The deadline is 12:00 pm Friday.  Thank you!

LING 100 Take-home Final Exam (Winter 2020)

Instructions: please include the questions (pasted from this document) and type your answers. You may create a new document or edit this one – just make sure it’s clear what question you’re responding to and number all examples. For any tree diagrams, please use computer software to produce them and paste them into your document. Number your trees and example sentences so that we can refer to them while grading. Turn in your exam via Canvas

by 11:59PM Friday March 20th.

Please give yourself enough time to save and upload your work before the deadline. To be safe, plan on turning your exam in at least an hour before the deadline. If anything goes wrong with the Canvas upload, you may also email your completed exam to me – if you do so, please include “COMPLETED EXAM” in the subject line of your email.

Notes about rules: Use the phrase structure rules as they were at the end of Lobeck’s Chapter 13. If you change any rules for any reason, note what change you are proposing and explain why. More explanation is always good – you will get credit for your reasoning and demonstration of understanding.

Part 1 (25 pts)

(5 pts) Identify each phrase in the following sentence, then answer the questions below.

(1) The very small cat showed her toe beans to her friends, purring loudly.

(10 pts) For each phrase that you identified in (1), answer these questions:

i. Is this phrase a subject, a complement, or an adjunct.

ii. What is the head of the phrase?

iii. Does the phrase have any introducers? If so, what category are they?

iv. Does the phrase have a complement?

v. Does the phrase have an adjunct?

(10 pts) Choose one of the phrases that you identified in the sentence in (1). For that phrase, perform at least two diagnostic tests (movement, pronominalization, or coordination) to show that it is a constituent. Explain what test you used and why it shows that the phrase is a constituent.

Part 2 (20 pts)

(2 pts) Provide your own example sentence that includes a possessive NP and an embedded clause. Call this sentence (2)

(2) ________

(8 pts) Draw a tree diagram of sentence (2).

(10 pts) Answer the following questions about the example sentence you provided in (2):

i. What are all the functional categories and what are all the lexical categories of the words in your sentence?

ii. What is a finite verb in your sentence? Use one diagnostic to show that the verb is finite.

iii. In your sentence, is the embedded clause finite or non-finite? Use one diagnostic to support your answer. If the embedded clause is non-finite, what type of non-finite clause is it (to infinitive, bare infinitive, or participial)?

iv. What is the subject of the embedded clause? What is the predicate?

Part 3 (20 pts)

(2 pts) Provide an example sentence that includes at least one complement and at least one adjunct. Call this sentence (3)

(3) __________

(8 pts) Draw a tree diagram of sentence (3).

(10 pts) Answer the following questions about the example sentence you provided in (3).

i. What complement did you include? Use one diagnostic to show that it is a complement.

ii. If the complement you included is a complement of a verb, what type of complement is it? (E.g. direct object, subjective complement, etc….) If it is not a complement of a verb, identify what type of complement it is.

iii. What adjunct did you include? Use two diagnostics to show that it is an adjunct.

iv. For the adjunct that you identified above, what type of adjunct is it? Is it an adjunct to NP, VP, or S (or something else)?

Part 4 (20 pts)

(2 pts) Provide an example sentence that includes an overt AUX and at least one AdvP adjunct. Call this sentence (4).

(4) ___________

(8 pts) Draw a tree diagram of sentence (4).

(10 pts) Answer the following questions about the example sentence you provided in (4).

i. Use two diagnostics to identify the AUX in your sentence (4).

ii. What position is the AdvP in your sentence in (e.g. is it before or after the subject? Before or after the AUX?)

iii. What semantic category is your AdvP in?

iv. Based on your answers to ii and iii, is your AdvP more likely to be an adjunct to VP, or an adjunct to S? (Hint: your tree diagram should agree with your answer to these questions.)

Part 5 (15 pts)

(5 pts) Choose one syntactic category (e.g. nouns, verbs, etc) and answer the following questions:

i. Is this category lexical or functional? How can you tell?

ii. What inflectional morphology modifies this category in English? Provide an example.

iii. What derivational morphology creates words in this category in English? Provide an example.

iv. What semantic sub-categories exist in this category? Provide one example of each sub-category you identify.

(5 pts) In a few sentences, describe what the difference is between prescriptive grammatical rules and descriptive grammatical rules? How has this class changed your thinking about grammar and language?

(5 pts) In a few sentences, describe how you can use the diagnostics or terms you learned to apply your new knowledge of grammar towards your own study of language. Or, describe how you can apply your new knowledge of grammar towards other ways that you engage with language besides second-language learning.

Chapter 5
I. Semantics of Verbs
A. Active and Stative verbs
B. Other classifications of verbs
C. Semantic roles
D. Lexical and grammatical verbs
II. Verb Morphology

I Semantics of Verbs
A. Active vs Stative verbs
1. Active: involve changes over time (‘changes
of state)
Diagnostic: if a verb works with progressive aspect, this indicates it is active, not stative.
Hit: I am hitting the ball.
Play: Galen is playing a sonata.

I. Semantics of Verbs
A. Active versus Stative verbs
2. Stative: do not involve change over time
They do not occur with progressive aspect:

The box contains chocolates.
*The box is containing chocolates.

I. Semantics of Verbs
A. Active versus Stative verbs
2. Stative: do not involve change over time
Kim resembles Sue.
*Kim is resembling Sue.

I. Semantics of Verbs
A. Active versus Stative verbs
2. Stative: do not involve change over time
Nobuko is a doctor.
*Nobuko is being a doctor.

I. Semantics of Verbs
B. Other classifications:

I. Semantics of Verbs
B. Other classifications:
1. Motion verbs: verbs of change of position or change of location:
Sue went to the store.
The leaves fell to the ground.
They moved the piano (to the hall).

I. Semantics of Verbs
B. Other classifications:
2. “Psych-verbs: verbs of psychological state:
“type A: to please, annoy, disgust
That conversation pleased the guests.
The discussion annoyed them.
“ type B”: to enjoy, like
The audience enjoyed the concert.

I. Semantics of verbs
B. Other classifications:
3. Perception verbs: to see, hear, feel, taste, touch
— They heard [the door close]
4. Causation: to make, let
— Those cars make traveling easy.
— Sue’s mom let us stay over.
5. Communication: say, state, mention, declare,
— They said that he was innocent.

I. Semantics of Verbs
C. Semantic roles

I. Semantics of Verbs
Semantic roles
Verbs assign semantic roles to certain phrases that they occur with.
The boys moved the piano to the hall.
AGENT THEME GOAL
The boys enjoyed the piano.
EXPER. SOURCE/THEME

I. Semantics of Verbs
D. Lexical versus grammatical verbs.
1. Lexical verbs: have “dictionary” definitions (semantic content) and assign one or more semantic roles
2. Grammatical verbs: do not have “dictionary” definitions, and do not assign semantic roles.

I. Semantics of Verbs
D. Lexical versus grammatical verbs

The detective destroyed the evidence
AGENT THEME
The detective has destroyed the evidence.

I. Semantics of Verbs
D. Lexical versus grammatical verbs
3. The ‘Main’ verb in a sentence is the verb that assigns semantic roles; lexical verbs assign roles. Grammatical verbs do not.

I. Semantics of Verbs
Lexical versus grammatical verbs
4. Modals: provide information about “modality” of the event or state expressed by the main verb: volition, necessity, ability, permission, possibility…

I. Semantics of verbs: summary

I. Semantics of verbs: summary
A. Active and stative verbs differ in whether or not they express change over time;

I. Semantics of verbs: summary
A. Active and stative verbs differ in whether or not they express change over time;
B. Other classifications of verbs include:
motion verbs
psych-verbs
perception verbs
causation verbs
verbs of saying/asking, etc.

I. Semantics of verbs: summary
C. Semantic roles are roles assigned by verbs (and other categories).
D. Lexical versus grammatical verbs: only lexical verbs have semantic content and assign semantic roles to noun phrases.

II. Morphology of verbs
A. Derivational
B. Inflectional
C. Affixation vs. Suppletion

II. Morphology of verbs
A. Derivational Morphology: creates new verbs
Examples:
Adj. + -ize => V
Grammatical + ize; Institutional + ize
Adj. + -ify => V
Clar + ify, beaut + ify

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
1. Person
2. Number
3. Tense
4. Aspect

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
1. Person: verbs can be inflected for PERSON of their subject
Person distinctions:
Speaker (1st person) “I saw the books.”
Hearer (2nd person) “You saw the books.”
Other (3rd person) “She/he saw the books.”

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
2. Number: verbs can be inflected for the number of their subject
Examples:
I like we like
You like you (all) like
He/she likes they like

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
2. Number: verbs can be inflected for the number of their subject
Examples: Latin am- ‘love’
I am – o
You am – as
s/he am- at
we am- amus
you pl am- atis
they am- ant

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
3. Tense: The grammatical expression of the time of an event relative to the time of utterance of the sentence.
Examples:
Mary sang at the wedding.
Past: event precedes the moment of speech.
Mary likes sushi.
Present: event includes the moment of speech.

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
3. Tense: form
regular: -ed raise/raised
irregular: buy/bought
catch/caught
sing/sang
grow/grew
find/found
suppletive: go/went

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
4. Aspect: Completion or ‘ongoingness’ of an event relative to some point of reference
Examples:
Kim had lived in Seattle until August.
(completion of event relative to August—past perfect)
Kim has lived in Seattle.
(completion of event relative to ‘now’.—present perfect)

II. Morphology of verbs
B. Inflectional Morphology
4. Aspect: Completion or ‘ongoingness’ of an event relative to some point of reference
Examples:
Kim is living in Seattle: (ongoing event at present time)
Kim was living in Seattle (ongoing event at past time)

II. Morphology of verbs
C. Affixation versus Suppletion
1. Affixation can be a ‘regular’ form of inflection; (predictable)
Predictable forms are ‘overused’ by children still acquiring the language
“I sleeped” “I goed”

II. Morphology of verbs
C. Affixation versus Suppletion
Suppletion: the use of an unrelated form in the inflectional system.:
I am; he is; to be
Suppletion is often the result of centuries of changes in pronunciation.

Chapter 5: Form & Meaning of Verbs
III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
IV. Future Tense and Modals
V. Infinitives

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning:

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Form does not always correspond exactly to meaning.
1. One form may have two meanings
2. One meaning may have two forms.

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Form does not always correspond exactly to meaning.
1. One form may have two meanings
Example #1: Unmarked Habitual aspect in some dialects of English:

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Form does not always correspond exactly to meaning.
1. One form may have two meanings:
Habitual aspect
— She is (usually/often) late. (habitual: form: is)
— Today she is late. (singular: form: is)

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Form does not always correspond exactly to meaning.

This is a dialectal phenomenon. In African American English, two forms have distinct meanings:
— She be late. (=she is usually late.) Habitual
— She late. (=she is late right now.)

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Form does not always correspond exactly to meaning.
One form, two meanings:
Present tense: present/ future meaning:
Mary likes baseball.
Mary leaves at seven. (future event)
Who is playing at the Paramount next week? (future event)

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Example #3: one meaning, two forms: progressive (Spanish)
1) Juan lee el diario.
(Form: pres. tense, umarked aspect)
Juan reads the newspaper. ( = he is reading it)
2) Juan está leyendo el diario.
(Form: Pres. tense prog. aspect)
Juan is reading the newspaper.

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Why do form and meaning not converge?
One form may have a range of meanings. Other clues help the speaker decide among the meanings.

III. Semantic Tense and Aspect
Form versus Meaning
Summary
Form is not always equivalent to one unique meaning:
1. forms may have a range of meanings
2. a form may not exist one one dialect (or language)

IV. Future Tense and Modals
A. Future tense: A syntactic tense, not a morphological tense.
Morphological: usually, using an affix
Syntactic: using a specific sequence of words

IV. Future Tense and Modals
A. Future tense
Example:
Mary leaves at seven. (present tense, future meaning)
Mary will leave at seven. (Will+verb = syntactic future tense, future meaning)

IV. Future Tense and Modals
B. Modals
1. Semantic characteristics: no “dictionary” definitions
2. Concepts like volition (will), possibility etc.
Examples:
The Mayor may arrive at noon. (possibility)
Yes, they may leave early. (permission)

IV. Future Tense and Modals
B. Modals
3. Morphological characteristics:
arent inflected for person, number, tense, aspect
Examples:
I sing. I may sing.
He sings. *He mays sing.

