Research Project Final Paper

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For this assignment, submit the finished product (for 25% of your course grade), containing the detailed information that is aligned with the parameters of the assignment (as identified in the rubric). You should consult instructors and ensure they have covered all of the requisite information.

With the revisable nature of this process, from the beginning, you should have applied changes or updates progressively through the process of this case analysis.

Save your assignment using a naming convention that includes your first and last name and the activity number (or description). Do not add punctuation or special characters.

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· Provide a paper of 15 pages double spaced.

· APA formatted introduction.

· Reference page.

· At least fifteen credible citations.

· Submit by the seventh day of the module week.

Running head: RESEARCH PROJECT: ROUGH DRAFT 1

RESEARCH PROJECT: ROUGH DRAFT 9

Research Project: Rough Draft

Student

ASCI 638: Human Factors in Unmanned Aerospace Systems

Embro-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide

December 21, 2019

Summary

The automation of aviation has flourished over the last few decades –a situation that has seen the invention of unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAVs). UAVs are designed to operate autonomously without the need to have a pilot on board. The remotely located pilot uses radio data link to control unmanned aircraft used to conduct various military operations including security and surveillance tasks. Notably, human-system interaction has greatly determined the success of UAS since remote pilots require extensive knowledge and skills to facilitate the effectiveness of unmanned aircraft in the national airspace systems.

The successful transition of the aviation industry towards the automated aircraft depends highly on human factors. As UAVs become increasingly preferred due to their capabilities to handle critical missions and low-cost attributes, the contribution of human factors cannot be undermined. Basically, human control from remote pilot ensures oversight –hence influencing the effectiveness of military operations. However, there are several maintenance-related human factors issues which have contributed to failure and ineffectiveness of UAS –leading to increased accidents and other failure incidents. Even though unmanned aircraft are normally intended to “keep humans out of harm’s way”, human factor issues associated deficiency in individual knowledge and skills have presented a major challenge to the continued improvements and use of UAS.

This project seeks to explore the importance of human-related factors in UAS –including challenges in human factors that have negatively affected operations and maintenance of unmanned aircrafts. Any individual shortfalls in crew coordination, situation awareness, as well as remote pilot’s skills and knowledge have caused failure involving Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Human factors have been linked to accidents involving unmanned aircrafts hence presenting many issues that need to be addressed to streamline operations and effectiveness of unmanned aerospace systems. Remote control culture and complacency have been highlighted as the major causes of UAS failure –a case in point being an unmanned aircraft vehicle that crashed near Nogales, Arizona in 2006.

The Arizona crash was among the many crashes involving UAS that attracted the need to explore various human factors issues that have contributed to accidents involving unmanned aircrafts. Since the beginning of the 21st century, accidents involving unmanned aircrafts have increased significantly compared to manned aircraft. In this perspective, human factors of UAS operations have resulted in general issues that have altered the safety-critical systems. Thus, the project findings will play a key role in the education and sensitization of remote pilots on the need to adapt security and protection based factors required to ensure the safety of unmanned aircraft. Consequently, this will help to improve operations in avionics, ground-based equipment, airframes, engines, education in skills, compartmentalization of responsibilities, and personnel monitoring.

Basically, this project is aimed at an overall evaluation of the unmanned aerospace system in the bid to highlight various loopholes that have presented a major challenge to the security and protection of UAS. The issues related to human factors will be identified and discussed in the bid to offer alternative actions and recommendations necessary for streamlining UAS operations and other improvements in the future. The project will explore various studies related to the safety and effectiveness of UAS to offer a comparative analysis of the application of mainstream maintenance aspects in conventional aircraft and UAS.

Introduction

Tremendous technological advancements witnessed over the past few decades have seen improvements that have extended across almost all economic sectors –among them the aviation industry. Advances in electronic technology have led to aviation automation –characterized by the introduction of automated aircrafts with unparalleled capabilities. This scenario has facilitated the invention of automated flight controls as well as navigation systems that have resulted in the significant transition from manned aircrafts to unmanned aircrafts. According to Marshall et al. (2016), “unmanned aircraft (UA) refers to any aircraft operating or designed to operate autonomously or to be piloted remotely without a pilot on board.” GNSS navigation and satellite communications are used by remotely placed controllers to operate unmanned aircrafts at extremely long distances.

