Considering the concepts studied in the reading this week on managing talent and reading assignments in previous weeks and in the material presented in the classroom,

• summarize key principles that you think are important in building flourishing organizations.
• Give examples from the course material
• and relate them to an example or examples you have experienced in the organizations in which you have worked.

The body of your reading response should be 2-3 pages in length in APA format (excluding references, title page, and notes). You may use other references to support your conclusions and arguments. You should post your completed assignment to this portal prior to the due date and time noted for this exercise.

www.asq.org/pub/jqp 25

Management techniques

focusing on communication

processes can help you avoid

disruptive team-based conflict.

Conflict Leadership
Navigating Toward Effective

and Efficient Team Outcomes

Ana Shetach

Teams are becoming more common as workers join virtual, autono-
mous, cross-functional, action-learning,
and many other kinds of teams. By their
very nature, working teams are poten-
tial settings for varied professional as
well as personal, ego-based conflicts.
This article posits that management and
team decisions, behaviors, and outcomes
are a direct consequence of the nature
of conflict-management—throughout
overall team management and teamwork
processes. It suggests easily applicable
managerial techniques for harnessing
conflict situations toward effective and
efficient overall team results.

The following questions are discussed
as well as some proposed insights:

• Can you learn processes and acquire
skills to produce increasingly efficient
and effective team results?

• What are potentially positive conflicts?

• What makes the difference between
positive and negative conflict
outcomes?

• How can you develop conflict-
management skills?

• What is the role of team leadership
in positive conflict navigation?

This article also considers the issue
of interests and intentions underlying
the management of conflict situations
during the various stages of team
leadership, within and among organi-
zational units and teams. It provides
insights to support the argument that
team decisions, behaviors, and out-
comes, are a direct consequence of how
well conflicts are handled throughout
the overall team process.

The Nature of Conflict
Conflicts within working teams—

often stemming from differences of
opinions or incongruent interests—are
fairly common. In particular, teamwork
settings associated with assignment and
project processes create suitable condi-
tions for conflicts. Their nature, depth,
complexity, the rate of the partners’
involvement in those situations, and,
especially, how well the conflicts are
handled may all have a significant effect
on the overall, ultimate results of the
associated projects.

Handling conflict always has been a
central factor in human life and history
that determined the consequences of
the particular venture. This applies to

http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp

The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201226

all levels of human existence, whether political,
organizational, or personal. Human nature, on a
basic behavioral level, has not changed. Conflicts,
with their direct and indirect consequences, still
continue to affect the results of our doings on a
day-to-day basis, thus impacting our lives. Within
organizational settings, the fashion by which con-
flicts are managed has a direct impact on the overall
directions taken by management and teams.1

Conflict is a normal state of affairs and is neither
negative nor positive by nature. For the purpose of
this article it is defined as “differences of opinions
and/or contradiction of interests among two or
more people, parties, or factors” (departments,
organizations, nations, etc.). This definition is
based on the assumption that differences among
human beings present themselves continuously in
all communication settings due to the following
two basic reasons:

• First, interpersonal differences exist on every
possible dimension—age, sex, race, looks, feel-
ings, education, upbringing, experience, attitude,
opinions, cultures, nations, religion, etc.

• Second, contradictory interests often are due to
the affiliation of people with differing cultures,
positions, roles, status, and hierarchy levels.
They also are a result of association and/or
commitment to a specific firm, department,
organization, level, group, country, culture,
religion, etc. On a deeper level, another factor
might be people’s personal ego needs.

Conflicts are assumed to arise consistently
among human beings who work with each other
in any setting on the basis of one or both of the
above reasons.1 Whether the disagreement and/
or the contradiction of interests will be dealt with
constructively or steered in a destructive direction
depends on the parties involved and how they
handle and manage the situation. This is particu-
larly critical in teamwork and project settings, where
effectively handling each team assignment may
affect or even determine ultimate success.

When two parties are communicating and a
conflict occurs, as long as both sides continue to
concentrate on the issue, they are headed toward
a satisfactory solution. As they do their best not to
get personally involved—and thereby lose their
ability to clearly see their mutual objectives and
interests—the process is bound to be resolved
constructively. The same is true for managing

any discussion within a team regarding any issue
or mutual interest. Keeping the discussion on a
matter-of-course level increases the probability of
a high-level, creative solution that is acceptable
to all parties involved. Additionally, it ensures a
cooperative relationship among the parties for
the involvement of all in the future progress of
the project.

Politics and power play a major role among
people in any setting or level at work. The condi-
tions for personally evoked emotional conflicts
abound in team settings. Such conditions may
include the following:

• As members of workgroups promote their ideas
and opinions at decision-making stages.

• When highly cooperative activities are needed
during implementation stages.

• During times of pressure-filled deadlines.

• When various stakeholders have high expecta-
tions for the team.

People who are able to develop their awareness
and focus on their personal position vis-à-vis the
conflict-evolvement process have a higher chance
of controlling the direction in which the conflict
will evolve and, therefore, effectively direct the
final result of the process.

Team Management and Conflict Leadership
Managing teams is a highly complex assignment,

often involving high organizational stakes and
expectations, vast financial investments, involve-
ment of numerous factors/stakeholders, and the
ability to handle professionally heterogenic and
diversified teams.

Yet, at the bottom line, everyday assignments
and long-term projects are about attaining two
basic objectives: arriving at optimal decisions and
implementing them efficiently, toward obtain-
ing goals and destinations.2 Figure 1 (as well as
Figure 4A) shows this basic conceptualization of
team management.

Project Decision-Making Processes
Adizes proposes that managers can be cat-

egorized according to their capability to view,
analyze, and understand situations, problems,
and assignments.2 These different outlooks deter-
mine their managerial styles. The four critical
factors by which managers can be categorized
include the following:

www.asq.org/pub/jqp 27

• P—Doer, performer, seeing the world in con-
crete terms

• A—Organizer, bureaucrat, by-the-rules person

• E—Entrepreneur, creative, full-spectrum (macro)
points of view, long-term perspective

• I—A people person, natural facilitator, good
communications

A person’s managerial style is composed of a
different combination of these four traits. Each
manager could be stronger in some of these traits
and weaker in the others. The managerial capabili-
ties constitute four different managerial dimensions
or points of view. Combined, they create a whole
multidimensional perspective on any issue. No one
individual, according to Adizes, is capable of a bal-
anced perspective at all times, or for a long time,
regarding all situations. Team thinking and team
planning are often required, especially in complex
processes, such as project management. All four
aspects of thinking are necessary to produce quali-
tative and workable decisions. Decisions, which
are both qualitative and workable, require all of
the aforementioned four capabilities: concrete and
practical planning, organizational perspectives,
a long-term creative and macro initiative, and
people-oriented thinking.

Conflicts naturally arise when people with dif-
ferent managerial personalities are discussing an
issue or an assignment. Different points of view
and opinions are essential for problem-solving
and decision-making practices within projects.
They inspire and eventually bring about creative,
quality solutions. The process by which these solu-
tions are derived is bound to be complex, however.
It will inevitably be “conflictual.” Whether these
conflicts will eventually contribute better solu-
tions to problems and excellent project results,
rather than accelerating toward disastrous situa-
tions, depends on how they are handled. Thus, the
effective management of team decision-making

processes requires high-level conflict-resolution
awareness and skills to promote the required
collaboration among decision makers to make
quality decisions.

Adizes’ basic managerial conception (see
Figure 1) implies that decision-making processes
are cardinal in project management, but that
without efficient implementation processes, proj-
ects may risk not materializing as expected.