IV. Future Tense and Modals
B. Modals
4. Semantic tense: do modals have Past/Present value? Yes
-Modals appear only in Finite clauses (past, present, future)
[ To play soccer ] is really fun.
*[To may play soccer] is really fun.
(Meaning: to be able to play soccer is a pleasure.)

IV. Future Tense and Modals
C. Summary
1. Future Tense is formed ‘syntactically’ in English
2. Modals are grammatical verbs
3. Modals are not inflected for person, number, tense, or aspect.
4. Modals have semantic tense.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
A. Finite versus non-finite forms of verbs:
A finite verb “locates” the event in time: past/present/future
A non-finite verb (infinitive or participle) does NOT locate the event in time.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
A. Finite versus infinitive forms of verbs:
Example #1:
Finite: Non-finite:
Lionel traveled to Borneo. [ To travel to Borneo] is not so simple.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
A. Finite versus non-finite forms of verbs:
Example #2: sequences of verbs:
Finite: Non-finite:
Lionel will travel to Borneo. (to travel)
Lionel has traveled to Borneo.
(traveled = perf. participle)
Lionel is traveling to Borneo.
(traveling= prog. Participle)

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
A. Finite versus non-finite forms of verbs:
Diagnostic for finite verbs: two possible forms: past or present

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
B. Diagnostic for finite verbs: two possible forms: past or present
Examples:
Lionel has traveled to Borneo.
Lionel had traveled to Borneo.
(Lionel will have traveled to Borneo.)
(syntactic tense)

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
B. Diagnostic for non-finite verbs: cannot have past/present forms
Examples:

Lionel has traveled to Borneo.
(Is traveled a finite verb?
*Lionel has travels to Borneo.
(NO! It cannot be replaced by a tensed form.)

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
C. Types of non-finite verbs:
“Bare” infinitives: no affix; without to; occur after modals
Sue may write the proposal.
Kim and Allie should watch the World Cup.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
C. Types of non-finite verbs:
“To-” infinitives: no affix; with to; in various subordinate clauses
[For José to win the race] would be great.
We prefer [for Mary to win].

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
C. Types of non-finite verbs:
Present (progressive) participles: verbs ending in -ing
Mary is winning the race.
The guard saw the thief climbing the wall.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
C. Types of non-finite verbs:
“Past” (perfect) participles: forms ending in –ed/-en
Sue has spoken already.
[For the committee to have finished the project] is impressive.

V. Infinitives: no past/present/future distinction
D. Summary
1. Finite verbs have past/present (or future) forms. They can replace one another.
2. Non-finite verbs do not have past/present (or future) forms). They cannot be replaced by a past/present (or future) form.
3. Non-finite verbs can be: bare infinitives, marked (to-) infinitives, or participles.

Chapter 7: Adjective Phrases

I. Structure of the Adj. Phrase

A. Structure

B. Diagnostics

1. Movement

2. Pronominalization

3. Coordination

II. Adj. Phrase Positions

A. Prenominal Position

B. After Linking verbs

C. Postnominal Position

I. Structure of the Adj. Phrase
A. Structure
Rule: AP => (Deg) – A
AP
Deg A
very smart

B. Diagnostics
The main point of diagnostics:
How do we know whether or not two (or more) words form a larger unit (a phrase)?

B. Diagnostics
1. Movement: only constituents undergo movement:
Freddie is very generous.
Freddie is HOW generous?
How generous is Freddie?
Conclusion: [ very generous] is a constituent.
(Usually an introducer cannot be separated from the following words in the same phrase.)

B. Diagnostics
1. Movement: only constituents undergo movement:
Practice: use movement to show that enormously difficult is a constituent:
This problem is [ enormously difficult ].

B. Diagnostics
1. Movement: only constituents undergo movement:
Practice: use movement to show that enormously difficult is a constituent:

This problem is [ enormously difficult ].
[how difficult] is this problem?
(Enormously difficult)
Conclusion: [enormously difficult] is a constituent.

B. Diagnostics
2. Pronominalization: only constituents can be replaced by a proform.
Example: Mary’s solution is [very creative ] and so is Fred’s solution.
(very creative)

B. Diagnostics
Practice: This pen is bright yellow and that one is bright yellow. (apply pronominalization)

B. Diagnostics
Practice: This pen is bright yellow and that one is bright yellow.
This pen is bright yellow and so is that one.
(= It’s bright yellow.)

B. Diagnostics
3. Coordination: only constituents can be coordinated.
Example: these jokes are [more humorous] but [somewhat confusing].
Conclusion: each AP forms a unit with its degree word.

B. Diagnostics
Practice with structure: Draw a tree diagram for:
an extremely long but nice movie

B. Diagnostics
an extremely long but nice movie
NP
Det AP N
an movie
AP but AP
Deg A A
extremely long nice

II. Adj. Phrase Positions
A. Prenominal Position
B. After Linking Verbs
C. Postnominal Position

II. Adj. Phrase Positions
A. Prenominal Position

NP=> (Det) – (Q) – (NUM) – (AP) – N
those two [very lovely] cats
his many [less attractive] frogs

A. Prenominal Position
Notice: other categories can also appear in a pre-nominal position:
those two lovely crying babies (V)
the one lovely soap dish (N)
Revised rule:
NP=> (Det) – (Q) – (NUM) – (AP) – {N/V} – N

constantly

B. After Linking Verbs
1. What are linking verbs?
be, become
appear, seem, look
taste, feel, sound, smell, look

B. After Linking Verbs
Example:
The solution was very clear
became
looked
seemed

B. Prenominal Position
2. Other categories can appear after linking verbs:
The solution was a new car. (NP)
The solution was right there. (PP)
Usually, this is an AP position.

C. Postnominal Position
“Heavy” APs can appear after N:
a yellow book
*a book yellow
a book yellow with age
a book yellower than I’ve ever seen

C. Postnominal Position
“Heavy” APs can appear after N:
Some adjectives follow the noun even if they are ‘light’:
all possible things
all things possible

SUMMARY: rules
AP => (Deg) A (PP)

NP => ({Det/PossNP})(Q)(Num)(AP)({N/V}) N ({AP/PP})

II. Adj. Phrase Positions: Summary
A. Prenominal Position: before N
B. Predicate Position: after linking verbs
C. Post-nominal Position: “Heavy” APs can appear after N.

ADJUNCTS IN THE VP
I. INTRODUCTION TO ADJUNCTS
A. What is an adjunct?
B. Category of adjuncts
C. Properties of adjuncts
D. Structure
II. PrepP ADJUNCTS
III. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS
IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS

I. INTRODUCTION TO ADJUNCTS
A. What is an adjunct?

I. INTRODUCTION TO ADJUNCTS
A. What is an adjunct?
A constituent that is
optionally added
to a phrase or clause.

I. INTRODUCTION TO ADJUNCTS
A. What is an adjunct?
A constituent that is
optionally added
to a phrase or clause.
COMPARE . . .

WHAT CONSTITUENTS ARE REQUIRED?

WHAT CONSTITUENTS ARE REQUIRED?
SUBJECT (usually NP)
PREDICATE (usually VP)
COMPLEMENTS :
a. complements of the verb;
b. complements of a prep.
c. ‘subjective complements’
d. ‘objective complements’

NOTICE . . .

Complements are USUALLY required,
But sometimes they can be omitted.
Adjuncts are never required .

B. CATEGORY OF ADJUNCTS

B. CATEGORY OF ADJUNCTS
PP : Mary worked at the office.
AP : Kim went away sad.
AdvP : Franco worked quietly.
NP : Kumiko worked that day.
S : Elmore worked to pay his bills.
PrtP: Hortense worked, the sun shining all the while.

C. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS

C. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
1. PREPOSING: adjuncts can usually be
moved to the beginning of the clause.

For example . . .

Tatsu worked hard to pay the rent.

To pay the rent Tatsu worked hard.

That day Kumiko worked hard.

Kumiko worked hard that day.

Franco worked quietly.

?? Quietly Franco worked.

C. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
2. ORDER : adjuncts do not appear between the head of phrase and the complement.

Kumiko wrote the chapter quickly.

Kumiko wrote the chapter quickly.
*Kumiko wrote quickly the chapter.

Kumiko wrote the chapter quickly.
*Kumiko wrote quickly the chapter.
Arnie spoke to Sue at the HUB.

Kumiko wrote the chapter quickly.
*Kumiko wrote quickly the chapter.
Arnie spoke to Sue at the HUB.
*Arnie spoke at the HUB to Sue.

D. STRUCTURE OF ADJUNCTS

D. STRUCTURE OF ADJUNCTS

AD + JUNCT = “joined to”
A VP adjunct is “joined to” VP

Phrase structure rules give the ordinary
Expansion of phrases. For example:

VP  V (for an intransitive verb).

Phrase structure rules give the ordinary
Expansion of phrases. For example:

VP  V (for an intransitive verb).
VP
V
worked

Then “adjunction” rules apply.
They copy phrase nodes to add
Extra branches.
VP

VP AdvP
V Adv
worked quietly

Franco worked quietly.

Franco worked quietly.
S

NP Aux VP

Franco VP AdvP
V quietly
worked

I. Introduction to Adjuncts: Summary

I. Introduction to Adjuncts: Summary
A. Adjuncts are optional; they add
“extra” information.
B. Adjuncts may be any category or S.
C. Properties:
1. Can often be moved
to beginning of the clause.
2. Cannot appear between
the head and its complements.
D. Structure: Adjuncts are joined to
phrases by “copying”.

II. PrepP ADJUNCTS

II. PrepP ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES :

Sue laughed at the office.
Terri bought a car for Fred.

II. PrepP ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES :

Sue laughed at the office.
Terri bought a car for Fred.

Compare. . .

NON-ADJUNCT PrepPs
Sue laughed at the joke.
Terri asked for a raise.

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
1. ADJUNCT PPs can move to beginning:
At the office Sue laughed
For Fred Terri bought a car .
*At the joke Sue laughed.
*For a raise Terri asked. (compl.)

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
2. ADJUNCT PPs do not appear between
the head of phrase and complements.
Sue wrote a chapter. (compl.)

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
2. ADJUNCT PPs do not appear between
the head of phrase and complements.
Sue wrote a chapter. (compl.)
Sue wrote a chapter at the office.

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS
2. ADJUNCT PPs do not appear between
the head of phrase and complements.
Sue wrote a chapter. (compl.)
Sue wrote a chapter at the office.
*Sue wrote at the office a chapter.

SEMANTICS

C. SEMANTICS
ADJUNCTS ARE NOT SEMANTICALLY DIFFERENT FROM COMPLEMENTS :
Sandra put the pie in the kitchen.
Sandra made the pie in the kitchen.

THEREFORE:
ADJUNCTS cannot be distinguished from COMPLEMENTS in terms of
meaning.
The difference lies in whether or not the phrase fulfills a role specified by the verb or not.

II. PrepP Adjuncts: Summary

II. PrepP Adjuncts: Summary
A. Examples
B. Properties
1. Can be moved to beginning
2. Cannot appear between the
head and its complements
C. Semantics: not different from the
semantics of complements. PrepP
adjuncts do not complete a semantic
role.

III. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS

III. ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
ADJUNCT AdvP
Sandra cut the pie carefully.

NON-ADJUNCT AdvP
Sandra worded the message carefully.

B. PROPERTIES OF ADJUNCTS

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:
Carefully, Sandra cut the pie.
*Carefully, Sandra worded the message.
2. Position:
Sandra cut the pie carefully.
*Sandra cut carefully the pie.

C. STRUCTURE

C. STRUCTURE
Recall:

C. STRUCTURE
Recall:
AdvPs occur in 5 positions:

C. STRUCTURE
Recall:
AdvPs occur in 5 positions:

• NP • AUX • VAUX • V •

Why these positions? Here are places
where AdvP can ADJOIN to a phrase :
S

• S

NP • Aux VP

• VP

VP •

Why these positions? Here are places
where AdvP can ADJOIN to a phrase :
S

• S

NP • Aux VP
?
• VP

VP •

D. ADVERBIAL NPs

D. ADVERBIAL NPs
Example:
Sue wrote a chapter that day.

D. ADVERBIAL NPs
Example:
Sue wrote a chapter that day.

Movement :
That day, Sue wrote a chapter.

D. ADVERBIAL NPs
Example:
Sue wrote a chapter that day.

Movement :
That day, Sue wrote a chapter.
Position :
*Sue wrote that day a chapter.

