Initial responses must be posted by WEDNESDAY in order to receive credit. Length of initial posts should be 200-250 words.
TWO REPLIES to classmates are due by SUNDAY. Length of the follow-up postings should be 150-200 words each.
Include the word count at the end of each post.
Specific references – with parenthetical citations – to the module’s readings must be included in the post using APA format for citations. Refer to https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/for questions or clarifications in regard to APA formatting.
Ch 12
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1) Identify who you think have been great leaders, past or present. Explain why the people on this list are or were strong leaders and what characteristics they possess. Compare your lists to your classmates’ in your replies. Do they all have common characteristics? What does this imply about trait theory?
2) Which leadership style do you most closely relate to yourself? What actions can you take now to develop your leadership capabilities?
5-1
Essentials of
Organizational Behavior
13e
Stephen P. Robbins & Timothy A. Judge
Chapter 5
Personality and Values
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1
Chapter 12
Leadership
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2
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Contrast leadership and management.
Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of leadership.
Identify the central tenets and main limitations of behavioral theories.
Assess contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.
Compare charismatic and transformational leadership.
Describe the roles of ethics and trust in authentic leadership.
Demonstrate the role mentoring plays in our understanding of leadership.
Address challenges to the effectiveness of leadership.
Describe how organizations can find or create effective leaders.
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3
What Is Leadership?
Leadership: The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or a set of goals
Formal or non-sanctioned
Not all leaders are managers
Not all managers are leaders
Successful organizations have strong leadership and strong management
Leaders inspire and create vision
Managers create plans and oversee day-to-day operations
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Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. A leader does not have to be someone who holds a formal position or title. Leaders can emerge from a group and provide vision and motivation to those around them. They are critical in helping people cope with change by establishing direction that relates to the vision. In order to achieve the vision they align resources and inspire workers to work toward organizational goals.
Management deals with the complexity of the organization and works with planning, organizing, leading, and controlling to bring about order and consistency in the organization.
Even though the two roles have different areas of focus, both are necessary for organizational success.
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Trait Theories
Trait theories of leadership: focus on personal qualities and characteristics
Big Five Personality Framework
Extraversion has strongest relation to leadership
Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience also strongly related to leadership
Agreeableness and Emotional Stability are not correlated with leadership
Emotional Intelligence is correlated with leadership; however, this link is under-investigated
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The trait theory of leadership looks at personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Initially this theory was based on studies that looked at over 80 different traits, which allowed almost anything to be defined as leadership. A breakthrough occurred when researchers began to organize the traits into categories, and this became known as the Big Five Personality Framework where five groups of traits were found to be consistently present among leaders.
Some essential leadership traits include extraversion, conscientiousness, openness , agreeableness, and emotional intelligence (EI), although the link between EI and leadership has not been fully explored.
With the many years of research dedicated to the trait theory of leadership, it is widely accepted that traits do predict leadership. However, it is more likely that they predict the emergence of a leader rather than the effectiveness of a leader.
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Trait Theories
Two conclusions:
Traits can predict leadership
Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders
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The fact that an individual exhibits the right traits and that others consider him a leader does not necessarily mean he will be an effective leader, successful at getting the group to achieve its goals.
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Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theories of leadership: we can determine leadership effectiveness by leader behavior, and perhaps train people to be leaders
Behaviors can be taught – traits cannot
Leaders are trained – not born
Two key studies of leadership
The Ohio State Studies
The University of Michigan Studies
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The behavioral theories of leadership focus on the premise that behaviors can be taught and traits cannot, so leaders are trained, not born.
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Ohio State Studies
Attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals
Concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction
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Two key studies in the area of behavioral leadership advanced our understanding of the theory. The first was done at Ohio State University. Researchers looked at important dimensions of leadership behavior and began with over 1000 dimensions. In the end, the Ohio State studies were able to narrow it down to two dimensions – initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating structure is when the leader is able to define and structure their role and that of their employees to work toward the goals of the organization. Consideration is the ability of the leader to gain the trust and respect of their followers and to help them feel appreciated for what they do. Both behaviors have proven to be very important in an effective leader.