The invention of unmanned aircrafts has had a significant positive impact in supporting a wide variety of reconnaissance and surveillance operations –including monitoring of “forest fires, oil spills, contaminant clouds, algae bloom, and border security.” According to Prisacariu & Muraru (2016), unmanned aircrafts have provided varying capabilities and functionalities hence playing a pivotal role in helping the military to improve security along the U.S. borders –a move that is essential in securing the country from any external attacks. The automation of aircrafts has helped to “keep humans out of harm’s way” –as a result of a reduction in human errors experienced in high-stakes situations.

The combination of unmanned aircraft, the people, and equipment used to control the aircraft remotely form the unmanned aircraft system (UAS). UAS consists of various components that form the entire Remotely Piloted Air Systems (RPAS). Notably, unmanned aircraft is controlled by a pilot in a remote location using a radio data link (Marshall et al., 2016). This means UAS requires human control and oversight to influence its operational effectiveness. Considerably, the ‘pilot’ controlling unmanned aircraft remotely requires extensive knowledge and skills to support the “growing class of complex and safety-critical applications” of UAS.

Baldwin (2014) argues that there is a need to establishing requirements for “interaction and processing from a human user perspective is crucial to operate and make decisions, or simply put, to define the need for interaction with an automated system.” Optimal automation of unmanned aircrafts is determined by proper and effective human interaction. The rapid growth and increased reliance on unmanned and autonomous aviation operations have raised a major concern regarding the aspect of human-system interaction. As the aviation industry moves towards UAS, there is a need to focus on “unique maintenance-related human factors issues” which have resulted in major negative incidents involving unmanned aircrafts.

Notably, there are several problems that are associated with UAS human factors –hence presenting a major obstacle to the anticipated future growth and improvement in the safety of unmanned aircraft systems. The project will discuss the concept of human-system interactions and how shortcomings in human knowledge and skills have led to the failure of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The scope of this paper will involve the statement of the problem, the significance of the problem, alternative actions, as well as recommendations that are necessary in improving the security and safety of the unmanned aerospace system.

Problem Statement

The tremendous technological advancements witnessed over the last few decades have led to widespread development among them being the automation of aviation. The flourishing aviation automation has seen a transition from manned aircraft to unmanned aircrafts that are designed to “operate autonomously or be piloted remotely without a pilot on board.” Unmanned aircrafts have been used to support numerous reconnaissance and surveillance operations by the military. However, in the 21st century, numerous cases of unmanned aircraft crashes have been reported –among them the UAV that crashed near Nogales, Arizona in 2006. This marked the beginning of an extensive study that sought to explore various factors that have contributed to the failure of UAVs. Apart from mechanical failures, “the increased reliance on autonomous and unmanned operations is increasing the aspects of human-system interaction” (Terwilliger et al. (2015). Lack of adequate skills and expertise continues to be the major cause of crashes involving unmanned aircrafts. This scenario presents a major challenge that requires comprehensive analysis to find out various ways in which human factors have contributed to the failure of UAS.

Human contributions determine the success or failure of unmanned aircraft operations. Human factors are linked with monitoring and control of UAVs from a remote location. However, a lack of system knowledge and proper training may result in the ineffectiveness of UAS. Interaction between the human user and the system must meet certain requirements to realize the optimal automation of aviation (Hobbs & Lyall, 2015). However, as the aviation industry continues to move towards the automation direction, numerous human factors issues continue to front a major challenge as far as the future of UAS is concerned. The anticipated future growth of the aviation industry is at limbo due to increased complications in the safety of UAVs –something that has been linked to a myriad of crashes involving unmanned aircraft.

Growth in remote-control culture and complacency are among the major human factors issues which have had a negative consequence towards UAS. Key stakeholders in the aviation industry are yet to take some of these issues seriously –meaning that they will continue to front a serious barrier towards the smooth transition to unmanned aircraft. Aviation automation has allowed people who are “unfamiliar with the ethics and standard practices of aircraft maintenance, and the legislative framework within which maintenance occurs” to work as remote pilots (Cardosi & Lennertz, 2017). Generally, people who control unmanned aircrafts remotely may sometimes lack basic aviation knowledge and background –hence increasing chances of UAS failure. Moreover, since unmanned aircraft do not carry people, there is a common assumption that human exposure to risks is not there. Hence, technicians do not necessarily carry out comprehensive pre-checks of security issues. This poses a huge threat that could lead to accidents since UAVs might be experiencing a lot of unidentified technical problems due to insufficient security checks conducted on the system state of UAS. These two human factors issues present a major challenge to UAVs since they expose unmanned aircrafts to safety risks and other negative consequences that continue to derail the success of UAS.