III. AdvP Adjuncts: Summary

III. AdvP Adjuncts: Summary
A. Examples
B. Properties
1. Can be moved to beginning
2. Cannot appear between the
head and its complements
C. Structure: occur in 5 positions,
perhaps just where they can adjoin.
D. NPs can function as AdvP adjuncts.

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs
John stopped laughing at the performers.

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs
John stopped laughing at the performers.
The clerk began writing a receipt.

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs
John stopped laughing at the performers.
The clerk began writing a receipt.
ADJUNCT PrtPs

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs
John stopped laughing at the comic.
The clerk began writing every word.
ADJUNCT PrtPs
The audience applauded, laughing at the performers.

IV. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. EXAMPLES:
NON-ADJUNCT PrtPs
John stopped laughing at the comedians.
The clerk began writing every word.
ADJUNCT PrtPs
The audience applauded, laughing at the performers.
The clerk grew quiet, writing the receipt.

B. PROPERTIES

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:
* Laughing at the performers John stopped.

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:
* Laughing at the performers John stopped.
*Writing the receipt the clerk began.

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:
* Laughing at the performers John stopped.
*Writing the receipt the clerk began.
Laughing at the performers, the audience applauded.

B. PROPERTIES
1. Movement:
*At the performers John stopped laughing.
*Writing the receipt the clerk began.
Laughing at the performers, the audience applauded.
Writing the receipt, the clerk grew quiet.

C. STRUCTURE (external only)

C. STRUCTURE (external only)

VP

VP PrtP
V
applauded

IV. Participial Phrase Adjuncts: Summary

IV. Participial Phrase Adjuncts: Summary
A. Examples
B. Properties:
Can be moved to beginning
C. Structure: Adjoin to VP

SUMMARY
ADJUNCTS are always optional, and can appear in different places
ADJUNCTS can be many different categories
ADJUNCTS are connected outside a phrase, by copying the phrase

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. Examples
B. Properties: Movement, Position
II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
A. Infinitival clauses
B. Participial clauses

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. Examples

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. Examples
1. Complement APs :

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. Examples
1. Complement APs:
The students were all intelligent.
This idea seems foolish.
Abdul considered the movie excellent.
That will make Arnie happy.

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS
A. Examples
1. Complement APs:
The students were all intelligent.
This idea seems foolish.
Abdul considered the movie excellent.
That will make Arnie happy.
(These Adjective Phrases are Subjective or Objective complements.)

A. Examples
2. ADJUNCT APs :

A. Examples
2. ADJUNCT APs :
Ellen stayed home, sick with the flu.
The morning progressed, cloudy and cold.

B. Properties: Movement

B. Properties: Movement :
Recall that adjuncts can be moved to
the beginning of the clause.

B. Properties- Movement :
*Intelligent the students all were.

B. Properties– Movement :
*Intelligent the students all were.
*Happy that will make Arnie.

B. Properties– (1) Movement :
*Intelligent the students all were.
*Happy that will make Arnie.
Sick with the flu, Ellen stayed home.

B. Properties– (1) Movement :

*Intelligent the students all were.
*Happy that will make Arnie !
Sick with the flu, Ellen stayed home.
Cloudy and wet, the morning progressed.

B. Properties–(2) Position :

B. Properties: Position
Recall that adjuncts cannot appear between a head and its complement.

B. Properties–(2) Position :
*Abdul considered excellent the movie.

B. Properties–(2) Position :
*Abdul considered excellent the movie.
Should this be grammatical?
It is an objective complement.

B. Properties–(2) Position :
*Abdul considered excellent the movie.
Should this be grammatical?
It is an objective complement.
However, a separate rule of English makes it impossible:

B. Properties–(2) Position :
*Abdul considered excellent the movie.
Should this be grammatical?
It is an objective complement.
However, a separate rule of English makes it impossible:
V-NP adjacency.

B. Properties–(2) Position :
*Abdul considered excellent the movie.
*That will make happy Arnie.

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS: Summary

I. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADJUNCTS: Summary
A. Examples
B. Properties:
1. Adjectival Adjuncts can move to
the beginning of the clause.
2. Adjectival Adjuncts cannot
appear between the head and
its complement.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
A. Infinitival clauses: EXAMPLES

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
A. Infinitival clauses; Examples
1. Complements:
John tried to learn Japanese.
Hortense prefers for Sue to leave.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
A. Infinitival clauses; Examples
1. Complements:
John tried to learn Japanese.
Hortense prefers for Sue to leave.
2. Adjuncts :
John studied to learn Japanese.
Esther went home to cook dinner.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
B. Properties: (1) Movement :

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
B. Properties: (1) Movement :
*To learn Japanese John tried.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
B. Properties: (1) Movement :
*To learn Japanese John tried.
*For Sue to leave Hortense prefers.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
B. Properties: (1) Movement :
*To learn Japanese John tried.
*For Sue to leave Hortense prefers.
To learn Japanese, John studied.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS
B. Properties: (1) Movement :
*To learn Japanese John tried.
*For Sue to leave Hortense prefers.
To learn Japanese, John studied.
To cook dinner, Esther went home.

B. Properties–(2) Position :

B. Properties–(2) Position :
Esther went home to cook dinner.
*Esther went to cook dinner home.
John studied French (in order) to meet
new friends.
*John studied (in order) to meet new friends French.

B. Participial Clause Adjuncts

B. Participial Clause Adjuncts
Examples:
Complements:
Carmen started the fish baking.
Helen couldn’t picture her sister dancing.
Adjuncts :
Carmen made a salad, the fish baking.
Helen played a polka, her sister dancing.

Movement:

Movement:
*The fish baking Carmen started.
*Her sister dancing Helen couldn’t picture.

The fish baking, Carmen made a salad.
Her sister dancing, Helen played a polka.

Position:

Position:

*Carmen made the fish baking a salad

Position:

*Carmen made the fish baking a salad

*Helen played her sister dancing a polka.

CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS: Summary

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS: Summary
A. Infinitival clauses: behave
like other adjuncts with
respect to movement
and position.

II. CLAUSAL ADJUNCTS: Summary
A. Infinitival clauses: behave
like other adjuncts with
respect to movement
and position.
B. Participial clauses: Same.

TREE PRACTICE
The student focused on their work on the park benches.

PRACTICE 2
(2) The student needed to finish their homework to be able to watch TV.

PRACTICE 3
(3) So observant and thoughtful, the student considered the instructor quite remarkable.

ADJUNCTS IN THE NP

It’s my favorite chapter you guys

REVIEW: what are adjuncts generally?
ADJUNCTS are a phrase that’s attached to another phrase
ADJUNCTS are always optional
ADJUNCTS add extra information that’s not necessary for the sentence to make sense
ADJUNCTS also form a constituent with the thing they’re merged with
You can pronominalize something including its adjuncts
You can move something along with its adjuncts

ADJUNCTS IN THE NP
Overview: here are things that can be adjuncts of NP
PPs
Structural ambiguity! Today
Appositive NPs
Relative clauses
I love them
Restrictive relative clauses
Tensed relative clauses
Infinitival relative clauses Wednesday
Reduced relative clauses
Non-restrictive relative clauses
(Bonus content: free relative clauses)

PP ADJUNCTS OF NP
THIS IS NOT IN THE TEXTBOOK SO TAKE NOTES
Remember, some NPs can have PP complements:
[NP [N professor][PP of linguistics]] PP complement of N
NPs can also have PP adjuncts!
[NP [NP [N professor]][PP from Bulgaria]] PP adjunct of NP
[NP [NP [N flowers]][PP in the garden]] PP adjunct of NP

PP ADJUNCTS OF NP
How do you tell PP complements from PP adjuncts in NP?
Pronominalization:
*I met a professor of chemistry and one of physics complement
I met a professor from Norway and one from Sweden adjunct
Extraposition:
*I met a professor yesterday of chemistry complement
I met a professor yesterday from Norway adjunct

PP ADJUNCTS OF NP
PP complements vs PP adjuncts: ordering
Adjuncts can’t appear between a head and its complement
The professor of chemistry from Sweden head-complement-adjunct
??The professor from Sweden of chemistry *head-adjunct-complement

PP ADJUNCTS OF NP
PPs can be adjuncts of either VP or NP, so it’s possible to get a structurally ambiguous adjunct
Structural ambiguity is when there are two possible syntactic structures for one sentence
The Groucho Marx example:
I shot an elephant [PP in my pajamas]
Is the PP an adjunct of NP or VP? The answer has semantic consequences

Who’s wearing the pajamas?

STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY
I shot an elephant in my pajamas.
IF IT’S A VP ADJUNCT:
(draw a tree now, I’ll do it on the camera in a minute)
VP => VP PP
It modifies the event semantically: I was in my pajamas when I shot him.
IF IT’S A NP ADJUNCT
(draw a tree of this one too)
NP => NP PP
It modifies the entity semantically: which elephant did I shoot? The one wearing my pajamas

STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITY

ADJUNCTS IN THE NP
Note: not all NP adjuncts are going to be ambiguous like this
It’s going to happen when something could either be a NP adjunct (of an NP at the end of a VP) or a VP adjunct (at the end)
Most adjuncts of VP don’t also show up as adjuncts of NP

NP ADJUNCTS OF NP: Appositives
NP can be a complement even when it describes another NP
Remember subjective complements?
The dean is [NP an upright chap]
Remember objective complements?
I consider the department chair [NP an admirable fellow]
But this can also happen in the form of an NP adjunct:
The department chair, [NP Richard Wright], is on sabbatical.
I had a meeting with Emily Bender, [NP the acting chair for the quarter].

NP ADJUNCTS OF NP: Appositives
ADJUNCT vs COMPLEMENT diagnostics
Can I just delete an objective or subjective complement?
*The dean is [NP an upright chap]
*I consider the department chair [NP an admirable fellow]
Can I just delete an appositive NP adjunct?
The department chair, [NP Richard Wright], is on sabbatical.
I had a meeting with Emily Bender, [NP the acting chair for the quarter].

NP ADJUNCTS OF NP: Appositives
ADJUNCT vs COMPLEMENT diagnostics
I can pronominalize NPs without the subjective/objective complements
The dean He is [NP an upright chap]
I consider the department chair him [NP an admirable fellow]
But I can pronominalize NPs with their appositive adjuncts
The department chair, [NP Richard Wright], He is on sabbatical.
I had a meeting with her Emily Bender, [NP the acting chair for the quarter].
NP + Appositive NP adjunct = constituent

NP ADJUNCTS OF NP: Appositives
ADJUNCT vs COMPLEMENT diagnostics
Ordering: yes this one works
The professor of linguistics, Barbara Citko, is speaking tonight.
*The professor, Barbara Citko, of linguistics is speaking tonight.
Preposing: this one doesn’t work for NPs
I am meeting with my advisor, Barbara.
*Barbara, I am meeting with my advisor
Extraposition: this one doesn’t work for appositives
Barbara Citko, a well-known syntactician, wrote an excellent paper.
*Barbara Citko wrote an excellent paper, a well-known syntactician.
Why did those diagnostics work for VP adjuncts but not NP adjuncts? In general, you can’t move stuff out of NP. Mostly.

NP ADJUNCTS OF NP: structure
Adjunct rule: NP => NP NP (wow!)
Tree these two. They should look different:
The professors call Brooke an excellent syntactician.
The professors called Brooke, an excellent syntactician.

