Bar-On (1997), Mayer and Salovey

(1990), and many other prominent

researchers have created a foundation that

supports varied instructional strategies, tying

learning to emotion, and the importance of

EQ. What remains is for others to build on

the foundation and make the case for

electives and teaching strategies that need to

be included, not excluded, in the quest for

higher

achievement.

Army JROTC has an organizational

structure that promotes leadership and

citizenship, requires and evaluates service

learning, teaches embedded subjects that

focus on building character and increasing

emotional intelligence, and employs proven

instructional strategies. In following a

Vietnamese refugee’s experiences in

JROTC, Davila (2014) suggested that

attendance in JROTC can provide a sense of

belonging and hope for the future that keeps

even low-achieving students in school. Yet

students, often those who need it the most,

cannot always fit JROTC in their schedule.

Other programs, such as Future Farmers of

America (FFA), Distributive Education

Clubs of America (DECA), Family, Career,

and Community Leaders of America

(FCCLA), Future Business Leaders of

America (FBLA), and Junior Achievement

(JA), that also offer opportunities for skill,

character, and leadership development

(Rice, 2011) also take a back seat to core

academics. These programs help students

learn about themselves and, therefore,

provide avenues to understand their skill

levels. Logically, once students understand

their strengths and weaknesses, they can

learn to use their strengths while they build

weaker skills, thus improving their chances

for success (Neilson, 2005). Another benefit

of JROTC (and programs like it) is it offers

students an opportunity for local, and

sometimes national recognition—as Charlie

Daniels commented, for what is good about

America (Perez, 2015).

Methodology

In 1976 Nelson and Low (2003)

created the instrument used to measure EQ,

the Personal Skills Map
®

, which was later

digitized and embedded in Conover

Company’s Success Profiler
®

(Schmitz,

2005). To explore relationships between EQ

and academic achievement in this

quantitative study, scores on 11 personal

skills (the predictor variables) were

correlated with corresponding grade point

averages (the criterion variables). The

existing data included scores, grades, and

demographics from a sample of 486 cadets

in grades 9-12 located in different schools

with diverse populations across the country.

Demographics were: 21% Caucasian, 24%

African American, 26% Hispanic, 16%

Native American, 5% Alaskan, and 8%

Asian. Approximately 48% of the cadets

were male and 52% female. Data collected

were displayed on graphs generated by

SPSS software. Bivariate correlation

statistics were used to compare the predictor

variables with the criterion variables

(Mirabella, 2006).

Results

In addition to displaying descriptive

statistics, Table 1 illustrates that the test

distributions were normal.

Table

1

Descriptive Statistics, Significance, and Test Normality

Variable Mean Stand Dev Min Max Ass/2 tail Test Distribution

GPA 2.8 .765 .50 4.30 .08 Normal

Commi Ethic 16.3 4.7 2 24 .001 Normal

Drive Strength 29 9 2 47 .092 Normal

Decision Mak 12.2 3.7 1 20 .005 Normal

Empathy 17.3 5.2 2 24 .000 Normal

Awareness 16.4 4.7 1 24 .002 Normal

Physical Well 22.5 7.3 2 40 .001 Normal

Sales Orient 14.9 4.7 1 24 .003 Normal

Self Esteem 54.5 16.9 6 87 .000 Normal

Stress Mgt 24.5 9.8 1 48 .035 Normal

Time Mgt 13.9 4.7 1 24 .001 Normal

Assertion 23.8 6.7 1 36 .082 Normal

Aggression 13 7.4 1 36 .000 Normal

Deference 15.7 7.3 1 36 .032 Normal

For the research question: Was there

a relationship between emotional
intelligence and academic achievement in

JROTC, the null hypothesis was rejected on

10 of the 11 EQ scales. To investigate the

first hypothesis, a correlation analysis was

administered using SPSS software on each

scale. Table 2 illustrates the results of the

Pearson Correlation. In order to sufficiently

address this question, each of the eleven

scales must be analyzed as separate sub-

hypotheses.