Team Implementation Processes
One of the critical managerial acts that can help

overcome difficulties that may arise within teams
during management processes of assignments
and projects is the preliminary “mapping-out”
of processes. This singles out in advance the
potential difficulties and conflicts that may sur-
face throughout the project. Shetach3 proposes
Adizes’ “CAPI” model4 as an efficient tool for this
pre-mapping analysis (see Figure 2). CAPI stands
for coalesced authority, power, and influence. It is
believed that to manage assignments and projects
effectively and efficiently, leading them toward
successful completion, it is essential to coalesce
these three forces (or energy sources.)4 Coalescing
these forces implies getting all the stakeholder
representatives to collaborate in managing the
project from its beginning to the end. This is nec-
essary to ensure efficient implementation of all
subsequent decisions and actions.

The CAPI model does this primarily by shed-
ding light on all potential conflict zones and
junctions and by proposing the optimal processes

Figure 1: The Goals of

Management

Management

Ef�cient Implementation
of Decisions

Effective Decision
Making

Adizes, 2004

Figure 2: The “CAPI” Model

AUTHORITY
A

POWER
(of Cooperation)

P
C

INFLUENCE
I

http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp

The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201228

for extracting better
solutions and higher
levels of support and
cooperation in those
potentially hazardous
situations. These opti-
mal processes ensure
both the quality of
the decisions taken
within the project and
the smooth process of
their implementation.
This applies whether
the decision is a solu-
tion to a problem
within a project or the
promotion of a project
as a whole. The ele-
ments within this tool
are elaborated in the following:

• The factor of “authority”—The CAPI model
advises users to verify in advance whether
the project manager has the full authority
to act independently upon decisions taken
within the project. Likewise, any particular deci-
sion regarding a specific aspect of the project
requires a similar advance verification to ensure
its efficient implementation.

• The factor of “power of cooperation”—To ensure
maximum success in any decision, the CAPI
model recommends taking initial steps to
ensure full cooperation of all “power holders”
in the future. This ensures that cooperators
have the necessary know-how and/or capabili-
ties and/or resources as well as the willingness
and interest to cooperate. In politics these
steps are termed “lobbying” or getting your
potential cooperators to willingly and fully
cooperate when their cooperation is needed
in the future.

• The factor of “influence or information”—You
should also make sure in advance that the
decision you are taking is a qualitative, suit-
able, and workable one; otherwise you might
discover (often too late), that the decision was
not based on the full volume of data regarding:

• The nature of the assignment/project and/or
its objectives.

• The relevant environment within which it
prevails.

• The limitations and constraints on its
“smooth” application.

• The resources available for the project
(budget, manpower etc.).

A CAPI team includes the figure of authority,
representatives of all cooperating factors, and all
the people who have the necessary know-how and
expertise to solve the problems and arrive at qual-
ity decisions. Such a composition of assignment/
project teams ensures on one hand both quality
decisions and efficient implementation processes.
On the other hand, it is bound to evoke profound
differences of opinions and contradictory inter-
ests among its members. CAPI teams are potential
settings for varied and profound professional, as
well as personal, ego-based conflicts.

To maximize efficient implementation,
the CAPI model is coupled with the Revised
Decision-Square model (RDSM).5 The RDSM
provides team managers with simple techniques
to ensure efficient follow-up and control during
decision-implementation processes throughout
the project. This tool minimizes destructive
ego-evoked conflicts and maximizes smooth,
cooperative implementations.

It collapses all the possible variety of decision
aspects into four categories that constitute the
four sides of a square. Those decision aspects
include the goals, a detailed operative descrip-
tion of the final project/decision results, a
detailed implementation timetable, resources

Figure 3: The Decision-Square Model—An Elaborated Example

WHAT

HOW WHO
Sarah

WHEN
March 11

10:00-11:00

Decision
A clear and
detailed list
of assignments
for each team
member:
John:……
Sarah:…..
Ruth:……

A detailed
list of
resources
(including
plans for
obtaining
them)

– Project/decision

goals

– Manifested operative description
– Schedule for application: March 15
April 2
May 1

www.asq.org/pub/jqp 29

and processes for their attain-
ment, and the distribution of
assignments among committee
members, as well as agreed-upon
dates for future follow-up meet-
ings of the team/committee. It
also includes the name of the
team-nominated project/decision
coordinator. Figure 3 presents a
detailed RDSM.

The RDSM states that the
more thoroughly, clearly, and
unequivocally you “seal” (specify
in detail) all decision aspects, the
better your chance of efficient
implementation. It recommends
sealing at least one decision
square regarding that task or proj-
ect before the end of every team
meeting. Usually, more than one
will be appropriate (e.g., a square
per each topic or aspect of the
overall issue or project aspect).

This tool touches on extremely
basic issues, such as tying up
all loose ends, ensuring clear
and unambiguous communi-
cations within teams, setting
follow-up meetings and dates,
etc. Following the RDSM lead
has significance in limiting
situations that may evoke un-
necessary conflicts centering
on various misunderstandings,
power struggles, and interper-
sonal differences.

The potential contribution of
the CAPI model, coupled with
the RDSM, is the combined abil-
ity to lead managers and teams
through a comparatively safe
route to successful assignment/
project finalization and achieve-
ments. The two models meet
this objective by maximizing
opportunities for constructive
and potentially creative conflict
resolution processes while simul-
taneously minimizing time- and
energy-consuming conflicts.

Figure 4: The Interwoven Team-Leadership—Conflict-Management
Model (TLCM)

Management

Con�icts

A
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation

of the Decisions

CAPI Teams

Contradictory Interests

PAEI Complementary Teams

Different Points of View

Management

Management
of Con�icts

B
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation

of the Decisions
CAPI Teams
Contradictory Interests
PAEI Complementary Teams
Different Points of View
Management
Management
of Con�icts

C
Taking Quality Decisions Ef�cient Implementation

of the Decisions
CAPI Teams
Contradictory Interests
PAEI Complementary Teams
Different Points of View

De�ning clear
agreed-upon

goals

A tight “sealing”
of all “decision

squares”

Matter-of-course
(rather than

personal-level)
discussion

Ef�cient
management of
team decision-

making processes

Identifying the
appropriate con�ict-
coping style for the
particular situation

Based on Adizes, 1992, 2004, 2011

http://www.asq.org/pub/jqp

The Journal for QualiTy & ParTiciPaTion July 201230

The Interwoven Team-Leadership—
Conflict-Management Model

Team management, in all its complexity and
variations, is basically about the efficient han-
dling of conflict situations. Figure 4 illustrates
this notion. Team leadership is intertwined with
conflict management as follows:

• The management of teamwork, assignments,
and projects is about effective and efficient
decision-making and decision-implementation
processes.

• Decision-making processes are about cre-
ative team processes, which are based on the
“richness” of variations in team members’
interpersonal and professional know-how and
experiences along with their differing points
of view.

• Decision-implementation processes are about
handling conflicts, which tend to center on
various misunderstandings, power struggles,
and interpersonal differences in the inter-
pretation of details within decisions and
instructions, etc.

Figure 4C points out possible directions and
tools that can efficiently direct the positive han-
dling of conflict situations toward creative and
suitable goal-oriented solutions and the promo-
tion of overall successful team results:

• Defining a clear set of project and sub-project
goals, testing, and retesting them at every junc-
tion for handling dilemma and conflict along
the project process.

• Trying to handle conflict situations on a matter-
of-course level (rather than letting them deteri-
orate toward ego-controlled power struggles).

• Identifying suitable conflict-coping styles for
attaining the destined goals within each and
every particular conflict situation along the
project process.