ADJUNCTS IN THE NP: Summary
PP adjuncts of NP
Different than PP complements
Not in the textbook so seriously review these slides when you are studying because this absolutely will be on the final I am so serious
Can be structurally ambiguous: sometimes the word order isn’t enough to tell whether something is an adjunct of NP or VP. Semantics saves the day (for once)
NP adjuncts of NP
Appositives, usually sort of parenthetical-sounding (with comma intonation)
Don’t get them mixed up with objective/subjective complements (which are complements of V even though they “describe” another NP)
Ordering is the most consistent diagnostic

ADJUNCTS IN THE NP: Preview
Next time we’ll talk about relative clauses! Here are some examples to think about:
I love the cat who brings me broken toys every day.
The best cat to pet on the head is Galois.
I have to feed the cat clawing at my ankles.
Galois, who is my roommate’s cat, has very long fur.
I’m furious with whoever keeps leaving hairballs on the carpet.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

I love relative clauses

ROADMAP FOR TODAY
WHAT’S A RELATIVE CLAUSE?
It’s not a S complement of V
It’s not a S complement of N
It’s an S Adjunct of NP
RESTRICTIVE relative clauses
TENSED restrictive relative clauses
INFINITIVAL restrictive relative clauses
REDUCED restrictive relative clauses
NON-RESTRICTIVE relative clauses
FREE relative clauses

WHAT’S A RELATIVE CLAUSE?
A relative clause is a S adjunct to NP
I described [NP the mango [S that I ate]]
I described it NP pro-form = it
[The mango that I ate] was described by me yes passive
It’s not a S complement to V
I wonder [S who ate my mango]
*[who ate my mango] is wondered by me no passive
I wonder who ate my mango and so does Karen VP pro-form = so

WHAT’S A RELATIVE CLAUSE?
A relative clause is a S adjunct to NP
I bought [the mango that I wanted to eat]
I wanted to eat ___ has a gap! (__ = mango)
I bought the mango yesterday that I wanted to eat can be extraposed
It’s not a S complement to N
I understand [the fact that mangos are great]
Mangos are great no gap (complete sentence)
*I understand the fact now that mangos are great can’t be extraposed

RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
RESTRICTIVE vs NON-RESTRICTIVE is a semantic distinction that has syntactic consequences
RESTRICTIVE NON-RESTRICTIVE

All dogs
Dogs who will lick your face
One particular dog
I want to pet this dog

TYPES OF RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
You know these types of clauses already
TENSED:
[NP the grocer [S who should sell me all the mangos]]
Can have a complementizer (that) or a relative pronoun (who, which, where, when, why)
Has an AUX with a tense (this one is should)
INFINITIVAL
REDUCED

TENSED RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
There’s a kind of movement involved
That’s why there’s a “gap”
I visited [NP the farmer [S who I bought all the mangos from __ ]]

[NP the photograph [S _ that I took __]] came out beautiful.

STRUCTURE
NP => NP S
S => (comp) NP Aux VP

STRUCTURE
NP => NP S
S => (comp) NP Aux VP
Relative pronoun (who) is in the same position as the complementizer (that)

TYPES OF RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
You know these types of clauses already
TENSED
INFINITIVAL
[NP the chapters [S to study _]]
To-infinitives (where to is AUX)
No relative pronouns (who/which etc)
*the chapters which to study
No tense! Just what we expect from infinitival things by now
REDUCED

INFINITIVAL RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
No subject or complementizer necessary:
[NP The mangos [S to eat _ after dinner]] are on the counter
If you do have a subject, you also need for (a complementizer):
[NP The mangos [S for me to eat _ after dinner]] are on the counter
Notice! Even without WH-movement, there’s still a gap

STRUCTURE
NP => NP S
S => (comp) NP Aux VP
For = complementizer
To = Aux

TYPES OF RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
You know these types of clauses already
TENSED
INFINITIVAL
REDUCED
[NP the mangoes [S sitting on the counter]] participial
[NP a professor [S sick with the mumps]] predicative
“Reduced” from a full relative clause, generally missing “be”

REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES
“Reduced” from what?
[NP the mangoes [S that are sitting on the counter]] participial
[NP a professor [S who is sick with the mumps]] predicative
No relative pronoun, no complementizer, no main verb be

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
Tell about a specific individual
the mango that I liked best restrictive = out of the set of mangos
The mango, which I liked best non-restrictive = this particular mango
Generally TENSED (so that or relative pronouns)
Generally act like adjuncts

NON RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
Yes they can extrapose:
The professor, who I work with often, arrived.
The professor arrived, who I work with often.
I saw Nan, who is very smart, yesterday
I saw Nan yesterday, who is very smart
They can optionally be included in pronominalization
This professor, who I know, and that one, who I’ve never met
This professor, who I know, and that one

NON-RESTRICTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE ONES
Something can be modified by more than one relative clause! This is because it’s an adjunct, so you can get NPs inside of NPs inside of NPs
The mangos that I like that I bought at the store restrictive x 2
The mangos that I bought at the store that I like restrictive x 2
But if one of them is non-restrictive, it has to go on the outside:
The mangos that I like, which are green now restrictive – non-restrictive
*The mangos, which are green now, that I like *non-restrictive – restrictive

FREE RELATIVES
FREE RELATIVE CLAUSES are clauses that aren’t actually attached to an NP. They just act like an NP by themselves:
[Whoever ate my mangos] is in trouble.
I’m going to be so mad at [whoever ate my mangos]
I’ll eat [what my roommate cooks for dinner]
[What my roommate cooks for breakfast] is always amazing
Notice:
They have relative pronouns (who, what, etc)
Lobeck draws them exclusively as triangles for good reason
They can go [wherever other arguments can go ]

SUMMARY OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
RELATIVE CLAUSES are:
not a S complement of V
not a S complement of N
an S Adjunct of NP
RESTRICTIVE relative clauses
TENSED restrictive relative clauses are finite clauses with relative pronouns
INFINITIVAL restrictive relative clauses are to-infinitives, no relative pronouns
REDUCED restrictive relative clauses are missing relative pronouns and be
NON-RESTRICTIVE relative clauses are tensed, but act different
FREE relative clauses are relative clauses that aren’t attached to anything

Chapter 11
Complements

I. Introduction to complements
A. What is a complement?
B. what information does a complement
provide?
C. Phrase structure of complements
D. Lexical determination of complements

II. Subcategorization

I Introduction to complements

A. What is a complement?
A complement provides necessary information for the interpretation of the verb.

A. What is a complement?
A complement provides necessary information for the interpretation of the verb.
In this sense, a complement “completes” the verb.

B. what information does a complement provide?
The complement provides information for interpretation of the semantic roles of the verb.

B. what information does a complement provide?
The complement provides information for interpretation of the semantic roles of the verb.
Example:

B. what information does a complement provide?
Kim broke the vase.
AGENT: Kim
THEME: a vase

B. what information does a complement provide?

In what sense is a verb incomplete without the Agent and Theme?

B. what information does a complement provide?

In what sense is a verb incomplete without the Agent and Theme?
The thematic roles of the verb are variables:
[ x broke y]

B. what information does a complement provide?

In what sense is a verb incomplete without the Agent and Theme?
The thematic roles of the verb are variables:
[ x broke y]
NPs replace the variable by a constant. This tells which event of breaking we are referring to.

C. Phrase structure of complements

Category of complements:
NP Kim broke [the vase].
PP Hideo talked [ about the problem]
S Julie says [ that Hans is smart ]
NP PP Fred put [a gift] [on the desk]
VP The bell stopped [ringing] (PrtP)

Phrase structure rule for complements
VP  V NP (PP)
S

D. Lexical determination of complements

How does the grammar ensure that the right type of complement occurs with any particular verb?

D. Lexical determination of complements

How does the grammar ensure that the right type of complement occurs with any particular verb?

*Kim broke [that Hans is smart]

D. Lexical determination of complements

How does the grammar ensure that the right type of complement occurs with any particular verb?

*Kim broke [that Hans is smart]
*break + S

D. Lexical determination of complements

How does the grammar ensure that the right type of complement occurs with any particular verb?

Kim broke [the vase]

D. Lexical determination of complements

How does the grammar ensure that the right type of complement occurs with any particular verb?

Kim broke [the vase]
break + NP

D. Lexical determination of complements
The lexicon specifies the required category:
break: V; _ NP (insert break before NP)

D. Lexical determination of complements
The lexicon specifies the required category:
break: V; _ NP (insert break before NP)
put: V; _ NP PP (insert put before NP – PP)

I. Introduction to complements: Summary

I. Introduction to complements: Summary
A. What is a complement? a phrase that provides information to complete the meaning of the verb.

I. Introduction to complements: Summary
A. What is a complement? a phrase that provides information to complete the meaning of the verb.
B. what information does a complement provide? The identity of the participants in the event (Agents, Themes, etc.)

I. Introduction to complements: Summary
C. Phrase structure of complements:

1. Phrase may be of any category
2. PS Rule:
VP  V NP (PP)
S

I. Introduction to complements: Summary

D. Lexical determination of complements: the category of complements is not predictable; it is learned individually for each verb.

II. Subcategorization
A. What is subcategorization?

II. Subcategorization
A. What is subcategorization?
Each part of speech is a category.

II. Subcategorization
A. What is subcategorization?
Each part of speech is a category.
Verbs fall into “subcategories” according to the type of complement they take:

II. Subcategorization
B. Subcategories of verb:

1. Intransitive verbs: no complement:

V; ___

The boy danced/ran/sang/yawned/sneezed

II. Subcategorization
2. Transitive verbs:
V; ___ NP
The boy broke something.

(wanted/bought/cut/loved)

II. Subcategorization
3. Ditransitive verbs
V; ___ NP PP
Ellen put [the computer][on the desk]
Verbs of transmittal: give, send, mail, ship
Anya sent [a card] [to her Mom].

II. Subcategorization
C. How is subcategorization encoded?

The Lexicon: a mental dictionary.
Contains information about words:
Meaning
Pronunciation
Category, subcategory

II. Subcategorization
Example: SEND:
Meaning: cause an object to undergo a change of possession;
Theta roles: Agent, Theme, Goal
Pronunciation: [s e n d ]
Syntax: Category: V
Subcategory: _ NP PP

II. Subcategorization: Summary
Subcategorization is the “context” information about a verb in the lexicon (mental dictionary)

Complements of Verbs
A. What phrases have complements?
B. Direct objects vs. Subjective
complements
C. Objective complements
D. PP complements
* Practice Identifying complements

A. What categories have complements?

A. What categories have complements?
All categories allow complements:
John envied Fred. (Verb)
John’s envy of Fred (Noun)
John is envious of Fred (Adjective)

A. What categories have complements?
Focus in this discussion: complements of verbs

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
1. Direct objects:
NP is Sister of non-linking verb
V allows active voice or passive voice
V assigns two thematic roles (transitive)

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
Direct Object Example:

The lightening caused a fire.
A fire was caused by lightening.

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
Direct Object Example:

The lightning caused a fire.
A fire was caused by lightning.
(Direct object NP in active voice; it appears as the subject in passive voice.)

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
Transitive verbs: assign two thematic roles:
The lightning caused a fire.
(Source) (Theme)

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
Transitive verbs: assign two thematic roles:
The lightning caused a fire.
(Source) (Theme)
(The two NPs refer to different entities.)

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
Transitive verbs: assign two thematic roles.
If the subject and object refer to the same entity, a reflexive pronoun is required:

The detective investigated herself.
The guests served themselves.

B. Direct objects versus Subjective
complements
2. Subjective complements:
NP or AP or PP is sister of a linking verb
Verb cannot be passivized
Linking verb does not assign two thematic roles
Subject and subjective complement refer to the same entity
Subjective complement is a predicate that describes the subject

Subjective complements
Subject NP and subjective complement refer to the same entity:
Hortense became a doctor.
SUBJECT Subject complement

Subjective complements
Subjective complement describes the subject.
Examples:
Sue and I remained good friends.
Joyce is a new homeowner.
Elizabeth is the Queen of England

Subjective complements
Phrase structure:

VP
V NP
AP
PP

Subjective complements
Linking verbs: (some examples)

be, remain, become, grow, get

Subjective complements
Semantics of subjective complements: Predicates.

A subjective complement does not refer to a person or thing, but to qualities or properties.

Subjective complements
Category of subjective complements:

AP: Elizabeth appeared interested.
NP: Kumiko is a doctor.
PP: The kids remained at home.

Direct Objects vs. Subjective complements
Diagnostics to distinguish Direct Objects from Subjective complements:
1. Is the verb a linking Verb?
2. Can the verb be passivized?
3. Does NP refer to a person/thing or is it
a predicate that describes the subject?
4. Can NP/AP/PP appear as complement?

Direct objects versus Subjective complements
Diagnostics: example

They remained good friends
Remain is a linking verb
Remain cannot be passivizied
NP describes the subject, does not refer to separate individual
NP can be replaced by AP or PP.

C. Objective complements
Example:

They elected Fred president.

C. Objective complements
Phrase Structure:
VP
V NP NP
elected Fred president

C. Objective complements
Characteristics of Objective complements:
1. occur after a direct object:
They consider Fred intelligent.
D.O.

C. Objective complements
Characteristics of Objective complements:
1. occur after a direct object:
They consider Fred intelligent.
D.O.
Fred is considered intelligent.