Table 2

Pearson Correlation for Emotional Intelligence Variables and GPA

Variables Academic Achievement (GPA)

__

______________________________________________________________________

Cadets (n = 486)

______________

EQ Variables r sig (2 tail)

______________________________________________________________________

Commitment Ethic .234** .000

Drive Strength .219** .000

Decision Making .128** .005

Empathy .126** .005

Awareness .070 .125

Physical Wellness .109* .016

Sales Orientation .147** .001

Self Esteem .172** .000

Stress Management .132** .004

Time Management .196** .000

Assertion .131** .004

Aggression -.144** .001

Deference -.048 .292

________________________________________________________________________

* p < .05; **p < .01

A narrative of the results are as follows:

 Commitment Ethic (CE), is the
ability to successfully complete projects and

job assignments. With a p-value of .000

which is less than .05, the null hypothesis is

rejected; thus, I concluded that a correlation

exists between commitment ethic and grade

point average. Since the R for CE is .234, as

commitment ethic increases, academic

achievement increases

as well.

 Drive Strength (DS), is the ability to
effectively direct individual energy,

motivation, and achievement. With a p-

value

of .000 which is less than .05, the null

hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded that

a correlation exists between drive strength

and grade point average. Since the R for DS

is .219, as drive strength increases, academic

achievement increases as well.

 Decision Making (DM) is the ability
to initiate, formulate, and implement

effective problem-solving procedures. With

a p-value of .005 which is less than .05, the

null hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded

that a correlation exists between decision

making and grade point average. Since the R

for DM is .128, as drive strength increases,

academic achievement increases as well.

 Empathy (E) is the ability to
accurately understand and accept another

person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

With a p-value of .005 which is less than

.05, the null hypothesis is rejected; thus, I

concluded that a correlation exists between

empathy and grade point average. Since the

R for E is .128, as empathy increases,

academic achievement increases as well.

 Interpersonal Awareness (IAw) is a
personal skill in the ability to judge

appropriate

social and physical distance in verbal and

non-verbal interactions with others. With a

p-value of .125 which is greater than .05, the

null hypothesis is accepted; thus, I

concluded that a significant correlation does

not exist between interpersonal awareness

and grade point average. Since the R for

IAw is only .070, academic achievement

may not increase as interpersonal awareness

increases.

 Physical Wellness (PW) is a personal
skill in the ability to take care of one’s

physical self and avoid self-destructive

behaviors. With a p-value of .016 which is

less than .05, the null hypothesis is rejected;

thus, I concluded that a correlation exists

between physical wellness and grade point

average. Since the R for PW is .109, as

physical wellness increases, academic

achievement increases as well.

 Sales Orientation/Leadership (SO),
or leadership, is the ability to positively

impact and influence others. With a p-value

of .001 which is less than .05, the null

hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded that

a correlation exists between sales orientation

and grade point average. Since the R for SO

is .147, as sales orientation increases,

academic achievement increases as well.

 Self-Esteem (SE) is a personal skill
in the ability to accurately evaluate self or a

self-perceived level of personal worth. With

a p-value of .000 which is less than .05, the

null hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded

that a correlation exists between self-esteem

and grade point average. Since the R for SE

is .172, as self-esteem increases, academic

achievement increases as well.

 Stress Management (SM) is a
personal skill in the ability to positively

manage stress and anxiety. With a p-value of

.004 which is less than .05, the null

hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded that

a correlation exists between stress

management and grade point average. Since

the R for SM is .128, as stress management

increases, academic achievement increases

as well.

 Time Management (TM) is a
personal skill in the ability to use time

effectively for the accomplishment of

individual and career goals. With a p-value

of .000 which is less than .05, the null
hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded that

a correlation exists between time

management and grade point average. Since

the R for TM is .196, as time management

increases, academic achievement increases
as well.

