1) Identify what you thought was the one most important concept(s), method(s), and/or specific item that you felt was worthy of your understanding from the Key Terms on page 413.
2) Discuss in detail what the selected term means, how it is used and other pertinent information about the selected term including a specific example, application or case study from your own experience. Be specific; not vague or general.
3) Provide a detailed discussion of why you thought this selection is important and how it relates overall to Agile and critical chain.
Your initial post should be based upon the assigned reading for the week, so the textbook should be a source listed in your reference section and cited within the body of the text. Other sources are not required but feel free to use them if they aid in your discussion.
Your initial post should be at least 450+ words and in APA format (including Times New Roman with font size 12 and double spaced). Post the actual body of your paper in the discussion thread then attach a Word version of the paper for APA review. Do not use lists or bullet points. This will result in substantial loss of points in the Substance section and the Requirements section.
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List of Cases by Chapter
Chapter 1
Development Projects in Lagos, Nigeria 2
“Throwing Good Money after Bad”: the BBC’s
Digital Media Initiative 10
MegaTech, Inc. 29
The IT Department at Hamelin Hospital 30
Disney’s Expedition Everest 31
Rescue of Chilean Miners 32
Chapter 2
Tesla’s $5 Billion Gamble 37
Electronic Arts and the Power of Strong Culture
in Design Teams 64
Rolls-Royce Corporation 67
Classic Case: Paradise Lost—The Xerox Alto 68
Project Task Estimation and the Culture of “Gotcha!” 69
Widgets ’R Us 70
Chapter 3
Project Selection Procedures: A Cross-Industry
Sampler 77
Project Selection and Screening at GE: The Tollgate
Process 97
Keflavik Paper Company 111
Project Selection at Nova Western, Inc. 112
Chapter 4
Leading by Example for the London Olympics—
Sir John Armitt 116
Dr. Elattuvalapil Sreedharan, India’s Project
Management Guru 126
The Challenge of Managing Internationally 133
In Search of Effective Project Managers 137
Finding the Emotional Intelligence to Be a Real Leader 137
Problems with John 138
Chapter 5
“We look like fools.”—Oregon’s Failed Rollout
of Its ObamacareWeb Site 145
Statements of Work: Then and Now 151
Defining a Project Work Package 163
Boeing’s Virtual Fence 172
California’s High-Speed Rail Project 173
Project Management at Dotcom.com 175
The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle 176
Chapter 6
Engineers Without Borders: Project Teams Impacting
Lives 187
Tele-Immersion Technology Eases the Use of Virtual
Teams 203
Columbus Instruments 215
The Bean Counter and the Cowboy 216
Johnson & Rogers Software Engineering, Inc. 217
Chapter 7
The Building that Melted Cars 224
Bank of America Completely Misjudges Its Customers 230
Collapse of Shanghai Apartment Building 239
Classic Case: de Havilland’s Falling Comet 245
The Spanish Navy Pays Nearly $3 Billion for a Submarine
That Will Sink Like a Stone 248
Classic Case: Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge 249
Chapter 8
Sochi Olympics—What’s the Cost of National
Prestige? 257
The Hidden Costs of Infrastructure Projects—The Case
of Building Dams 286
Boston’s Central Artery/Tunnel Project 288
Chapter 9
After 20 Years and More Than $50 Billion, Oil is No Closer
to the Surface: The Caspian Kashagan Project 297
Chapter 10
Enlarging the Panama Canal 331
Project Scheduling at Blanque Cheque Construction (A) 360
Project Scheduling at Blanque Cheque Construction (B) 360
Chapter 11
Developing Projects Through Kickstarter—Do Delivery
Dates Mean Anything? 367
Eli Lilly Pharmaceuticals and Its Commitment to Critical
Chain Project Management 385
It’s an Agile World 396
Ramstein Products, Inc. 397
Chapter 12
Hong Kong Connects to the World’s Longest Natural
Gas Pipeline 401
The Problems of Multitasking 427
Chapter 13
New York City’s CityTime Project 432
Earned Value at Northrop Grumman 451
The IT Department at Kimble College 463
The Superconducting Supercollider 464
Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner: Failure to Launch 465
Chapter 14
Duke Energy and Its Cancelled Levy County Nuclear
Power Plant 478
Aftermath of a “Feeding Frenzy”: Dubai and Cancelled
Construction Projects 490
New Jersey Kills Hudson River Tunnel Project 497
The Project That Wouldn’t Die 499
The Navy Scraps Development of Its Showpiece
Warship—Until the Next Bad Idea 500
Project ManageMent
achieving coMPetitive advantage
Jeffrey K. Pinto
Pennsylvania State University
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Hoboken Amsterdam
Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi
Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
F o u r t h E d i t i o n
www.ebook3000.com
To Mary Beth, my wife, with the most profound thanks and love for her unwavering
support. And, to our children, Emily, AJ, and Joseph—three “projects” that are definitely
over budget but that are performing far better than I could have hoped!
VP, Product Management: Donna Battista
Editor-in-Chief: Stephanie Wall
Acquisitions Editor: Dan Tylman
Program Manager Team Lead: Ashley Santora
Program Manager: Claudia Fernandes
Editorial Assistant: Linda Albelli
VP, Marketing: Maggie Moylan
Product Marketing Manager: Anne Fahlgren
Field Marketing Manager: Lenny Raper
Strategic Marketing Manager: Erin Gardner
Project Manager Team Lead: Judy Leale
Project Manager: Nicole Suddeth
Operations Specialist: Carol Melville
Cover Designer: Lumina Datamatics, Inc
Cover Photo: f11photo/Fotolia
VP, Director of Digital Strategy & Assessment:
Paul Gentile
Manager of Learning Applications: Paul Deluca
Digital Editor: Brian Surette
Digital Studio Manager: Diane Lombardo
Digital Studio Project Manager: Robin Lazrus
Digital Studio Project Manager: Alana Coles
Digital Studio Project Manager: Monique Lawrence
Digital Studio Project Manager: Regina DaSilva
Full-Service Project Management and Composition:
Integra
Printer/Binder: Edwards Brothers
Cover Printer: Phoenix Color/Hagerstown
Text Font: 10/12 Palatino
Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear
on the appropriate page within text.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pinto, Jeffrey K.
Project management : achieving competitive advantage/Jeffrey K. Pinto.—Fourth edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-13-379807-4 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-13-379807-0 (alk. paper) 1. Project management. I. Title.
HD69.P75P5498 2016
658.4’04—dc23
2014036595
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-13-379807-0
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-379807-4
iii
BrIEF COnTEnTS
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction: Why Project Management? 1
Chapter 2 The Organizational Context: Strategy, Structure, and Culture 36
Chapter 3 Project Selection and Portfolio Management 76
Chapter 4 Leadership and the Project Manager 115
Chapter 5 Scope Management 144
Chapter 6 Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation 186
Chapter 7 Risk Management 223
Chapter 8 Cost Estimation and Budgeting 256
Chapter 9 Project Scheduling: Networks, Duration Estimation,
and Critical Path 296
Chapter 10 Project Scheduling: Lagging, Crashing, and Activity Networks 330
Chapter 11 Advanced Topics in Planning and Scheduling: Agile
and Critical Chain 366
Chapter 12 Resource Management 400
Chapter 13 Project Evaluation and Control 431
Chapter 14 Project Closeout and Termination 477
Appendix A The Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution 509
Appendix B Tutorial for MS Project 2013 510
Appendix C Project Plan Template 520
Glossary 524
Company Index 534
Name Index 535
Subject Index 538
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iv
COnTEnTS
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon: Why ProjeCt ManageMent? 1
Project Profile: Development Projects in Lagos, Nigeria 2
Introduction 4
1.1 What Is a Project? 5
General Project Characteristics 6
1.2 Why Are Projects Important? 9
Project Profile: “Throwing Good Money after Bad”: the BBC’s Digital
Media Initiative 10
1.3 Project Life Cycles 13
◾ Box 1.1: Project Managers in Practice 15
1.4 Determinants of Project Success 16
◾ Box 1.2: Project Management Research in Brief 19
1.5 Developing Project Management Maturity 19
1.6 Project Elements and Text Organization 23
Summary 27 • Key Terms 29 • Discussion Questions 29
• Case Study 1.1 MegaTech, Inc. 29 • Case Study 1.2 The IT
Department at Hamelin Hospital 30 • Case Study 1.3 Disney’s Expedition
Everest 31 • Case Study 1.4 Rescue of Chilean Miners 32 • Internet
Exercises 33 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 34 • Notes 34
Chapter 2 the organIzatIonal Context: Strategy, StruCture,
and Culture 36
Project Profile: Tesla’s $5 Billion Gamble 37
Introduction 38
2.1 Projects and Organizational Strategy 39
2.2 Stakeholder Management 41
Identifying Project Stakeholders 42
Managing Stakeholders 45
2.3 Organizational Structure 47
2.4 Forms of Organizational Structure 48
Functional Organizations 48
Project Organizations 50
Matrix Organizations 53
Moving to Heavyweight Project Organizations 55
◾ Box 2.1: Project Management Research in Brief 56
2.5 Project Management Offices 57
2.6 Organizational Culture 59
How Do Cultures Form? 61
Organizational Culture and Project Management 63
Project Profile: Electronic Arts and the Power of Strong Culture in Design Teams 64
Summary 65 • Key Terms 67 • Discussion Questions 67 • Case
Study 2.1 Rolls-Royce Corporation 67 • Case Study 2.2 Classic Case:
Paradise Lost—The Xerox Alto 68 • Case Study 2.3 Project Task Estimation
and the Culture of “Gotcha!” 69 • Case Study 2.4 Widgets ’R Us 70
• Internet Exercises 70 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 70
• Integrated Project—Building Your Project Plan 72 • Notes 74
Contents v
Chapter 3 ProjeCt SeleCtIon and PortfolIo ManageMent 76
Project Profile: Project Selection Procedures: A Cross-Industry Sampler 77
Introduction 78
3.1 Project Selection 78
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 80
Method One: Checklist Model 80
Method Two: Simplified Scoring Models 82
Limitations of Scoring Models 84
Method Three: The Analytical Hierarchy Process 84
Method Four: Profile Models 88
3.3 Financial Models 90
Payback Period 90
Net Present Value 92
Discounted Payback 94
Internal Rate of Return 94
Choosing a Project Selection Approach 96
Project Profile: Project Selection and Screening at GE: The Tollgate Process 97
3.4 Project Portfolio Management 98
Objectives and Initiatives 99
Developing a Proactive Portfolio 100
Keys to Successful Project Portfolio Management 103
Problems in Implementing Portfolio Management 104
Summary 105 • Key Terms 106 • Solved Problems 107
• Discussion Questions 108 • Problems 108 • Case Study 3.1
Keflavik Paper Company 111 • Case Study 3.2 Project Selection at Nova
Western, Inc. 112 • Internet Exercises 113 • Notes 113
Chapter 4 leaderShIP and the ProjeCt Manager 115
Project Profile: Leading by Example for the London Olympics—Sir John Armitt 116
Introduction 117
4.1 Leaders Versus Managers 118
4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 119
Acquiring Project Resources 119
Motivating and Building Teams 120
Having a Vision and Fighting Fires 121
Communicating 121
◾ Box 4.1: Project Management Research in Brief 124
4.3 Traits of Effective Project Leaders 125
Conclusions about Project Leaders 126
Project Profile: Dr. Elattuvalapil Sreedharan, India’s Project Management Guru 126
4.4 Project Champions 127
Champions—Who Are They? 128
What Do Champions Do? 129
How to Make a Champion 130
4.5 The New Project Leadership 131
◾ Box 4.2: Project Managers in Practice 132
Project Profile: The Challenge of Managing Internationally 133
4.6 Project Management Professionalism 134
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vi Contents
Summary 135 • Key Terms 136 • Discussion Questions 136
• Case Study 4.1 In Search of Effective Project Managers 137
• Case Study 4.2 Finding the Emotional Intelligence to Be a Real Leader 137
• Case Study 4.3 Problems with John 138 • Internet Exercises 141
• PMP Certification Sample Questions 141 • Notes 142
Chapter 5 SCoPe ManageMent 144
Project Profile: “We look like fools.”—Oregon’s Failed Rollout of Its Obamacare
Web Site 145
Introduction 146
5.1 Conceptual Development 148
The Statement of Work 150
The Project Charter 151
Project Profile: Statements of Work: Then and Now 151
5.2 The Scope Statement 153
The Work Breakdown Structure 153
Purposes of the Work Breakdown Structure 154
The Organization Breakdown Structure 159
The Responsibility Assignment Matrix 160
5.3 Work Authorization 161
Project Profile: Defining a Project Work Package 163
5.4 Scope Reporting 164
◾ Box 5.1: Project Management Research in Brief 165
5.5 Control Systems 167
Configuration Management 167
5.6 Project Closeout 169
Summary 170 • Key Terms 171 • Discussion Questions 171
• Problems 172 • Case Study 5.1 Boeing’s Virtual Fence 172
• Case Study 5.2 California’s High-Speed Rail Project 173 • Case
Study 5.3 Project Management at Dotcom.com 175 • Case Study 5.4
The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle 176 • Internet Exercises 178
• PMP Certification Sample Questions 178 • MS Project Exercises 179
• Appendix 5.1: Sample Project Charter 180 • Integrated Project—
Developing the Work Breakdown Structure 182 • Notes 184
Chapter 6 ProjeCt teaM BuIldIng, ConflICt, and negotIatIon 186
Project Profile: Engineers Without Borders: Project Teams Impacting Lives 187
Introduction 188
6.1 Building the Project Team 189
Identify Necessary Skill Sets 189
Identify People Who Match the Skills 189
Talk to Potential Team Members and Negotiate with Functional Heads 189
Build in Fallback Positions 191
Assemble the Team 191
6.2 Characteristics of Effective Project Teams 192
A Clear Sense of Mission 192
A Productive Interdependency 192