• Leading efficient and collaborated team decision-
making processes.

• Tightly sealing each and every decision using the
RDSM 5 approach.

Summary
Successful team management, regardless of

the content or professional occupation involved,
is about extracting and maximizing the potential
essence of conflicts and of conflict situations
within teams. Communication processes within
teams are inlaid with conflicts—potential under-
lying differences, as well as overt contradictions
of opinions and interests. Monitoring those and
navigating toward desirable results is mastering
team leadership to perfection.

References
1. Ana Shetach, “The Four-Dimensions Model: A
Tool for Effective Conflict Management,” Journal of
International Studies of Management and Organization,
Fall 2009, pp. 82-106.

2. Ichak Adizes, Leading the Leaders: How to Enrich Your
Style of Management and Handle People Whose Style is
Different From Yours, The Adizes Institute Publishing, 2004.

3. Ana Shetach, “Obstacles to Successful Management of
Projects and Decision and Tips for Coping With Them,”
Team Performance Management, Fall 2010, pp. 329-342.

4. Ichak Adizes, Mastering Change, The Adizes Institute
Publishing, 1992.

5. Ana Shetach, “The Revised Decision-Square Model
(RDSM): A Tool for Effective Decision-Implementation
in Teams,” Team Performance Management, Spring 2009,
pp. 7-17.

Ana Shetach
Ana Shetach is an organizational consultant specializing
in team processes and team development. She works with
management groups, teams, and individual managers,
focusing on strategically effective decision-making and
decision-implementation processes. A resident of Haifa,
Israel, Shetach is also currently lecturing in The Max-Stern
Academic College of Emek-Yezreel. Contact Shetach at
shetachf@netvision.net.il.

mailto:shetachf@netvision.net.il

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Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic, and
Transformational Leadership: A Test of
Antecedents
John E. Barbuto Jr.
University of Nebraska – Lincoln, jbarbuto@unlnotes.unl.edu

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Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 2005, Volume 1 1, Number 4

Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic,
and Transformational Leadership: A Test of

Antecedents

John E Barbuto Jr

Relationships between leaders’ motivation
and their use of charismatic, transactional, and /
or transformational leadership were examined
in this study. One hundred eighty-six leaders
and 759 direct reports from a variety of
organizations were sampled. Leaders were
administered the Motivation Sources Inventory
(MSO while followers reported leaders’ full
range leadership behaviors using the Multi-
factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-rater
version). Leaders were also administered the
self-rating version of the Multi-factor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-rater version).
The Motivation Sources Inventory subscales .
subsequently signzjkantly correlated with leader
self-reports of inspirational motivation,
idealized influence (behavior) and
individualized consideration (range, r = .10 to
.29), as well as with raters’ perceptions of
inspirational motivation, idealized influence
(behavior) and individualized consideration
(range, r = .18 to .19). The Motivation Sources
Inventory subscales significantly correlated with
leaders’ self-reports of charisma, transactional
and laissez-faire leadership (range, r = .12 to
.28), with rater-reports of the same variables
(range, r = .16 to .29).

Antecedents of transformational behavior
have been examined sparsely since the concept
was first articulated and researched (Burns,
1978; Bass, 1985). Those few studies that have
examined the construct as a criterion variable
have included Avolio’s (1 994) examination of
life events and experiences, Bass’s (1985)
exploration of early career challenges, Howard
and Bray’s (1988) study of personality variables,
Atwater and Yammarino’s (1993) study of
personal attributes as precedents to
transformational leader behaviors, and Barbuto,

Fritz, and Marx’s (2000) study of work
motivation and transformational leadership.
Results of these inquiries demonstrate that
dispositional variables play some role in
transformational leadership, but much research
is necessary to ascertain which variables explain
the greatest variance in data. This study tests the
relationship between leaders’ sources of
motivation and their use of transactional,
charismatic, and transformational leadership.

Literature Review

Full Range Model of Leadership
Transformational leadership theories grew

from Bums’s (1978) work in political
leadership. Bums (1 978) described the
transforming leader as one who is able to lift
followers up from their petty preoccupations and
rally around a common purpose to achieve
things never thought possible. Bass (1 985)
developed a typology of leadership behaviors
fitting into the broad categories of transactional
and transformational leadership. Bass (1 985)
identified laissez-faire, management-by-
exception, and contingent reward as the key
types of transactional leadership. Most
conceptualizations of transactional leadership,
however, exclude laissez-faire because it
represents the absence of leadership.

Transformational leadership was
operationalized at the time to include charisma,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration (see Avolio, Waldman & Einstein,
1988; Bass, 1990). Through theory refinements
and research, a fourth component of
transformational leadership was identified –
inspirational motivation. Later, after one of the
key components – charisma – received increased
scrutiny and criticism as potentially

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 27

incompatible with transformational ideals (see
Barbuto, 1997; Hunt, 1999), the term ‘charisma’
in the full range leadership model was
eventually changed to idealized influence. The
full range leadership model describes the
distribution of leadership behaviors, ranging
from completely inactive (laissez-faire) to
transactional behaviors to transformational
behaviors.

Transactional Leadership
Bradford and Lippitt (1 945) described

laissez-faire leadership as a leader’s disregard of
supervisory duties and lack of guidance to
subordinates. Laissez-faire leaders offer little
support to their subordinates and are inattentive
to productivity or the necessary completion of
duties. Lewin, Lippitt and White (1939) studied
boys’ clubs in which adults were taught to lead
each group as either a laissez-faire leader or a
democratic leader. Laissez-faire leaders gave
their groups complete freedom and offered little
guidance. These groups proved to be confused
and disorganized, and their work was less
efficient and of poorer quality than the work of
groups whose leaders exhibited different
behaviors. From the outset, laissez-faire has
demonstrated itself to be the most inactive, least
effective, and most frustrating leadership style.
Katz, Macoby, Gurin, and Floor (1951) studied
railroad section groups that were deemed to be
unproductive. The leaders of these groups gave
complete control to the group members and the
members did not respond to the challenge.
Studies show that policies and practices that
reflect non-involvement of supervisors lead to
low productivity, resistance to change, and low
quality of work (Argyris, 1954; Berrien, 1961;
Murnigham & Leung, 1976).

Management-by-exception has it roots in
contingent reinforcement theories (Bass, 1990)
whereby subordinates are rewarded or punished
for a designated action. Leaders practicing
management-by-exception do not get involved
with subordinates until failures or deviations in
workflow occur (Bass, 1985; 1990).
Intervention by the leader occurs only when a
failure takes place and punishment or corrective
action is necessary. The leader sets up pre-
determined actions for specific failures and

enforces the punishments when necessary.
Passive leaders tend to get involved only when
necessary and refuse to set a plan of action.
Such leaders expect only the status quo from
subordinates, do not encourage exceptional work
(Hater & Bass, 1988), and wait to be notified of
failures. Active leaders, unlike their passive
counterparts, regularly search for failures and
devise systems that warn of impending failures
before they occur (Hater & Bass, 1988).

Leaders who practice management by
exception routinely provide negative feedback
because they only initiate contact with
subordinates when failures occur. This action
stimulates subordinates to maintain the status
quo and strive for perfection at their job.
However, the behavior does not encourage or
foster growth of the person or job performance.
In a management-by-exception environment,
any non-routine circumstances will require
leader intervention, because employees have not
been encouraged to solve problems and have not
been given the autonomy to develop confidence
or to learn fiom experiences (See Bass, 1985;
1990).