 Interpersonal Assertion (IA) is a
personal communication skill indicated by

the direct, honest, and appropriate

expression of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors. It is a balance between Deference

(ID) and Aggression (IAg). With a p-value

of .004 which is less than .05, the null

hypothesis is rejected; thus, I concluded that

a correlation exists between interpersonal

assertion and grade point average. Since the

R for IA is .131, as assertion increases,

academic achievement increases as well.

Though no hypotheses were tendered

for IA subscales, the relationships were

explored: ID is a personal communication

style which is indirect, self-inhibiting, self-

denying, and ineffectual for the accurate

expression of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors; IAg is a personal communication

style that violates, overpowers, dominates,

or discredits the other person’s rights,

thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. With a p-

value of .292 which is more than .05 and an

R of -.48, deference is not significantly

correlated with academic achievement. With

a p-value of .001; however, which is less

than .05, a correlation does exist between

aggression and grade point average. With an

R of -.144, as aggression increases,

academic achievement decreases. Of the 11

scales, only Interpersonal Awareness was

not significantly correlated. Since this scale

has been found to be significantly correlated

in other studies (Pope, 1981), perhaps

further research with different samples is in

order.

Conclusions and Implications

The results of this study help to

validate the importance of developing the

whole person to increase academic

achievement through elective courses.

School leaders could add this study to the

growing body of research with similar

findings to support a focus on building

personal skills, understanding learning

styles, and allowing opportunities for as

many students as possible to participate in

prosocial experiences. Assessments like the

Personal Skills Map
®

help students to be

aware of strengths and weaknesses that

could help them to make changes resulting

in higher grades. Many elective programs

take that awareness further by helping

students to improve their EQ.

The stated goals of schools today

should not only be to help students achieve

academically, but also to understand and

manage their emotions and become

productive, well-adjusted citizens. Though

academic achievement is often the stated

goal, it is not attained by merely teaching

required subjects. Theorists including

Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner, and

Daniel Goleman (Hein, 2004) challenge the

traditional concepts of intelligence and how

it is measured. According to them, IQ is but

one element among many that determines

success. Some of the factors that contribute

to achievement in their view include

classroom environment, affective learning,

cooperative learning, student engagement,

and service-learning. Obviously, some

students will achieve regardless of the

classroom environment or instructional

strategies used. If the goal is to reach every

child, however, these researchers suggest

additional methods be considered. The

business world has realized for years that

many other skills such as leadership, critical

thinking, problem solving, decision making,

commitment, communication skills, and

stress management are desirable in

employees. Developing emotional

competence to fulfill future roles as

productive citizens should be a priority

(Kessler, 2000).

Implications for Further Study

Further research should include links

of service learning, leadership, and locus of

control to emotional intelligence in

secondary schools. Efforts to achieve

consensus in the emotional intelligence

community should be monitored and

included in that research. Future studies

confirming or disputing these results are

important to policy makers who mandate

education requirements including how

schools are resourced based on test scores

and to education administrators charged

with making scheduling decisions. Further

research exploring emotional barriers to

academic achievement could help with those

policy and scheduling decisions. Additional

studies with like results will add to this

evidence that character development and

leadership programs like JROTC build

emotional intelligence and result in higher

achievement.

References

Bar-On, R. (1997). The Emotional Quotient

Inventory (EQ-i): Technical

manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-

Health Systems, Inc. Retrieved

from

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US&publication_year=1997b&autho

r=R.+Bar-On&title=The+Emotional

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i%29%3A+Technical+manual

Berkowitz, R., Moore, H., Astor, A.,

Benbenishty, R., & Benbenishty, R.

(2017). A research synthesis of the

associations between socioeconomic

background, inequality, school

climate, and academic achievement.

Review of Educational Research,

87(2) 425-469.

doi:10.3102/0034654316669821

Blake, Patty Jean, “Principals’ Perceptions

of the Effectiveness of the JROTC

Program” (2016). Theses,

Dissertations and Capstones.