Cohesiveness 193
Trust 193
Enthusiasm 193
Results Orientation 194
Contents vii
6.3 Reasons Why Teams Fail 194
Poorly Developed or Unclear Goals 194
Poorly Defined Project Team Roles and Interdependencies 194
Lack of Project Team Motivation 195
Poor Communication 195
Poor Leadership 195
Turnover Among Project Team Members 196
Dysfunctional Behavior 196
6.4 Stages in Group Development 196
Stage One: Forming 197
Stage Two: Storming 197
Stage Three: Norming 198
Stage Four: Performing 198
Stage Five: Adjourning 198
Punctuated Equilibrium 198
6.5 Achieving Cross-Functional Cooperation 199
Superordinate Goals 199
Rules and Procedures 200
Physical Proximity 201
Accessibility 201
Outcomes of Cooperation: Task and Psychosocial Results 201
6.6 Virtual Project Teams 202
Project Profile: Tele-Immersion Technology Eases the Use
of Virtual Teams 203
6.7 Conflict Management 204
What Is Conflict? 205
Sources of Conflict 206
Methods for Resolving Conflict 208
6.8 Negotiation 209
Questions to Ask Prior to the Negotiation 209
Principled Negotiation 210
Invent Options for Mutual Gain 212
Insist on Using Objective Criteria 213
Summary 214 • Key Terms 214 • Discussion Questions 215 • Case
Study 6.1 Columbus Instruments 215 • Case Study 6.2 The Bean Counter
and the Cowboy 216 • Case Study 6.3 Johnson & Rogers Software
Engineering, Inc. 217 • Exercise in Negotiation 219 • Internet
Exercises 220 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 220 • Notes 221
Chapter 7 rISk ManageMent 223
Project Profile: The Building that Melted Cars 224
Introduction 225
◾ Box 7.1: Project Managers in Practice 227
7.1 Risk Management: A Four-Stage Process 228
Risk Identification 228
Project Profile: Bank of America Completely Misjudges Its Customers 230
Risk Breakdown Structures 231
Analysis of Probability and Consequences 231
Risk Mitigation Strategies 234
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viii Contents
Use of Contingency Reserves 236
Other Mitigation Strategies 237
Control and Documentation 237
Project Profile: Collapse of Shanghai Apartment Building 239
7.2 Project Risk Management: An Integrated Approach 241
Summary 243 • Key Terms 244 • Solved Problem 244 • Discussion
Questions 244 • Problems 244 • Case Study 7.1 Classic Case: de
Havilland’s Falling Comet 245 • Case Study 7.2 The Spanish Navy Pays
Nearly $3 Billion for a Submarine That Will Sink Like a Stone 248 • Case
Study 7.3 Classic Case: Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge 249 • Internet
Exercises 251 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 251 • Integrated
Project—Project Risk Assessment 253 • Notes 255
Chapter 8 CoSt eStIMatIon and BudgetIng 256
Project Profile: Sochi Olympics—What’s the Cost of National Prestige? 257
8.1 Cost Management 259
Direct Versus Indirect Costs 260
Recurring Versus Nonrecurring Costs 261
Fixed Versus Variable Costs 261
Normal Versus Expedited Costs 262
8.2 Cost Estimation 262
Learning Curves in Cost Estimation 266
◾ Box 8.1: Project Management Research in Brief 270
Problems with Cost Estimation 272
◾ Box 8.2: Project Management Research in Brief 274
8.3 Creating a Project Budget 275
Top-Down Budgeting 275
Bottom-Up Budgeting 276
Activity-Based Costing 276
8.4 Developing Budget Contingencies 278
Summary 280 • Key Terms 281 • Solved Problems 282
• Discussion Questions 283 • Problems 284 • Case Study 8.1 The
Hidden Costs of Infrastructure Projects—The Case of Building Dams 286
• Case Study 8.2 Boston’s Central Artery/Tunnel Project 288 • Internet
Exercises 290 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 290 • Integrated
Project—Developing the Cost Estimates and Budget 292 • Notes 294
Chapter 9 ProjeCt SChedulIng: netWorkS, duratIon eStIMatIon,
and CrItICal Path 296
Project Profile: After 20 Years and More Than $50 Billion, Oil is No Closer to the Surface:
The Caspian Kashagan Project 297
Introduction 298
9.1 Project Scheduling 299
9.2 Key Scheduling Terminology 300
9.3 Developing a Network 302
Labeling Nodes 303
Serial Activities 303
Concurrent Activities 303
Merge Activities 304
Burst Activities 305
9.4 Duration Estimation 307
Contents ix
9.5 Constructing the Critical Path 311
Calculating the Network 311
The Forward Pass 312
The Backward Pass 314
Probability of Project Completion 316
Laddering Activities 318
Hammock Activities 319
Options for Reducing the Critical Path 320
◾ Box 9.1: Project Management Research in Brief 321
Summary 322 • Key Terms 323 • Solved Problems 323 •
Discussion Questions 325 • Problems 325 • Internet
Exercises 327 • MS Project Exercises 328 • PMP Certification
Sample Questions 328 • Notes 329
Chapter 10 ProjeCt SChedulIng: laggIng, CraShIng, and aCtIvIty
netWorkS 330
Project Profile: Enlarging the Panama Canal 331
Introduction 333
10.1 Lags in Precedence Relationships 333
Finish to Start 333
Finish to Finish 334
Start to Start 334
Start to Finish 335
10.2 Gantt Charts 335
Adding Resources to Gantt Charts 337
Incorporating Lags in Gantt Charts 338
◾ Box 10.1: Project Managers in Practice 338
10.3 Crashing Projects 340
Options for Accelerating Projects 340
Crashing the Project: Budget Effects 346
10.4 Activity-on-Arrow Networks 348
How Are They Different? 348
Dummy Activities 351
Forward and Backward Passes with AOA Networks 352
AOA Versus AON 353
10.5 Controversies in the Use of Networks 354
Conclusions 356
Summary 356 • Key Terms 357 • Solved Problems 357 • Discussion
Questions 358 • Problems 358 • Case Study 10.1 Project Scheduling
at Blanque Cheque Construction (A) 360 • Case Study 10.2 Project
Scheduling at Blanque Cheque Construction (B) 360 • MS Project
Exercises 361 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 361 • Integrated
Project—Developing the Project Schedule 363 • Notes 365
Chapter 11 advanCed toPICS In PlannIng and SChedulIng: agIle
and CrItICal ChaIn 366
Project Profile: Developing Projects Through Kickstarter—Do Delivery Dates Mean
Anything? 367
Introduction 368
11.1 Agile Project Management 369
What Is Unique About Agile PM? 370
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x Contents
Tasks Versus Stories 371
Key Terms in Agile PM 372
Steps in Agile 373
Sprint Planning 374
Daily Scrums 374
The Development Work 374
Sprint Reviews 375
Sprint Retrospective 376
Problems with Agile 376
◾ Box 11.1: Project Management Research in Brief 376
11.2 Extreme Programming (XP) 377
11.3 The Theory of Constraints and Critical Chain Project Scheduling 377
Theory of Constraints 378
11.4 The Critical Chain Solution to Project Scheduling 379
Developing the Critical Chain Activity Network 381
Critical Chain Solutions Versus Critical Path Solutions 383
Project Profile: Eli Lilly Pharmaceuticals and Its Commitment to Critical Chain Project
Management 385
11.5 Critical Chain Solutions to Resource Conflicts 386
11.6 Critical Chain Project Portfolio Management 387
◾ Box 11.2: Project Management Research in Brief 390
11.7 Critiques of CCPM 391
Summary 391 • Key Terms 393 • Solved Problem 393
• Discussion Questions 394 • Problems 394 • Case Study 11.1 It’s an
Agile World 396 • Case Study 11.2 Ramstein Products, Inc. 397
• Internet Exercises 398 • Notes 398
Chapter 12 reSourCe ManageMent 400
Project Profile: Hong Kong Connects to the World’s Longest Natural
Gas Pipeline 401
Introduction 402
12.1 The Basics of Resource Constraints 402
Time and Resource Scarcity 403
12.2 Resource Loading 405
12.3 Resource Leveling 407
Step One: Develop the Resource-Loading Table 411
Step Two: Determine Activity Late Finish Dates 412
Step Three: Identify Resource Overallocation 412
Step Four: Level the Resource-Loading Table 412
12.4 Resource-Loading Charts 416
◾ Box 12.1: Project Managers in Practice 418
12.5 Managing Resources in Multiproject Environments 420
Schedule Slippage 420
Resource Utilization 420
In-Process Inventory 421
Resolving Resource Decisions in Multiproject Environments 421
Summary 423 • Key Terms 424 • Solved Problem 424 •
Discussion Questions 425 • Problems 425 • Case Study 12.1 The
Problems of Multitasking 427 • Internet Exercises 428 • MS Project
Exercises 428 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 429 • Integrated
Project—Managing Your Project’s Resources 430 • Notes 430
Contents xi
Chapter 13 ProjeCt evaluatIon and Control 431
Project Profile: New York City’s CityTime Project 432
Introduction 433
13.1 Control Cycles—A General Model 434
13.2 Monitoring Project Performance 435
The Project S-Curve: A Basic Tool 435
S-Curve Drawbacks 436
Milestone Analysis 437
Problems with Milestones 438
The Tracking Gantt Chart 439
Benefits and Drawbacks of Tracking Gantt Charts 440
13.3 Earned Value Management 440
Terminology for Earned Value 441
Creating Project Baselines 442
Why Use Earned Value? 443
Steps in Earned Value Management 444
Assessing a Project’s Earned Value 445
13.4 Using Earned Value to Manage a Portfolio of Projects 450
Project Profile: Earned Value at Northrop Grumman 451
13.5 Issues in the Effective Use of Earned Value Management 452
13.6 Human Factors in Project Evaluation and Control 454
Critical Success Factor Definitions 456
Conclusions 458
Summary 458 • Key Terms 459 • Solved Problem 459 •
Discussion Questions 460 • Problems 461 • Case Study 13.1 The
IT Department at Kimble College 463 • Case Study 13.2 The Supercon-
ducting Supercollider 464 • Case Study 13.3 Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner:
Failure to Launch 465 • Internet Exercises 468 • MS Project
Exercises 468 • PMP Certification Sample Questions 469
• Appendix 13.1: Earned Schedule* 470 • Notes 475
Chapter 14 ProjeCt CloSeout and terMInatIon 477
Project Profile: Duke Energy and Its Cancelled Levy County Nuclear
Power Plant 478
Introduction 479
14.1 Types of Project Termination 480
◾ Box 14.1: Project Managers in Practice 480
14.2 Natural Termination—The Closeout Process 482
Finishing the Work 482
Handing Over the Project 482
Gaining Acceptance for the Project 483
Harvesting the Benefits 483
Reviewing How It All Went 483
Putting It All to Bed 485
Disbanding the Team 486
What Prevents Effective Project Closeouts? 486
14.3 Early Termination for Projects 487
Making the Early Termination Decision 489
Project Profile: Aftermath of a “Feeding Frenzy”: Dubai and Cancelled
Construction Projects 490
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xii Contents
Shutting Down the Project 490
◾ Box 14.2: Project Management Research in Brief 492
Allowing for Claims and Disputes 493
14.4 Preparing the Final Project Report 494
Conclusion 496
Summary 496 • Key Terms 497 • Discussion Questions 497
• Case Study 14.1 New Jersey Kills Hudson River Tunnel Project 497
• Case Study 14.2 The Project That Wouldn’t Die 499 • Case Study 14.3
The Navy Scraps Development of Its Showpiece Warship—Until the Next
Bad Idea 500 • Internet Exercises 501 • PMP Certification Sample
Questions 502 • Appendix 14.1: Sample Pages from Project Sign-off
Document 503 • Notes 507
Appendix A The Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution 509
Appendix B Tutorial for MS Project 2013 510
Appendix C Project Plan Template 520
Glossary 524
Company Index 534
Name Index 535
Subject Index 538
xiii
PrEFACE
Project management has become central to operations in industries as diverse as construction
and information technology, architecture and hospitality, and engineering and new product
development; therefore, this text simultaneously embraces the general principles of project
management while addressing specific examples across the wide assortment of its applications.
This text approaches each chapter from the perspective of both the material that is general to
all disciplines and project types and that which is more specific to alternative forms of projects.
One way this is accomplished is through the use of specific, discipline-based examples to illus-
trate general principles as well as the inclusion of cases and Project Profiles that focus on more
specific topics (e.g., Chapter 5’s treatment of IT “death march” projects).
Students in project management classes come from a wide and diverse cross section of uni-
versity majors and career tracks. Schools of health, business, architecture, engineering, information
systems, and hospitality are all adding project management courses to their catalogs in response to
the demands from organizations and professional groups that see their value for students’ future
careers. Why has project management become a discipline of such tremendous interest and applica-
tion? The simple truth is that we live in a “projectized” world. Everywhere we look we see people
engaged in project management. In fact, project management has become an integral part of practi-
cally every firm’s business model.
This text takes a holistic, integrated approach to managing projects, exploring both technical
and managerial challenges. It not only emphasizes individual project execution, but also provides a
strategic perspective, demonstrating the means with which to manage projects at both the program
and portfolio levels.
At one time, project management was almost exclusively the property of civil and con-
struction engineering programs where it was taught in a highly quantitative, technical man-
ner. “Master the science of project management,” we once argued, “and the ‘art’ of project
management will be equally clear to you.” Project management today is a complex, “manage-
ment” challenge requiring not only technical skills but a broad-based set of people skills as
well. Project management has become the management of technology, people, culture, stake-
holders, and other diverse elements necessary to successfully complete a project. It requires
knowledge of leadership, team building, conflict resolution, negotiation, and influence in equal
measure with the traditional, technical skill set. Thus, this textbook broadens our focus beyond
the traditional project management activities of planning and scheduling, project control, and
termination, to a more general, inclusive, and, hence, more valuable perspective of the project
management process.