Leaders and followers both participate in a
contingent rewards approach to management,
because it reflects behavior that is reciprocal in
nature (Howell & Avolio, 1993). Each party
agrees to a system of rewards and works to meet
mutual expectations for certain achievements or
behaviors (Bass, 1990; Seltzer & Bass, 1990).
This approach stems partly from reinforcement
theory and has been central to leadership theory
and practice for many years. Bass (1990)
described many examples from early Greek
mythology in which contingent rewards were
used by the gods. Kelman (1958) discussed
instrumental compliance and instrumental
inducements in early discussions of this type of
leadership. Blanchard and Johnson (1 985)
described transactional management as a simple
process of creating strong expectations with
employees, along with clear indications of what
they will get in return for meeting these
expectations. Most research has linked
contingent rewards to positive organizational
outcomes (Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe,
Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).

28 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

Charismatic Leadership
Charisma is believed to be the fundamental

factor in the transformational process and is
described as the leader’s ability to generate great
symbolic power. Weber (1 947) first described
the concept of charismatic leadership as
stemming from subordinates’ (or followers’)
perceptions that the leader is endowed with
exceptional skills or talents. In its origins,
charismatic leadership was a focus in studying
political and world leaders (Bums, 1978; House,
Spangler & Woycke, 1991). Research of
charismatic leadership has consistently found
significant relationships with follower trust,
effort, and commitment (Howell & Frost, 1989;
Lowe et al., 1996).

Transformational Leadership
Bass (1985) espoused a theory of

transformational leadership that built on the
earlier works of Burns (1978). The degree to
which leaders are transformational was
measured in terms of the leader’s effect on
followers. Followers of transformational leaders
feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect
toward leaders and are motivated to perform
extra-role behaviors (Bass, 1985; Katz & Kahn,
1978). Transformational leaders have been
shown to increase followers’ trust satisfaction
and citizenship (Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Morrman & Fetter, 1990). Leaders high in
transformational behaviors achieve maximum
performance from followers because they are
able to inspire followers to raise their criteria for
success and develop innovative problem solving
skills (Bass, 1985; Yammarino & Bass, 1990).

The transformational leader-follower
relationship is viewed as one of mutual
stimulation and is operationalized with three
distinct characteristics: intellectual stimulation,
individualized consideration, and inspirational
motivation (Barbuto, 1997; Bass, 1985; Bass &
Avolio, 1990). Individualized consideration
describes leaders acting in the role of employee
mentors (Bass, 1 985). Inspirational motivation
describes leaders passionately communicating a
future idealistic organization that can be shared
(Hater & Bass, 1988). Intellectual stimulation
describes leaders encouraging employees to
approach old and familiar problems in new ways
(Bass, 1985; Deluga, 1988).

The motives inherent in the full-range
leadership model have been examined
surprisingly little during the past 20 years of
transformational leadership research. This
project, therefore, tests the specific relationships
between leaders’ sources of work motivation
and the full range leadership behaviors used by
leaders in the workplace. The next section
reviews the motivation literature and develops
the expected relationships between the variables
of interest.

Sources of Motivation in the
Workplace

Toward a Meta-Theory of Work
Motivation

Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1999)
proposed a new typology of motivation sources,
which was later operationalized with scales to
measure the taxonomy (Barbuto & Scholl,
1998). This taxonomy was further developed
and tested to predict leaders’ behaviors (Barbuto
& Scholl, 1999; Barbuto, Fritz & Marx, 2000).
In two independent research studies examining
antecedents of leaders’ behaviors (using these
two motivation taxonomies), the five sources of
motivation (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998; Leonard,
Beauvais & Scholl, 1999) were better able to
predict behavior than McClelland’s (1 985)
three-need model (see Barbuto, Fritz & Marx,
2000; 2002). These five sources of motivation
include intrinsic process, instrumental, self-
concept-external, self-concept-internal, and goal
internalization.

The Five Sources of Work Motivation

Intrinsic Process Motivation
If people are motivated to perform certain

kinds of work or to engage in certain types of
behavior for the sheer fun of it, then intrinsic
process motivation is occurring. For this source
of motivation, the work itself acts as the
incentive because workers enjoy what they are
doing. Similar constructs to intrinsic process
motivation can be found extensively in the
literature. Developmental theorists have
described a similar motive using the terms
heteronymous morality (Kohlberg, 1976),

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 29

impulsive (Loevinger, 1976; Kegan, 1982), and,
to a lesser extent, pre-operational (Piaget,
1972). Other need-based descriptors similar to
intrinsic process include early existence needs
(Alder fer, 1969), intrinsic pleasure needs
(Murray, 1 964) and physiological needs
(Maslow, 1954). Bandura (1 986) describes
sensory intrinsic motivation and physiological
intrinsic motivation in terms similar to those
used to describe intrinsic process motivation.
This motive also has been articulated as intrinsic
motivation to obtain task pleasure (Deci, 1975)
and intrinsic task motivation devoid of external
controls or rewards (Staw, 1976).

Past researchers (Deci, 1975; Katz & Kahn,
1978; Staw, 1976) have used the term intrinsic
motivation to represent personal satisfaction
derived from achievement of goals or tasks.
Intrinsic process motivation is distinct from the
classical interpretation of intrinsic motivation
because the emphasis with the former is on
immediate enjoyment or pleasure during the
activity, rather than on the satisfaction that
results from its achievement. The classic
intrinsic motivation is better represented in this
motivation taxonomy as self-concept-internal, to
be explained in more detail in this paper.

Intrinsically motivated leaders find
enjoyment and pleasure in the work they do
(Barbuto, Fritz, & Mam, 2002). The leaders’
enjoyment of their work environment could
inspire the followers to emulate the leaders’
behavior and incorporate enjoyment with work
(Avolio, Waldman, & Einstein, 1 988).

Hypothesis 1: Leaders’ intrinsic process
motivation will be positively related to
charismatic and transformational leadership
behaviors.

Instrumental Motivation
Instrumental rewards motivate individuals

when they perceive their behavior will lead to
certain extrinsic tangible outcomes, such as pay,
promotions, bonuses, etc. (Kelman, 1958). This
source of motivation integrates Etzioni’s (1 96 1)
alienative and calculative involvement,
Barnard’s (1938) exchange theory, and Katz and
Kahn’s (1978) legal compliance and external
rewards. Developmental theorists have described
a similar motive as concrete operational (Piaget,

1972), instrumental (Kohlberg, 1976), imperial
(Kegan, 1982), and opportunistic (Loevinger,
1976). Similar instrumental motives have been
described by need theorists as a need for power
(Murray, 1964; McClelland, 1961), a need for
safety (Maslow, 1954), or late stages of
existence needs (Alderfer, 1969).

Instrumental motivation is different from
the classic extrinsic or external motivation
(Deci, 1975; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Staw, 1976) in
that this motive derives from tangible external
rewards, whereas the classic definition includes
social rewards and interpersonal exchanges (in
this typology, motivation that derives from these
rewards is termed self-concept-external).
Extrinsic motivation is further divided in this
meta-theory into two categories of motives:
tangible (instrumental) and social (self-concept-
external). This motivation is characterized by
optimizing self-interests, but with the
recognition that every thing or want has its
tangible price.

Instrumentally motivated leaders see the
value in a reward system for employees
(Barbuto, Fritz, & Mam, 2002). Similarly,
transactional leaders work within a system of
reward/punishment for employees (Bass, 1 990).
We expect that leaders high in instrumental
motivation will likely also be higher in
transactional behaviors.

Hypothesis 2: Leaders’ instrumental
motivation will be positively related to
transactional leadership behaviors.