C. Objective complements
Characteristics of Objective complements:
2. Describe the direct object (Predicated
of the direct object)
They named Ranil chief of the clan.
(a property)
3. Category: NP, AP, PP

C. Objective complements
Examples:
The club named him as president. (PP)
Mary nominated him to the board. (PP)
They called the movie a success. (NP)
Hideo considers himself very lucky. (AP)

III. Identify these phrases
Indirect object or Objective complement?
That will make her roommate a success.

III. Identify these phrases
Indirect object or Objective complement?
That will make her roommate a success.
NP can be replaced by AP or PP
NP is a predicate: describes the object
Conclusion: Objective complement

III. Identify these phrases
Direct object or Subjective complement?
This house looks a mess.

III. Identify these phrases
Direct object or Subjective complement:
This house looks a mess.
NP can be replaced by AP or PP
NP is a predicate: describes the subject
V is a linking verb; it cannot be passivized
Conclusion: Subjective complement

Chapter 11 Complements
Part II

Chapter 11, Part 1
I. Introduction
II. Subcategorization
III. Complements of Verbs
A. What phrases have complements
B. Direct object versus subjective complements
C. Objective complements

Chapter 11, Part 2
D. Prepositional Phrase complements
E. Indirect Objects
F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
G. Wh-complements
H. Participial phrase complements
I. Tensed Clause complements
J. Infinitive and Bare infinitive complements
IV. Complements of other categories

D. PP complements
Illustration:
Judy talked about the election.

D. PP complements
Phrase structure:
VP
V PP
talked P NP
about Det N
the election
PP is the complement of the verb

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
1. The verb determines the choice of P
Illustration:

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
1. The verb determines the choice of P:
Sue talked about the election.
*Sue talked from the election.
*Sue talked under the election.

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
1. The verb determines the choice of P:
The committee relied on our testimony.
*The committee relied to/for/with our testimony.

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
1. The verb determines the choice of P:
The committee relied on our testimony.
*The committee relied to/for/with our testimony.
Mary’s sister commented on her new hairdo.
*Mary’s sister commented with/about/from/toward…

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
Comparison: PP MODIFIERS:
Sue sang at the wedding
Sue sang about the wedding
Sue sang for the wedding
Sue sang before the wedding
Sue sang during the wedding
Sue sang with her friends

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
Diagnostics for PP complements:
1. PP complements: the verb determines the preposition(s) that are possible

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
Diagnostics for PP complements:
1. PP complements: the verb determines the preposition(s) that are possible
2. Complement PPs occur closer to the verb than modifiers:

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
2. Complement PPs occur closer to the verb than modifier PPs:
Sue laughed at the joke at the office.
Complement Modifier

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
2. Complement PPs occur closer to the verb than modifier PPs:
Sue laughed at the joke at the office.
Complement Modifier
*Sue laughed at the office at the joke.

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
1. PP complements: the verb determines the preposition(s) that are possible
2. Complement PPs occur closer to the verb than modifier PPs.
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized.

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized:
They laughed at the joke.
The joke was laughed at (by everyone).

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized:
They laughed at the joke.
The joke was laughed at (by everyone).
The committee relied on our testimony.
Our testimony was relied on (by the committee).

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized:
Compare: Verbs with PP modifiers cannot be passivized in the same way:

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized:
Compare: Verbs with PP modifiers cannot be passivized in the same way:

They laughed at the office.
The office was laughed at. (* location meaning).

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
3. Verbs with PP Complements usually can be passivized:
Compare: Verbs with PP modifiers cannot be passivized in the same way:

They laughed at the office.
The office was laughed at. (* location meaning).
Fred danced with his sister.
*His sister was danced with by Fred.

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
4. Phrase structure of PP complements:
VP
V NP

Characteristics of Prep. Complements:
Phrase structure of Modifiers:
VP
VP PP
V at the wedding

Practice
Identify PP as complement or Modifier:
The judge arrived at a decision quickly.
Diagnostics: restricted choice of P?
passivization possible?
order relative to modifiers?

Practice #1
Identify PP as complement or Modifier:
1. Choice of preposition is limited:
The judge arrived at a decision quickly.
*The judge arrived from/about/of/to a decision quickly.

Practice #1
Identify PP as complement or Modifier:
2. Passivization:
A decision was arrived at quickly.

Practice #1
Identify PP as complement or Modifier:
3. Order relative to Modifiers:
The judge arrived at a decision quickly.
*The judge arrived quickly at a decision.

Practice #1
Identify PP as complement or Modifier:
Conclusion: In this example, PP is a complement

Practice #2
The neighbors talked over the fence.

Practice #2
The neighbors talked over the fence.
1. Choice of preposition:
The neighbors talked over the fence.
They talked around the watercooler
They talked beside/through the window

Practice #2
The neighbors talked over the fence.
2. Passivization
They talked over the fence.
*The fence was talked over (by them).

Practice #2
The neighbors talked over the fence.
3. Order relative to Modifiers:
They talked for an hour over the fence.

Practice #2
The neighbors talked over the fence.
Conclusion: PP is a modifier.

E. Indirect objects
1. Example:
Sue gave Mort an apple.
VP
V NP NP
gave Mort an apple

E. Indirect objects
1. Example:
Sue gave Mort an apple.
VP
V NP NP
gave Mort an apple
Indirect Object

E. Indirect objects
2. Diagnostic:
NP undergoes ‘Indirect Object Movement’:
Sue gave Mort an apple

E. Indirect objects
2. Diagnostic:
NP undergoes ‘Indirect Object Movement’:
Sue gave Mort an apple to Mort

E. Indirect objects
3. Practice: is the underlined an IO?
The director considered the film a success.

E. Indirect objects
3. Practice: is the underlined an IO:
The director considered the film a success.
*The director considered a success to the film.
Conclusion: NP is not an IO.

E. Indirect objects
3. Practice: is the underlined an IO:
The director will mail the producer a check.

E. Indirect objects
3. Practice: is the underlined an IO:
The director will mail the producer a check.
The director will mail _ a check to the producer.

F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
1. Examples: Adverb Phrase complements
The host worded the invitation carefully.
She phrased her response smoothly.
That poetry translates easily.
These shirts wash well.

F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
2. Examples: Adverbial NP complements
They will go home/downtown.

F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
3. Examples: NPs of amount or measure:
The fish weighs ten pounds.
It will cost fifty dollars.

F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
4. Diagnostics for Adverbial NP complements
Adverbial NPs cannot appear in passive sentences:
*Fifty dollars are cost by the fish.
Adverbial NPs occur with verbs of measure: weigh, cost

G. Wh-complements
1. Examples:
Anya wondered who arrived.

G. Wh-complements
1. Examples:
Anya wondered who arrived.
The agent asked if the flight was on time.

G. Wh-complements
2. Wh-complements are possible with certain verbs:
wonder
ask
(not) know
(not) be certain
(not) decide

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements:
The complement is introduced by a Wh-phrase or by an interrogative complementizer: if, whether

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: if, whether
Mary asked if Sue made the pizza for dinner last night.

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: if, whether
Mary asked if Sue made the pizza for dinner last night.
Mary asked whether Sue made the pizza for dinner last night.

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: Wh-phrase

Mary asked —
… who made the pizza for dinner last night.
… which chef made the pizza for dinner
last night.
… what Sue made for dinner last night.
… when Sue made the pizza for dinner.

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: finite or non-finite

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: finite or non-finite:
We wonder whether we should go (or not).
We wonder whether to go or not.

G. Wh-complements
3. The form of Wh-complements: finite or non-finite:
We wonder whether we should go (or not).
We wonder whether to go or not.

G. Wh-complements
3. The interpretation of Wh-complements: indirect question
Fred couldn’t decide whether to lend us that book (or not).

G. Wh-complements
3. The interpretation of Wh-complements: indirect question
Fred couldn’t decide whether to lend us that book (or not).
Corresponding main clause question:
Should Fred lend us that book (or not)?

H. Participial phrase complements

H. Participial phrase complements
1. Example:
Lionel stopped eating crabcakes.

H. Participial phrase complements
2. Phrase structure:
VP
V VP
stopped V NP
eating N
crabcakes

H. Participial phrase complements
3. Identification
-ing form of the verb
Verb is active, not stative:
Sue started studying.
*Sue started knowing the answer.

I. Tensed Clause complements

I. Tensed Clause complements
1. Example:
The merchants said that the customers may come in now.
2. Form: “tensed clause” = finite clause

I. Tensed Clause complements
3. Diagnostics for tensed clauses
Finite clauses contain a modal or a past or present form of a verb.
Finite clauses can usually be introduced by the complementizer that
Finite clauses have subjects that take Nominative form of pronouns:
She said that they/*them may come in.

J. Infinitival and bare infinitival Complements
1. Example:
The tourists hoped to see a show on Broadway.
Mom made Hortence clean her room.

J. Infinitival and Bare infinitival Complements
2. Form of infinitival complements
Aux position filled by to
subject position may have overt or covert NP
They want [ — to do an encore ]
They want [ us to do an encore ]
Complementizer for is sometimes possible:
They want [ for us to do an encore]

J. Infinitival and Bare infinitival Complements
3. Form of bare infinitive complements:
To does not appear before the infintive
Bare Infinitives occur with verbs of causation and perception
They heard/saw/felt/the wind blow.

J. Infinitival and Bare infinitival Complements
3. Form of bare infinitive complements
Bare infinitives typically have an overt subject:
We watched [ the actors leave the stage]
The jury saw [ the attorneys confer quietly]

III. Summary: Complement types
A. Direct Object NP
B. Subject complement
C. Object complement
D. Prepositional Phrases
E. Indirect Objects
F. Adverb Phrase and Adverbial NP Complements
G. Wh-complements
H. Participial phrase complements
I. Tensed Clause complements
J. Infinitive and Bare infinitive complements

IV Complements of other categories
Adverbs sometimes have complements:
unfortunately for us (PP)
*tiredly of studying (tired of studying)

Complements of other categories
Adjectives:
fond of language study (PP)
interested in music theory (PP)
happy that they finally arrived (S)

Complements of other categories
Prepositions:
into the mountains (NP)
behind the door (NP)
before [ we left ] (S)

Complements of other categories
Nouns
the proof of the theorem (PP)
the proposal to lower taxes (S)
the fact [ that we left ] (S)

Complements of other categories
Generalization
all lexical categories can have complements

LING 100 Autumn 2016
Chapter 9
Part B

Outline
Intransitive Prepositions= Particles
A. Intransitivity
B. Syntax of Particles
C. Semantics of Particles
II. More Prepositional Phrases
A. Subordinating Prepositions
B. Prepositions with Participial VP
C. Complex Prepositional Phrases

I. Intransitive Prepositions = Particles

I. Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity illustrated with verbs:
1. Intransitivity means no NP complement
[S NP AUX [VP V NP ]] (transitive)
[S NP AUX [VP V — ]] (intransitive)

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity illustrated with verbs:
2. Some verbs are always transitive. They always occur with a complement NP:
a. *Fred bought.
b. Fred bought a book.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity: illustrated with verbs
3. Some verbs are always intransitive:
a. Erin napped.
b. *Erin napped the dog.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity: illustrated with verbs
4. Many verbs may be either transitive or
intransitive:
a. Ashley walked.
b. Ashley walked the dog.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity
5. Prepositions are most often transitive: (they occur with a noun phrase object)
a. We jumped over the bridge.
b. Nobuko looked out the window.

I. Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity
6. Intransitive Prepositions have no NP
complement:
a. We jumped up/around/in/down.
b. Nobuko looked out/away/up.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity
7. Some Prepositions may be either transitive or intransitive:
a. Anya looked out.
b. Anya looked out the window.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity
8. Other prepositions are always transitive:
a. We ate popcorn during the movie.
b. *We ate popcorn during.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
A. Intransitivity: terminology
9. Intransitive prepositions are called
particles.
a. Steve walked around. = Particle
b. He walked around the park. = Preposition

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
How do we represent intransitive P?

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Intransitive PP:
Two alternatives:
VP VP
V Prt V PP
walk around walk
Prt
around

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Intransitive PP:
S
NP VP
N V Prt
Nobuko walked around

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Intransitive PP:
S
NP VP
N V PP
Nobuko walked
Prt
around

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
1. Some Particles appear to be transitive:

a. We turned out the light.
b. The students handed in the papers.
c. He put on his hat.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
The structure is:

VP
V Prt NP

turned out the light

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
Notice: Prt and NP do not form a constituent.

VP
V Prt NP

turned out the light

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
Evidence: particle movement.