1002. http://mds.marshall.edu/etd/10

02

Corrigan, M. W. (2012). A body of

evidence. In P. M. Brown, M. W.

Corrigan, & A. Higgins-

D’Alessandro (Eds.), Handbook of

prosocial education (pp. 731-766).

NewYork: Rowman and Littlefield.

Davila, L.T. (2014) Performing allegiance:

An adolescent refugee’s construction

of patriotism in JROTC, Educational

Studies, 50(5), 447-

463, doi:10.1080/00131946.2014.94

3893

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences:

the theory in practice. New York:

Basic Books.

Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional intelligence,

why it can matter more than IQ 10
th

anniversary edition New

York: Random House

Heilig, J. V., Cole, H., & Aguilar, A. (2010).

From Dewey to No Child Left

Behind: The evolution and

devolution of public arts education.

Arts Education Policy

Review, 111(4), 136-145,

doi:10.1080/10632913.2010.490776

Joyal M. (2016) Philosophical Idealism

and Educational Theory. In: Peters

M. (eds) Encyclopedia of

Educational Philosophy and

Theory. Springer, Singapore

Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps Act

of 1964, 10 U.S.C. § 2031 Part III

Chapter 102 (2008). Retrieved

from

https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscod

e/text/10/2031

Kessler, R. (2000). The soul of education.

Alexandria, VA: ASCD

Marzano, R. (2003). What works in schools:

Translating research into action.

Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Mirabella, J. (2006). Hypothesis Testing

with SPSS: A Non-Statistician’s

Guide & Tutorial.

Retrieved from

http://www.drjimmirabella.com/eboo

k/

Neilson, S. (2005). Character educator.

Mountlake Terrace, WA: Financial

& Personal Success.

Nelson, D & Low, G. (2003). Emotional

intelligence: Achieving academic

and career

excellence. Upper Saddle, NJ:

Pearson Education, Inc.

Perera, H. N. (2016). The role of trait

emotional intelligence in academic

performance: Theoretical overview

and empirical update. Journal of

Psychology, 150(2), 227-249.

doi: 10.1080/00223980.2015.107916

1

Pope, P. (1981). The relationship of selected

intrapersonal, interpersonal, and life

management skills to academic

achievement among secondary

school students. East Texas State

University.

Rice, D.M. (2011), Qualities that exemplify

student leadership. ACTE

Techniques, 86(5), 28-31.

Schmitz, T. (2005). The Conover Company.

Retrieved from

https://www.conovercompany.

com/education/success-profiler/

Tampio, N. (2017). Democracy and national

education standards. Journal of

Politics, 79(1), 33-44,

doi:10.1086/687206

Tomlinson, C.A. (2015, October). Being

Human in the

Classroom. Educational Leadership,

73(2), 74-77.

Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/

publications/educational-

leadership/oct15/vol73/num02/Being

-Human-in-the-Classroom.aspx

U.S. Army JROTC Website (2018).

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https://www.usarmyjrotc.com/JROT

C_ ProgramInfo.html

1

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2

Literature Review

Insert your Name Here

School of Education, Capella University

EDD8040: Research Design for Practitioners

Insert the Instructor’s Name Here

Insert the Assignment Due Date Here

Introduction to the Area of Interest

Describe the organizational or professional improvement area of interest that you identified in your u02a1assignment and for which you conducted your library searches throughout the course. To complete this section, provide the background and context for your area of interest, which potentially can serve as the problem of practice for which you develop your Applied Improvement Project (AIP). What needs improving and why does it need improving? Provide an explanation of why you chose this particular area of interest.

Describe why this organizational issue or professional improvement area of interest is of significant interest to you. This section is the only section that you can write in the first-person voice. The remainder of the assignment must be written in the third person voice. Describe how locating and reviewing related studies regarding your area of interest throughout the course might potentially serve as the basis for your Applied Improvement Project (AIP) or relate to our potential AIP.