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Initiating Structure
Consideration
University of Michigan Studies
Emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job: people are means to an end
Emphasize interpersonal relations and accept individual differences
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The University of Michigan Studies identified two key dimensions of leadership behavior as well. They are similar in nature to the Ohio State findings. However, the University of Michigan studies classified these behaviors as employee-oriented, which looks at the interpersonal relationships between the leader and their followers; and production-oriented, which focuses on the technical aspect of the job. Again, both are important for successful leadership.
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Production
Oriented
Employee
Oriented
Global Implications
GLOBE Leadership Project Results:
Brazil – Leaders are participative and humane
France – Leaders are bureaucratic, task oriented, and autocratic
China – Initiating structure and consideration important: status differences but participation valued
Charisma and transformational leadership important in all
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The GLOBE study suggests that there are differences across cultures in preference for initiating structure and consideration.
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Contingency Theories
Fiedler leadership model: Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control
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In this theory Fielder is trying to match the leader to the context. He proposes that leadership style is fixed. So, if the situation demands a charismatic leader and your current leader does not exhibit that style, you need to change leaders. This leadership style can be determined by taking the LPC questionnaire (least preferred co-worker).
After the leadership style is determined, you can match the leader to the situation. There are three dimensions to find a successful match. The first situational factor is the leader-member relationship; this ties back to our behavioral studies by looking at the degree of trust and respect employees have for the leader. The second factor is the amount of structure that is embedded in job assignments. The last factor is the amount of influence the leader has over decisions that represent power such as hiring, firing, and rewards.
In Fiedler’s model you need to find a leader to fit the situation or change the situation to fit the leader in order to achieve effective leadership for the organization.
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Fiedler Leadership Model
Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) determines leadership style (fixed trait)
Relationship oriented
Task oriented
Match leader’s style with degree of situational control
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
12-12
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In this theory Fielder is trying to match the leader to the context. He proposes that leadership style is fixed. So, if the situation demands a charismatic leader and your current leader does not exhibit that style, you need to change leaders. This leadership style can be determined by taking the LPC questionnaire (least preferred co-worker).
After the leadership style is determined you can match the leader to the situation. There are three dimensions to find a successful match. The first situational factor is the leader-member relationship; this ties back to our behavioral studies by looking at the degree of trust and respect employees have for the leader. The second factor is the amount of structure that is embedded in job assignments. The last factor is the amount of influence the leader has over decisions that represent power such as hiring, firing, and rewards.
In Fiedler’s model you need to find a leader to fit the situation or change the situation to fit the leader in order to achieve effective leadership for the organization.
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Matching Leaders to Situations
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This graph helps to visually determine the situational factors and what type of leader would succeed in this situation. There are eight possible situations in which leaders can find themselves in. By matching their LPC score with these eight different situations a leader can see where they will be most effective. For example, categories four through six would be better suited to relationship-oriented leaders because Fielder proposes that they perform best in moderately favorable situations.
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Other Contingency Theories
Situational leadership theory (SLT): successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style contingent on the followers’ readiness to accomplish a task
Unable and unwilling
Unable but willing
Able but unwilling
Able and willing
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SLT acknowledges the importance of followers and builds on the logic that leaders can compensate for their limited ability and motivation.
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Other Contingency Theories
Path-goal theory: it’s the leader’s job to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve goals
Directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful
Supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when tasks are structured
Directive leadership is perceived as redundant by employees with high ability or experience
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Effective leaders clarify followers’ paths to their work goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks.
Directive or supportive leadership does matter to followers’ performance, and leaders need to be aware of their important facilitating role.
The effectiveness of leaders depends to a large degree on their followers.