Significance of the Problem

The fact that no one boards the unmanned aircraft, does not mean that its crash cannot result in negative consequences. Accidents involving unmanned aircrafts expose people on the ground and those in other manned aircrafts to grave risks. According to Kuffner et al. (2016), “in unmanned flight, the risks are borne by others who did not agree to be exposed to that risk.” This can lead to adverse effects including injuries and deaths that must be avoided at all costs. The risks caused by human factors issues are mainly centered on the safety of the public and other aircraft operating with the airspace. If the remote pilot does not control unmanned aircraft carefully, UAVs might end up in controlled airspace which is above 500 feet. This can lead to a collision between manned aircraft and UAVs –something that could lead to fatalities. Moreover, when an accident occurs, an unmanned aircraft can land into a populated residential area or even town –hence causing injuries to innocent people. For instance, the unmanned aircraft crash that occurred near Nogales, Arizona in 2006 landed in a “sparsely populated area –causing injuries and damages to the property of people in the area.” Thus, the issue of complacency and remote-control culture might expose innocent people to risks thus the need to operate with formal procedures and checklists to avoid such risks. From this description, it is pretty clear that human factors issues present a very serious problem that needs to addressed in order ensure improvements in UAS –a decision that will be key in ensuring that the safety of people and properties is guaranteed.

Problem Analysis

The unmanned aerospace system consists of three major components including:

· Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)

· The autonomous or human-run control system

· “Communication, command, and control system”

The above-mentioned components form the broader “Remotely Piloted Air Systems (RPAS)”. A ‘pilot’ in a remote location uses a radio data link to control the UAV. This means that the human factor still plays a pivotal role in the operation of unmanned aircraft. According to Barmpounakis et al. (2016), “human interactions with automated systems determine the success or failure of UAS.” Pilots who control unmanned aircraft remotely must be equipped with skills and knowledge that enable them to use automated systems to influence the effectiveness of automated aircraft.

However, human operators and automated controls involve making decisions that determine the safety and security of unmanned aircraft in the airspace. The two issues presented in this paper are as discussed in details below:

Complacency

Since no human beings are transported using unmanned aircraft, technicians may tend to ignore security checks that could instead identify various issues that affect the proper functioning of the aircraft. This presents a major UAS maintenance concern. According to Franke (2014), “there is the potential for technicians to be of the mindset that their work is less critical because there isn’t a human being transported on the system.” Consequently, technicians and other aviation operators fail to conduct sufficient checks of the unmanned aircraft hence assuming dangerous conditions that could develop into accidents. Automation complacency has reduced the level of aircraft monitoring meant to establish the system performance. The negative consequence of this assumption results in “system malfunction, anomalous condition, or out-right failure” –resulting in accidents which could lead to fatalities. Johry & Kapoor (2016) notes that “technician and complacency has long been implicated as a major contributing factor in aviation accidents.” Generally, complacency is associated with failure to monitor the performance of unmanned aircrafts adequately as well as failure to “quickly correct automation failures” –something that contributes to increasing cases of accidents.

Remote–control culture

Personnel tasked with remote control of unmanned aircrafts are required to have vast experience, skills, and knowledge regarding piloting and the overall aviation industry. This will help them to effectively control aircraft from a remote location using a radio data link. According to Low, Gan & Mao (2014), personnel controlling unmanned aircrafts remotely face “shortfalls in individual’s skill and knowledge including checklist error, task mis-prioritization, lack of training for training for task attempted, and inadequate system knowledge.” Most of the remote ‘pilots’ are found to have little or no mainstream aviation background. They tend to lack formal checklists and procedures that are necessary for remote-control hobbyists. Moreover, remote pilots tasked with controlling unmanned aircrafts “may be unfamiliar with the ethics and standard practices of aircraft maintenance, and legislative framework within which maintenance occurs.” For instance, unmanned aircrafts are required to operate within the uncontrolled airspace which is between 400-500 feet. However, lack of this knowledge may have the UAVs entering controlled airspace –something that would lead to a collision between UAVs and manned aircrafts. This results in fatalities including injuries and death.

Alternative Actions

Currently, most countries are striving to develop and use “independent satellite navigation systems (ISNS)” which are more accurate and reliable than UAVs. They are used for various reconnaissance and surveillance purposes –just like UAVs. ISNS can be used as a better alternative to replace UAS since the former operates in the orbit hence reducing any chances of a collision or fatal crashes.

