Chapter Nine

Moving into the Adult Social World: Socioemotional Development in Adolescence

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1

Introduction
How do teenagers form their own self-identity?
What are some characteristics of a typical teenage relationship?
What role do part-time jobs play in development?
What negative consequences do teenagers face when they engage in drug use?
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2

9.1 Identity and Self-Esteem
Learning Objectives
How do adolescents achieve an identity?
What are the stages and results of acquiring an ethnic identity?
How does self-esteem change in adolescence?
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3

The Search for Identity, Part 1
According to Erikson, adolescents face the crisis between identity and role confusion
Teenagers use experimentation to form their own identities
Envision themselves as rock stars, famous writers, etc.
Adolescents often progress through different stages on their path to forming their identities (see Table 9.1 on next slide)
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4

The Search for Identity, Part 2
■TABLE 9.1 Identity Statuses
Status Definition Example
Diffusion The individual is overwhelmed by the task of achieving an identity and does little to accomplish the task. Larry hates the idea of deciding what to do with his future, so he spends most of his free time playing video games.
Foreclosure The individual has a status determined by adults rather than by personal exploration. For as long as she can remember, Sakura’s parents have told her that she should be an attorney and join the family law firm. She plans to study prelaw in college, although she’s never given the matter that much thought.
Moratorium The individual is examining different alternatives but has yet to find one that’s satisfactory. Brad enjoys most of his high school classes. Some days he thinks it would be fun to be a chemist, some days he wants to be a novelist, and some days he’d like to be an elementary school teacher. He thinks it a little weird to change his mind so often, but he also enjoys thinking about different jobs.
Achievement The individual has explored alternatives and has deliberately chosen a specific identity. Throughout middle school, Efrat wanted to play in the WNBA. During 9th and 10th grades, she thought it would be cool to be a physician. In 11th grade, she took a computing course and everything finally “clicked”- she’d found her niche. She knew that she wanted to study computer science in college.

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5

The Search for Identity, Part 3
Characteristic ways of thinking during identity search:
Adolescent egocentrism: a teen’s focus on her own feelings and experiences
Often characterized by an imaginary audience: the belief that their peers are constantly watching them
Personal fable: belief that their own experiences and feelings are unique and no one has ever felt like this before
Illusion of invulnerability: belief that misfortune only happens to others
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6

The Search for Identity, Part 4
As adolescents form their identities, egocentric thinking begins to vanish
Who helps teens form identities?
Parents, especially when they are open to discussion and allow their children to explore different options
Peers, especially close, trustworthy friends
Broader social context: limitations of poverty
Personality, especially agreeability and openness to experience
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7

Ethnic Identity, Part 1
One-third of adolescents/young adults in the U.S. are members of ethnic minority groups
Typically develop an ethnic identity: become part of the group and learn its culture and traditions
Typically three phases in achieving an ethnic identity:
Initially, no examination of ethnic roots
Explore the personal impact of one’s cultural heritage
Achieve a distinct ethnic self-concept
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8

Ethnic Identity, Part 2
Benefits of a strong ethnic identity:
Higher self-esteem
More enjoyable interactions with family and friends
Better performance in school and more likely to attend college
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9

Self-Esteem in Adolescents
Self-esteem usually stabilizes in early adolescence
Sometimes tends to drop as children adjust to new schools and a new social circle
Self-esteem becomes more differentiated in adolescence
Different levels of self-esteem for academics, social interactions, and physical challenges
Social component even more complex and differentiated
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10

Influences on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
What contributes to adolescents’ self-esteem?
Self-confidence higher in areas of interest and ones in which they do well
Parents
Warm and affectionate parents best for fostering high self-esteem
Moderate level of discipline and openness for discussing rules
Peers’ opinions
Self-esteem is high when peers have a favorable view of the teen
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11

The Myth of Storm and Stress
Is adolescence really a time of stress and rebellion?
Most teens have positive relationships with their parents
Teens’ growing independence does change the parent-child relationship
Spend less time together; show less affection
Parents tend to mildly argue with teens over clothing, personal freedoms, hairstyles, etc.
Approx. 25% experience more serious conflicts
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12

9.2 Romantic Relationships and Sexuality
Learning Objectives
Why do teenagers date?
Why are some adolescents sexually active? Why do so few use contraceptives?
What determines an adolescent’s sexual orientation?
What circumstances make dating violence especially likely?
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13