What’s NeW iN the foUrth editioN?
New features
• Agile Project Management
• Project Charters
• MS Project 2013 Step-by-Step Tutorials
• Appendix—Project Execution Plan Template
• New Project Managers in Practice Profiles
• Risk Breakdown Structures
• Extreme Programming
• Updated Problems in Chapters
• New Project Management Research in Brief: “Does Agile Work?”
• All MS Project Examples and Screen Captures Updated to MS Project 2013
• All Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) Referencing Updated to
5th Edition
• Quarterly Updates for All Book Adopters on Latest Cases and Examples in Project
Management
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Updated Project Profiles
Chapter 1 Introduction: Why Project Management?
• Development Projects in Lagos, Nigeria
• “Throwing Good Money after Bad”: The BBC’s Digital Media Initiative
Chapter 2 The Organizational Context: Strategy, Structure, and Culture
• Tesla’s $5 Billion Gamble
• Electronic Arts and the Power of Strong Culture in Design Teams
Chapter 3 Project Selection and Portfolio Management
• Project Selection Procedures: A Cross-Industry Sampler
Chapter 4 Leadership and the Project Manager
• Leading by Example for the London Olympics—Sir John Armitt
• Dr. E. Sreedharan, India’s Project Management Guru
Chapter 5 Scope Management
• “We look like fools.” Oregon’s Failed Rollout of Their Obamacare Website
• Boeing’s Virtual Fence
• California’s High-Speed Rail Project—What’s the Latest News?
• The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle
Chapter 6 Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
• Engineers without Borders: Project Teams Impacting Lives
Chapter 7 Risk Management
• The Building That Melted Cars
• Bank of America Completely Misjudges Its Customers
• Collapse of Shanghai Apartment Building
• The Spanish Navy Pays Nearly $3 Billion for a Submarine That Will Sink Like a Stone
Chapter 8 Cost Estimation and Budgeting
• Sochi Olympics—What’s the Cost of National Prestige?
• The Hidden Costs of Infrastructure ProjectsThe Case of Building Dams
Chapter 9 Project Scheduling: Networks, Duration Estimation, and Critical Path
• After 20 Years and More than $50 Billion, Oil Is No Closer to the Surface: The Caspian
Kashagan Project
Chapter 10 Project Scheduling: Lagging, Crashing, and Activity Networks
• Enlarging the Panama Canal
Chapter 11 Critical Chain Project Scheduling
• Developing Projects through Kickstarter—Do Delivery Dates Mean Anything?
• Eli Lilly Pharmaceutical’s Commitment to Critical Chain Project Scheduling
Chapter 12 Resource Management
• Hong Kong Connects to the World’s Longest Natural Gas Pipeline
Chapter 13 Project Evaluation and Control
• New York City’s CityTime Project
• Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner: Failure to Launch (with update)
• Earned Value Management at Northrop Grumman
Chapter 14 Project Closeout and Termination
• Duke Energy and Its Cancelled Levy County Nuclear Power Plant
• Aftermath of a “Feeding Frenzy”—Dubai and Cancelled Construction Projects
• New Jersey Kills Hudson River Tunnel Project
• The Navy Scraps Development of Its Showpiece Warship—Until the Next Bad Idea
oUr focUs
This textbook employs a managerial, business-oriented approach to the management of projects.
Thus we have integrated Project Profiles into the text.
• Project Profiles—Each chapter contains one or more Project Profiles that highlight cur-
rent examples of project management in action. Some of the profiles reflect on significant
xiv Preface
Preface xv
achievements; others detail famous (and not-so-famous) examples of project failures.
Because they cover diverse ground (IT projects, construction, new product development,
and so forth), there should be at least one profile per chapter that is meaningful to the
class’s focus. There is a deliberate effort made to offer a combination of project success
stories and project failures. While successful projects can be instructive, we often learn far
more from examining the variety of reasons why projects fail. As much as possible, these
stories of success and failure are intended to match up with the chapters to which they are
attached. For example, as we study the uses of projects to implement corporate strategy, it
is useful to consider Elon Musk’s $5 billion dollar decision to develop a “gigafactory” to
produce batteries for his Tesla automobiles.
The book blends project management within the context of the operations of any successful or-
ganization, whether publicly held, private, or not-for-profit. We illustrate this through the use of
end-of-chapter cases.
• Cases—At the end of each chapter are some final cases that take specific examples of the
material covered in the chapter and apply them in the alternate format of case studies.
Some of the cases are fictitious, but the majority of them are based on real situations, even
where aliases mask the real names of organizations. These cases include discussion ques-
tions that can be used either for homework or to facilitate classroom discussions. There are
several “classic” project cases as well, highlighting some famous (and infamous) examples
of projects whose experiences have shaped our understanding of the discipline and its
best practices.
Further, we explore both the challenges in the management of individual projects as well as broad-
ening out this context to include strategic, portfolio-level concepts. To do this, we ask students to
develop a project plan using MS Project 2013.
• Integrated Project Exercises—Many of the chapters include an end-of-chapter feature that
is unique to this text: the opportunity to develop a detailed project plan. A very beneficial
exercise in project management classes is to require students, either in teams or individu-
ally, to learn the mechanics of developing a detailed and comprehensive project plan, in-
cluding scope, scheduling, risk assessment, budgeting, and cost estimation. The Integrated
Project exercises afford students the opportunity to develop such a plan by assigning these
activities and illustrating a completed project (ABCups, Inc.) in each chapter. Thus, students
are assigned their project planning activities and have a template that helps them complete
these exercises.
And finally, we have integrated the standards set forth by the world’s largest governing body for
project management. The Project Management Institute (PMI) created the Project Management
Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), which is generally regarded as one of the most comprehensive
frameworks for identifying the critical knowledge areas that project managers must understand if
they are to master their discipline. The PMBOK has become the basis for the Project Management
Professional (PMP) certification offered by PMI for professional project managers.
• Integration with the PMBOK—As a means to demonstrate the coverage of the critical
PMBOK elements, readers will find that the chapters in this text identify and cross-list
the corresponding knowledge areas from the latest, fifth edition of PMBOK. Further,
all terms (including the Glossary) are taken directly from the most recent edition of the
PMBOK.
• Inclusion of Sample PMP Certification Exam Questions—The Project Management
Professional (PMP) certification represents the highest standard of professional qualifi-
cation for a practicing project manager and is administered by the Project Management
Institute. As of 2014, there were more than 600,000 PMPs worldwide. In order to attain
PMP certification, it is necessary for candidates to undergo a comprehensive exam that
tests their knowledge of all components of the PMBOK. This text includes a set of sample
PMP certification exam questions at the end of most of the chapters, in order to give read-
ers an idea of the types of questions typically asked on the exam and how those topics are
treated in this book.
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xvi Preface
other PoiNts of distiNctioN
The textbook places special emphasis on blending current theory, practice, research, and case
studies in such a manner that readers are given a multiple-perspective exposure to the project
management process. A number of in-chapter features are designed to enhance student learning,
including:
• MS Project Exercises—An additional feature of the text is the inclusion at the end of several
chapters of some sample problems or activities that require students to generate MS Project
output files. For example, in Chapter 9 on scheduling, students must create an MS Project
network diagram. Likewise, other reports can be assigned to help students become mini-
mally adept at interacting with this program. It is not the purpose of this text to fully develop
these skills but rather to plant the seeds for future application.
• Research in Brief—A unique feature of this text is to include short (usually one-page) text
boxes that highlight the results of current research on the topics of interest. Students often find
it useful to read about actual studies that highlight the text material and provide additional
information that expands their learning. Although not every chapter includes a “Research in
Brief” box, most have one and, in some cases, two examples of this feature.
• Project Managers in Practice—An addition to this text is the inclusion of several short profiles
of real, practicing project managers from a variety of corporate and project settings. These
profiles have been added to give students a sense of the types of real-world challenges project
managers routinely face, the wide range of projects they are called to manage, and the satisfac-
tions and career opportunities available to students interested in pursuing project manage-
ment as a career.
• Internet Exercises—Each chapter contains a set of Internet exercises that require students to
search the Web for key information and perform other activities that lead to student learn-
ing through outside-of-class, hands-on activities. Internet exercises are a useful supplement,
particularly in the area of project management, because so much is available on the World
Wide Web relating to projects, including cases, news releases, and Internet-based tools for
analyzing project activities.
• MS Project 2013 Tutorials—Appendix B at the end of the text features two in-depth tutorials
that instruct students in the rudiments of developing a project schedule, resource leveling,
and critical path development. A second tutorial instructs students in methods for updating
the project plan, generating output files such as earned value metrics, and tracking ongoing
project activities. These tutorials are not intended to substitute for fuller instruction in this
valuable software, but they do provide a critical means for initial familiarization with the
package.
• Project Execution Plan Template—Appendix C provides a template for developing
a fully evolved project execution plan. Instructors using previous versions of this text
noted the value in requiring that students be able to create a project plan and requested
a more comprehensive template that could be employed. This template addresses the
critical elements of project scope, as well as offers a method for putting these details in a
logical sequence.
instructor resources
At the Instructor Resource Center, www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, instructors can easily register
to gain access to a variety of instructor resources available with this text in downloadable format. If
assistance is needed, our dedicated technical support team is ready to help with the media supple-
ments that accompany this text. Visit http://247.pearsoned.com for answers to frequently asked
questions and toll-free user support phone numbers.
The following supplements are available with this text:
• Instructor’s Solutions Manual
• Test Bank
• TestGen® Computerized Test Bank
• PowerPoint Presentation
Preface xvii
ackNoWledgmeNts
In acknowledging the contributions of past and present colleagues to the creation of this text,
I must first convey my deepest thanks and appreciation for the 30-year association with my origi-
nal mentor, Dr. Dennis Slevin of the University of Pittsburgh’s Katz Graduate School of Business.
My collaboration with Denny on numerous projects has been fruitful and extremely gratifying,
both professionally and personally. In addition, Dr. David Cleland’s friendship and partnership in
several ventures has been a great source of satisfaction through the years. A frequent collaborator
who has had a massive influence on my thinking and approach to understanding project manage-
ment is Professor Peter W.G. Morris, lately of University College London. Working with him has
been a genuine joy and constant source of inspiration. Additional mentors and colleagues who
have strongly influenced my thinking include Samuel Mantel, Jr., Rodney Turner, Erik Larson,
David Frame, Francis Hartman, Jonas Soderlund, Young Kwak, Rolf Lundin, Lynn Crawford,
Graham Winch, Terry Williams, Francis Webster, Terry Cooke-Davies, Hans Thamhain, and Karlos
Artto. Each of these individuals has had a profound impact on the manner in which I view, study,
and write about project management. Sadly, 2014 saw the passing of three of these outstanding
project management scholars—Hans Thamhain, Sam Mantel and Francis Hartman. I hope that my
efforts help, in some small part, to keep their vision and contributions alive.
Over the years, I have also been fortunate to develop friendships with some professional project
managers whose work I admire enormously. They are genuine examples of the best type of project
manager: one who makes it all seem effortless while consistently performing minor miracles. In par-
ticular, I wish to thank Mike Brown of Rolls-Royce for his friendship and example. I would also like
to thank friends and colleagues from the Project Management Institute, including Lew Gedansky,
Harry Stephanou, and Eva Goldman, for their support for and impact on this work.
I am indebted to the reviewers of this text whose numerous suggestions and critiques have been
an invaluable aid in shaping its content. Among them, I would like to especially thank the following:
Kwasi Amoako-Gyampah— University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Ravi Behara—George Mason University
Jeffrey L. Brewer—Purdue University
Dennis Cioffi—George Washington University
David Clapp—Florida Institute of Technology
Bruce DeRuntz—Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
Ike Ehie—Kansas State University
Michael H. Ensby—Clarkson University
Lynn Fish—Canisius College
Linda Fried—University of Colorado, Denver
Mario Guimaraes—Kennesaw State University
Richard Gunther—California State University, Northridge
Brian Gurney—Montana State University, Billings
Gary Hackbarth—Iowa State University
Mamoon M. Hammad—George Washington University
Scott Robert Homan—Purdue University
John Hoxmeier—Colorado State University
Alex Hutchins—ITT Technical Institute
Richard Jensen—Hofstra University
Robert Key—University of Phoenix
Homayoun Khamooshi—George Washington University
Dennis Krumwiede—Idaho State University
George Mechling—Western Carolina University
Julia Miyaoka—San Francisco State University
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xviii Preface
LaWanda Morant—ITT Technical Institute
Robert Morris—Florida State College at Jacksonville
James Muller—Cleveland State University
Kenneth E. Murphy—Willamette University
John Nazemetz—Oklahoma State University
Patrick Penfield—Syracuse University
Ronald Price—ITT Techincal Institute
Ronny Richardson—Southern Polytechnic State University
John Sherlock—Iona College
Gregory Shreve—Kent State University
Randall G. Sleeth—Virginia Commonwealth University
Kimberlee Snyder—Winona State University
Jeff Trailer—California State University, Chico
Leo Trudel—University of Maine
Oya Tukel—Cleveland State University
Darien Unger—Howard University
Amy Valente—Cayuga Community College
Stephen Whitehead—Hilbert College
I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Samuel Black School of Business at Penn State, the
Behrend College. Additionally, my thanks goes to Dana Johnson of Michigan Technological University
for preparing the PowerPoints for this edition, and Geoff Willis of University of Central Oklahoma
for preparing the Test Bank. Extra-special thanks go to Kerri Tomasso for her help in preparing
the final manuscript and for her integral role in permissions research and acquisitions. I am espe-
cially indebted to Khurrum Bhutta, who accuracy checked this edition. I am very grateful for his time
and effort, and any errors that may remain are entirely my own.