Self-Concept-External Motivation
This source of motivation tends to be

externally based when individuals are other-
directed and seek affirmation of traits,
competencies, and values from external
perceptions. The ideal self is adopted from the
role expectations of reference groups, explaining
why individuals high in self-concept-external
motivation behave in ways that satisfy reference
group members, first to gain acceptance, and
after achieving that, to gain status.

This source of motivation is similar to
Etzioni’s (1 96 1) social moral involvement,
extrinsic interpersonal motivation described by
Deci (1975) and Staw (1976), and Barnard’s
(1938) social inducements, conformity to group

30 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

attitudes, and communion. This source of
motivation also resembles social identity theory,
in which the focus is on establishing and
maintaining social reference and standing
(Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Developmental
theorists have described a similar motivational
stage as interpersonal (Kohlberg, 1976; Kegan,
1982), early formal operational (Piaget, 1972),
and conformist (Loevinger, 1976).

Other researchers have described similar
motivation as a need for affiliation (McClelland,
1961; Murray, 1964), need for love, affection,
and belonging (Maslow, 1954), and as
relatedness needs (Alderfer, 1969). Katz and
Kahn (1978) describe employees seeking
“membership and seniority in organizations,”
“approval from leaders,” and “approval fi-om
groups” in terms similar to those used to
describe self-concept-external motivation.
Classic articulations of social rewards or social
exchanges are consistent in concept and
motivational explanation with self-concept-
external motives.

Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) propose links
between interpersonal motivations and high-
order transactions, described here in terms
similar to charismatic leadership. Barbuto and
Scholl(1999) examined the relationship between
work motivation and influence tactics used and
found significant correlations between self-
concept-external motives and social tactics, such
as ingratiating and personal appeals. Barbuto et
al. (2000) examined motivation and
transformational leadership and reported
negative relationships between self-concept-
external motivation and transformational
leadership. We expect that self-concept-external
motivation will share many characteristics with
transactional leadership, but also will
demonstrate some relationship with social
transactions, such as those commonly described
in the referent influences of charismatic
leadership.

Hypothesis 3: Leaders’ self-concept
external motivation will be positively related to
leaders’ transactional and charismatic leadership
behavior.

Self-Concept-Internal Motivation
Self-concept-based motivation will be

internal when individuals are inner-directed. In

this type of motivation, the individuals set
internal standards for traits, competencies, and
values that become the basis for their ideal
selves (Leonard, Beauvais, & Scholl, 1999).
Persons are then motivated to engage in
behaviors that reinforce these standards and later
achieve higher levels of competency.

This source is similar to McClelland’s
(1 96 1) need for achievement, Deci’s (1 975)
internal motivation to overcome challenges, and
Katz and Kahn’s (1978) ideal of internalized
motivation derived from role performance.
Bellah et al. (1985) describe individualism in
terms similar to those used to describe self-
concept internal motivation. Developmental
theorists have described a similar stage using
such terms as full formal operational (Piaget,
1972), social system (Kohlberg, 1976),
institutional (Kegan, 1982), and conscientious
(Loevinger, 1976). Similar motives are
described as a need for achievement
(McClelland, 196 1 ; Murray, 1964), need for
esteem (Maslow, 1954), motivating factors
(Herzberg, 1968), and growth needs associated
with developing one’s potential (Alderfer,
1969).

Bandura (1 986) describes self-evaluative
mechanisms, self-regulation, and personal
standards in terms similar to those used to
describe self-concept-internal motivation. Katz
and Kahn (1978) describe a motive similar to
internalized motivation as “self-expression
derived from role performance.” This motive
also has been described as “intrinsic motivation
to overcome challenges” (Deci, 1975) and
“intrinsic motivation to pursue personal
achievement” (Staw, 1976).

A leader who is inspired by self-concept-
internal motivation is likely to value individual
employees and the inherent strengths and
contributions each makes. This leader’s use of
individualized consideration is likely to inspire
followers to see the goals of the leader as well as
goals for personal growth (Bass, 1985). Kuhnert
and Lewis (1987) proposed relationships
between Kegan’s (1982) institutional stage of
ego development, where the focus is on self-
authorship and self-determination, and
transformational leadership. Barbuto and Scholl
(1 999) tested relationships between motivation
and influence tactics and found some

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 3 1

relationships between self-concept-internal
motivation and inspirational appeals,
consultation tactics, and rational persuasion. Of
Yukl’s (1998) ten influence tactics, these three
seem to share the strongest behavioral
similarities to transformational leadership.
Barbuto et al. (2000) expected to find
relationships between self-concept-internal and
transformational leadership, but weren’t able to
demonstrate a relationship. We cautiously
expect a relationship to exist between this
motive and transformational leadership
behaviors.

Hypothesis 4: Leaders’ self-concept
internal motivation will be positively related to
leaders’ charismatic and transformational
leadership behaviors.

Goal Internalization Motivation
Behavior motivated by goal internalization

occurs when individuals adopt attitudes and
behaviors congruent with their personal value
systems. Strong ideals and beliefs are
paramount in this motivational source (Barbuto
& Scholl, 1998). Individuals motivated by goal
internalization believe in the cause and have
developed a strong sense of duty to work toward
the goal of the collective.

This source of motivation is similar to
Kelman’s (1 958) value system, Katz and Kahn’s
(1978) internalized values, Deci’s internal
valence for outcome (1 975), and Etzioni’s
(1961) pure moral involvement. Each of these
perspectives emphasizes a virtuous character and
a desire not to compromise these virtues. Bellah
et al. (1985) describe habits of the heart in terms
similar to goal internalization. Developmental
theorists describe a similar motivational stage as
post-formal operational (Piaget, 1972)’
principled orientation (Kohlberg, 1976), inter-
individual (Kegan, 1982)’ and autonomous
(Loevinger, 1976). Need theorists describe a
similar motive as self-actualization (Maslow,
1 954).

Goal internalization is different from the
previous four sources of motivation because it is
clearly marked by the absence of self-interest
(Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). Motivation from this
source occurs when individuals believe in the
cause. By contrast, individuals motivated by

intrinsic process need to enjoy the work being
performed. Those with high levels of
instrumental motivation are driven to perform
the work because of an incentive or contingent
reward. Individuals with high levels of self-
concept-external motivation desire to enhance
their reputation or image, while those with high
levels of self-concept-internal motivation are
stimulated by personal challenge and self-
regulation. All of these reflect some degree of
self-interest; on the other hand, those with high
levels of goal internalization motivation are
driven solely by a belief that the goals of the
organization are both worthwhile and
achievable.

Transformational leader behaviors are most
typically seen in persons who trust and believe
in the goal of the organization (Bass, 1985; Katz
& Kahn, 1978), naturally expanding to belief in
the organization’s cause. Barbuto and Scholl
(1 999) examined motivation’s predictive value
for influence tactics and found significant
correlations between goal internalization
motivation and both inspirational appeals and
rational persuasion. From a transformational
leadership perspective, it is expected that goal
internalization will relate to inspirational
leadership and charismatic behaviors. Barbuto
et al. (2000) found significant relationships
between leaders’ goal internalization and use of
transformational leadership behaviors. We
expect similar findings in this study.