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Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership theory: Attributions of heroic leadership abilities when followers observe certain behaviors
Vision and articulation
Personal risk-taking
Sensitivity toward followers
Unconventional behaviors
12-16
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Charisma comes from the Greek word meaning gift. When talking about a charismatic leader one will refer to someone with certain gifts or abilities. A charismatic leader will often gain followers through personality rather than through power or authority.
There are four key characteristics that are associated with a charismatic leader. The leader must have vision, expressed as an idealized goal. The leader must be willing to take on high personal risk and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision. In doing so the leader needs to remain sensitive to the feelings and needs of their followers. Throughout the process the leader may be engaging in behaviors that are perceived as counter to norms, thereby extraordinary.
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Charismatic Leaders:
Born or Made?
Charisma is partially attributed to genetics and partially to training and experience
Developing an aura of charisma:
Be optimistic
Be passionately enthusiastic
Commute with body, not just words
Draw others in – inspire others
Tap into emotions – bring out the potential in others
12-17
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The charismatic traits are often traits that a leader is born with, thus continuing the debate whether leaders are born or developed.
In reality it is a mix of genetics, training, and experience. Charisma can be created. One way is to develop an aura of charisma by being optimistic, passionately enthusiastic, and to communicate with behaviors and words. A leader can also create charisma by drawing in others through inspiration, as well as by tapping into the emotions of individuals to bring out their potential.
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How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers
Articulate an appealing vision
Communicate a new set of values
Model behaviors for those values
Express dramatic behavior
12-18
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Evidence shows a four-step process can help the charismatic leader utilize their characteristics to influence their followers. First, the leader articulates a long-term strategy for achieving a goal. This strategy should fit the vision and uniqueness of the organization. Next, the leader needs to formalize that vision by creating a vision statement. Charismatic leaders will often use this statement to reinforce the goal and purpose of the organization. This vision is communicated in a way that expresses the leader’s excitement and commitment to the goal.
Next, the leader will use his words and actions to communicate a new set of values for the followers to imitate. Then the charismatic leader will try to find behaviors that demonstrate their commitment to the vision. They will choose behaviors that will help followers “catch” the emotions the leader is conveying and help achieve buy-in of the followers.
Finally, the charismatic leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and conviction about the vision to help the followers “catch” the vision.
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Charisma and
Situational Dependency
Charisma is strongly correlated to high performance and satisfaction
Best used when
Environment is uncertain or stressful
Ideology is involved
Most closely associated with upper-level executives
People are most receptive to charisma when there is a crisis
12-19
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Charismatic leaders have been shown to be effective but it often depends on the context. This leadership style works best in an environment where it is uncertain, stressful, and where there is some ideology involved.
It is more closely associated with upper-level executives and people are most receptive to charismatic actions when there is a crisis.
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The Potential Dark Side
of Charismatic Leadership
Some leaders:
Use organizational resources for personal benefit
Remake companies in their own image
Allow self-interest and personal goals to override organization’s goals
12-20
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There is a dark side to charismatic leadership if the leader misuses their skill set. In the past we have seen situations where leaders have abused the company resources and used them for their own benefit. Some leaders with strong charisma have remade the companies in their own image and left no plans for succession when they leave.
In many cases the charismatic leader lets their own goals override those of the organization, thus creating a negative situation for the organization.
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Transformational Leadership
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Transactional leaders motivate their follower towards the goals set by clarifying their roles in the process and what they need to do to reach the goals set.
Transformational leaders help followers to look at the bigger picture and commit to the good of the organization, even if it means setting their own goals aside.
These two approaches are not contradictory in nature; in fact they can complement each other. Transformational leadership often is built upon transactional leadership. Good leadership will incorporate both transactional and transformational components.
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Idealized Influence
Role models of
Inspirational Motivation
Provide meaning & challenge
Individualized Consideration
Serve as a coach, guide, or mentor
Intellectual Stimulation
Encourage followers to use creativity and innovation
Involve followers in developing shared vision
Inspire optimism & enthusiasm
Articulate very clear expectations & goals
Trust
Respect
Unselfishness
Integrity
Morality
Ethics
Consistent behavior
Foster a supportive climate for personal growth and professional development
Stimulate intellectual capacity of followers
Challenge assumptions
Reframe questions
Approach problems in unusual ways
Transformational Leadership
Transactional leaders:
Motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements
Transformational leaders:
Inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization
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Transactional leaders motivate their follower towards the goals set by clarifying their roles in the process and what they need to do to reach the goals set.