In developing the cases for this edition of the textbook, I was truly fortunate to develop
wonderful professional relationships with a number of individuals. Andrea Finger and Kathleen
Prihoda of Disney were wonderfully helpful and made time in their busy schedules to assist me in
developing the Expedition Everest case for this text. Stephanie Smith, Mohammed Al-Sadiq, Bill
Mowery, Mike Brown, Julia Sweet, and Kevin O’Donnell provided me with invaluable information
on their job responsibilities and what it takes to be a successful project manager.
Finally, I wish to extend my sincere thanks to the people at Pearson for their support for
the text during its development, including Dan Tylman, editor, and Claudia Fernandes, program
manager. I also would like to thank the Pearson editorial, production, and marketing staffs.
feedBack
The textbook team and I would appreciate hearing from you. Let us know what you think about
this textbook by writing to college.marketing@pearson.com. Please include “Feedback about
Pinto” in the subject line.
If you have questions related to this product, please contact our customer service department
online at http://247pearsoned.custhelp.com.
Finally, it is important to reflect on an additional salient issue as you begin your study of
project management: Most of you will be running a project long before you are given wider management
responsibilities in your organizations. Successful project managers are the lifeblood of organizations
and bear the imprint of the fast track. I wish you great success!
Jeffrey K. Pinto, Ph.D.
Andrew Morrow and Elizabeth Lee Black Chair
Management of Technology
Samuel Black School of Business
Penn State, the Behrend College
jkp4@psu.edu
1
1
■ ■ ■
Introduction
Why Project Management?
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
Development Projects in Lagos, Nigeria
introduction
1.1 What is a Project?
General Project Characteristics
1.2 Why are Projects imPortant?
Project Profile
“Throwing Good Money after Bad”:
The BBC’s Digital Media Initiative
1.3 Project life cycles
Project managers in Practice
Stephanie Smith, Westinghouse Electric
Company
1.4 determinants of Project success
Project Management Research in Brief
Assessing Information Technology (IT) Project
Success
1.5 develoPing Project management
maturity
1.6 Project elements and text
organization
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Case Study 1.1 MegaTech, Inc.
Case Study 1.2 The IT Department at Hamelin
Hospital
Case Study 1.3 Disney’s Expedition Everest
Case Study 1.4 Rescue of Chilean Miners
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand why project management is becoming such a powerful and popular practice in
business.
2. Recognize the basic properties of projects, including their definition.
3. Understand why effective project management is such a challenge.
4. Differentiate between project management practices and more traditional, process-oriented
business functions.
5. Recognize the key motivators that are pushing companies to adopt project management
practices.
6. Understand and explain the project life cycle, its stages, and the activities that typically occur
at each stage in the project.
7. Understand the concept of project “success,” including various definitions of success, as well
as the alternative models of success.
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2 Chapter 1 • Introduction
8. Understand the purpose of project management maturity models and the process of bench-
marking in organizations.
9. Identify the relevant maturity stages that organizations go through to become proficient in
their use of project management techniques.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core
concePts covered in this chAPter
1. Definition of a Project (PMBoK sec. 1.2)
2. Definition of Project Management (PMBoK sec. 1.3)
3. Relationship to Other Management Disciplines (PMBoK sec. 1.4)
4. Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle (PMBoK sec. 2.1)
The world acquires value only through its extremes and endures only through moderation; extremists make
the world great, the moderates give it stability.1
Project Profile
Development Projects in lagos, Nigeria
Lagos is the capital of Nigeria and home to an estimated 15–20 million people, making its population larger than
London or Beijing. As the largest and fastest-growing city in sub-Saharan Africa (estimates are that 600,000 people
are added to Lagos’ population each year), Lagos is in desperate need of developing and maintaining infrastructure
to support its population, while supporting its claim as a high-technology hub on the African continent. Considering
that about 85% of the world’s population resides in the developing world and transitioning economies, and nearly
two-thirds of that population is below the age of 35, the need for infrastructure to support critical human needs is im-
mense. About 70% of the city’s population is believed to live in slums, while a 2006 United Nations report estimated
that only 10% of households in the Lagos Metropolitan area were directly connected to a municipal water supply. In
spite of these problems, Nigeria is Africa’s biggest economy, driven by economic growth in Lagos, home to film and
fashion industries, financial markets, and consumer goods manufacturers.
The list of critical items on the list for urban improvement is large. For example, for a city of more than 15 million,
electricity is scarcely to be found. Lagos power stations only generate a mere 2,000 megawatts of electricity—less than
half of that available for a single city block in midtown Manhattan! “We have about two hours, maybe, of public power
a day,” says Kola Karim, CEO of Nigeria’s Shoreline Energy International. “It’s unbearable.” Everywhere in the city people
are using gasoline or diesel generators to supply power when the inevitable rolling blackouts resume.
Additionally, Lagos is critically short on housing. To overcome this shortage people of Lagos resort to living in
shanty towns, one such shanty town is Makoko. Makoko is situated on the mainland’s Lagos lagoon. Home to several
hundred thousand inhabitants, Makoko lacks access to basic services, including clean drinking water, electricity, and
waste disposal, and is prone to severe environmental and health hazards. Consisting of rickety dwellings on stilts
perched over the foul-smelling lagoon, Makoko is one of the many chaotic human settlements that have sprouted in
Lagos in recent years. As these cities spread out and move too close to major bridges or electrical towers, the govern-
ment periodically sends in troops to demolish portions of the floating village.
How did the city get to this point? A big reason was a lack of forethought and development planning. In metro-
politan Lagos there are 20,000 people per square kilometer with thousands more arriving each day. Given the physical
constraints of the city, originally built on a narrow strip of land and bordering the ocean, there is just not enough space
to absorb the new inhabitants. Urban planning, as we know it today, simply did not exist and the city swelled organi-
cally, without forethought or a sense of direction. Thus, Lagos has no urban transportation system, few functioning
traffic lights, and a crumbling and outdated road system.
The problems do not stop there. Land prices in Lagos are extremely high, due to lack of space for commercial
development. However, because of the unreliable electricity supply that makes elevator use questionable, there
are few high-rise apartments or office buildings in the city. Banks have been reluctant to invest in real estate trans-
actions because of past failures and general economic instability. Faced with the need to drastically change the
direction of the city, Babatunde Fashola, Lagos’ visionary governor who took power in 2010, has launched a series
Project Profile 3
of urban development projects to address a variety of the city’s needs. Fashola has announced $50 billion in new
infrastructure projects for Lagos, to be developed over the next 10 years. These new project initiatives include the
following:
lagos Metro Blue line
The blue line is a major cosmopolitan light-rail transport project to connect districts in Nigeria’s largest city. Designed
to ease congestion and speed up journey times for the city’s inhabitants, the Blue Line will run between Marina and
Okokomaiko, stopping at 13 stations, and is part of the Lagos Rail Mass Transit program implemented by the govern-
ment. Originally proposed in 2008, funding issues have pushed the launch of the Blue Line back to at least 2015. The
Line is set to cost $1.2 billion and will be funded by the Lagos State Government.
eko Atlantic
Eko Atlantic is an ambitious land reclamation project, a pioneering residential and business development located on
Victoria Island, along its upmarket Bar Beach coastline. The project is being built on three and a half square miles of
land reclaimed from the Atlantic Ocean and is expected to provide accommodation for 250,000 people and employ-
ment opportunities for a further 150,000. The complex will function as a city-within-a-city, including recreational
facilities, business and shopping districts, and modern conveniences.
Bus rapid-transit System
To ease the crush of public transportation, the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) system was introduced 10 years ago to
streamline and modernize the motley collection of buses that had transported residents around the city. Lagos has
long suffered from an unregulated transportation system in which a variety of different “buses,” ranging from bat-
tered minibuses to old, yellow-painted school buses, competed for customers. Fares were also unregulated, leaving
Figure 1.1 traffic congestion in lagos, Nigeria
Source: Femi Ipaye/Xinhua Press/Corbis
(continued)
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4 Chapter 1 • Introduction
introduction
Projects are one of the principal means by which we change our world. Whether the goal is to
split the atom, tunnel under the English Channel, introduce Windows 9, or plan the next Summer
Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, the means through which to achieve these challenges remains
the same: project management. Project management has become one of the most popular tools for
organizations, both public and private, to improve internal operations, respond rapidly to exter-
nal opportunities, achieve technological breakthroughs, streamline new product development,
and more robustly manage the challenges arising from the business environment. Consider what
Tom Peters, best-selling author and management consultant, has to say about project management
and its place in business: “Projects, rather than repetitive tasks, are now the basis for most value-
added in business.”3 Project management has become a critical component of successful business
operations in worldwide organizations.
One of the key features of modern business is the nature of the opportunities and threats
posed by external events. As never before, companies face international competition and the need
to pursue commercial opportunities rapidly. They must modify and introduce products constantly,
respond to customers as fast as possible, and maintain competitive cost and operating levels. Does
performing all these tasks seem impossible? At one time, it was. Conventional wisdom held that
a company could compete using a low-cost strategy or as a product innovator or with a focus on
customer service. In short, we had to pick our competitive niches and concede others their claim
to market share. In the past 20 years, however, everything turned upside down. Companies such
as General Electric, Apple, Ericksson, Boeing, and Oracle became increasingly effective at realiz-
ing all of these goals rather than settling for just one. These companies seemed to be successful in
every aspect of the competitive model: They were fast to market and efficient, cost-conscious and
customer-focused. How were they performing the impossible?
Obviously, there is no one answer to this complex question. There is no doubt, however,
that these companies shared at least one characteristic: They had developed and committed
themselves to project management as a competitive tool. Old middle managers, reported Fortune
magazine,
are dinosaurs, [and] a new class of manager mammal is evolving to fill the niche they once
ruled: project managers. Unlike his biological counterpart, the project manager is more agile
and adaptable than the beast he’s displacing, more likely to live by his wits than throwing his
weight around.4
Effective project managers will remain an indispensable commodity for successful organiza-
tions in the coming years. More and more companies are coming to this conclusion and adopting
drivers free to charge whatever fares they chose. “They might charge $1 in the morning for one trip one way and by
afternoon they can go to $3,” says Dayo Mobereola, managing director of the Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport
Authority, noting that commuters spend on average 40% of their income on transportation. Before the project was
announced, the city had projected that it would transport 60,000 passengers daily, but now it transports over 200,000
passengers daily. The BRT system has reduced waiting times at bus stops, the travel time across the city, all at a reduced
rate when compared to the old system.
Schools, Bridges, and Power Plants
Part of the aggressive infrastructure modernization includes improving traffic by building the first suspension bridge
in West Africa, as well as adding a number of new schools around the city. Two new power plants are also slated to be
constructed, bringing a more dependable source of power to the city, including powering street lights to ease crime
and other problems. The city has even launched a fleet of brand new garbage trucks to deal with the 10,000 tons of
waste generated every day.
Lagos’ modernization efforts in recent years have come not a moment too soon in support of its citizens. As
Professor Falade observed, these efforts to modernize the city’s facilities are a breath of fresh air. “The difference is
clear, the evidence is the improved landscape of Lagos in the urban regeneration project.”2
1.1 What Is a Project? 5
project management as a way of life. Indeed, companies in such diverse industries as construction,
heavy manufacturing, insurance, health care, finance, public utilities, and software are becoming
project savvy and expecting their employees to do the same.
1.1 What is a Project?
Although there are a number of general definitions of the term project, we must recognize at the
outset that projects are distinct from other organizational processes. As a rule, a process refers to
ongoing, day-to-day activities in which an organization engages while producing goods or services.
Processes use existing systems, properties, and capabilities in a continuous, fairly repetitive manner.5
Projects, on the other hand, take place outside the normal, process-oriented world of the firm.
Certainly, in some organizations, such as construction, day-to-day processes center on the creation
and development of projects. Nevertheless, for the majority of organizations, project management
activities remain unique and separate from the manner in which more routine, process-driven work
is performed. Project work is continuously evolving, establishes its own work rules, and is the antith-
esis of repetition in the workplace. As a result, it represents an exciting alternative to business as
usual for many companies. The challenges are great, but so are the rewards of success.
First, we need a clear understanding of the properties that make projects and project manage-
ment so unique. Consider the following definitions of projects:
A project is a unique venture with a beginning and end, conducted by people to meet estab-
lished goals within parameters of cost, schedule, and quality.6
Projects [are] goal-oriented, involve the coordinated undertaking of interrelated activities,
are of finite duration, and are all, to a degree, unique.7
A project can be considered to be any series of activities and tasks that:
• Have a specific objective to be completed within certain specifications
• Have defined start and end dates
• Have funding limits (if applicable)
• Consume human and nonhuman resources (i.e., money, people, equipment)
• Are multifunctional (i.e., cut across several functional lines)8
[A project is] [o]rganized work toward a predefined goal or objective that requires resources
and effort, a unique (and therefore risky) venture having a budget and schedule.9
Probably the simplest definition is found in the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK)
guide of the Project Management Institute (PMI). PMI is the world’s largest professional project
management association, with more than 450,000 members worldwide as of 2014. In the PMBoK
guide, a project is defined as “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, ser-
vice, or result” (p. 553).10
Let us examine the various elements of projects, as identified by these set of definitions.
• Projects are complex, one-time processes. A project arises for a specific purpose or to meet
a stated goal. It is complex because it typically requires the coordinated inputs of numerous
members of the organization. Project members may be from different departments or other
organizational units or from one functional area. For example, a project to develop a new
software application for a retail company may require only the output of members of the
Information Systems group working with the marketing staff. On the other hand, some proj-
ects, such as new product introductions, work best with representation from many functions,
including marketing, engineering, production, and design. Because a project is intended to
fulfill a stated goal, it is temporary. It exists only until its goal has been met, and at that point,
it is dissolved.
• Projects are limited by budget, schedule, and resources. Project work requires that members
work with limited financial and human resources for a specified time period. They do not
run indefinitely. Once the assignment is completed, the project team disbands. Until that
point, all its activities are constrained by limitations on budget and personnel availability.
Projects are “resource-constrained” activities.