Hypothesis 5: Leaders’ goal internalization
motivation will be positively related to leaders’
use of transformational leadership behaviors.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
For the purpose of this study, we further

divided the five sources of motivation into two
categories: intrinsiclinternal (Deci, 1975; Staw,
1976)’ comprised of intrinsic process, self-
concept-internal and goal internalization; and
extrinsiclexternal (Deci, 1975; Staw, 1976),
comprised of instrumental and self-concept-
external. Intrinsiclinternal motivation embodies
the person and his or her emotions,
encompassing h, trust, and self-worth, all of
which are derived from internal influences.
These qualities are similar to those needed for
transformational behaviors (Bass, 1985; Burns,

32 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

1978; Bass, 1990). An extrinsiclexternal Hypothesis 6: Leaders’ intrinsiclinternal
combined process really derives from the motivation will be positively related to
surroundings of the person (Barbuto & Scholl, charismatic and transformational leadership
1998). People influenced by an behaviors.
intrinsiclexternal process are motivated by Hypothesis 7: Leaders’ extrinsic/external
prestige, rewards and status, perhaps more motivation will be positively related to
suitable to transactional and charismatic transactional leadership behaviors.
leadership (Hater & Bass, 1988; Bass, 1990).

Figure 1 Summary of Hypotheses

Motivation Sources Direction of Influence Leadership Behaviors
Intrinsic Process Positive Charismatic Leadership
Motivation
Instrumental Motivation
Self-concept External
Motivation
Self-concept Internal
Motivation
Goal Internalization
Intrinsic/Internal
Motivation
Extrinsic/External
Motivation

Methods

Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive

Sample
Data from 186 leaders and their 759 raters

were collected. Leaders were employed in a
variety of industries, governmental agencies, and
educational settings and in both rural and urban
areas. All leaders had participated in an
extensive twelve-month leadership-training
program. Raters were not provided any formal
training. Fifty-seven percent of the leaders were
female, with an average age of 44 years.
Leaders had an average tenure of 7.9 years with
their companies and many had either a
bachelor’s (6 1 %) or master’s (1 5%) degree.
Fifty-one percent of the raters were female, with
an average age of 39 years. Raters had an
average tenure of 5.8 years with their companies
and were generally as well educated as their
leaders (57% had earned a bachelor’s degree;
12% had earned a master’s degree).

Measures

Transformational Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Charismatic Leadership

passive and active), charismatic (idealized
influence, behavior, and attributed), and
transformational behaviors (inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation) were measured using
the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire
(MLQ-short form) (Bass, 1985). These
behaviors were assessed by both leaders (self-
report) and raters (rater form). Sample items
and coefficient alphas for the items measured for
the h l l range of leadership were (leader self-
report alpha appears first): laissez-faire (“Avoids
getting involved when important issues arise,” a
= .89 & .76); contingent reward (“Provides me
with assistance in exchange for my efforts,” a =
.77 & .77); management by exception – passive
(“Fails to interfere until problems become
serious,” a = .73 & .72); management by
exception – active (“Focuses attention on
irregularities, mistakes, exceptions, and
deviations from standards,” a = .70 & .71),
charismatic – behavior (“Talks about their most
important values and beliefs,” a = .78 & .71);
attributed charisma (“Instills pride in me for

Leaders’ Behavior being associated with himlher,” a = .73 & .79);
Leaders’ laissez-faire, transactional inspirational motivation (“Talks optimistically

(contingent reward, management by exception – about the hture,” a = .72 & .82); individualized

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 33

consideration (Spends time teaching and
coaching,” a = .69 & .73); and intellectual
stimulation (“Seeks differing perspectives when
solving problems,” a = .76 & .7 1).

Leaders’ Motivation
Leaders’ sources of motivation were

measured using the Motivation Sources
Inventory (MSI) (Barbuto & Scholl, 1998). The
Inventory contains 30 items, six for each
subscale, measured on a six point Likert-type
scale. Motivation scores were obtained by
calculating the mean response for each subscale.
Sample items and coefficient alphas for the five
sources of motivation were: intrinsic process (“I
would prefer to do things that are fun” a = .71);
instrumental (“I like to be rewarded when I take
on additional responsibilities” a = .78); self-
concept external (“It is important to me that
others appreciate the work I do” a = 35); self-
concept internal (“Decisions I make reflect
standards I’ve set for myself’ a = 32); and goal
internalization (“I work hard for a company if I
agree with its mission” a = .73).

Procedures

Leaders completed and returned by mail to
the researchers the Motivation Sources
Inventory (MSI) and the Multi-factor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ) four weeks prior to the
workshop. Each leader also was provided the
rater version of the Multi-factor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ) to distribute to six
employees. These instruments were coded and
returned by mail directly to the researchers
between six and three weeks prior to the
respective workshops.

All leaders participating in this study were
engaged in leadership development workshops
being offered through university extension
efforts. Leaders participating in the research
project and workshop were provided with a two-
day training session on both work motivation
and full range leadership. The intact groups (+I-
15 leaders) met for monthly follow-up sessions
in cohort support teams to address issues and
challenges they faced in the leadership
development process.

Participation was optional and both leaders
and raters were given the opportunity to
withdraw from the study at any time, even after
the workshop(s). To date, nobody has requested
to be removed from the study. However, not all
leaders had six raters return the forms, so full
participation was not achieved. Leaders had
been instructed to distribute the forms to those
individuals most capable of assessing behaviors,
but also were urged to select a wide variety of
individuals, to avoid selecting favorable
employees. An average of 4.1 usable rater forms
per leader was returned to the researchers.

Analysis

Results of the study were analyzed using
the computer program SPSS. Analysis of the
Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire of both
raters’ reports and leaders’ self-reports began by
calculating subscales of the full range leadership
behaviors. Several subscales also were
combined into broader categories of
transformational leadership (inspirational
motivation, individualized consideration, and
intellectual stimulation), transactional leadership
(contingent reward, management by exception –
active and management by exception – passive),
charismatic leadership (idealized influence,
attributed, and behavior) and laissez-faire
leadership.

Analysis of the Motivation Sources
Inventory included parceling the 30 motivation
items into five individual subscales and two
additional subscales. The two additional
subscales combined individual motivations for a
generic intrinsic (intrinsic process, self-concept-
internal, and goal internalization) and extrinsic
(self-concept -external and instrumental)
classification to allow for emergence of broad
trends between internally driven and externally
driven motivation patterns (Deci, 1975). Simple
statistics and correlation analysis were used to
interpret the data and test the hypothesized
relationships among leaders’ motivations and
transformational, charismatic, transactional and
laissez-faire leadership.

34 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

Results

Several significant findings emerged from
the analysis of the relationship between the
Motivation Sources Inventory subscales
(intrinsic, extrinsic, intrinsic process,
instrumental, self-concept-external, self-
concept-internal, and goal internalization) and
leaders’ transformational behavior subscales
(individualized consideration, inspirational and

intellectual stimulation), charismatic leadership
(idealized influence attributed and behavior),
transactional leadership (contingent reward,
management by exception – active and passive)
and laissez-faire leadership. Simple statistics,
reliability estimates, and Pearson (2-tailed)
correlations were computed for the hypothesized
variables (See Tables 1 , 2 and 3).

Table 1
Motivation Subscales Inter-Correlations

Directional
Motivation

Meta-Theory of
Motivation Sources

– – – – —

Motivation M SD Intrinsic Extrinsic 1nt.Proc Instrum SCE SCI GI

Intrinsic/Internal 67.30 9.64 .91
ExtrinsicIExternal 33.16 10.38 .43** .87
Intrinsic Process 15.96 3.18 .20** .04 .71
Instrumental 16.71 5.68 . .37** .89** .03 .78

Self-concept External 16.46 6.05 .4 1 ** .90** .04 .60** .85
Self-concept Internal 29.47 3.98 .67** .08 .18** .O 1 .13* .82
Goal Internalization 23.23 5.16 .81** .23** .13* .19** .23** .40** .73

Note: N = 186, ** p < .O1 (two-tailed), * p < .05 (two-tailed). 1nt.Proc = Intrinsic Process), Insrum = Instrumental, SCE =Self-Concept External, SCI =Self-Concept Internal, GI=Goal Internalization. Coefficient alphas (a ) on diagonals.