Romantic Relationships
Romantic relationships build on friendships
Usually between people similar in popularity and physical attractiveness
Trust and compassion become more important in relationships as teenagers develop
Adolescents in a relationship tend to be more self-confident
Healthy adolescent relationships associated with satisfying adult relationships
More emotional conflict in teens’ relationships
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14

Sexual Behavior, Part 1
Two-thirds of U.S. teens will have had intercourse by the end of high school
Parental permissiveness, peer approval, having peers who are also having sex, and alcohol use are contributing factors
Boys tend to see sex as more recreational; girls tend to view it as an expression of love and romance
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15

Sexual Behavior, Part 2
Approx. one in six American teen girls that has intercourse becomes pregnant
Approx. 10% of sexually active teens do not use contraception
Many use ineffective methods of contraception
Feelings of invulnerability, not having access to contraception, and romanticizing the idea of having a baby contribute to teens’ low use of contraceptives
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16

Sexual Behavior, Part 3
How can teenage sexual behavior and pregnancy be reduced?
Comprehensive sex education programs
Incorporate biology and emphasize responsibility
Use role-playing to get teens to feel comfortable saying “no”
Little evidence that abstinence-only programs or just offering contraceptives works
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17

Sexual Orientation
Approx. 15% of teens question their sexual and emotional attraction at some period
Approx. 5% end up identifying as gay or lesbian
For males, identifying as gay usually emerges after “feeling different” during childhood
Females often don’t identify as lesbians until later-adolescence or even later in life
Gay and lesbian youth often have mental health problems and engage in substance use
Social changes are helping to prevent this
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18

Dating Violence
Approx. 25% of teens experience physical, emotional, and/or sexual violence while dating:
Can result in academic and behavioral problems
What are some risk factors?
Parent behavior, peer behavior and attitudes, and personality
Programs that help prevent dating violence have been effective
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19

9.3 The World of Work
Learning Objectives:
How do adolescents select an occupation?
What is the impact of part-time employment on adolescents?
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20

Career Development, Part 1
Identity is a primary force in an adolescent’s choice of career (Donald Super)
Crystallization: teens use their emerging identities to form ideas about careers
Occurs at 13 or 14 years of age
Specification: learn more about specific lines of work and begin training
Begins at around 18 years of age
Implementation: enter workforce and learn first-hand from jobs
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21

Career Development, Part 2
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In the specification stage of career development, adolescents try to learn more about different careers, sometimes by serving as an apprentice.
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Career Development, Part 3
Super’s theory does not explain why people are attracted to certain kinds of work
Personality-type theory: work is fulfilling when the features of a job fit with a person’s personality
Devised by John Holland
Most people are a blend of six personality types (see Table 9.3 on next slide)
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23

Career Development, Part 4
■TABLE 9.2 Personality Types in Holland’s Theory
Personality Type Description Careers
Realistic Individuals enjoy physical labor and working with their hands; they like to solve concrete problems. Mechanic, truck driver, construction worker
Investigative Individuals are task-oriented and enjoy thinking about abstract relations. Scientist, technical writer
Social Individuals are skilled verbally and interpersonally; they enjoy solving problems using these skills. Teacher, counselor, social worker
Conventional Individuals have verbal and quantitative skills that they like to apply to structured, well-defined tasks assigned to them by others. Bank teller, payroll clerk, traffic manager
Enterprising Individuals enjoy using their verbal skills in positions of power, status, and leadership. Business executive, television producer, real estate agent
Artistic Individuals enjoy expressing themselves through unstructured tasks Poet, musician, actor

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24

Career Development, Part 5
Employees tend to be productive and have stable careers when their jobs match their personalities
Other factors contribute to satisfaction as well
Pay, workplace stress, work-family balance, etc.
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25

Part-Time Employment, Part 1
Approx. 75% of high school seniors have a part-time job
Part-time work can be harmful:
School performance suffers
More than 20 hours per week
Mental health and behavioral problems
Repetitive, stressful jobs undermine self-esteem and create anxiety
Misleading affluence
Most teens spend money on themselves
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26

Part-Time Employment, Part 2
Teens should avoid working long hours
5-10 hours per week usually does not cause stress
Jobs that value the teen’s skills can enhance self-esteem
Spending money on necessities or saving can improve parent-child relationships
Summer employment is a good alternative to part-time employment
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27

9.4 The Dark Side
Learning Objectives
Why do teenagers drink and use drugs?
What leads some adolescents to become depressed? How can depression be treated?
What are the causes of juvenile delinquency?
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28