• Projects are developed to resolve a clear goal or set of goals. There is no such thing as
a project team with an ongoing, nonspecific purpose. The project’s goals, or deliverables,
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6 Chapter 1 • Introduction
define the nature of the project and that of its team. Projects are designed to yield a tangible
result, either as a new product or service. Whether the goal is to build a bridge, implement a
new accounts receivable system, or win a presidential election, the goal must be specific and
the project organized to achieve a stated aim.
• Projects are customer-focused. Whether the project is responding to the needs of an internal
organizational unit (e.g., accounting) or intended to exploit a market opportunity external to
the organization, the underlying purpose of any project is to satisfy customer needs. In the
past, this goal was sometimes overlooked. Projects were considered successful if they attained
technical, budgetary, and scheduling goals. More and more, however, companies have real-
ized that the primary goal of a project is customer satisfaction. If that goal is neglected, a firm
runs the risk of “doing the wrong things well”—pursuing projects that may be done efficiently
but that ignore customer needs or fail commercially.
general Project characteristics
Using these definitional elements, we can create a sense of the key attributes that all projects
share. These characteristics are not only useful for better understanding projects, but also offer the
basis for seeing how project-based work differs from other activities most organizations under-
take. Projects represent a special type of undertaking by any organization. Not surprisingly, the
challenges in performing them right are sometimes daunting. Nevertheless, given the manner in
which business continues to evolve on a worldwide scale, becoming “project savvy” is no longer a
luxury: It is rapidly becoming a necessity.
Projects are characterized by the following properties:11
1. Projects are ad hoc endeavors with a clear life cycle. Projects are nontraditional; they are
activities that are initiated as needed, operate for a specified time period over a fairly well
understood development cycle, and are then disbanded. They are temporary operations.
2. Projects are building blocks in the design and execution of organizational strategies. As we
will see in later chapters, projects allow organizations to implement companywide strategies.
They are the principal means by which companies operationalize corporate-level objectives.
In effect, projects are the vehicles for realizing company goals. For example, Intel’s strat-
egy for market penetration with ever newer, smaller, and faster computer chips is realized
through its commitment to a steady stream of research and development projects that allows
the company to continually explore the technological boundaries of electrical and computer
engineering.
3. Projects are responsible for the newest and most improved products, services, and organi-
zational processes. Projects are tools for innovation. Because they complement (and often
transform) traditional process-oriented activities, many companies rely on projects as vehi-
cles for going beyond conventional activities. Projects are the stepping-stones by which we
move forward.
4. Projects provide a philosophy and strategy for the management of change. “Change” is an
abstract concept until we establish the means by which we can make real alterations in the
things we do and produce. Projects allow organizations to go beyond simple statements of
intent and to achieve actual innovation. For example, whether it is Chevrolet’s Volt electric
car or Apple’s newest iPhone upgrade, successful organizations routinely ask for customer
input and feedback to better understand their likes and dislikes. As the vehicle of change, the
manner in which a company develops its projects has much to say about its ability to inno-
vate and commitment to change.
5. Project management entails crossing functional and organizational boundaries. Projects
epitomize internal organizational collaboration by bringing together people from various
functions across the company. A project aimed at new product development may require
the combined work of engineering, finance, marketing, design, and so forth. Likewise, in the
global business environment, many companies have crossed organizational boundaries by
forming long-term partnerships with other firms in order to maximize opportunities while
emphasizing efficiency and keeping a lid on costs. Projects are among the most common
means of promoting collaboration, both across functions and across organizations.
6. The traditional management functions of planning, organizing, motivation, directing, and
control apply to project management. Project managers must be technically well versed,
1.1 What Is a Project? 7
proficient at administrative functions, willing and able to assume leadership roles, and,
above all, goal-oriented: The project manager is the person most responsible for keeping
track of the big picture. The nature of project management responsibilities should never be
underestimated because these responsibilities are both diverse and critical to project success.
7. The principal outcomes of a project are the satisfaction of customer requirements within
the constraints of technical, cost, and schedule objectives. Projects are defined by their
limitations. They have finite budgets, definite schedules, and carefully stated specifica-
tions for completion. For example, a term paper assignment in a college class might include
details regarding form, length, number of primary and secondary sources to cite, and so
forth. Likewise, in the Disney’s Expedition Everest case example at the end of the chapter,
the executive leading the change process established clear guidelines regarding performance
expectations. All these constraints both limit and narrowly define the focus of the project and
the options available to the project team. It is the very task of managing successful project
development within such specific constraints that makes the field so challenging.
8. Projects are terminated upon successful completion of performance objectives—or earlier
in their life cycle, if results no longer promise an operational or strategic advantage. As we
have seen, projects differ from conventional processes in that they are defined by limited life
cycles. They are initiated, completed, and dissolved. As important alternatives to conven-
tional organizational activities, they are sometimes called “temporary organizations.”12
Projects, then, differ from better-known organizational activities, which often involve repetitive
processes. The traditional model of most firms views organizational activities as consistently
performing a discrete set of activities. For example, a retail-clothing establishment buys, stocks,
and sells clothes in a continuous cycle. A steel plant orders raw materials, makes steel, and ships
finished products, again in a recurring cycle. The nature of these operations focuses our atten-
tion on a “process orientation,” that is, the need to perform work as efficiently as possible in an
ongoing manner. When its processes are well understood, the organization always seeks better,
more efficient ways of doing the same essential tasks. Projects, because they are discrete activities,
violate the idea of repetition. They are temporary activities that operate outside formal channels.
They may bring together a disparate collection of team members with different kinds of functional
expertise. Projects function under conditions of uncertainty, and usually have the effect of “shaking
up” normal corporate activities. Because of their unique characteristics, they do not conform to
common standards of operations; they do things differently and often reveal new and better ways
of doing things. Table 1.1 offers some other distinctions between project-based work and the more
traditional, process-based activities. Note a recurring theme: Projects operate in radical ways that
consistently violate the standard, process-based view of organizations.
Consider Apple’s development of the iPod, a portable MP3 player that can be integrated with
Apple’s popular iTunes site to record and play music downloads. Apple, headed by its former
chairman, the late Steven Jobs, recognized the potential in the MP3 market, given the enormous
popularity (and, some would say, notoriety) of file-sharing and downloading music through
table 1.1 Differences Between Process and Project Management13
Process Project
Repeat process or product New process or product
Several objectives One objective
Ongoing One shot—limited life
People are homogenous More heterogeneous
Well-established systems in place to integrate efforts Systems must be created to integrate efforts
Greater certainty of performance, cost, schedule Greater uncertainty of performance, cost, schedule
Part of line organization Outside of line organization
Bastions of established practice Violates established practice
Supports status quo Upsets status quo
Source: R. J. Graham. (1992). “A Survival Guide for the Accidental Project Manager,” Proceedings of the Annual Project
Management Institute Symposium. Drexel Hill, PA: Project Management Institute, pp. 355–61. Copyright and all rights
reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
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8 Chapter 1 • Introduction
the Internet. The company hoped to capitalize on the need for a customer-friendly MP3 player,
while offering a legitimate alternative to illegal music downloading. Since its introduction in
2003, consumers have bought nearly 400 million iPods and purchased more than 25 billion songs
through Apple’s iTunes online store. In fact, Apple’s iTunes division is now the largest U.S. market
for music sales, accounting for 29% of all music sold in the United States and 64% of the digital
music market.
In an interview, Jobs acknowledged that Apple’s business needed some shaking up, given
the steady but unspectacular growth in sales of its flagship Macintosh personal computer, still
holding approximately 13% of the overall PC market. The iPod, as a unique venture within Apple,
became a billion-dollar business for the company in only its second year of existence. So popular
has the iPod become for Apple that the firm created a separate business unit, moving the product
and its support staff away from the Mac group. “Needless to say, iPod has become incredibly
popular, even among people who aren’t diehard Apple fanatics,” industry analyst Paolo Pescatore
told NewsFactor, noting that Apple recently introduced a smaller version of the product with great
success. “In short, they have been very successful thus far, and I would guess they are looking at
this realignment as a way to ensure that success will continue.”14
A similar set of events are currently unfolding, centered on Apple’s introduction and succes-
sive upgrades of its iPad tablet. Among the numerous features offered by the iPad is the ability to
download books (including college textbooks) directly from publishers, effectively eliminating the
traditional middlemen—bookstores—from the process. So radical are the implications of the iPad
that competitors have introduced their own models (such as Samsung’s Galaxy tablet) to capture
a share of this market. Meanwhile, large bookstores are hoping to adapt their business models to
the new electronic reality of book purchase by offering their own readers (for example, Kindle for
Amazon). Some experts are suggesting that within a decade, tablets and other electronic readers
will make traditional books obsolete, capturing the majority of the publishing market. These are
just some examples of the way that project-driven technological change, such as that at Apple, is
reshaping the competitive landscape.
Given the enthusiasm with which project management is being embraced by so many orga-
nizations, we should note that the same factors that make project management a unique undertak-
ing are also among the main reasons why successful project management is so difficult. The track
record of project management is by no means one of uninterrupted success, in part because many
companies encounter deep-rooted resistance to the kinds of changes needed to accommodate a
“project philosophy.” Indeed, recent research into the success rates for projects offers some grim
conclusions:
• A study of more than 300 large companies conducted by the consulting firm Peat Marwick
found that software and/or hardware development projects fail at the rate of 65%. Of compa-
nies studied, 65% reported projects that went grossly over budget, fell behind schedule, did
not perform as expected, or all of the above. Half of the managers responding indicated that
these findings were considered “normal.”15
• A study by the META Group found that “more than half of all (information technology)
IT projects become runaways—overshooting their budgets and timetables while failing to
deliver fully on their goals.”16
• Joe Harley, the Chief Information Officer at the Department for Work and Pensions for the
UK government, stated that “only 30%” of technology-based projects and programs are a
success—at a time when taxes are funding an annual budget of £14bn (over $22 billion) on
public sector IT, equivalent to building 7,000 new primary schools or 75 hospitals a year.17
• The United States Nuclear Security Administration has racked up $16 billion in cost over-
runs on 10 major projects that are a combined 38 years behind schedule, the Government
Accountability Office reports. For example, at Los Alamos National Laboratory, a seven-year,
$213 million upgrade to the security system that protects the lab’s most sensitive nuclear
bomb-making facilities does not work. A party familiar with the organization cites a “perva-
sive culture of tolerating the intolerable and accepting the unacceptable.”18
• According to the 2004 PriceWaterhouseCoopers Survey of 10,640 projects valued at $7.2 billion,
across a broad range of industries, large and small, only 2.5% of global businesses achieved
100% project success, and more than 50% of global business projects failed. The Chaos Summary
2013 survey by The Standish Group reported similar findings: The majority of all projects were
1.2 Why Are Projects Important? 9
either “challenged” (due to late delivery, being over budget, or delivering less than required
features) or “failed” and were canceled prior to completion, or the product developed was
never used. Researchers have concluded that the average success rate of business-critical
application development projects is 39%. Their statistics have remained remarkably steady
since 1994.19
• The Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction (SIGIR) reported that more than $8 billion
of the $53 billion the Pentagon spent on thousands of Iraqi reconstruction projects was lost due
to “fraud, waste, and abuse.” Hundreds were eventually canceled, with 42% of the terminated
projects ended because of mismanagement or shoddy construction. As part of their final 2013
report, SIGIR noted: “We found that incomplete and unstandardized databases left us unable to
identify the specific use of billions of dollars spent on projects.”20
These findings underscore an important point: Although project management is becoming
popular, it is not easy to assimilate into the conventional processes of most firms. For every firm
discovering the benefits of projects, many more underestimate the problems involved in becoming
“project savvy.”
These studies also point to a core truth about project management: We should not overesti-
mate the benefits to be gained from project management while underestimating the commitment
required to make a project work. There are no magic bullets or quick fixes in the discipline. Like
any other valuable activity, project management requires preparation, knowledge, training, and
commitment to basic principles. Organizations wanting to make use of project-based work must
recognize, as Table 1.1 demonstrates, that its very strength often causes it to operate in direct con-
tradiction to standard, process-oriented business practices.
1.2 Why are Projects imPortant?
There are a number of reasons why projects and project management can be crucial in helping an
organization achieve its strategic goals. David Cleland, a noted project management researcher,
suggests that many of these reasons arise from the very pressures that organizations find them-
selves facing.21
1. Shortened product life cycles. The days when a company could offer a new product and
depend on having years of competitive domination are gone. Increasingly, the life cycle of
new products is measured in terms of months or even weeks, rather than years. One has only
to look at new products in electronics or computer hardware and software to observe this
trend. Interestingly, we are seeing similar signs in traditional service-sector firms, which also
have recognized the need for agility in offering and upgrading new services at an increas-
ingly rapid pace.
2. Narrow product launch windows. Another time-related issue concerns the nature of oppor-
tunity. Organizations are aware of the dangers of missing the optimum point at which to
launch a new product and must take a proactive view toward the timing of product intro-
ductions. For example, while reaping the profits from the successful sale of Product A, smart
firms are already plotting the best point at which to launch Product B, either as a product
upgrade or a new offering. Because of fierce competition, these optimal launch opportunities
are measured in terms of months. Miss your launch window, even by a matter of weeks, and
you run the risk of rolling out an also-ran.
3. Increasingly complex and technical products. It has been well-documented that the average
automobile today has more computing power than the Apollo 11 space capsule that allowed
astronauts to walk on the moon. This illustrates a clear point: the world today is complex.
Products are complicated, technically sophisticated, and difficult to produce efficiently. The
public’s appetite for “the next big thing” continues unabated and substantially unsatisfied.