Table 2
Motivation Subscales and Leaders’ Self-Reported Full Range Leadership

Motivational
Direction

– – – – –

Meta-Theory of
Motivation Sources

Leader MLQ
Transformational 2.9 1
Inspir. Motivation
Indiv. Consideration
Intellect. Stimulation
Charisma
Attributed Charisma
Charismatic Behavior
Transactional
Contingent Rewards
MBE
MBE Passive
MBE Active
Laissez-Faire

M SD a Intrinsic Extrinsic
0.41 .88 .18** -.08
2.90 0.61 .72 .17** .05
3.14 0.48 .69 .07 -.16**
2.83 0.51 -76 .23** -.OO
2.82 0.49 .76 .15* -.17**
2.80 0.53 .73 .16** -.09
2.84 0.62 .78 . l l -.20**
1.84 033 .68 .01 .18**
2.84 0.53 .77 .12 -.02
1.31 0.48 .71 -.05 .19**
1.22 0.59 .73 -.07 .16**
1.39 0.66 .70 -.05 .12*
0.78 0.46 .89 .O1 .16**

1nt.Proc. Instrum SCE
.29** -.I1 -.05
.29** -.01 .09
.26** -.16** -.13*
.lo* .01 -.01
.24** -.19** -.I2
.18** -.I2 -.05
.24** -.20** -.17**
.08 .14* .17**
.31** -.01 .04
-.07 .15* .19**
-.03 .13* .16**
-.08 .10 . l l
-.07 .13* .16**

SCI
.32**
.27**
.23**
.27**
.26**
.27**
.18**
-.06
-.28**
-. 18**
-.23**
-.05
-.08

Note: N = 731, ** p < .O1 (two-tailed), * p < .05 (two-tailed). MBE=Management-by-Exception, MBE Passive= Management-by- Exception Passive, MBE Active=Management-by-Exception Active, Int.Proc.= Intrinsic Process, Instrum = Instrumental, SCE = Self- Concept External, SCI = Self-concept Internal, GI = Goal Internalization

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 35

Table 3
Motivation Subscales and Raters’ Reported Full Range Leadership

Motivational
Direction

Meta-Theory of
Motivation

Rater MLQ M SD a Intrinsic Extrinsic 1nt.Proc Instrum SCE SCI GI
Transformational 2.95 0.60 .85 .06 -.I2 .16 -.09 -.I2 .04 -.04
Inspir. Motivation
Indiv. Consideration
Intellect. Stimulation
Charisma
Attributed Charisma
Charismatic Behavior
Transactional
Contingent Rewards
MBE
MBE P assive
MBE Active
Laissez-Faire

Note:N = 594, ** p < .O1 (two-tailed), * p < .05 (two-tailed). MBE= Management-by-Exception, MBE Passive= Management-by- Exception Passive, MBE Active=Management-by-Exception Active, Int-Proc = Intrinsic Process, Instrum = Instrumental, SCE =Self Concept External, SCI =Self Concept Internal, GI = Goal Internalization

Motivation as an Antecedent of
Transformational Leadership

Leaders’ intrinsic process motivation
significantly correlated with their self-reported
transformational behaviors (r = .29; p < .01), inspirational motivation (r = .29; p< .01), individualized consideration (r = .26; p < .01), and intellectual stimulation (r = .lo; p< .05) (HI). Leaders' intrinsic process motivation also demonstrated several significant relationships with raters' perceptions of leader behaviors. Leaders' intrinsic process motivation also proved to be significantly related to inspirational motivation (r = .18; p < .05). Taken together, these results demonstrate several significant relationships between leaders' intrinsic process motivation and their use of transformational leadership (H 1).

Leaders’ instrumental motivation shared a
negative relationship with their self-reported
individualized consideration (r = -. 16; p < .05).

Leaders’ self-concept external motivation
was negatively related to their self-reported
individualized consideration (r = -.13; p < .05 and to raters' perceptions of leaders' individualized consideration (r = -.19; p < .01). There was no significant relationship between

self-concept-external motivation and charismatic
leadership behaviors (H3).

Leaders’ self-concept-internal motivation
significantly correlated with their self-reported
transformational behaviors (r = .32, p < .01), inspirational motivation (r = .27, p < .01), individualized consideration (r = .23, p < .01), and intellectual stimulation (r = .27, p < .01) (H4). However, there were no significant relationships between self-concept-internal motivation and raters' perceptions of transformational leadership.

Goal internalization significantly correlated
with leaders’ self-reported intellectual
stimulation (r = .15, p < .01) (H5). Leaders' combined intrinsic motivation significantly correlated with their self-reported transformational behaviors (r = .18, p < .01), inspirational motivation (r = .17, p < .01), and intellectual stimulation (r = .23, p < .01) (H6). Leader's combined extrinsic motivation was negatively related to their self-reported individualized consideration (r = -. 16; p < .01) and rater-reported individualized consideration (r = -.19; p < .01).

3 6 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

Motivation as an Antecedent to
Charismatic Leadership

Relationships also were found between
leaders’ intrinsic process motivation and their
self-reports of each of the charismatic subscales:
charisma (r = .24; p < .01), attributed charisma (r = .18; p < .01), and charismatic behavior (r = .24; p < .01) (HI). Intrinsic process motivation also significantly correlated with attributed charisma (r=. 16; p<.05).

Leaders’ instrumental motivation
negatively related to two of the three self-
reported charismatic subscales: charisma (r = –
.19; p < .01) and charismatic behavior (r = -.20; p < .01).

Leaders’ self-concept-external motivation
negatively related to their self-reported
charismatic behavior (r = -.17, p < .01) (H3). Leaders' self-concept-internal motivation significantly related to three of their self- reported charismatic subscales: charisma (r = .26, p < .01), attributed charisma (r = .27, p < .01), and charismatic behavior (r = .18, p < .01) (H4)-

As expected, goal internalization shared no
significant variance with any of the charismatic
leadership subscales.

Leaders’ combined intrinsic group
significantly correlated with two of the leaders’
self-reported charismatic behaviors: charismatic
behavior (r = .15, p< .05) and attributed charisma (r = .16, p < .01) (H6). Leaders' extrinsic combined group was negatively related to their self-reported charisma (r = -. 17; p < .01) and charismatic behavior (r = -.20; p < .01) 037).

Motivation as an Antecedent to
Transactional Leadership

Leaders’ intrinsic process motivation
positively related to their self-reported use of
contingent rewards (r = .31; p < .01) and to rater-reported transactional leadership (r = .30; p < .01), management by exception (r = .25; p < .0 I), passive management by exception (r = .16; p < .05), and active management by exception (r = .23; p < .01).

Leaders ‘ instrumental motivation
significantly correlated with leaders’ self-
reported transactional behaviors (r = .14, p <

.01), passive management by exception (r = .13,
p < .0 I), and laissez-faire leadership(r = .13, p < .0 1). Leaders' instrumental motivation also demonstrated significant relationships with raters' perceptions of transactional leadership (r = .25, p < .01), management by exception (r = .26, p < .01), and active management by exception (r = .24, p < .01).

Leaders’ self-concept-external motivation
showed significant relationships with three of
their self-reported transactional behaviors:
transactional leadership (r = .17, p < .01), management by exception (r = .19, p < .01), passive management by exception (r = .16, p < .01), and laissez-faire leadership (r = .16, p < .0 1). Leaders' self-concept-external motivation also demonstrated significant relationships with raters' perceptions of transactional leader behaviors: transactional leadership (r = .26, p < .01), management by exception (r = .23, p < .01), and active management by exception (r = .23, p < .01).