Transformational leaders help followers to look at the bigger picture and commit to the good of the organization, even if it means setting their own goals aside.
These two approaches are not contradictory in nature; in fact they can complement each other. Transformational leadership often is built upon transactional leadership. Good leadership will incorporate both transactional and transformational components.
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Full Range of Leadership Model
12-23
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This exhibit shows the full range of the leadership model. The first four behaviors represent transactional approaches and begins with the Laissez-Faire approach, which is the most passive. As a leader progresses on the scale, she moves toward more active behaviors. The final four behaviors on the model represent transformational actions. This model shows that as leaders utilize more transformational behaviors, they become more effective.
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Evaluation Of
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership:
Is effectively used in various job levels and disparate occupations
Tends to be more effective in smaller companies
Works better when the leader directly interacts with followers
Can be learned
Transformational leaders:
Are creative and inspire creativity
Create a “can-do” spirit
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Transformational leadership works in a variety of contexts but tends to be more effective in smaller companies. It does work better when the leader is more closely connected to the followers and can understand their situation. The link between transformational leadership and positive job outcomes is solid.
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Global Implications
The GLOBE study found that many elements of transformational leadership are universal
Vision is important in any culture, but how it is formed and communicated may need to vary by culture
12-25
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The GLOBE study links elements of transformational leadership with effective leadership, regardless of country. According to the study, various elements of transformational leadership, including vision, foresight, providing encouragement, trustworthiness, dynamism, positiveness, and proactiveness are universal. However, how vision is formed and communicated can differ across cultures.
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Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership
Transformational leadership is more strongly correlated with:
Lower turnover
Higher productivity
Lower employee stress and burnout
Higher employee satisfaction
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Research shows that transformational leadership results in many desirable outcomes. However, contingent reward leadership sometimes works as well as transformational leadership.
There are a lot of commonalities between transformational leadership and charismatic leadership, but in general, charismatic leadership focuses on how leaders communicate while transformational leadership focuses on what is communicated.
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Authentic Leadership:
Ethics and Trust
Authentic leaders know who they are, what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly
Create trust
Encourage open communication
People have faith in them
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Authentic leadership is a growing area of research. There are several components that need to be addressed when discussing authenticity in leadership. First we must look at authentic leaders. These are leaders who engage in reflection and understand who they are and what they believe, and bring those two aspects together in their actions.
Next, authentic leaders are able to create trust with their followers, and encourage a culture of open communication. These factors will help to create an authentic leader that people will follow.
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Ethics and Leadership
Ethics and leadership intersect at many junctures
Executives set the moral tone for an organization so they must set and adhere to high ethical values
Leadership is not value free, and the means by which a leader achieves their goal must be framed by ethics
Socialized charismatic leadership: leadership that conveys other-centered values by leaders who model ethical conduct
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There is a strong intersection of ethics and leadership. Over the past several years we have been involved in what many have called an ethical crisis in the business community. When we look at leadership, we need to look at more than the results of the leader. We must also look at the steps the leader took to achieve those results.
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Servant Leadership
Servant Leaders: Go beyond their own self-interest and focus on opportunities to help followers grow and develop
Emphasize persuasion
Effects of servant leadership:
Higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and perceptions of justice
Increased team potency and higher group performance
Higher levels of creative performance
Servant leadership may be more effective in certain cultures
12-29
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Servant leaders don’t use power to achieve their goal; instead they focus on persuading followers. The effects of servant leadership include higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and perceptions of justice, all of which are related to organizational citizenship behavior. Servant leaders increase team potency, which leads to higher levels of group performance, and also a greater focus on growth and advancement which leads to higher levels of creative performance.