We want the new models of our consumer goods to be better, bigger (or smaller), faster, and
more complex than the old ones. Firms constantly upgrade product and service lines to feed
this demand. That causes multiple problems in design and production as we continually
seek to push the technical limits. Further, in anticipating future demand, many firms embark
on expensive programs of research and development while attempting to discern con-
sumer tastes. The effect can be to erroneously create expensive and technically sophisticated
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10 Chapter 1 • Introduction
projects that we assume the customer will want. For example, Rauma Corporation of Finland
developed a state-of-the-art “loader” for the logging industry. Rauma’s engineers loaded the
product with the latest computerized gadgetry and technologies that gave the machine a
space-age feel. Unfortunately, the chief customer for the product worked in remote regions
of Indonesia, with logistics problems that made servicing and repairing the loaders impracti-
cal. Machines that broke down had to be airlifted more than 1,000 miles to service centers.
Since the inception of this project, sales of the logging machinery have been disappointing.
The project was an expensive failure for Rauma and serves to illustrate an important point:
Unless companies find a way to maintain control of the process, an “engineering for engi-
neering’s sake” mentality can quickly run out of control.22
4. Global markets. The early twenty-first century has seen the emergence of enormous new
markets for almost every type of product and service. Former closed or socialist societies, as
well as rapidly developing economies such as Brazil, China, Vietnam, and India, have added
huge numbers of consumers and competitors to the global business arena. The increased glo-
balization of the economy, coupled with enhanced methods for quickly interacting with cus-
tomers and suppliers, has created a new set of challenges for business. These challenges also
encompass unique opportunities for those firms that can quickly adjust to this new reality.
In the global setting, project management techniques provide companies with the ability to
link multiple business partners, and respond quickly to market demand and supplier needs,
while remaining agile enough to anticipate and respond to rapid shifts in consumer tastes.
Using project management, successful organizations of the future will recognize and learn to
rapidly exploit the prospects offered by a global business environment.
5. An economic period marked by low inflation. One of the key indicators of economic health
is the fact that inflation has been kept under control. In most of the developed Western econo-
mies, low inflation has helped to trigger a long period of economic expansion, while also
helping provide the impetus for emerging economies, such as those in India and China, to
expand rapidly. Unfortunately, low inflation also limits the ability of businesses to maintain
profitability by passing along cost increases. Companies cannot continue to increase profit
margins through simply raising prices for their products or services. Successful firms in the
future will be those that enhance profits by streamlining internal processes—those that save
money by “doing it better” than the competition. As a tool designed to realize goals like inter-
nal efficiency, project management is a means by which to bolster profits.
These are just some of the more obvious challenges facing business today. The key point is
that the forces giving rise to these challenges are not likely to abate in the near future. In order to
meet these challenges, large, successful companies such as General Electric, 3M, Apple, Samsung,
Bechtel, and Microsoft have made project management a key aspect of their operating philosophies.
Project Profile
“throwing Good Money after Bad”: the BBc’s Digital Media initiative
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) recently announced the cancelation of a major Information Technology (IT)
project intended to update their vast broadcast operations. The project, called the Digital Media Initiative (DMI), was
originally budgeted at £81.7 million ($140 million) and was developed to eliminate the outdated filing systems and
use of old-fashioned, analog videotape with its expensive archival storage. The BBC is one of the world’s largest and
most widely recognized news and media organizations; it is publically funded and under British government oversight.
The DMI project was intended to save the organization millions annually by eliminating the cost of expensive and out-
dated storage facilities, while moving all media content to a modern, digital format. As an example of a large-scale IT
project, the plan for DMI involved media asset management, archive storage and retrieval systems, and media sharing
capabilities.
The DMI project was begun in 2008 when the BBC contracted with technology service provider Siemens, with
consulting expertise to be provided by Deloitte. Interestingly, the BBC never put the contract out for competitive bid-
ding, reasoning that it already had a 10-year support contract with Siemens and trusted Siemens’ judgment on project
development. As part of this “hands-off” attitude, executives at the BBC gave Siemens full control of the project, and
1.2 Why Are Projects Important? 11
apparently little communication flowed back and forth between the organizations. The BBC finally grew concerned with
the distant relationship that was developing between itself and the contractor when Siemens began missing important
delivery milestones and encountering technical difficulties. After one year, the BBC terminated its $65 million contract
with Siemens and sued the company for damages, collecting approximately $47 million in a court settlement. Still, losing
nearly $20 million in taxpayer money after only one year, with nothing to show for it, did not bode well for the future.
Having been burned by this relationship with an outside contractor, the BBC next tried to move the project “in
house,” assigning its own staff and project manager to continue developing the DMI. The project was under the overall
control of the BBC’s Chief Technology Officer, John Linwood. It was hoped that the lessons learned from the first-round
failure of the project would help improve the technology and delivery of the system throughout the organization.
Unfortunately, the project did no better under BBC control. Reports started surfacing as early as 2011 that the project
was way behind schedule, was not living up to its promises, and, in fact, had been failing most testing along the way.
However, although there are claims that the BBC was well aware of the flaws in the project as early as 2011, the picture
it presented to the outside world, including Parliamentary oversight committees, was relentlessly upbeat. The BBC’s
Director General, Mark Thompson, appeared before a committee in 2011 and told them DMI was definitely on schedule
and was actually working already: “There are many programs that are already being made with DMI and some have
gone to air and are going to air,” he told Members of Parliament.
The trouble was, the project was not working well at all. Continual failures with the technology were widely
known within the project team and company executives, but reports suggest that concerns were buried under a flood
of rosy projections. In fact, a later report on the project by an outside consulting firm suggests that throughout 2012,
the deteriorating fortunes of DMI were not accurately reported either within management or, critically, to the BBC
Trust. For example, the BBC’s own internal project management office issued a “code red” warning of imminent project
failure in February that wasn’t reported to the trust until six months later. The CTO, John Linwood, maintained that the
project did work, would lead to a streamlined and more cost-effective method for producing media, and did not waver
from that view throughout these years.
This rosy view hid a deeper problem: the technology just was not working well. Different views emerged as to
why DMI was not progressing. To the “technologists,” there was nothing wrong with the system; it did deliver work-
ing technology, but the project was undermined by would-be users who never bought into the original vision and
who continually changed their requirements. They believed that DMI was failing not because it did not work, but as a
result of internal politics. On the other side were those who questioned the development of the project because the
technology, whether it had been “delivered” or not, never really worked, certainly not at the scale required to make it
adopted across the whole organization. Further, it was becoming evident that off-the-shelf technology existed in the
marketplace which did some of what DMI promised but which, critically, already worked well. Why, then, was the BBC
spending so much time and money trying to create its own system out of thin air?
Figure 1.2 BBc Digital initiative Project
Source: Roberto Herrett/Loop Images/Corbis
(continued)
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12 Chapter 1 • Introduction
Project management also serves as an excellent training ground for future senior executives in
most organizations. One unique aspect of projects is how they blend technical and behavioral chal-
lenges. The technical side of project management requires managers to become skilled in project
selection, budgeting and resource management, planning and scheduling, and tracking projects.
Each of these skills will be discussed in subsequent chapters. At the same time, however, project
managers face the equally strong challenge of managing the behavioral, or “people,” side of proj-
ects. Projects, being temporary endeavors, require project managers to bring together individuals
from across the organization, quickly mold them into an effective team, manage conflict, provide
leadership, and engage in negotiation and appropriate political behavior, all in the name of project
success. Again, we will address these behavioral challenges in this text. One thing we know is:
Project managers who emphasize one challenge and ignore the other, whether they choose to focus
on the technical or behavioral side of project management, are not nearly as successful as those
who seek to become experts in both. Why is project management such a useful training ground for
senior executives? Because it provides the first true test of an individual’s ability to master both the
technical and human challenges that characterize effective leaders in business. Project managers,
and their projects, create the kind of value that companies need to survive and prosper.
According to a news report, it was not until April 2013 that events demonstrated the ongoing problems with
DMI. During BBC coverage of the death and funeral of Margaret Thatcher, news staff worked feverishly to transfer
old archived analog videotape to digital format in order to produce footage for background on the life and career of
the former Prime Minister. So poorly did the new digital archive system work that it was reported that tapes had to be
physically transported around London by taxi and subway system to get to their locations while video transfer work was
being carried out by private production companies. All this after nearly four years working to develop DMI!
The failure of the system during Thatcher’s funeral was the final straw. In May 2013 the new Director General of
the BBC, Lord Hall, announced the cancellation of the project and that the BBC’s chief technology officer, John Linwood,
was to be suspended pending an external investigation into the management of the DMI project. It was later revealed
that a senior BBC manager had expressed grave doubts about DMI to BBC Chairman Lord Patten one year before the
project was cancelled. He had also claimed that there was a “very significant risk” that the National Audit Office had
been misled about the actual progress of DMI in 2011. Other BBC executives had also voiced similar concerns for about
two years before DMI was abandoned. The final cost of the project to the BBC and British taxpayers has been estimated
at about $160 million. BBC Trust member Anthony Fry remarked that the DMI had been a “complete catastrophe” and
said that the project was “probably the most serious, embarrassing thing I have ever seen.”
Members of Parliament, looking into the failure of DMI, also had a number of very pointed criticisms of the project,
executive oversight of DMI, and the operations of the BBC in general. Margaret Hodge MP, Chair of the Committee of
Public Accounts, summed up the project in her Parliament report:
“The BBC’s Digital Media Initiative was a complete failure. License fee payers paid nearly £100 million ($160 million)
for this supposedly essential system but got virtually nothing in return.
The main output from the DMI is an archive catalogue and ordering system that is slower and more cumbersome
than the 40-year-old system it was designed to replace. It has only 163 regular users and a running cost of
£3 million ($5.1 million) a year, compared to £780,000 ($1.3 million) a year for the old system.
When my Committee examined the DMI’s progress in February 2011, the BBC told us that the DMI was “an abso-
lutely essential have to have” and that a lot of the BBC’s future was tied up in the successful delivery of the DMI.
The BBC also told us that it was using the DMI to make many programs and was on track to complete the system
in 2011 with no further delays. This turned out not to be the case.
The BBC was far too complacent about the high risks involved in taking it in-house. No single individual had
overall responsibility or accountability for delivering the DMI and achieving the benefits, or took ownership of
problems when they arose.
Lack of clearly defined responsibility and accountability meant the Corporation failed to respond to warning sig-
nals that the program was in trouble.”
Bad planning, poor corporate governance, excessively optimistic projections, and a cloak of secrecy regarding the
real status of the Digital Media Initiative project all resulted in a very public black eye for one of the most respected
broadcasting organizations in the world. It is likely that the causes of the failure of the DMI project will be debated for
years to come, but at a minimum this story should be a cautionary tale for organizations developing sophisticated IT
projects.23
1.3 Project Life Cycles 13
1.3 Project liFe cycles
Imagine receiving a term paper assignment in a college class. Our first step would be to develop a
sense of the assignment itself—what the professor is looking for, how long the paper should be, the
number of references required, stylistic expectations, and so forth. Once we have familiarized our-
selves with the assignment, our next step would be to develop a plan for how we intend to proceed
with the project in order to complete it by the due date. We make a rough guess about how much
time will be needed for the research, writing the first draft, proofreading the paper, and completing
the final draft; we use this information to create some tentative milestones for the various compo-
nents of the assignment. Next, we begin to execute our plan, doing the library or online research,
creating an outline, writing a draft, and so forth. Our goal is to complete the assignment on time,
doing the work to our best possible ability. Finally, after turning in the paper, we file or discard our
reference materials, return any books to the library, breathe a sigh of relief, and wait for the grade.
This example represents a simplified but useful illustration of a project’s life cycle. In this
case, the project consisted of completing the term paper to the standards expected of the instructor
in the time allowed. A project life cycle refers to the stages in a project’s development. Life cycles
are important because they demonstrate the logic that governs a project. They also help us develop
our plans for carrying out the project. They help us decide, for example, when we should devote
resources to the project, how we should evaluate its progress, and so forth. Consider the simplified
model of the project life cycle shown in Figure 1.3, which divides the life cycle into four distinct
phases: conceptualization, planning, execution, and termination.
• Conceptualization refers to the development of the initial goal and technical specifications for
a project. The scope of the work is determined, necessary resources (people, money, physical
plant) identified, and important organizational contributors or stakeholders signed on.
• Planning is the stage in which all detailed specifications, schematics, schedules, and other
plans are developed. The individual pieces of the project, often called work packages, are bro-
ken down, individual assignments made, and the process for completion clearly delineated.
For example, in planning our approach to complete the term paper, we determine all the
necessary steps (research, drafts, editing, etc.) in the process.
• During execution, the actual “work” of the project is performed, the system developed, or the
product created and fabricated. It is during the execution phase that the bulk of project team
labor is performed. As Figure 1.3 shows, project costs (in man hours) ramp up rapidly during
this stage.
• Termination occurs when the completed project is transferred to the customer, its resources
reassigned, and the project formally closed out. As specific subactivities are completed, the
project shrinks in scope and costs decline rapidly.
These stages are the waypoints at which the project team can evaluate both its performance and
the project’s overall status. Remember, however, that the life cycle is relevant only after the proj-
ect has actually begun. The life cycle is signaled by the actual kickoff of project development,
Conceptualization Planning Execution Termination
Man-hours of work
Figure 1.3 Project life cycle Stages
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14 Chapter 1 • Introduction
the development of plans and schedules, the performance of necessary work, and the comple-
tion of the project and reassignment of personnel. When we evaluate projects in terms of this life
cycle model, we are given some clues regarding their subsequent resource requirements; that is,
we begin to ask whether we have sufficient personnel, materials, and equipment to support the
project. For example, when beginning to work on our term paper project, we may discover that
it is necessary to purchase a PC or hire someone to help with researching the topic. Thus, as we
plan the project’s life cycle, we acquire important information regarding the resources that we will
need. The life cycle model, then, serves the twofold function of project timing (schedule) and proj-
ect requirements (resources), allowing team members to better focus on what and when resources
are needed.