VP
V NP Prt
turned the light out

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
Transitive prepositions do not switch order with their complements:
a. We ate popcorn during the movie.
b. *We ate popcorn the movie during.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Transitive prepositions do not allow particle movement: VP

V NP PP
ate
N P NP
popcorn during
the movie

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
3. Phrase structure for Particles: the particle branches from VP, not PP; there is no spot for an object of PP:
VP
V Prt NP

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
Question: using the tree below, explain why this sentence is ungrammatical:
*Kumiko turned off the light and on the faucet.
VP
V Prt NP

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
4. Evidence that NP is an object of V, not P: The verb can be passivized:
a. Richard turned out the light.
b. The light was turned out (by Hortense).

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
4. Evidence that NP is an object of V, not P: The verb can be passivized:
a. Mike turned [ at the corner.]
b. The corner was turned [ at — ]
(by Mike).

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Conclusion
1. Particles are represented by the category: Prt
2. Tests for Particles versus transitive Prepositions:
a. Particle movement
b. Conjunction: if P+NP can undergo conjunction, they form a phrase.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Question
If we assume that where is a PP proform, why are B and C ungrammatical continuations of the dialogue in A?
A: John turned away his friends.
B. *He turned where?
C. *Away his friends.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Question
If we assume that where is a PP proform, why are B and C ungrammatical continuations of the dialogue in A?
Answer: a proform can only replace a constituent;
[ away his friends ] is NOT a unit.
A: John turned away his friends.
B. *He turned where?
C. *Away his friends.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles
5. Revised PS rule for PP:
PP  (MOD) P (NP)

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
C. Semantics of Particles
1. Two subclasses of Particles.
a. Directional Particles
b. Non-directional “verbal particles”

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
Directional particles have spatial meaning that indicates direction in space.
Fred took the recycling boxes in.
Mary looked away/up/in/out/down.
Hortense pushed the box over/out/back.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
Directional particles can often alternate with transitive prepositions:
Fred took the recycling boxes in.

Fred took the recycling boxes in the garage.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
4. Non-directional “verbal particles” combine with a verb to form idiomatic meaning.
(Idiomatic: not predictable from the meanings of the parts)

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
4. Non-directional “verbal particles” combine with a verb to form idiomatic meaning.
a. John ran up. (directional particle)
b. John ran up the hill. (transitive prep.)
c. John ran up a big bill. (verbal particle)
NON-SPATIAL V+P (=accumulate); idiomatic

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
5. More examples:
a. Sue turned out the light.
= extinguished NON-SPATIAL
b. Boris gave up.
= surrendered NON-SPATIAL

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
6. Particle Shift applies freely to non-directional particles:
Sue turned out the light / turned the light out
Fred gave up the seat. / gave the seat up
They talked over the issue / talked the issue over
We looked up the answer / looked the answer up
Mary took over the project / took the project over
Kumiko set up the chairs / set the chairs up

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
7. Directional particles are often structurally ambiguous:
Galen turned around the statue.

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Semantics of Particles
7. Directional particles are often structurally ambiguous:
Galen turned around the statue.

Questions:
Is this sequence ambiguous?
Can you give two tree diagrams for it?

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
Galen turned around the statue.
S
NP Aux VP
Past
N V Prt NP
Galen turned around
the statue

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
Galen turned around the statue.
S
NP Aux VP
Past
N V PP
Galen turned
P NP
around
the statue

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Particle shift
a. We turned out the light.

VP
V P NP
turned out the light becomes…

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
B. Syntax of Particles: Particle Shift
a. We turned the light out.

VP
V NP P
turned the light out

Intransitive Prepositions = Particles
Summary
A. Intransitivity: no NP object
B. Syntax of Particles: branch from VP, not PP
C. Semantics of Particles:
i. Directional particles
ii. “Verbal particles”

II. More Prepositional Phrases
A. Subordinating Prepositions
B. Participial VP complements

C. PP complements:
Complex Prepositional Phrases

II. More Prepositional Phrases
A. Subordinating Prepositions

1. Prepositions can have NP or S objects:

PP -> (MOD) P NP
S

II. More Prepositional Phrases
A. Subordinating Prepositions

1. Example:
Mary left after the movie. ( P – NP)
Mary left after Sue arrived. ( P – S )

II. More Prepositional Phrases
A. Subordinating Prepositions

2. Structure: Mary left after Sue arrived
tree diagram…

Mary left after Sue arrived. ( P – S )
S
NP VP
Mary leftv PP
P S
after
Sue arrived

II. More prepositional phrases
2. Prepositions can have participial VP objects:

a. After watching the game
b. Before talking to John
c. By selecting the right channel

II. More prepositional phrases
3. Prepositions can have PP objects:
a. Hortense walked out on the bridge.
b. They looked down in the basement.
c. Edward flew up in the clouds.

II. More Prepositional Phrases
PS RULE:

NP
PP -> (MOD) P S
VP
PP

II. More Prepositional Phrases
Summary
PPs can have:
No complement = Particle
NP complement
S complement (subordinating preposition)
Participial VP complement
PP complement (complex prepositional phrases)

TOPICS

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure

A. Words form larger units

B. How we represent units

 

II Phrase structure rules

A. What phrase structure rules represent

B. The form of PS rules

C. Making PS rules general

D. One-word phrases

 

III. Recursion

Notes!!!!!
1

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure
A. Words form larger units
 

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure
A. Words form larger units
 
Evidence: ambiguity
Best Western is a large motel chain.
[large motel] chain
large [ motel chain]
 
.

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure
A. Words form larger units
 
Evidence: ambiguity
Best Western is a large motel chain.
[ [large motel] chain ]
[ large [ motel chain] ]
 
.

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure
· °
• • • •
• • • •
[ [large motel] chain ] [large [ motel chain] ]

I. Phrases and Hierarchical structure
A. Words form larger units
 
Evidence: ambiguity
Best Western is a large motel chain.
[[large motel] chain]
[large [ motel chain]]
 
We can’t explain this without the concept of phrase—units larger than the word.

B. How we represent units

B. How we represent units
labeled brackets
 
[NP the students [PP in [NP the class ]]]
 

B. How we represent units
labeled brackets
 
[NP the students [PP in [NP the class ]]]
Labelled brackets show:
-the units
-the type of units (groupings and category)
-hierarchical structure: one phrase contains another
 

II Phrase structure rules

II Phrase structure rules
Phrase structure rules represent:
-generalizations about how phrases are constructed
 

II Phrase structure rules
What is the form of PS rules?
-rewrite rules:
NP  Det – N- PP
  the book about Japanese

II Phrase structure rules
What is the form of PS rules?
-rewrite rules:
NP  Det – N- PP
  the book about Japanese
How are the rules applied?

II Phrase structure rules
What is the form of PS rules?
-rewrite rules:
NP  Det – N- PP
  the book about Japanese
How are the rules applied?
(How are applications of rules represented to show the structure of individual sentences?)

II Phrase structure rules
One alternative:
A. Represent a sentence as a collection of
rewrite rules, with words plugged in:
“Messages with no attachments arrived from Sweden”

II Phrase structure rules
One alternative:
A. Represent a sentence as a collection of
rewrite rules, with words plugged in Sn  NP1 – VP1
NP1  N1 – PP1
PP1  P1 – NP2
NP2  D1 – N2
VP1  V1 – PP2
NP3  N3

II Phrase structure rules
One alternative:
“Messages with no attachments arrived from Sweden”
A. Represent a sentence as a collection of
rewrite rules and rules of lexical insertion:
Insert:
N1 messages D1 no
N2 attachments V1 arrived
N3 Sweden
P1 with
P2 from

II Phrase structure rules
“Messages with no attachments arrived from Sweden”
A second alternative:
B. Convert each symbol to a set of labeled
brackets:
[S [NP1 [N1 messages] [PP1 [P1 with] [NP2 [D no]
[N2 attachments]]]] [VP1 [V1 arrived] [PP2 [P2 from]
[NP3 [N3 Sweden]]]]]

II Phrase structure rules
A third alternative:
C. Use Nodes and branches to represent the application of rules:
S = S NP – VP
NP VP

II Phrase structure rules
A third alternative:
C. Use Nodes and branches to represent the application of rules:
S NP  N – PP
NP VP
N PP

BRANCHES DO THE REWRITING:
NP => DET – N – (PP)

the students in the class
NP
Det
the

BRANCHES DO THE REWRITING:
NP => DET – N – (PP)

the students in the class
NP
Det N
the students

BRANCHES DO THE REWRITING:
NP => DET – N – (PP)

the students in the class
NP
Det N PP
the students in the class

BRANCHES DO THE REWRITING:
NP => DET – N – (PP)

the students in the class
NP
Det N PP
the students in the class

BRANCHES DO THE REWRITING:
NP => DET – N – (PP)

the students in the class
NP
Det N PP
the students in the class

II Phrase structure rules
How can the rules be general enough to cover different cases?

II Phrase structure rules
How can the rules be general enough to cover different cases?
• Optional elements
• Two or more different elements can occupy the same position.

II Phrase structure rules
Optional elements:
The rule:
NP  Det – N- PP
does not cover these sentences:
Lee ordered pizza.
Carey ordered red wine.
 

II Phrase structure rules
NP  Det – N- PP
This rule does not cover these sentences:
Lee ordered pizza.
Carey ordered red wine.
 
(Why not?)

II Phrase structure rules
NP  Det – N- PP
This rule does not cover these sentences:
Lee ordered pizza.
Carey ordered red wine.
 
(Why not?) These sentences are missing Determiners in the NPs; the rule given above would predict these phrases to be illformed.

II Phrase structure rules
Solution: modify the rule system to allow optional elements. Here, NP contains N; it may also contain other words, but they’re optional:
NP  (Det) – N- (PP)

II Phrase structure rules
Can there be a one-word phrase?

II Phrase structure rules
Can there be a one-word phrase?
Yes:
Lee ordered pizza.
This sentence contains two one-word NPs.

II Phrase structure rules
• Two or more different elements can occupy the same position.
ate a cookie VP  V – NP
said Mary left VP  V – S

II Phrase structure rules
• Two or more different elements can occupy the same position.
ate a cookie VP  V – NP
said Mary left VP  V – S
VP  S
NP

II Phrase structure rules
• Two or more different elements can occupy the same position.
ate a cookie VP  V – NP
said Mary left VP  V – S
VP  S
NP
(see p. 39)

III. Recursion

III. Recursion
What is recursion? The property of reproducing or regenerating a phrase within another phrase of the same type
 

III. Recursion
What is recursion? The property of reproducing or regenerating a phrase within another phrase of the same type
 
John
John’s sister
John’s sister’s mother
John’s sister’s mother’s cousin

III. Recursion
How do PS rules represent recursion?

III. Recursion
 
John’s sister

III. Recursion
 
John’s sister NP
Poss NP N
sister
N
John’s

III. Recursion
 John’s sister’s mother NP

Poss NP N
mother
Poss NP N
sister’s
N
John’s

III. Recursion
 John’s sister’s mother NP

Poss NP N
mother
Poss NP N
sister’s
N
John’s

III. Recursion
 John’s sister’s mother’s cousin
Can you draw the tree?

III. Recursion
NP
PossNP N
PossNP N cousin
PossNP N mother’s
N sister’s
John’s

III. Recursion
 What PS rules are needed to generate this phrase?
John’s sister’s mother’s cousin

III. Recursion
 What PS rules are needed to generate this phrase?
John’s sister’s mother’s cousin
NP => (Poss NP) N
Poss NP => (Poss NP) N

IV. Summary
1. Words form larger units
2. Rewrite rules generate units.
3. The information in PS rules can be represented visually in different ways: with labeled brackets or graphically with tree diagrams.
4. Properties of the system:

IV. Summary
Properties of the system:
• rules can be made general by including optional elements in parentheses.
example: NP  (D) – N – (PP)
• rules are potentially recursive: a phrase of a given type can be embedded within another phrase of the same type.
example: PP  P – PP

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees
Embeddings:

1. Joan said Marti discovered the answer.
2. Pam believes Joan said Marti discovered the answer.

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees
Embeddings:

a desk with a drawer
a desk with a drawer with no handle

55

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

56

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

57

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees
Structural ambiguity

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees
Structural ambiguity

a blouse with some beads from France

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees
Structural ambiguity

Carey bought blueberries from Greenbank Farm.