Recommendations

The human factors issues associated with the ineffectiveness of UAS can be addressed to avoid accidents involving unmanned aircrafts –thus improving the efficiency and safety of automated aircraft. Training and education is required to instill skills and knowledge among remote pilots who control civil UAVs. RPAS operators require knowledge and experience of a qualified pilot of a manned aircraft. Training will equip them with technical capabilities to enable them in addressing the performance UAVs and their ability to execute the required operations. Moreover, education and sensitization enables remote pilots and technicians with vast knowledge regarding regulations and ethical standards governing the aviation industry. For instance, they require skills and expertise to assess the performance of UAVs as well as controlled and uncontrolled airspace to avoid collisions that might result into injuries and deaths.

References

Baldwin, H. (2014). Human Factors in Unmanned Aircraft Operations/UAV operations pose new MRO challenges. Aviation Week & Space Technology. Sep, 8.

Barmpounakis, E. N., Vlahogianni, E. I., & Golias, J. C. (2016). Unmanned Aerial Aircraft Systems for transportation engineering: Current practice and future challenges. International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology, 5(3), 111-122.

Cardosi, K., & Lennertz, T. (2017). Human factors considerations for the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles in the National Airspace System: an analysis of reports submitted to the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) (No. DOT/FAA/TC-17/25). John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (US).

Franke, U. E. (2014). Drones, drone strikes, and US policy: The politics of unmanned aerial vehicles. Parameters, 44(1), 121.

Hobbs, A., & Lyall, B. (2015). Human factors guidelines for unmanned aircraft system ground control stations. NASA, September.

Johry, A., & Kapoor, M. (2016). Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV): fault-tolerant design. International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research, 3(6), 1-7.

Kuffner, M., Guendel, R. E., & Darrah, S. (2016, June). Investigating traffic avoidance maneuver decisions of unmanned aircraft pilots. In Proceedings of the 16th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Washington, DC, USA (pp. 13-17).

Low, K. H., Gan, L., & Mao, S. (2014). A Preliminary Study in Managing Safe and Efficient Low-Altitude Unmanned Aircraft System Operations in a Densely Built-up Urban Environment. Air Traffic Management Research Institute, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Nanyang Technological University.

Marshall, D. M., Barnhart, R. K., Hottman, S. B., Shappee, E., & Most, M. T. (2016). Introduction to unmanned aircraft systems. Crc Press.

Prisacariu, V., & Muraru, A. (2016). Unmanned aerial system (UAS) in the context of modern warfare. Scientific Research and Education in the Air Force-AFASES.

Terwilliger, B., Vincenzi, D., Ison, D., Witcher, K., Thirtyacre, D., & Khalid, A. (2015). Influencing factors for use of unmanned aerial systems in support of aviation accidents and emergency response. Journal of Automation and Control Engineering, 3(3), 246.

Running Head: HUMAN FACTORS IN UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 1

HUMAN FACTORS IN UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 20

HUMAN FACTORS IN UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

Students Name

Institutional Affiliation

Abstract

The evolution of technology has seen the development in the aviation industry over the years. There has been tremendous development where the aviation industry has welcomed the Unmanned Aircraft Systems that have continued to be used for various purposes by various functional groups that require aircraft services. Human beings are at the center stage of development of the systems hence human factors have immensely contributed to the success and failures of the UAS. Remote control culture and complacency have been highlighted as the major causes of UAS failure –a case in point being an unmanned aircraft vehicle that crashed near Nogales, Arizona in 2006. The project targets to explore human-related factors that have affected the UAS positively and negatively in efforts to make the UAS save for use. The project identified ignorance of the security checks as the major concern of human factors that face Unmanned Aircraft Systems since the systems are not used to transport human beings. Lack of security checks results to poor maintenance of the systems hence the system ends up to malfunction whet he aircraft is on motion leading to various damages when the malfunction Maintenance of the systems by highly qualified and individuals who have experience in the aviation industry should be made a priority so that the human errors that lead to accidents can be avoided. The project recommended the advancement of knowledge and skills of the individuals who are tasked with maintenance of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Advancing their knowledge will ensure effective maintenance of the systems hence reducing the damages caused by human factors. The project meets its purpose by exploring various studies that were carried out in the past on the same topic or any other related topic.

Summary

The automation of aviation has flourished over the last few decades –a situation that has seen the invention of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). UAS are designed to operate autonomously without the need to have a pilot on board. The remotely located pilot uses radio data link to control unmanned aircraft used to conduct various military operations including security and surveillance tasks. Notably, human-system interaction has greatly determined the success of UAS since remote pilots require extensive knowledge and skills to facilitate the effectiveness of unmanned aircraft in the national airspace systems.