Drug Use, Part 1
Most teenagers admit to having used alcohol
What causes some teens to drink?
Alcohol is an important part of their parents’ social lives
Parents are uninvolved or set unrealistic expectations
Experience of life stresses
Peers who also drink
Programs and therapy tailored to the cause of drinking can be effective interventions
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29

Drug Use, Part 2
One-third of teens experiment with smoking cigarettes
Supportive parents make teens less likely to smoke
Having peers who smoke is a risk factor
School-based programs have been created to teach about the consequences of smoking and show ways to resist peer pressure
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30

Depression, Part 1
Depression: a disorder characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, and low self-esteem
15% of adolescents are depressed; more common in girls
Depression is often triggered by a serious loss or failure
Examples: death of a family member or a terrible date
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31

Depression, Part 2
Why do only some teens become depressed?
Temperament: trouble with regulating emotions can lead to depression
A belief system that internalizes failure
Emotionally distant or overly punitive parents / stressful family life
African American and Hispanic American teens experience both poverty and depression at higher rates
Heredity: lower levels of neurotransmitters
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32

Depression, Part 3
Antidepressant drugs only work for some adolescents (not a permanent solution)
Psychotherapy is better for teens
Emphasizes cognitive and social skills
Shown to be effective
Untreated depression in teens:
Can lead to decreased school performance, troubled social relationships, and depression in adulthood
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33

Depression, Part 4
Depression often precedes suicide
Approx. 10% of teens report making a suicide attempt
Most suicides are preceded by warning signs
Threats, preoccupation with death, etc.
Teens who exhibit symptoms should not be left alone
Therapy is essential to treating symptoms of depression and hopelessness
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34

Delinquency, Part 1
Two types of delinquent behavior:
Adolescent-limited antisocial behavior: relatively minor criminal acts by adolescents who aren’t consistently antisocial
Life-course persistent antisocial behavior: antisocial behavior that begins at an early age and persists throughout life
5% of youth exhibit this; cause of most adolescent criminal behavior
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35

Delinquency, Part 2
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Aggressive teens see the world as a hostile place and typically respond aggressively by default.
36

Delinquency, Part 3
What causes delinquent/criminal behavior?
Heredity: levels of physical aggression
Cognitive skills
Respond aggressively when intentions are unknown
Impulsivity
Parents who are overly permissive or punitive
Living in poverty
Intervention programs and parent training can be effective
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37

Chapter Eight

Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive Development During Adolescence

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1

Introduction
What physical and cognitive developments occur during adolescence?
What changes take place during puberty?
What is needed for optimal development during adolescence?
How do adolescents differ from children regarding their thoughts on moral issues?
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2

8.1 Pubertal Changes
Learning Objectives
What physical changes occur during adolescence that mark the transition to a mature young adult?
What factors cause the physical changes associated with puberty?
How do physical changes affect adolescents’ psychological development?
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3

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 1
Puberty: two types of physical changes that mark the transition from childhood to young adulthood
Bodily changes
Growth spurt
Sexual maturation
Growth of breasts or testes
Girls typically start their growth spurts at age 11 and boys at 13
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4

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 2
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Figure 8.1 Children grow steadily taller and heavier until puberty, when they experience a rapid increase known as the adolescent growth spurt.
5

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 3
After the adolescent growth spurt, boys generally have more strength, speed, and endurance than girls
Increased muscle mass/fat content, longer and thicker bones, and an increased heart and lung capacity
Adolescents’ brains process information more quickly than children’s
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6

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 4
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Figure 8.2 Adolescence is a vulnerable time because the reward- and pleasure-seeking centers of the brain (limbic system) mature more rapidly than the behavioral control systems (frontal cortex); the gap between the two systems is particularly great during adolescence.
Source: Casey et al., 2008, “The Adolescent Brain,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, Fig. 3, p. 116. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.
7

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 5
Sexual maturation also takes place during puberty
Primary sex characteristics: physical signs of maturity directly linked to the reproductive organs
Secondary sex characteristics: physical signs of maturity not directly linked to the reproductive organs
In girls: growth of breasts and widening of the pelvis
In boys: facial hair growth and widening of shoulders
In both: body hair; changes in voice and skin
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8

Signs of Physical Maturation, Part 6
Girls begin puberty with the growth of breasts and the growth spurt
Menarche: beginning of menstruation at around age 13
Boys begin puberty with the growth of testes and the scrotum
Spermarche: first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm-laden fluid at around age 13
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9