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

V. Practice with PS Rules and Trees

Chapter 7: Adjectives

I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives

A. Modifiers and Predicates

B. Semantic Subclasses

C. => Another classification: GRADABILITY

II. MORPHOLOGY of Adjectives

A. Derivation

B. Inflection

III. INTRODUCERS OF Adjectives

I. SEMANTICS OF ADJECTIVES
A. Modifiers and predicates
Adjectives provide descriptive information about nouns.
This occurs in two ways:
1. by functioning as ‘modifiers’
2. by functioning as ‘predicates’

1. Modifiers
a. Modifiers may be descriptive: specify more qualities of objects
b. Modifiers may also be restrictive: limiting the set of objects referred to by a (common) noun.

1. Modifiers
a. Descriptive Modifiers specify additional qualities:
Hortense solved that intricate, exasperating, puzzle.
Phil was wearing a longish, woolen jacket

1. Modifiers
b. Restrictive modifiers limit (restrict) the set of objects referred to by a (common) noun:
Example:
Would you please hand me the pencil?
(There are several. Which one?)
The yellow pencil.

1. Modifiers
b. Restrictive modification
In: the yellow pencil
The common noun pencil refers to any pencil, or more precisely all pencils (a class or set of objects)
The restrictive adjective pick out a subset of things that are pencils

1. Modifiers
Footnote: Other categories also act as modifiers of nouns:
Would you hand me…
the pencil by your elbow (prepositional phrase)
the pencil I just bought (sentence: relative clause)

2. Predicates
Predicate: a property or quality that is affirmed or denied about an object
This pencil is not sharp.
That pencil is yellow.
The NP refers to a pencil.
The Adjective phrase asserts something about it.

2. Predicates
Similar to our text examples (3) and (4):
(3) Please paint the blue house.
Blue is a modifier;
It may be restrictive: identifies which house should be painted
(4) Please paint the house blue.
Blue is a predicate. It asserts that the house should become blue.

2. Predicates
One more example with an adjective as predicate:
The patrons left the theater happy.
Asserts:
– the patrons left the theater
– the patrons were happy at the time they left the theater

2. Predicates
Some adjectives cannot be predicates:
The alleged author of the essay (modifier)
*The author of the essay is alleged. (not a predicate)

B. Semantic Subclasses
Adjective is a lexical category:
It is an open class: many members, and new members can be added
There are semantic subcategories of adjectives

B. Semantic Subclasses
NPs may have several adjectives as modifiers:
her old broken blue plastic cell phone
a bright cloudless crisp autumny day

B. Semantic Subclasses
1. Nationality: Japanese, African, American…
2. Personal: human, female, rich, poor, healthy, sick, friendly
3. Material: wooden/oaken/woven
4. Age/size: young, old, big, fat, small, little, ancient…
5. Color: green, orange, purple

B. Semantic Subclasses
Adjective subclasses occur in a fixed order, not just any order:
her old broken plastic cell phone
??her plastic broken old cell phone
It is not known why the order is fixed rather than free.

C. Another classification: GRADABILITY
GRADABILITY is the potential for variation in the degree to which a property is present.
For example:
a messy room
(the quality of messiness is present)
a very messy room
(a higher degree of messiness is present)

C. Another classification: GRADABILITY
Not all adjectives are gradable:
a nuclear submarine
*a very nuclear submarine
a mere housefly
*a very mere housefly

I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives: Summary
A. Modifiers and Predicates
1. Inside NP: adjective modifiers specify qualities of the noun; they may also restrict the reference of the NP
2. Outside NP, adjectives are predicates; they assert or deny some property of the NP.

I. SEMANTICS of Adjectives: Summary
B. Semantic Subclasses There are several semantic subclasses; these determine the order in which adjectives occur within NP.
C. Another classification: GRADABILITY: The potential for variation in the amount or degree to which a quality is present.

II. MORPHOLOGY of Adjectives
A. Derivational
B. Inflectional

A. Derivational
New adjectives can be formed by two derivational processes:
1. Affixation
2. compounding

1. Affixation
Prefixes: (added to adjectives to form new ones)
un-: unclear, uncertain, unfair, unkind
in-/im-: immoderate, indescribable, inaudible

1. Affixation
Suffixes:
fiendish: fiend + -ish
ghoulish:
smartish: smart + -ish (somewhat)
reddish red + -ish (somewhat)

1. Affixation
Suffixes:
-ary: supplementary, planetary, secondary
-ous: anonymous, continuous, advantageous
-al: phenomenal, historical, normal
-ic: academic, altruistic, alphabetic, angelic
-some: awesome, irksome, nettlesome, troublesome

1. Affixation
Participles can be adjectives:
-ing: exciting, inviting, exhilarating
-ed: tired, deserted, refreshed

1. Affixation
Noun + -ly:
worldly, friendly ( => adjectives)
Adjective + -ly:
smoothly, probably, allegedly ( => adverbs)

2. Compounding
Examples:
far flung
sea green
bittersweet
hot-and-sour

II Morphology of Adjectives
B. Inflection
English Adjectives are inflected only for degree of comparison.
the friendly environment
the friendlier environment
the friendliest environment

B. Inflection
English Adjectives are inflected only for degree of comparison.
Syntactic form:
the interesting discussion (positive)
the more interesting discussion (comparative)
the most interesting discussion (superlative)

II. Morphology of Adjectives: Summary
A. Adjectives can be formed by derivational processes: prefixation, suffixation, and compounding; some participles can become adjectives.
B. Inflection: adjectives can be inflected for degree of comparison.

III. Introducers of Adjectives
A. Semantic types of Introducers
B. The category of introducers

A. Semantic types of introducers
1. Comparison words
more/less
most/least

A. Semantic types of introducers
2. Intensity words:
very
too
so
quite

B. The category of introducers
Introducers of adjectives are a closed class, functional category
They are not: N, V, Adj, Prep, Adv
These words have different distribution and morphological properties

B. The category of introducers
Proposed category: Degree
Categories of introduces so far:
Determiner
Quantifier
Numeral
Auxiliary (perfect, prog)

B. The category of introducers
Evidence for Degree analysis (versus Adverb):
Adverbs can be used as Degree words, their meaning is one of degree.
Examples:

B. The category of introducers
Examples:
an incredible story
(can’t be believed; amazing)
an [incredibly short] story
(= degree of shortness is extreme & amazing)
Adverbs that can introduce adjectives are those whose meaning is compatible with extreme degree

More examples:
a [richly deserved] reward
(very much deserved)
a [hotly contested] election
(very much contested)

Examples of Adverbs whose meaning is not just degree:
an [embarrassingly funny] mistake
an [outrageously complicated] solution

III. Introducers of Adjectives: Summary
A. Semantic types of Introducers: comparisons and intensity of degree
B. The category of introducers: Degree

Evidence for phrases
Chapter 3

The problem

What are the units in any sentence?

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.

The problem
What are the units in any sentence?
Example:
The little boat will sail to Alaska apparently.
Do semantically coherent units form syntactic units also? What is the evidence?

Added animation: Question(s) appear on click.
*

Three types of evidence:
Movement phenomena
Coordination
Pronominalization
These processes apply to syntactic units.

Movement
Basic and non-basic orders
What can be moved
Types of movement

Nicole Chartier (NC) – Added this slide to be more like the other two (coordination and pronominalization).

Movement
Basic order:
S – V- O
S  NP – VP
VP  V – NP

Movement
Non-basic orders:
Example:
Her best friend will buy shoes.
Shoes, her best friend will buy -.
Will her best friend – buy shoes?

Other orders, besides basic, are possible
*

Movement
Non-basic orders not produced by PS rules.
Produced by movement rules
Movement rules apply to units larger than words

Movement:
Active/Passive alternation
Active:
Hideo solved the problem.
Passive:
The problem was solved by Hideo

Movement:
Active/Passive alternation
The process:
Begin with active: S-V-O
Change form to passive:
Subject moves to right
Insert by
Object becomes subject
The form of the verb changes

Movement:
Active/Passive alternation
Hideo solved the problem.
Subject moves to the right:
Solved the problem Hideo
Insert by:
Solved the problem by Hideo
Object becomes subject:
The problem solved by Hideo
The form of the verb changes:
The problem was solved by Hideo.

Movement:
Active/Passive alternation
What doesn’t happen:
N doesn’t move by itself:
— solved the problem by Hideo
* Problem was solved the by Hideo

Movement:
Active/Passive alternation
NP moves as a unit:
The problem was solved by Hideo.

Movement: Particle Shift
They turned over the rock.
They turned the rock over.

Movement: Particle Shift
The process:
The particle moves to the right of NP
VP

V PRT NP
turned the rock
over

Movement: Particle Shift
The process:
The particle moves to the right of NP
VP

V PRT NP
turned the rock
over

Movement:
Indirect Object Movement
Sue mailed the package to her friend.
Sue mailed her friend the package.

Movement:
Indirect Object Movement
The process:
The direct and indirect object phrases exchange places.
The preposition is omitted

Movement:
Indirect Object Movement
What doesn’t happen:
Movement of the noun by itself:
*Sue mailed friend the package her.

Movement: Summary
PS rules give basic order
Movement rules give a wider range of orders
Movement “respects” units:
Whole phrases move or are moved

Coordination (Conjunction)
About coordination
What can be coordinated
Constraints:
Coordinate structure constraint
Parallelism

Coordination
Coordinated structures contain two or more categories linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, etc.)
Examples:
[ [ Mary ] and [ Fred ] and [ Susan ] ]
[ [ bright yellow ] or [ faded green ] ]

Coordination
The whole structure behaves like it is the same category as the conjoined categories.
Example:
[ [bright blue] or [ pale yellow] ]
Adj. phrase Adj. phrase
[ ________________________ ]
Adj. phrase

Coordination v. Subordination
Coordination
Coordination occurs when a phrase is joined with another phrase:
Example:
S1, S2: [ S1 and S2 ]
Sue talked and Edna listened.
Subordination
Subordination (embedding) occurs when a phrase is contained within another phrase:
Example:
S1, S2: [S1 NP [VP V S2 ]
Arthur wants James to write.

Nicole Chartier (NC) – I think this is an appropriate example of embedding?

Coordination v Subordination
S

S1 and S2

Sue talked Edna listened
(S1 and S2 coordinated; neither is contained within the other.)

Coordination:

Coordination v. Subordination
S1
NP VP
Arthur

V S2
wants James to write
(S2 is subordinate to S1.)

Coordination
Triggered by “coordinating conjunctions”:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordination
What units can be coordinated?
S (=sentences)
Phrases
Words (heads)

Coordination
Coordinated S:
[S1 They walked up to the house together]
[S2 They went in through the open door]
[S [S1 They walked up to the house together] so/and
[S2 They went in through the open door] ]

Coordination
Coordinated S:
S
S1 and S2

They walked up to the house together.
They went in through the open door.

Coordination
Coordinated Phrases:
The child picks the apples and gathers the corn.
[VP [VP1 picks the apples ] and [VP2 gathers the corn] ]

Coordination
Coordinated Phrases:
Kim may read three articles or five reviews.
[NP [NP1 three articles ] or [NP2 five reviews ] ]

Coordination
Coordinated Phrases:
Martin looked for his book in the study but not on his desk.
[PP [PP1 in the study ] but [PP2 not on his desk ] ]

Coordination
Coordinated Phrases:
Sean is very happy yet somewhat confused.
[AdjP [AdjP1 very happy ] yet [AdjP2 somewhat confused ] ]
(Don’t worry about Adj and Deg too much yet)

Coordination
Coordinated Words:
I would like six or seven apples
[NP [ [NUM six ] or [NUM seven ] ] apples ]

Coordination
Coordinated Words:
I would like six or seven apples
(tree)

Coordination
Coordinated Words:
That bus goes into or near the station.
[PP [ [Prep into ] or [Prep near ] ] [the station ] ]

Coordination
Coordinated Words:
That bus goes into or near the station.
(tree)

Coordination
Constraints:
Coordination Structure Constraint
Parallelism Constraint

Coordination
Coordination Structure Constraint:
Coordinated structures undergo syntactic processes (pronominalization and movement)
Coordinated units cannot be broken apart

Coordinate structures can undergo syntactic processes like pronominalization and movement. But there are constraints on how this can occur: the coordinated unit behaves like a unit: it cannot be broken apart.
*

Coordination
Coordinate Structure Constraint:
Pronominalization:
Sue bought vegetables and fruit juice.
Sue bought them.
Sue bought what
Movement:
What did Sue buy?

Coordination
Coordinate Structure Constraint:
Pronominalization:
Sue bought vegetables and what
Movement:
* What did Sue buy vegetables and?
It isn’t possible to move part of a coordinate structure.