The successful transition of the aviation industry towards automated aircraft depends highly on human factors. As UAS become increasingly preferred due to their capabilities to handle critical missions and low-cost attributes, the contribution of human factors cannot be undermined. Basically, human control from remote pilot ensures oversight –hence influencing the effectiveness of military operations. However, there are several maintenance-related human factors issues that have contributed to the failure and ineffectiveness of UAS –leading to increased accidents and other failure incidents. Even though unmanned aircraft are normally intended to “keep humans out of harm’s way”, human factor issues associated deficiency in individual knowledge and skills have presented a major challenge to the continued improvements and use of UAS.

This project seeks to explore the importance of human-related factors in UAS –including challenges in human factors that have negatively affected operations and maintenance of unmanned aircrafts. Any individual shortfalls in crew coordination, situation awareness, as well as remote pilot’s skills and knowledge have caused failure involving Unmanned Aerial System (UAS). Human factors have been linked to accidents involving unmanned aircrafts hence presenting many issues that need to be addressed to streamline operations and effectiveness of unmanned aerospace systems. Remote control culture and complacency have been highlighted as the major causes of UAS failure –a case in point being an unmanned aircraft vehicle that crashed near Nogales, Arizona in 2006. The report that was presented from the crash investigation by the National Transport and Safety Board indicated that the crash was caused by human-related factors. The crush was a result of poor coordination of the displays within the aircraft and the operators on the ground. Through the Human Factor Analysis and Classification Systems, errors were realized from the crush that was not reported by the National Transport and Safety Board. For instance, the Human Factor Analysis and Classification Systems Approach identified that there were organizational inadequacies in the management of the aircraft that resulted in the crash. Unifying the finding by the National Transport and Safety Board with those of the Human Factor Analysis and Classification Systems approach will enable the operators of Unmanned Aircraft Systems to correct their mistakes and make the system safe for use.

The Arizona crash was among the many crashes involving UAS that attracted the need to explore various human factors issues that have contributed to accidents involving unmanned aircrafts. Since the beginning of the 21st century, accidents involving unmanned aircrafts have increased significantly compared to manned aircraft. In this perspective, human factors of UAS operations have resulted in general issues that have altered the safety-critical systems. Thus, the project findings will play a key role in the education and sensitization of remote pilots on the need to adapt security and protection based factors required to ensure the safety of unmanned aircraft. Consequently, this will help to improve operations in avionics, ground-based equipment, airframes, engines, education in skills, compartmentalization of responsibilities, and personnel monitoring.

Basically, this project is aimed at an overall evaluation of the unmanned aerospace system in the bid to highlight various loopholes that have presented a major challenge to the security and protection of UAS. The issues related to human factors will be identified and discussed in the bid to offer alternative actions and recommendations necessary for streamlining UAS operations and other improvements in the future. The project will explore various studies related to the safety and effectiveness of UAS to offer a comparative analysis of the application of mainstream maintenance aspects in conventional aircraft and UAS.

Introduction

Tremendous technological advancements witnessed over the past few decades have seen improvements that have extended across almost all economic sectors –among them the aviation industry. Advances in electronic technology have led to aviation automation –characterized by the introduction of automated aircrafts with unparalleled capabilities. This scenario has facilitated the invention of automated flight controls as well as navigation systems that have resulted in the significant transition from manned aircrafts to unmanned aircrafts. According to Marshall et al. (2016), “unmanned aircraft (UA) refers to any aircraft operating or designed to operate autonomously or to be piloted remotely without a pilot on board.” GNSS navigation and satellite communications are used by remotely placed controllers to operate unmanned aircrafts at extremely long distances.

The invention of unmanned aircrafts has had a significant positive impact in supporting a wide variety of reconnaissance and surveillance operations –including monitoring of “forest fires, oil spills, contaminant clouds, algae bloom, and border security.” According to Prisacariu & Muraru (2016), unmanned aircrafts have provided varying capabilities and functionalities hence playing a pivotal role in helping the military to improve security along the U.S. borders –a move that is essential in securing the country from any external attacks. The automation of aircrafts has helped to “keep humans out of harm’s way” –as a result of a reduction in human errors experienced in high-stakes situations.

The combination of unmanned aircraft, the people, and equipment used to control the aircraft remotely form the unmanned aircraft system (UAS). UAS consists of various components that form the entire Remotely Piloted Air Systems (RPAS). Notably, unmanned aircraft is controlled by a pilot in a remote location using a radio data link (Marshall et al., 2016). This means UAS requires human control and oversight to influence its operational effectiveness. Considerably, the ‘pilot’ controlling unmanned aircraft remotely requires extensive knowledge and skills to support the “growing class of complex and safety-critical applications” of UAS.