The project life cycle is also a useful means of visualizing the activities required and chal-
lenges to be faced during the life of a project. Figure 1.4 indicates some of these characteristics as
they evolve during the course of completing a project.24 As you can see, five components of a proj-
ect may change over the course of its life cycle:
• Client interest: The level of enthusiasm or concern expressed by the project’s intended cus-
tomer. clients can be either internal to the organization or external.
• Project stake: The amount of corporate investment in the project. The longer the life of the
project, the greater the investment.
• Resources: The commitment of financial, human, and technical resources over the life of the
project.
• Creativity: The degree of innovation required by the project, especially during certain
development phases.
• Uncertainty: The degree of risk associated with the project. Riskiness here reflects the number
of unknowns, including technical challenges that the project is likely to face. Uncertainty is
highest at the beginning because many challenges have yet to be identified, let alone addressed.
Each of these factors has its own dynamic. Client interest, for example, follows a “U-shaped”
curve, reflecting initial enthusiasm, lower levels of interest during development phases, and
renewed interest as the project nears completion. Project stake increases dramatically as the proj-
ect moves forward because an increasing commitment of resources is needed to support ongoing
activities. Creativity, often viewed as innovative thought or applying a unique perspective, is high
at the beginning of a project, as the team and the project’s client begin developing a shared vision
of the project. As the project moves forward and uncertainty remains high, creativity also contin-
ues to be an important feature. In fact, it is not until the project is well into its execution phase,
with defined goals, that creativity becomes less important. To return to our example of the term
Execution Termination
Uncertainty
Creativity
Resources
Project Stake
Client Interest
Time
Intensity
Level
Planning
Concep-
tualization
Figure 1.4 Project life cycles and their effects
Source: Victor Sohmen. (2002, July). “Project Termination: Why the Delay?” Paper presented at
PMI Research Conference, Seattle, WA. Project Management Institute, Sohmen, Victor. “Project
termination: Why the delay?” PMI Research Conference. Proceedings, p. 467–475. Paper presented
at PMI Research Conference. Project Management Institute, Inc (2002). Copyright and all rights
reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
1.3 Project Life Cycles 15
paper project, in many cases, the “creativity” needed to visualize a unique or valuable approach
to developing the project is needed early, as we identify our goals and plan the process of achiev-
ing them. Once identified, the execution phase, or writing the term paper, places less emphasis on
creativity per se and more on the concrete steps needed to complete the project assignment.
The information simplified in Figure 1.4 is useful for developing a sense of the competing
issues and challenges that a project team is likely to face over the life cycle of a project. Over time,
while certain characteristics (creativity, resources, and uncertainty) begin to decrease, other ele-
ments (client interest and project stake) gain in importance. Balancing the requirements of these
elements across the project life cycle is just one of the many demands placed on a project team.
Figure 1.5 Stephanie Smith—Westinghouse electric
Source: Jeffrey Pinto/Pearson Education, Inc.
Box 1.1
Project Managers in Practice
Stephanie Smith, Westinghouse Electric Company
Stephanie Smith is a project manager in the nuclear industry, working for Westinghouse Electric Company while
living in Phoenix, Arizona. She earned her undergraduate degree in Biological Sciences from the University of
Pittsburgh and subsequently a master’s degree in Teaching. After teaching Biology and Environmental Sciences
for four years, Stephanie decided on a career change and was hired as a Software Librarian at Westinghouse. Her
job was to manage software created by multiple teams of engineers for use in nuclear power plants while also
developing programmatic documentation such as program plans and program quality plans, document creation
plans, and a program for technical editing of engineering documentation. After about a year of program-level
support, she gained further experience working on large projects in nuclear protection and safety monitoring
where, in addition to her other duties, she interacted with the members of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
As a project manager in the nuclear industry, the majority of the projects Stephanie has worked on are
intended to perform first-of-a-kind engineering to develop products for use in nuclear power plants. This re-
quires a strong technical skill set. However, Stephanie is quick to note that having the technical abilities alone
does not prepare you for project management nor will it allow you to do your job to the best of your abilities.
“Aside from the technical nature of this work, the majority of my effort is spent utilizing project management
skills to develop and implement projects according to customer, internal quality, and regulatory requirements.”
Communication skills are critical, Stephanie argues, as “I regularly interact with my project team, upper man-
agement, and the customer to track project progress in terms of schedule, budget, and quality.”
Stephanie is responsible for ensuring that technical problems are resolved as efficiently as possible,
which is one of her greatest challenges, given the industry and the need to thoroughly think through problems,
(continued)
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16 Chapter 1 • Introduction
1.4 determinants oF Project success
Definitions of successful projects can be surprisingly elusive.25 How do we know when a project is
successful? When it is profitable? If it comes in on budget? On time? When the developed product
works or sells? When we achieve our long-term payback goals? Generally speaking, any definition
of project success must take into consideration the elements that define the very nature of a project:
that is, time (schedule adherence), budget, functionality/quality, and customer satisfaction. At one
time, managers normally applied three criteria of project success:
• Time. Projects are constrained by a specified time frame during which they must be com-
pleted. They are not supposed to continue indefinitely. Thus the first constraint that governs
project management involves the basic requirement: the project should come in on or before
its established schedule.
• Budget. A second key constraint for all projects is a limited budget. Projects must meet bud-
geted allowances in order to use resources as efficiently as possible. Companies do not write
blank checks and hope for the best. Thus the second limit on a project raises the question:
Was the project completed within budget guidelines?
• Performance. All projects are developed in order to adhere to some initially determined
technical specifications. We know before we begin what the project is supposed to do or how
the final product is supposed to operate. Measuring performance, then, means determining
whether the finished product operates according to specifications. The project’s clients natu-
rally expect that the project being developed on their behalf will work as expected. Applying
this third criterion is often referred to as conducting a “quality” check.
This so-called triple constraint was once the standard by which project performance was
routinely assessed. Today, a fourth criterion has been added to these three (see Figure 1.6):
• Client acceptance. The principle of client acceptance argues that projects are developed
with customers, or clients, in mind, and their purpose is to satisfy customers’ needs. If cli-
ent acceptance is a key variable, then we must also ask whether the completed project is
effectively manage risks, and make prudent decisions regarding the safety of the product, all with an eye to-
ward satisfying customers and regulatory agencies. “Risks must be effectively managed, particularly in the
nuclear industry, for cost and safety reasons; therefore, I am always conscious that decisions we make have
to be within carefully laid-out standards of safety.” She is also responsible for contract management within
her projects. This entails Stephanie working with customers and upper management to further define vague
language in the contract so that work can be completed according to expectations. These meetings are also
critical for project scope definition and control, skills project managers use on a daily basis.
“Without a strong foundation in project management fundamentals, I simply could not do my job,”
Stephanie argues. “My daily work is centered on the ability to effectively implement both the hard and soft
skills of project management (i.e., the technical and people-oriented behaviors). Strong communication and
leadership skills are very important in my daily work. Not a day goes by that I am not receiving and transmitting
information among upper management, my team, and the customer. My work is dynamic, and regardless of
how much planning is done, unanticipated events come up, which is where the need for flexibility comes in.
The resolution of these problems requires significant communication skills and patience.”
The greatest opportunity Stephanie sees in her work is supporting the development of clean energy
worldwide. The nuclear industry has shed its old images and emerged in the current era as one of the
cleanest and safest forms of energy. Nuclear power and project management are fast-growing and rapid-
paced fields, and they require people interested in adapting to the unique challenges they offer. The work
is demanding but, ultimately, highly rewarding. “In supporting a global effort for clean energy, I have the
opportunity to work with very bright and energetic people, and I truly do learn something new every day.
I encourage the novice or undergraduate to identify your greatest strengths, and try to develop a vision of
how to apply those strengths to achieve the lifestyle you want. Do you see yourself in an office setting? Do
you see yourself working in the field? One of the real advantages of project management careers is that
they offer a level of flexibility and freedom that you rarely find in other office settings. Project management
is challenging but the rewards can be impressive—both in terms of money and the satisfaction of seeing the
results of your efforts.”
1.4 Determinants of Project Success 17
acceptable to the customer for whom it was intended. Companies that evaluate project suc-
cess strictly according to the original “triple constraint” may fail to apply the most important
test of all: the client’s satisfaction with the completed project.
We can also think of the criteria for project success in terms of “internal” versus “external”
conditions. When project management was practiced primarily by construction and other heavy
industries, its chief value was in maintaining internal organizational control over expenditures of
money and time. The traditional triple-constraint model made perfect sense. It focused internally
on efficiency and productivity measures. It provided a quantifiable measure of personnel evalua-
tion, and it allowed accountants to control expenses.
More recently, however, the traditional triple-constraint model has come under increasing
criticism as a measure of project success. The final product, for example, could be a failure, but
if it has been delivered in time and on budget and satisfies its original specifications (however
flawed), the project itself could still be declared a success. Adding the external criterion of client
acceptance corrects such obvious shortcomings in the assessment process. First, it refocuses cor-
porate attention outside the organization, toward the customer, who will probably be dissatisfied
with a failed or flawed final product. Likewise, it recognizes that the final arbiter of project success
is not the firm’s accountants, but rather the marketplace. A project is successful only to the extent
that it benefits the client who commissioned it. Finally, the criterion of client acceptance requires
project managers and teams to create an atmosphere of openness and communication throughout
the development of the project.
Consider one example. In his book, What Customers Really Want, author Scott McKain relates
how a coach bus company that transports music stars (i.e., clients either lease or purchase the com-
pany’s buses) was originally planning to spend a great deal on a project to improve the interior
of its vehicles because they believed that with these upgrades, customers would be willing to pay
more to lease their buses. However, prior to starting a full-blown overhaul of their fleet, execu-
tives decided to ask past customers what they thought about this plan. Surprisingly, the company
found that while its customers did want nice interiors, the single most important factor in selecting
a coach company was the bus driver (i.e., a “nice guy,” someone who could get the music stars to
their destination safely, who would also serve as a good ambassador for the band with fans). Based
on this information, the company dropped their original project and instead initiated a driver
education program to teach their drivers how to communicate more effectively with customers
and how to retain and grow customer goodwill. The company also started compensating drivers
according to how well they served the customer and how well they cultivated long-term relation-
ships with them. Once the company did that, it moved from fourth in the marketplace to first, and
grew from 28 to 56 coaches.26
An additional approach to project assessment argues that another factor must always be
taken into consideration: the promise that the delivered product can generate future opportunities,
whether commercial or technical, for the organization.27 In other words, it is not enough to assess
Success
Client
Acceptance
Budget
Time Performance
Figure 1.6 the New Quadruple constraint
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18 Chapter 1 • Introduction
a project according to its immediate success. We must also evaluate it in terms of its commercial
success as well as its potential for generating new business and new opportunities. Figure 1.7
illustrates this scheme, which proposes four relevant dimensions of success:
• Project efficiency: Meeting budget and schedule expectations.
• Impact on customer: Meeting technical specifications, addressing customer needs, and cre-
ating a project that satisfies the client’s needs.
• Business success: Determining whether the project achieved significant commercial success.
• Preparing for the future: Determining whether the project opened new markets or new
product lines or helped to develop new technology.
This approach challenges the conventional triple-constraint principle for assessing project
success. Corporations expect projects not only to be run efficiently (at the least) but also to be
developed to meet customer needs, achieve commercial success, and serve as conduits to new
business opportunities. Even in the case of a purely internal project (e.g., updating the software for
a firm’s order-entry system), project teams need to focus both on customer needs and an assess-
ment of potential commercial or technical opportunities arising from their efforts.
A final model, offered recently, also argues against the triple-constraint model as a measure
of project success. According to Atkinson,29 all groups that are affected by a project (stakeholders)
should have a hand in assessing its success. The context and type of a project may also be relevant in
specifying the criteria that will most clearly define its success or failure. Table 1.2 shows the Atkinson
Importance
Project
Completion
1
Project
Efficiency
2
Impact on the
Customer
3
Business
Success
4
Preparing for
the Future
Time
Figure 1.7 four Dimensions of Project Success importance
Source: A. J. Shenhar, O. Levy, and D. Dvir. (1997). “Mapping the Dimensions of Project Success,” Project
Management Journal, 28(2): 12. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has been
reproduced with the permission of PMI.
table 1.2 Understanding Success criteria
iron triangle information System Benefits (organization) Benefits (Stakeholders)
Cost Maintainability Improved efficiency Satisfied users
Quality Reliability Improved effectiveness Social and environmental impact
Time Validity Increased profits Personal development
Information quality Strategic goals Professional learning, contractors’
profits
Use Organization learning Capital suppliers, content
Reduced waste Project team, economic impact to
surrounding community
1.5 Developing Project Management Maturity 19
Box 1.2
Project Management research in Brief
Assessing Information Technology (IT) Project Success
As noted earlier in this chapter, IT projects have a notoriously checkered history when it comes to successful
implementation. Part of the problem has been an inability to define the characteristics of a successful IT proj-
ect in concrete terms. The criteria for IT project success are often quite vague, and without clear guidelines
for project success, it is hardly any wonder that so many of these projects do not live up to predevelopment
expectations. In 1992 and again in 2003, two researchers, W. DeLone and E. McLean, analyzed several previ-
ous studies of IT projects to identify the key indicators of success. Their findings, synthesized from previous
research, suggest that, at the very least, IT projects should be evaluated according to six criteria:
• System quality. The project team supplying the system must be able to assure the client that the
implemented system will perform as intended. All systems should satisfy certain criteria: They should,
for example, be easy to use, and they should supply quality information.
• Information quality. The information generated by the implemented IT must be the information
required by users and be of sufficient quality that it is “actionable”: In other words, generated informa-
tion should not require additional efforts to sift or sort the data. System users can perceive quality in the
information they generate.
• Use. Once installed, the IT system must be used. Obviously, the reason for any IT system is its useful-
ness as a problem-solving, decision-aiding, and networking mechanism. The criterion of “use” assesses
the actual utility of a system by determining the degree to which, once implemented, it is used by the
customer.