Coordination
Parallelism Constraint:
Units must be parallel. It isn’t possible to coordinate unlike constituents.
Syntactic and Semantic parallelism

Coordination
Parallelism Constraint: Syntactic parallelism
Lee went to the store.
Lee went missing.
*Lee went to the store and missing.
(PP and AdjP)

Coordination
Parallelism Constraint: Semantic parallelism
Lee went to the store.
Lee went off his rocker.
*Lee went to the store and off his rocker.
PP and PP
(location / property: not parallel)

Coordination: Summary
Properties of coordinate structures:
Two or more categories linked by coordinate conjunctions
Coordinated categories can be Ss, phrases or words.
The entire category behaves like the same category as its constituents
The entire category observes constraints:
CSC and Parallelism Constraint

Coordination:
Tree Diagram Practice
John bought one or two onions.

Coordination:
Tree Diagram Practice
John bought one carrot and two onions.

Pronominalization
What is pronominalization?
How pronominalization works
Interpretation
Grammatical properties
Pronouns and movement
Pronouns vs. proforms

Pronominalization
Replacement of a phrase by a proform

Pronominalization
The process:
Replace a whole phrase:
The interesting lecture began early.
It began early
*The interesting it began early
Why?
Pronouns replace NP, not N

Pronominalization
How we interpret pronouns:
Find antecedent
Two types of antecedents:
Linguistic antecedents
Pragmatic antecedents

Pronominalization
Linguistic antecedent:
A phrase that’s present in the same sentence or a previous sentence
Example:
Speaker A: Kim left.
Speaker B: She did?

Pronominalization
Linguistic antecedent:
A phrase that’s present in the same sentence or a previous sentence
Example:
Speaker A: Kim left.
Speaker B: She did?

Pronominalization
Pragmatic antecedent:
An antecedent that isn’t in a sentence
Example:
Mary, Evan and Gilbert usually meet at noon. Today Gilbert only sees Evan. He says: “Where is she?”

Pronominalization
Grammatical Properties:
Pronouns show inflection for:
Person: I, you, he
Number: I, we
Case: I, me, my, mine
Gender: he, she (natural gender)

Grammatical Gender
French examples:
la table
the table
le chapeau
the hat

Pronominalization:
Pronouns & Movement
Pronouns can undergo movement:
Passives:
She was chased by the dog.

Pronominalization:
Pronouns & Movement
Pronouns can undergo movement:
Interrogatives:
Replace a phrase, then undergo “WH”-movement
They ordered the lasagna with salad.
They ordered WHAT?
WHAT did they order?

Interrogatives may also introduce a phrase:
Example:
The story that she wrote was good.
[NP Which story] that she wrote was good?
Pronominalization:
Pronouns & Movement

Pronominalization:
Pronouns v. Proforms
Pronouns
Replace NP
Proforms
Replace other types of phrases

Pronominalization
Examples of proforms:
(1) Kim liked the movie.
I know it.
(2) They parked the car in the garage.
They put it there yesterday.
(3) The movie was too long.
We found it so as well.

Pronominalization: Summary
Grammatical Properties:
Pronouns show inflection for person, number, case, gender
Proforms can undergo movement
Pronouns vs. proforms:
Pronouns replace NP
Proforms replace other categories

Chapter 4: Nouns

questions
What are countable nouns – what diagnostics (just –s plural or any plural)?
Difference between direct and indirect objects
Case – in full NPs (not pronouns)

Chapter 4: Nouns
Semantic classes of nouns
Classes
Discussion
Morphology of nouns
Inflectional
Noun ‘creation’ (derivation)

Semantic classes of nouns
Abstract nouns
Refer to intangibles: things we cannot see, hear, touch, etc.
Examples:
Originality, virtue
Love  hope 

Semantic classes of nouns
Concrete nouns
Refer to “tangibles”: things we can see, hear, touch, etc.
Examples:
Sushi, clouds, clicks
Pencil, sky
?? Dreams, goals?
Water

Semantic classes of nouns
Common nouns
Refer to sets or classes of things, not to individual items in those sets
Examples:
President, song, school
Chair, person, idea, clock

Semantic classes of nouns
Proper nouns
Refer to individual members of some set or class
Examples:
Abraham Lincoln (president)
JUICE (by Lizzo) (song)
The UW (school)

Semantic classes of nouns
Count nouns
Refer to things with “edges” or “boundaries”, so we can pick out individuals
Examples:
car cars
tomato tomatoes
lake lakes
goose geese / mouse mice
syllabus syllabi

Semantic classes of nouns
Mass nouns
Refer to things without edges or boundaries, so we cannot pick out individuals
Examples:
Integrity, happiness, sand
*one integrity // some integrity
*a sand // some sand
MEASURE WORDS – cup of coffee, bucket of sand, lots of happiness

Semantic classes of nouns
Classes:
Abstract or Concrete
Common or Proper
Mass or Count

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns belong to just one class?
I saw Indira’s photograph.
Concrete
Common
Count

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns belong to just one class?
Serenity may be difficult to achieve.
Abstract
Common
Mass

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns belong to just one class?
Conclusion: A noun has multiple properties or classifications

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns always have the same properties?
Compare:
She is Karen.
She is a Karen

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns always have the same properties?
Example:
Coffee
Abstract or concrete?
Common or proper?
Mass or count?

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns always have the same properties?
Example:
Coffee
Sue drank too much coffee.
(concrete, mass, common)
There are numerous coffees.
(abstract, count, common)
They ordered two coffees.
(concrete, count, common)

Semantic classes of nouns
Discussion:
Do nouns always have the same properties?
Conclusion: a noun can “change” classes

Semantic classes of nouns
Summary
Three contrasts:
Abstract/concrete
Mass/count
Proper common
Nouns are classified according to each contrast
Nouns can change properties

Morphology of nouns:
Inflection
Number:
cat cats
bag bags
child children
foot feet
…can be regular or irregular

Morphology of nouns:
inflection
Case
I me
we us
she her
they them
Case inflection only occurs on pronouns in English

Morphology of nouns:
inflection
Case:
Case inflection only occurs on pronouns in English
Compare:
I met Kim in class.
Kim met me in class.

Morphology of nouns
Case inflection on noun phrases:
[the Queen of England]’s crown

Morphology of nouns:
derivation
Add derivational affixes
Examples:
Mysterious -ness ==> edgey -> edginess / bubbly – bubbliness
Obscure -ity
Affix -at- ion
motive motivate motivation

Morphology of nouns:
derivation
Compounding (combining words)
Examples:
air + port
dish + washer
window + dressing
Book + worm = bookworm, couchpotato

Morphology of nouns:
derivation
Other methods:
Coining, blending, etc
five hobbits walked up
I went to brunch with my friends

Morphology of nouns
Summary:
Inflectional morphology: number, case
Creation of nouns (derivation): derivational affixes and compounding

The noun phrase: introducers of np

Chapter 4

the noun phrase:
introducers of NP
Determiners
Numerals
Quantifiers
Quantity without Q
Possessive NPs
WH- words

The noun phrase:
Introducers of np
Determiners
Encode:
Definiteness
Indefiniteness
Number
Proximity (closeness)
(Questions: see 6: WH- determiners)

determiners
Definiteness:
A definite noun (phrase) is known to both speaker and hearer

Determiners
Definiteness
Example 1:
Context: Ann walks in and says to Bob:
“The student is outside.”
Bob assumes from Ann’s phrasing that she is referring to someone specific, and that he should know which student she means. (He has to use non-linguistic sources to figure out which student it is.)

Determiners
Definiteness
Example 2:
Same context: Ann walks in and says to Bob:
“The President is on TV right now.”
Bob assumes from Ann’s phrasing that she is referring to someone specific, and that he should know which person she means. (He has to use non-linguistic sources to figure out who it is—in this case, it’s probably not difficult.)

Determiners
Indefiniteness
An indefinite noun (phrase) is NOT assumed to be known to speaker and hearer.

Determiners
Indefiniteness
Example 1:
Context: Ann walks in and begins to talk to Bob:
“A student is outside.”
Bob assumes she will explain which student is outside.

Determiners
Indefiniteness
Example 1:
Context: Ann walks in and begins to talk to Bob:
“A president is outside.”
Bob assumes she will explain which president is outside. Since there aren’t usually lots of Presidents to choose from, this sentence is odd.

determiners
Number
Distinguish singular/plural
Examples:
A letter
Some letters / some writing
This letter
These letters

determiners
Proximity
Distinguish closeness to speaker or someone else; demonstratives
Examples:
This letter (close to speaker)
That letter (close to someone else)
These letters
Those letters

determiners
Summary
Encode:
Definiteness/indefiniteness
Number: singular/plural
Proximity to speaker/other

numerals
Encode:
Number
Indefiniteness
Sequence (order)

numerals
Number
Examples:
One frog jumped in the pond.
Ten frogs jumped in the pond.

numerals
Indefiniteness
Example:
Two frogs jumped in the pond.
The speaker and hearer are not assumed to know which particular frogs jumped in the pond, just how many did it.

numerals
Indefiniteness
Compare:
Two frogs jumped in the pond.
Those two frogs jumped in the pond.

numerals
Sequence (order)
Example:
The first frog jumped in the pond.
The second frog jumped in the pond.
Tells which frog based on its order relative to others:
Called ordinal numbers

Numerals:
Phrase structure rule
NP
Det
Num
N
the
second
frog
NP  (Det) (Num) N
NP
Det
N
a
frog
NP
N
frogs

numerals
Summary:
Numerals encode number
Numerals can encode indefiniteness
Numerals can encode order
Phrase Structure Rule:
NP  (Det) (Num) N

quantifiers
What quantifiers “do” (in terms of meaning):
Pick out members of a set in ways other than by counting them
Examples:
Every student
Few students
No students
A student

quantifiers
Interpretation can be affected by other quantifiers
Example:
A chef appeared on every cooking show.
One chef appeared on all the shows.
Different chefs appeared on each show.

Quantifiers
Order of determiners and quantifiers
Det – Q:
the few tomatoes
the many chefs
Q – Det
all the stars
both the doctors
Order varies depending on the specific quantifier used

quantifiers
Phrase Structure Rule:
NP  (Det)(Q) (Num) N

quantifiers
Summary
Quantifiers pick out members of a set
Quantifiers can be structurally ambiguous
Quantifiers can vary in their order relative to determiners
Phrase Structure Rule:
NP  (Det) (Q) (Num) N

Quantity without q
Groups
Examples:
a gaggle of geese (a group of geese)
a herd of buffalo (a group of buffalo)
a school of fish (a group of fish)

Quantity without q
Analysis: complex Det
NP
Q
N
a gaggle of
geese

Quantity without q
Amounts
Examples:
a cup of sugar
a quart of milk
ten feet of lumber

Quantity without q
Summary:
Quantity can be expressed by complex phrases indicating a group or amount

Possessive np
What are possessive NPs?
Full noun phrases that introduce nouns
Examples:
[the Queen of England]’s crown
[four player]’s scores

Possessive np
Tree illustration:
NP1
NP2
N
NP2
N
four
player’s
scores

Possessive NP
What is the form of possessive NPs?
Can include all elements of a noun phrase
End with a genitive case marker: ’s
Represented with curly brackets:
NP 
NP => (   ) (Q) (Num) N
Det 

Possessive np
Properties of possessive NPs:
Are not determiners nor adjectives: are NPs
Determiners are words; Poss-NPs are phrases
Adjectives are words; Poss-NPs are phrases

Possessive np
Phrase Structure Rule for possessive NPs:
NP => { (Det) / (PossNP) } (Q) (NUM) N
NP 
NP => (   ) (Q) (Num) N
Det 

Possessive NP
Summary
Poss-NPs are introducers of NP
Form of Poss-NP
Internal structure is NP
Genitive marker is added
Poss-NPs are phrases, not rule
Phrase Structure Rule:
NP => { (Det) / (PossNP) } (Q) (NUM) N
NP 
NP => (   ) (Q) (Num) N
Det 

Wh- determiners
What are WH- determiners?
WH- determiners are interrogative (question) determiners

Wh- determiners
Properties of WH- determiners
Single words
Have same distribution as other determiners
Example:
[the books] arrived.
[which books] arrived?

Wh- determiners
Phrase Structure for WH- determiners
Appear in same position as other determiners:
NP => { (DET) / (Poss-NP) } (Q) (Num) N

Wh- determiners
Summary:
WH- determiners are a type of determiner
Interrogative
WH- determiners have same distribution as other determiners