Baldwin (2014) argues that there is a need to establishing requirements for “interaction and processing from a human user perspective is crucial to operate and make decisions, or simply put, to define the need for interaction with an automated system.” Optimal automation of unmanned aircrafts is determined by proper and effective human interaction. The rapid growth and increased reliance on unmanned and autonomous aviation operations have raised a major concern regarding the aspect of human-system interaction. As the aviation industry moves towards UAS, there is a need to focus on “unique maintenance-related human factors issues” which have resulted in major negative incidents involving unmanned aircrafts.

Notably, there are several problems that are associated with UAS human factors –hence presenting a major obstacle to the anticipated future growth and improvement in the safety of unmanned aircraft systems. The project will discuss the concept of human-system interactions and how shortcomings in human knowledge and skills have led to the failure of the unmanned aerial system (UAS). The scope of this paper will involve the statement of the problem, the significance of the problem, alternative actions, as well as recommendations that are necessary for improving the security and safety of the unmanned aerospace system.

Problem Statement

The tremendous technological advancements witnessed over the last few decades have led to widespread development among them being the automation of aviation. The flourishing aviation automation has seen a transition from manned aircraft to unmanned aircrafts that are designed to “operate autonomously or be piloted remotely without a pilot on board.” Unmanned aircrafts have been used to support numerous reconnaissance and surveillance operations by the military. However, in the 21st century, numerous cases of unmanned aircraft crashes have been reported –among them the UAS that crashed near Nogales, Arizona in 2006. This marked the beginning of an extensive study that sought to explore various factors that have contributed to the failure of UAS. Apart from mechanical failures, “the increased reliance on autonomous and unmanned operations is increasing the aspects of human-system interaction”(Terwilliger et al. (2015).Lack of adequate skills and expertise continues to be the major cause of crashes involving unmanned aircrafts. This scenario presents a major challenge that requires comprehensive analysis to find out various ways in which human factors have contributed to the failure of UAS.

Human contributions determine the success or failure of unmanned aircraft operations. Human factors are linked with monitoring and control of UAS from a remote location. However, a lack of system knowledge and proper training may result in the ineffectiveness of UAS. Interaction between the human user and the system must meet certain requirements to realize the optimal automation of aviation(Hobbs & Lyall, 2015). However, as the aviation industry continues to move towards the automation direction, numerous human factors issues continue to front a major challenge as far as the future of UAS is concerned. The anticipated future growth of the aviation industry is at limbo due to increased complications in the safety of UAS –something that has been linked to a myriad of crashes involving unmanned aircraft.

Growth in remote-control culture and complacency are among the major human factors issues which have had a negative consequence on UAS. Key stakeholders in the aviation industry are yet to take some of these issues seriously –meaning that they will continue to front a serious barrier towards the smooth transition to unmanned aircraft. Aviation automation has allowed people who are “unfamiliar with the ethics and standard practices of aircraft maintenance, and the legislative framework within which maintenance occurs” to work as remote pilots (Cardosi & Lennertz, 2017). Generally, people who control unmanned aircrafts remotely may sometimes lack basic aviation knowledge and background –hence increasing chances of UAS failure. Moreover, since unmanned aircraft do not carry people, there is a common assumption that human exposure to risks is not there. Hence, technicians do not necessarily carry out comprehensive pre-checks of security issues. This poses a huge threat that could lead to accidents since UAS might be experiencing a lot of unidentified technical problems due to insufficient security checks conducted on the system state of UAS. Since there is no human being in the aircrafts, the technicians are always reluctant in carrying out scheduled security checks and maintenance practice which would otherwise improve the functionality of the aircrafts. The technicians trusted with the maintenance of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems should be compelled to conduct the security checks and maintenance to reduce the human factors that put the Unmanned Aircraft System at a risk.