Evaluation of Findings

Briefly explain that the following sections will reflect an analysis and evaluation of the six studies. Explain that the content of the studies will be compared for similarities and differences. Explain that the three methodologies, quantitative, qualitative, and action research will be analyzed, and the six studies’ methodologies will be compared for similarities and differences. Explain that you will conclude by describing practical applications that emerged from your understanding of the six studies. In this section and the sections below do not summarize each article and its findings. Instead, evaluate the findings from all six studies. When you evaluate, you are making judgments are the merit, worth and value of the object of evaluation. When referring to a study follow APA writing format and use the authors’ last names and year of publication and present the study with past tense verbs (see APA 6th ed. p. p. 78 or APA 7th ed. pp. 117-118 section 4.12 Verb Tense).

In the sections below ensure that you are explicitly comparing action research to the two methodologies. One option is to conclude each of the two sections below by comparing similarities and differences between action research and the other two methodologies. Ensure your make connections between your analysis and synthesis and practical applications. Support your arguments and assertions through the use of examples and resources.

Content Similarities

Discuss the similarities among the findings that emerged from the studies about your chosen issue. Do not summarize each article and its findings. Rather, consider and evaluate the findings from all six studies. In this section answer and address the following questions:

Are there similarities, related findings, or themes in some of the studies that can be identified from an evaluation of all six studies’ findings?

Do some of the findings complement each other? How so?

Content Differences

Discuss the differences among the findings that emerged from the studies about your chosen issue. Do not summarize each article and its findings. Rather, consider and evaluate the findings from all six studies. In this section answer and address the following questions:

How were the findings different given different methodological approaches?

Do any of the studies’ findings contradict or appear inconsistent with another study’s findings? Or does each study provide a unique set of findings?

Discussion of Methods

Analysis of Research Principles

In this second section of your literature review, discuss the three methodological approaches represented in your six studies. In this section you will analyze principles of quantitative, qualitative, and action research methodologies in general through briefly addressing the following:

Describe the types of purposes best suited to each methodology.

Describe the types of problems each method is best suited to study.

Describe the types of research questions each methodology is best suited to employ.

Which data sources and collection methods are best suited to each methodology?

Describe the types of findings each methodology might be expected to produce.

Describe the validity concerns unique to each methodology.

How did difference methodological approaches impact the findings?

Provide examples to support your claims or assertions.

Methodological Similarities

In this section compare methodologies used in your two quantitative studies and your two qualitative studies to your two action research studies. What similarities (in sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reporting) did your two qualitative studies have to your two action research studies? What similarities (in sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reporting) did your two quantitative studies have to your two action research studies? This section can be brief. Conclude with at least one practical application. For example, you might describe your potential approach to data collection, data analysis, and reporting that might be used in a proposed action research study related to your area of interest.

Methodological Differences

In this section compare methodologies used in the quantitative and qualitative studies to the two action research studies. What differences (in sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reporting) did you identify between the two qualitative studies and your two action research studies? What differences (in sampling, data collection, data analysis, and reporting) did you identify between your two quantitative studies and your two action research studies? This section can be brief. Conclude with a practical application. For example, what methodological decisions might you need to make in proposing an action research study to improve the organizational issue or process that is of interest to you. Synthesize an intervention from the six studies?

Discussion/Conclusion

Provide a discussion/conclusion to your evaluation of research findings. In this section in addition to drawing a conclusion regarding your six studies, address the following:

What practical applications emerged from the six studies? Provide one or more examples of how the most important practical application or intervention could be applied to your organizational issue or process. Keep in mind that practical applications mean applications applied to practice by practitioners. Include, if you like, a discussion of practical applications you learned from the six studies that other practitioners might apply in their practices. These prompts require applications for practitioners not researchers.

References

References go on a separate page. Ensure references are in the hanging indent format and are properly APA formatted; refer to APA Publication Manual 6th edition (2010) Chapter 7 for guidance and examples. Please remove these instructions before posting and write your sections in black font.

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