Leaders’ self-concept-internal motivation
showed negative relationships with their self-
reported use of contingent rewards (r = -.28; p < .01), management by exception (r = -.18; p < .01), and passive management by exception (r = -.23; p < .01). Goal internalization shared no significant variance with any of the transactional leadership subscales.

The leaders’ combined intrinsic group
significantly related to rater perceptions of
transactional leadership (r = -23; p < .01), management by exception (r = .18; p < .05), and passive management by exception (r = .17; p < .05).

The leaders’ combined extrinsic group
significantly correlated with leaders’ self-
reported transactional behaviors: transactional r
= .18, p < .01), management by exception (r = .19, p < .01), passive management by exception (r = .16, p < .01), active management by exception (r = .12, p < .05), and laissez-faire leadership (r = .16, p < .01) (H7). Leaders' combined extrinsic motivation was significantly related with transactional leadership (r = .29, p < .01), management by exception (r = .27, p < .01), active management by exception (r = .27, p < .01), and laissez-faire leadership (r = .18, p < .05).

.01), management by exception (r = .15, p <

A Test of Antecedents Volume 1 1, Number 4,2005 37

Discussion

The leaders ‘ self-reports of
transformational leadership had a higher
correlation to the five sources of motivation than
did the raters’ reports of full range leadership.
Leaders’ work motivation demonstrated some
correlations with leadership behaviors, but the
relationships generally accounted for less than
5% variance. Other general trends noted were
that self-concept-internal motivation related to
transformational behaviors, while self-concept-
external motivation related more closely to
transactional behaviors.

This study distinguished charismatic
behaviors fiom transformational ones as
criterion variables, but, in most cases, those
behaviors that were significantly correlated with
transformational subscales also were
significantly correlated with charismatic
subscales. This result may be explained by the
nature of the measure itself, which was not
designed to distinguish between inspirational
and charismatic influences. It may also reflect
the operational definitions used for charismatic
leadership (idealized influence) in the original
development of the subscale (Bass, 1985). Bass
(1990) reported that no empirical distinction had
yet been between inspirational and charismatic
leadership subscales, which remain true in light
of this study.

Intrinsic process motivation correlated with
transformational behaviors, indicating that
leaders motivated by fun at work are more likely
to self-report an ideology consistent with
transformational and charismatic leadership.
Intrinsic process motivation was related to rater
perceptions of transactional leadership,
indicating that those high in intrinsic process
tend to view selves as more transformational,
while those around them tend to view them as
more transactional.

Instrumental motivation correlated with
transactional behaviors, contingent rewards,
management by exception, management by
exception – active and laissez-faire leadership.
This correlation may have been expected since
prior work reported a similar result (Barbuto,
Fritz & Mam, 2000). However, this same result
indicates that instrumental motivation shares

little variance with transformational leadership
behaviors, consistent with propositions
developed in the ego constructive development
literature (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). Self-
concept-external motivation correlated with
some charismatic behavior and transactional
behavior, but didn’t share significant variance
with transformational behaviors in the study.
This result may have been expected, given the
social rewards and interpersonal or referent
nature of charismatic leadership behaviors and
the focus on interpersonal feedback attributed to
self-concept external motivation. This result
also moderately supports the premise that
charismatic and transformational leadership may
be distinct constructs and necessitate different
motives from leaders (See Barbuto, 1997).
Since individuals with high self-concept-
external motivation appear to exhibit more
charismatic behaviors, some support for Kegan’s
(1982) lens perspective is found, by which
leaders may naturally assume the extent to
which followers require self-concept external
motives to be satisfied will be similar to their
own.

Overall, motivation has provided some
evidence for promise as an antecedent to full
range leadership. Most relationships proved to
move in the expected directions and the effect
sizes compared favorably to previous antecedent
research conducted in the area of
transformational leadership (Atwater &
Yammarino, 1993; Avolio, 1994; Barbuto et al.,
2000; Bass, 1985; Howard & Bray, 1988). Still,
the relationships leave the field open to many
more questions of how to identify the best
antecedents of transformational leadership.
Because motivation explains a small amount of
variance in full range leadership, continued
search for other salient variables is necessary.

Implications for Practice
The results of this study have some

selection and leadership development
implications. If specific leadership styles (i.e.,
transformational) are sought in organizations,
some motivation profiling may prove conducive
to selecting individuals who have a greater
likelihood of displaying these behaviors.
However, we caution practitioners to be leery of

3 8 Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies Barbuto, Jr.

overestimating the relevance of leaders’ sources
of motivation to their leadership style, as the
results of this study showed a relatively small
effect. The source of motivation may provide
one of many pieces of information to consider
when making recruiting and leadership
development decisions. Other important factors,
such as academic preparation, job fit,
experiences, and work philosophies – which
were not tested in this study – may play a large
role in determining behaviors and likely will
have a role in recruiting leaders.

The result of this study is consistent with
Kegan’s (1 982) constructive developmental
view of human motivation and its role in
leadership formation and development. The lens
perspective offers a guideline for understanding
limitations of leaders, essentially that leaders see
the world through their own paradigm or “lens”
and assume others share a similar lens. Kuhnert
and Lewis (1987) advocate a similar perspective
in their conceptual work linking Kegan’s (1982)
levels of ego development with transactional and
transformational behaviors. However, stronger
effect sizes would be necessary to generalize
Kegan’s work to this study.

Opportunities for Future Research
The results of this study provide several

opportunities for future research. The
relationships between motivation and full range
leadership were consistent, but also produced
generally small effects. Studying human
motivation in combination with other salient
variables may be necessary to glean the best
antecedents of full range leadership. It appears
that motivation explains some variance in the
construct, but greater explanation is possible.
Greater attention is needed in testing other
dispositional variables and their relations to
transformational leadership. Alternative
measurement strategies for capturing
charismatic leadership may be developed to
discover charismatic effects distinct from
transformational ones.

More rigorous procedures will also improve
research in this area. The common data
collection method for antecedent research of
transformational leadership has been to use
leaders and designated raters, chosen by leaders.
This snowball effect produces a non-random

sample, which likely impacts response bias and
confounds results. More random rater selection
will address this concern, as will the inclusion of
social desirability in the research design. By
controlling for and assessing response bias,
antecedent research will have more functional
credibility. Additionally, in instances where
research participation is part of a leadership
development initiative, the impact of such
training on the data collection processes and
responses needs to be planned and assessed.

Other antecedents of full range leadership
behavior need to be tested to better understand
the construct. To date, early childhood
experiences, locus of control, early career
challenges, personality, and motivation all have
been explored as dispositional antecedents of
full range leadership with relatively small effect
sizes. To explain greater variance, future
research may test other salient variables, such as
political skills, mental boundaries or flexibility,
self-presentation, and other attitudinal constructs
that may provide valuable exploration into the
field of leadership antecedents. Additionally,
other leadership frameworks need to be
examined to ascertain the dispositional role that
work motivation plays as an antecedent to
leadership. Motivation links with other
leadership perspectives, such as leader-member
exchange quality, servant leadership, authentic
leadership, ideological leadership, political
leadership, and others, may provide a rich test
and contribution to the antecedent field. We
believe that greater attention to the antecedents
of leadership will prove valuable to field.

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University of Nebraska – Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska – Lincoln
12-13-2005
Motivation and Transactional, Charismatic, and Transformational Leadership: A Test of Antecedents
John E. Barbuto Jr.