Significance of the Problem

The fact that no one boards the unmanned aircraft does not mean that its crash cannot result in negative consequences. Accidents involving unmanned aircrafts expose people on the ground and those in other manned aircrafts to grave risks. According to Kuffner et al. (2016), “in unmanned flight, the risks are borne by others who did not agree to be exposed to that risk.” This can lead to adverse effects including injuries and deaths that must be avoided at all costs. The risks caused by human factors issues are mainly centered on the safety of the public and other aircraft operating with the airspace. If the remote pilot does not control unmanned aircraft carefully, UAS might end up in a controlled airspace which is above 500 feet. This can lead to a collision between manned aircraft and UAS –something that could lead to fatalities. Moreover, when an accident occurs, an unmanned aircraft can land into a populated residential area or even town –hence causing injuries to innocent people. For instance, the unmanned aircraft crash that occurred near Nogales, Arizona in 2006 landed in a “sparsely populated area –causing injuries and damages to the property of people in the area.”Thus, the issue of complacency and remote-control culture might expose innocent people to risks thus the need to operate with formal procedures and checklists to avoid such risks. From this description, it is pretty clear that human factors issues present a very serious problem that needs to addressed in order ensure improvements in UAS –a decision that will be key in ensuring that the safety of people and properties is guaranteed.

Problem Analysis

The unmanned aerospace system consists of three major components including:

· Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)

· The autonomous or human-run control system

· “Communication, command, and control system”

The above-mentioned components form the broader “Remotely Piloted Air Systems (RPAS)”. A ‘pilot’ in a remote location uses a radio data link to control the UAV. This means that the human factor still plays a pivotal role in the operation of unmanned aircraft. According to Barmpounakis et al. (2016), “human interactions with automated systems determine the success or failure of UAS.” Pilots who control unmanned aircraft remotely must be equipped with skills and knowledge that enable them to use automated systems to influence the effectiveness of automated aircraft.

However, human operators and automated controls involve making decisions that determine the safety and security of unmanned aircraft in the airspace. The two issues presented in this paper are as discussed in details below:

Complacency

Since no human beings are transported using unmanned aircraft, technicians may tend to ignore security checks that could instead identify various issues that affect the proper functioning of the aircraft. This presents a major UAS maintenance concern. According to Franke (2014), “there is the potential for technicians to be of the mindset that their work is less critical because there isn’t a human being transported on the system.” Consequently, technicians and other aviation operators fail to conduct sufficient checks of the unmanned aircraft hence assuming dangerous conditions that could develop into accidents. For the safety of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems, the technicians have to conduct security checks to ensure that the aircrafts are safe to fly. The checks that should be done include;

· Powers sources of the flight are fully charged,

· Proper mounting of the propellers,

· Damping absorbers should be in great condition,

· The motors of the aircraft should be functioning properly,

· Removal of the camera lens cap,

· Connection of the UAS application to the camera on the aircraft,

· Normal functioning of the Gimbals,

· Any other security measure that is necessary such as sd-card proper mounting.

The technicians should make sure that they check the above security features on the aircraft before allowing them to take off.

Automation complacency has reduced the level of aircraft monitoring meant to establish system performance. The negative consequence of this assumption results in “system malfunction, anomalous condition, or out-right failure” –resulting in accidents that could lead to fatalities. Johry & Kapoor (2016) notes that “technician and complacency have long been implicated as a major contributing factor in aviation accidents.” Generally, complacency is associated with failure to monitor the performance of unmanned aircrafts adequately as well as failure to “quickly correct automation failures” –something that contributes to increasing cases of accidents.

Remote–control culture

Personnel tasked with remote control of unmanned aircrafts are required to have vast experience, skills, and knowledge regarding piloting and the overall aviation industry. This will help them to effectively control aircraft from a remote location using a radio data link. According to Low, Gan & Mao (2014), personnel controlling unmanned aircrafts remotely face “shortfalls in individual’s skill and knowledge including checklist error, task mis-prioritization, lack of training for training for task attempted, and inadequate system knowledge.” Most of the remote ‘pilots’ are found to have little or no mainstream aviation background. They tend to lack formal checklists and procedures that are necessary for remote-control hobbyists. Moreover, remote pilots tasked with controlling unmanned aircrafts “may be unfamiliar with the ethics and standard practices of aircraft maintenance, and legislative framework within which maintenance occurs.” For instance, unmanned aircrafts are required to operate within the uncontrolled airspace which is between 400-500 feet. However, lack of this knowledge may have the UAVs entering controlled airspace –something that would lead to a collision between UAVs and manned aircrafts. This results in fatalities including injuries and death.