This type of leadership may be more prevalent in East Asian cultures.
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Trust
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Trust is defined as a state that exists when you agree to make yourself vulnerable to another because you have a positive expectation for how things are going to turn out. Over the years this has been found to be a foundational characteristic of leadership. When trust is present followers are willing to do as the leader asks and engage in behaviors that are for the benefit of the organization. In short, followers will do a lot more for a leader they trust than for one that does not hold their trust.
Trust is developed over time. The interactions between the leaders and the followers are part of the development of trust; it goes both ways. Research has shown that the three main characteristics of a leader that instill trust are integrity, ability, and benevolence.
These three characteristics are important in developing trust between leaders and followers. If followers perceive these characteristics as strong in their leaders, it will encourage positive behaviors such as risk taking, information sharing, group interactions, and productivity.
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Trust
Taking Risks
Information Sharing
Effective Groups
Enhanced Productivity
Leadership For The Future
Mentor: a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee, a protégé
Mentoring programs benefit both mentors and protégés
But, informal mentoring is more effective than formal mentoring
Benefits of mentoring are primarily psychological
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Successful mentors are good teachers. They present ideas clearly, listen well, and empathize with protégés’ problems. Mentoring relationships, whether formal or informal, serve career functions and psychosocial functions.
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Challenges to the
Leadership Construct
Attribution Theory of Leadership
Performance outcomes are attributed to leaders’ actions
Appearance has more to do with leadership than outcomes
Substitutes and Neutralizers
Organizational variables can neutralize the leader’s influence or act as substitutes for leadership
Leader becomes irrelevant
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There are many challenges to understanding leadership. The attribution theory states that it is hard to attribute outcomes to leadership and that often, leadership is more about performance than outcomes.
In addition, you can have an extremely effective leader but organizational variables can neutralize the leader’s ability to lead and create change, thus rendering the leader as irrelevant.
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Substitutes for and
Neutralizers of Leadership
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Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behavior to make any differences to follower outcomes.
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Finding and Creating Effective Leaders
Selecting Leaders
Review knowledge, skills, and abilities needed
Use personality tests
Consider situation-specific experience
Training Leaders
Maximize leadership-training budget
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How can managers get the most from their leadership-training budgets?
Leadership training is likely to be more successful with high-self monitors.
Organizations can teach implementation skills.
We can teach skills such as trust building and mentoring.
Behavioral training through modeling exercises can increase an individual’s ability to exhibit charismatic leadership qualities.
Leaders should engage in regularly reviewing their leadership after key organizational events.
Leaders can be trained in transformational leadership skills that have bottom-line results.
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Implications for Managers
For maximum leadership effectiveness, ensure that your preferences on the initiating structure and consideration dimensions are a match for your work dynamics and culture.
Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated success in working through others to meet a long-term vision.
For management role, hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy; and train managers in your organization’s ethical standards.
Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers.
Consider investing in leadership training.
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Leadership is a complex function in an organization but essential for success. Individuals, groups, and organizations all need leaders and there are many factors that define a successful leader. Each organization must assess what they need in their leader in order to be effective.
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Keep in Mind…
Leaders can influence a group toward the achievement of goals
The best leaders are ethical and authentic in addition to being charismatic
12-36
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It is important to keep in mind that leaders do influence behavior and they can do so in a way that increases achievement of goals.
The best leaders are ethical and authentic, although charisma is valued and coupled with vision, it can be effective in most environments.
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Summary
Contrasted leadership and management.
Summarized the conclusions of trait theories of leadership.
Identified the central tenets and main limitations of behavioral theories.
Assessed contingency theories of leadership by their level of support.
Compared charismatic leadership and transformational leadership.
Described the roles of ethics and trust in authentic leadership.
Demonstrated the role mentoring plays in our understanding of leadership.
Addressed challenges to the effectiveness of leadership.
Described how organizations can find or create effective leaders.
12-37
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