Mechanisms of Maturation
What causes the physical changes that occur during puberty?
Pituitary gland releases growth hormone and signals other glands to release hormones
Genetic influences
Example: a mother’s age of menarche is related to the age her daughter will experience it
Environmental factors
Adequate nutrition and health care cause puberty to occur earlier
Menarche occurs early in girls with chronic stress
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10

Psychological Impact of Puberty, Part 1
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Young adolescents are often quite concerned about their appearance.
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Psychological Impact of Puberty, Part 2
Hormones is not the primary cause of moodiness in adolescents
Instead, changes in activities and social settings
Good mood when with friends; bad mood in adult-regulated settings
Some girls and boys start puberty at an early or late age
Early maturation can be especially harmful to girls
Low self-confidence; likely to engage in risky behavior
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12

Psychological Impact of Puberty, Part 3
Early maturation (cont’d.)
Girls who mature early are more likely to engage in sex and become pregnant as teenagers
Warm, supportive parents can help offset harmful effects of early maturation in girls
Boys tend to transition through puberty without long-lasting negative effects
Studies show mixed results regarding whether or not early maturation in boys is harmful or beneficial to their psychological well-being
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13

Early Maturing Teens
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Because children enter puberty at different ages, early-maturing teens tower over their later-maturing age-mates.
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8.2 Health
Learning Objectives
What are the elements of a healthy diet for adolescents? Why do some adolescents have eating disorders?
Do adolescents get enough exercise? What are the consequences of participating in sports in high school?
What are common obstacles to healthy growth during adolescence?
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15

Nutrition, Part 1
Average teenage girls need 2,200 calories per day; boys need 2,700
Calcium and iron are important for bone growth and hemoglobin production
Many teenagers get inadequate nutrition from fast food
Inadequate iron makes teens moody; inadequate calcium increases risk of osteoporosis in later life
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16

Nutrition, Part 2
Obesity is a serious problem for American children and adolescents
Defined in terms of body mass index (BMI)
One of six American children/teens is overweight
Heredity factors: e.g., metabolic rate
Parents
Sedentary lifestyle
Too little sleep
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17

Nutrition, Part 3
Overweight youngsters are often unpopular and have low self-esteem
Obesity puts them at risk for medical problems throughout their life
High blood pressure
Diabetes
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Nutrition, Part 4
Obese children can lose weight by changing eating habits and exercising
Prevention is key to avoiding lifelong weight problems
Teenage girls tend to worry about their weight and try diets/diet pills
Potentially dangerous and can lead to anorexia or bulimia
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19

Nutrition, Part 5
Anorexia nervosa: a persistent refusal to eat along with an irrational fear of gaining weight
Often leads to heart damage
Without treatment, 15% of adolescents die
Bulimia nervosa: a disease in which people alternate between binge eating and purging by means of laxatives or self-induced vomiting
Frequency of bingeing varies from person to person
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20

Nutrition, Part 6
What are the risk factors related to girls developing an eating disorder?
Heredity, low self-esteem, mood/anxiety disorders
Main factor: peers and the media
Having friends who diet and being overly immersed in a culture that emphasizes female attractiveness
Boys make up 10% of documented eating disorder cases
Risk factors: low self-esteem, childhood obesity, and pressure from parents to lose weight
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21

Nutrition, Part 7
Programs for at-risk youth can protect teens from eating disorders
Teach them to resist social pressure and change attitudes and behaviors
Treatment is critical for teens diagnosed with an eating disorder
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22

Physical Fitness, Part 1
30 minutes of exercise at least three times a week reduces the risk of obesity, cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and psychological problems
Many adolescents get physical activity through organized sports
Benefits of participating in sports:
Self-esteem, learn initiative, and builds social skills
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23

Physical Fitness, Part 2
Approx. 15% of high school athletes sustain injuries, mostly minor
Approx. 2% of high school athletes use anabolic steroids
Causes damage to the liver and other organs
Associated with mood swings, depression, and aggression
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24

Threats to Adolescent Well-Being, Part 1
Every year, approximately 1 U.S. adolescent out of 1,000 dies
Boys – accidents involving motor vehicles or firearms
Girls – natural causes or accidents involving motor vehicles
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25

Threats to Adolescent Well-Being, Part 2
Adolescents take risks that adults often find unacceptable
Compared to adults, adolescents find the rewards associated with risky behavior far more appealing
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26

8.3 Information Processing During Adolescence
Learning Objectives
How do working memory and processing speed change during adolescence?
How do increases in content knowledge, strategies, and metacognitive skills influence adolescent cognition?
What changes in problem solving and reasoning take place in adolescents?
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27