Alternative Actions

The purpose of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems can be met using another form of technology. With the advancement of technology, most countries are striving to develop and use “independent satellite navigation systems (ISNS)” which are more accurate and reliable than UASs. The Independent Satellite Navigation Systems are able to provide civilian surveillance just like the Unmanned Aircraft Systems. The Independent Satellite Navigation Systems are better and safer than the Unmanned Aircraft Systems since they rely on already position and established satellites. The Satellite Navigation Systems allows the concerned people to receive radio waves through small electronic devices. The satellite Navigation Systems allows people to receive information about the position or tracking the position of a device fitted with the satellite receivers. The satellite systems also allow people to calculate the time in their local area hence enabling time synchronization. The Satellite Navigation System does not do not require frequent security checking, unlike the Unmanned Aircraft System. They are used for various reconnaissance and surveillance purposes –just like UAS. ISNS can be used as a better alternative to replace UAS since the former operates in the orbit hence reducing any chances of a collision or fatal crashes. Countries should work their way to set up the Satellite Navigation Systems since they do not require frequent security checks hence translating to be safer than Unmanned Aircraft Systems.

Recommendations

The human factors issues associated with the ineffectiveness of UAS can be addressed to avoid accidents involving unmanned aircrafts –thus improving the efficiency and safety of automated aircraft. Training and education are required to instill skills and knowledge among remote pilots who control civil UAVs. RPAS operators require knowledge and experience of a qualified pilot of a manned aircraft. Training will equip them with technical capabilities to enable them in addressing the performance UAVs and their ability to execute the required operations. Moreover, education and sensitization enable remote pilots and technicians with vast knowledge regarding regulations and ethical standards governing the aviation industry. For instance, they require skills and expertise to assess the performance of UAVs as well as controlled and uncontrolled airspace to avoid collisions that might result in injuries and deaths.

In conclusion, human factors have been present and have continued to affect the development of the Unmanned Aircraft Systems within the Aviation Industry. Such has been facilitated by the reluctance of the technicians involved in the maintenance of the aircrafts. The aviation industry has a well-established checklist on the security measures that must be checked before the aircrafts are allowed to take off. Ignorance of any item on the checklist by the relevant individuals can lead to fatal accidents which result in costly losses. The fact that the Unmanned Aircraft Systems do not transport human beings should not be a basis of not conducting proper security checks on the Unmanned Aircraft Systems. The technicians should develop a habit of conducting security checks before any of the aircraft takes off. The human factors that result from ignorance have largely contributed to the failures that have been witnessed in regard to the Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Despite the continued use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems, countries should now focus on investing in the Satellite Navigation Systems. The Satellite Navigation Systems are safer than the Unmanned Aircraft Systems since they are not subjected to compulsory frequent security checks.

References

Baldwin, H. (2014). Human Factors in Unmanned Aircraft Operations/UAV operations pose new MRO challenges. Aviation Week & Space Technology. Sep, 8.

Barmpounakis, E. N., Vlahogianni, E. I., & Golias, J. C. (2016). Unmanned Aerial Aircraft Systems for transportation engineering: Current practice and future challenges. International Journal of Transportation Science and Technology, 5(3), 111-122.

Cardosi, K., & Lennertz, T. (2017). Human factors considerations for the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles in the National Airspace System: an analysis of reports submitted to the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) (No. DOT/FAA/TC-17/25). John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center (US).

Franke, U. E. (2014). Drones, drone strikes, and US policy: The politics of unmanned aerial vehicles. Parameters, 44(1), 121.

Hobbs, A., & Lyall, B. (2015). Human factors guidelines for unmanned aircraft system ground control stations. NASA, September.

Johry, A., & Kapoor, M. (2016). Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV): fault-tolerant design. International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research, 3(6), 1-7.

Kuffner, M., Guendel, R. E., & Darrah, S. (2016, June). Investigating traffic avoidance maneuver decisions of unmanned aircraft pilots. In Proceedings of the 16th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Washington, DC, USA (pp. 13-17).

Low, K. H., Gan, L., & Mao, S. (2014). A Preliminary Study in Managing Safe and Efficient Low-Altitude Unmanned Aircraft System Operations in a Densely Built-up Urban Environment. Air Traffic Management Research Institute, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Nanyang Technological University.

Marshall, D. M., Barnhart, R. K., Hottman, S. B., Shappee, E., & Most, M. T. (2016). Introduction to unmanned aircraft systems. Crc Press.

Prisacariu, V., & Muraru, A. (2016). Unmanned aerial system (UAS) in the context of modern warfare. Scientific Research and Education in the Air Force-AFASES.

Terwilliger, B., Vincenzi, D., Ison, D., Witcher, K., Thirtyacre, D., & Khalid, A. (2015). Influencing factors for use of unmanned aerial systems in support of aviation accidents and emergency response. Journal of Automation and Control Engineering, 3(3), 246.

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