Working Memory and Processing Speed
Working memory and processing speed capacities increase during adolescence
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Figure 8.4 Response time declines steadily during childhood and reaches adultlike levels during middle adolescence.
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Content Knowledge, Strategies, and Metacognitive Skill, Part 1
Increased content knowledge allows adolescents to improve their understanding and memory
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Adolescents often have adultlike skills in some domains, such as using cell phones, which allows them to teach adults.
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Content Knowledge, Strategies, and Metacognitive Skill, Part 2
Increased knowledge also allows adolescents to identify learning strategies that are and are not working
Examples: making list, outlining reading material, etc.
Improves memory and makes learning more effective
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30

Problem Solving and Reasoning, Part 1
Adolescents are more sophisticated in their problem solving than children
Children use heuristics; adolescents use analytical problem solving
Analytical problem solving relies on statistical information
What might a 15-year-old consider before deciding on a bike to buy?
Adolescents are skilled at analyzing arguments and finding the flaws in them
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31

Problem Solving and Reasoning, Part 2
Adolescents are less likely to use strategies that threaten their own beliefs
Example: refuse to listen to evidence that their curfew is a good idea
■TABLE 8.1 Information Processing During Adolescence
Feature State
Working memory and processing speed Adolescents have adult like working memory capacity and processing speed, enabling them to process information efficiently.
Content knowledge Adolescents’ greater knowledge of the world facilitates understanding and memory of new experiences.
Strategies and metacognition Adolescents are better able to identify task-appropriate strategies and to monitor the effectiveness of those strategies.
Problem solving and reasoning Adolescents often solve problems analytically by relying on mathematics or logic, and they are able to detect weaknesses in scientific evidence and logical arguments.

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32

8.4 Reasoning About Moral Issues, Part 1
Learning Objectives
How do adolescents reason about moral issues?
How do concern for justice and caring for other people contribute to moral reasoning?
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33

Reasoning About Moral Issues, Part 2
Teenagers act in diverse ways
Some commit terrible crimes; others risk their lives for others
Why are teens capable of such opposite actions?
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34

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning, Part 1
Three levels of moral reasoning:
Preconventional level: based on external factors
Stage 1: involves obedience orientation (believing that authority figures know what is right and wrong)
Stage 2: use of instrumental orientation (looking out for one’s own needs)
Conventional level: look to society’s norms
Stage 3: based on interpersonal norms (aiming to gain the approval of other people by being “good”)
Stage 4: reasoning focuses on social system morality (maintaining order in society)
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35

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning, Part 2
Postconventional level: reasoning is based on a personal moral code
Stage 5: reasoning is based on a social contract: laws should exist for the good of the people; if they no longer promote people’s welfare, they become invalid
Stage 6: abstract principles (e.g., compassion, justice, and equality) form a person’s social code
Usually takes many years to progress through the stages
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36

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning, Part 4
Kohlberg believed that people progress through all stages in order without skipping any
Younger adolescents tend to act morally only if external forces pressure them to
Critics of Kohlberg’s theory say that that it is not representative of different cultures
Example: Hindu children would encourage Heinz to steal the drugs due to their religion’s emphasis on serving others
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37

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning, Part 5
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Teenagers who engage in moral behavior, such as participating in protest marches, often reason at high levels in Kohlberg’s theory.
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Beyond Kohlberg’s Theory, Part 1
Does Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning apply to males more than females?
According to Carol Gilligan, yes
Females have an “ethic of care” and males focus on justice
In actuality, males and females reason about morality in similar ways
Justice and caring come into play depending on the nature of the moral dilemma and the context
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39

Beyond Kohlberg’s Theory, Part 2
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According to Gilligan, moral reasoning is driven by the need to care for others.
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CLA 1 Comprehensive learning Assessment

Listen to and analyze adolescents’ radio diaries. Access the National Public Radio’s Teenage Diaries website (http://www.radiodiaries.org/tag/teenage-diaries/). Choose one diary to listen to. After listening, use the comprehensive learning assessment guidelines detailed in this syllabus to:

 Compare the teenager’s experience to the textbook information from Chapters 8 and 9.

o In particular, where is the teenager in terms of identity development?

o Is the teen showing any signs of the dark side of adolescence (e.g., drug use, depression, or delinquency)?

o What is his or her work and social life like?

 Discuss what you have learned and what areas of research about adolescence you would like to see expanded and/or conducted.