• User satisfaction. Once the IT system is complete, the project team must determine user satisfaction.
One of the thorniest issues in assessing IT project success has to do with making an accurate determina-
tion of user satisfaction with the system. Yet, because the user is the client and is ultimately the arbiter
of whether or not the project was effective, it is vital that we attain some measure of the client’s satis-
faction with the system and its output.
• Individual impact. All systems should be easy to use and should supply quality information. But
beyond satisfying these needs, is there a specific criterion for determining the usefulness of a system
to the client who commissioned it? Is decision making faster or more accurate? Is information more
retrievable, more affordable, or more easily assimilated? In short, does the system benefit users in the
ways that are most important to those users?
• Organizational impact. Finally, the supplier of the system must be able to determine whether it has
a positive impact throughout the client organization. Is there, for example, a collective or synergistic
effect on the client corporation? Is there a sense of good feeling, or are there financial or operational
metrics that demonstrate the effectiveness or quality of the system?
DeLone and McLean’s work provides an important framework for establishing a sense of IT project suc-
cess. Companies that are designing and implementing IT systems must pay early attention to each of these
criteria and take necessary steps to ensure that the systems that they deliver satisfy them.28
model, which views the traditional “iron triangle” of cost, quality, and time as merely one set of com-
ponents in a comprehensive set of measures. Of course, the means by which a project is to be mea-
sured should be decided before the project is undertaken. A corporate axiom, “What gets measured,
gets managed,” suggests that when teams understand the standards to which a project is being held,
they will place more appropriate emphases on the various aspects of project performance. Consider,
for example, an information system setting. If the criteria of success are improved operating effi-
ciency and satisfied users, and if quality is clearly identified as a key benefit of the finished product,
the team will focus its efforts more strongly on these particular aspects of the project.
1.5 develoPing Project management maturity
With the tremendous increase in project management practices among global organizations, a
recent phenomenon has been the rise of project maturity models for project management orga-
nizations. Project management maturity models are used to allow organizations to benchmark
the best practices of successful project management firms. Project management maturity models
recognize that different organizations are currently at different levels of sophistication in their best
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20 Chapter 1 • Introduction
practices for managing projects. For example, it would be reasonable to expect an organization
such as Boeing (aircraft and defense systems) or Fluor-Daniel (industrial construction) to be much
more advanced in how they manage projects, given their lengthy histories of project initiatives,
than a company that has only recently developed an emphasis on project-based work.
The purpose of benchmarking is to systematically manage the process improvements of proj-
ect delivery by a single organization over a period of time.30 Because there are many diverse dimen-
sions of project management practice, it is common for a new organization just introducing project
management to its operations to ask, “Where do we start?” That is, which of the multiple project
management processes should we investigate, model, and apply to our organization? Maturity mod-
els provide the necessary framework to first, analyze and critically evaluate current practices as they
pertain to managing projects; second, compare those practices against those of chief competitors or
some general industry standard; and third, define a systematic route for improving these practices.
If we accept the fact that the development of better project management practices is an evo-
lutionary process, involving not a sudden leap to top performance but rather a systematic commit-
ment to continuous improvement, maturity models offer the template for defining and then achiev-
ing such progressive improvement.31 As a result, most effective project maturity models chart both
a set of standards that are currently accepted as state-of-the-art as well as a process for achieving
significant movement toward these benchmarks. Figure 1.8 illustrates one approach to defining
current project management practices a firm is using.32 It employs a “spider web” methodology in
which a set of significant project management practices have first been identified for organizations
within a specific industry. In this example, a firm may identify eight components of project man-
agement practice that are key for success, based on an analysis of the firm’s own needs as well as
through benchmarking against competing firms in the industry. Note that each of the rings in the
diagram represents a critical evaluation of the manner in which the organization matches up with
industry standards. Suppose we assigned the following meanings to the different ratings:
ring level Meaning
0 Not defined or poor
1 Defined but substandard
2 Standardized
3 Industry leader or cutting edge
1
2
3
Project Scheduling
Control Practices
Coaching, Auditing, and
Evaluating Projects
Portfolio Management
Structural Support for
Project Management
Personnel Development
for Projects
Networking
Between Projects
Project Stakeholder
Management
0
Figure 1.8 Spider Web Diagram for Measuring Project Maturity
Source: R. Gareis. (2001). “Competencies in the Project-Oriented Organization,” in D. Slevin, D. Cleland, and J. Pinto,
The Frontiers of Project Management Research. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, pp. 213–24,
figure on p. 216. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the
permission of PMI.
1.5 Developing Project Management Maturity 21
Following this example, we may decide that in terms of project team personnel develop-
ment or project control systems, our practices are poor relative to other competitors and rate
those skills as 0. On the other hand, perhaps our scheduling processes are top-notch, enabling
us to rate them as a 3. Figure 1.9 shows an example of the same spider web diagram with
our relative skill levels assigned across the eight key elements of project management we have
defined. This exercise helps us to form the basis for where we currently are in terms of project
management sophistication, a key stage in any maturity model in which we seek to move to a
higher level.
Once we have established a sense of our present project management abilities, as well as our
shortcomings, the next step in the maturity model process is to begin charting a step-by-step, incre-
mental path to our desired goal. Table 1.3 highlights some of the more common project maturity
models and the interim levels they have identified en route to the highest degree of organization-
wide project expertise. Several of these models were developed by private project management
consultancies or professional project organizations.
It is interesting to compare and contrast the four maturity models highlighted in Table 1.3.
These examples of maturity models are taken from the most well-known models in the field,
including Carnegie Mellon University’s Software Engineering Institute’s (SEI) Capability
Maturity Model, Harold Kerzner ’s Maturity Model, ESI International’s Project Framework,
and the maturity model developed by the Center for Business Practices.33 Illustrating these
dimensions in pyramid form, we can see the progression toward project management maturity
(Figure 1.10). Despite some differences in terminology, a clear sense of pattern exists among
these models. Typically they start with the assumption that project management practices within
a firm are not planned and are not collectively employed; in fact, there is likely no common lan-
guage or methods for undertaking project management. As the firm grows in project maturity,
it begins to adopt common practices, starts programs to train cadres of project management
professionals, establishes procedures and processes for initiating and controlling its projects,
and so forth. Finally, by the last stage, not only is the organization “project-savvy,” but it also
has progressed beyond simply applying project management to its processes and is now actively
exploring ways to continuously improve its project management techniques and procedures.
It is during the final stage that the organization can be truly considered “project mature”; it
has internalized all necessary project management principles and is actively seeking to move
beyond them in innovative ways.
1
2
3
Project Scheduling
Control Practices
Coaching, Auditing, and
Evaluating Projects
Portfolio Management
Structural Support for
Project Management
Personnel Development
for Projects
Networking
Between Projects
Project Stakeholder
Management
0
Figure 1.9 Spider Web Diagram with embedded organizational evaluation
Source: R. Gareis. (2001). “Competencies in the Project-Oriented Organization,” in D. Slevin, D. Cleland, and J. Pinto,
The Frontiers of Project Management Research. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, pp. 213–24,
figure on p. 216. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the
permission of PMI.
www.ebook3000.com
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22
1.6 Project Elements and Text Organization 23
Project maturity models have become very useful in recent years precisely because they
reflect the growing interest in project management while highlighting one of the recurring prob-
lems: the lack of clear direction for companies in adopting, adapting, and improving these pro-
cesses for optimal use. The key feature of these models is the important recognition that change
typically does not occur abruptly; that is, companies that desire to become skilled in their project
management approaches simply cannot progress in immediate steps from a lack of project man-
agement understanding to optimal project practices. Instead, the maturity models illustrate that
“maturity” is an ongoing process, based on continuous improvement through identifiable incre-
mental steps. Once we have an accurate picture of where we fit into the maturity process, we can
begin to determine a reasonable course of action to progress to our desired level. In this manner,
any organization, no matter how initially unskilled in project management, can begin to chart a
course toward the type of project organization it hopes to become.
1.6 Project elements and text organization
This text was written to provide a holistic, managerial-based approach to project management. The
text is holistic in that it weaves together the wide variety of duties, responsibilities, and knowledge
that successful project managers must acquire. Project management is a comprehensive and excit-
ing undertaking. It requires us to understand aspects of management science in building sched-
ules, assigning resources, monitoring and controlling our projects, and so forth. At the same time,
successful project managers also must integrate fundamental issues of behavioral science, involv-
ing knowledge of human beings, leadership practices, motivation and team development, conflict
resolution, and negotiation skills. Truly, a “science-heavy” approach to this subject will make us no
more successful in our future project management responsibilities than will a focus that retains an
exclusively “people-based” outlook. Project management is an exciting and challenging blend of
the science and art of management.
Figure 1.11 offers a model for the organization of this text. The figure is a Gantt chart, a proj-
ect scheduling and control device that we will become more familiar with in Chapter 10. For now,
however, we can apply it to the structure of this book by focusing on some of its simpler features.
First, note that all chapters in the book are listed down the left-hand column. Across the bottom
and running from left to right is a simple time line that illustrates the point at which each of the
chapters’ topics will be introduced. For simplicity’s sake, I have divided the X-axis time line into
four distinct project phases that roughly follow the project life cycle discussed earlier in this chap-
ter: (1) Foundation, (2) Planning, (3) Implementation, and (4) Termination. Notice how some of
the topics we will cover are particularly relevant only during certain phases of the project while
Low Maturity
Ad hoc process, no common language, little support
Moderate Maturity
Defined practices, training programs,
organizational support
Institutionalized,
seeks continuous
improvement
High
Maturity
Figure 1.10 Project Management Maturity—A Generic Model
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24 Chapter 1 • Introduction
others, such as project leadership, are significant across much of the project’s life cycle. Among
the benefits of setting up the text to follow this sequence are that, first, it shows the importance
of blending the human-based topics (leadership and team building) directly with the more ana-
lytical or scientific elements of project management. We cannot compartmentalize our approach
to project management as either exclusively technical or behavioral; the two are opposite sides of
the same coin and must be appreciated jointly. Second, the structure provides a simple logic for
ordering the chapters and the stage of the project at which we are most likely to concern ourselves
with these topics. Some concepts, as illustrated by the figure, are more immediately concerned
with project planning while others become critical at later phases in the project. Appreciating the
elements of project management and their proper sequencing is an important learning guide. Finally,
the figure offers an intuitively appealing method for visually highlighting the structure and flow
we will follow across the topics in the text.
The foundation stage helps us with our fundamental understanding of what projects are and
how they are typically managed in modern organizations. As part of that understanding, we must
necessarily focus on the organizational setting within which projects are created, selected, and devel-
oped. Some of the critical issues that can affect the manner in which projects are successfully imple-
mented are the contextual issues of a firm’s strategy, structure, and culture. Either these elements are
set up to support project-based work or they are not. In the former case, it is far easier to run projects
and achieve positive results for the organization. As a result, it is extremely helpful for us to clearly
understand the role that organizational setting, or context, plays in project management.
In Chapter 3 we explore the process of project screening and selection. The manner in which
a firm selects the projects it chooses to undertake is often critical to its chances of successful devel-
opment and commercial profitability. Chapter 4 introduces the challenges of project management
from the perspective of the project leader. Project management is an extremely “leader-intensive”
undertaking: The project manager is the focal point of the project, often functioning as a miniature
CEO. The more project managers understand about project leadership and the skills required by
effective project managers, the better companies can begin training project managers within their
own ranks.
The second phase is related to the up-front issues of project planning. Once a decision to
proceed has been made, the organization must first select a suitable project manager to oversee the
development process. Immediately, this project manager is faced with a number of responsibilities,
including:
1. Selecting a team—Team building and conflict management are the first challenges that proj-
ect managers face.
2. Developing project objectives and a plan for execution—Identifying project requirements
and a logical plan to develop the project are crucial.
3. Performing risk management activities—Projects are not developed without a clear sense of
the risks involved in their planning and implementation.
4. Cost estimating and budgeting—Because projects are resource-constrained activities, careful
budgeting and cost estimation are critical.
Foundation Planning Implementation Termination
Figure 1.11 organization of text
1.6 Project Elements and Text Organization 25
5. Scheduling—The heart of project planning revolves around the process of creating clear,
aggressive, yet reasonable schedules that chart the most efficient course to project completion.
6. Managing resources—The final step in project planning is the careful management of project
resources, including project team personnel, to most efficiently perform tasks.
Chapter 5, which discusses project scope management, examines the key features in the over-
all plan. “Project scope management” is something of an umbrella term under which we consider
a number of elements in the overall project planning process. This chapter elaborates the variety of
planning techniques and steps for getting a project off on the right foot.
Chapter 6 addresses some of the behavioral challenges project managers face in terms of
effective team building and conflict management. This chapter looks at another key component
of effective human resource management: the need to create and maintain high-performance
teams. Effectively building and nurturing team members—often people from very different back-
grounds—is a constant challenge and one that requires serious consideration. Conflict occurs on a
number of levels, not just among team members, but between the team and project stakeholders,
including top management and customers. This chapter will identify some of the principal causes
of conflict and explain various methods for resolving it.
Chapter 7 deals with project risk management. In recent years, this area of project manage-
ment has become increasingly important to companies that want to ensure, as far as possible, that
project selection choices are appropriate, that all the risks and downside potential have been con-
sidered, and that, where appropriate, contingency plans have been developed. Chapter 8 covers
budgeting and cost estimation. Because project managers and teams are held to both standards of
performance and standards of cost control, it is important to understand the key features of cost
estimation and budgeting.
Chapters 9 and 10 focus on scheduling methodologies, which are a key feature of project
management. These chapters offer an in-depth analysis of various project-scheduling tools, dis-
cuss critical software for project scheduling, and explain some recent breakthroughs in project
scheduling. Chapter 11 covers some important recent developments in project scheduling, the
agile project planning methodology, and the development and application of critical chain proj-
ect scheduling. Chapter 12 considers the challenges of resource allocation. Once various project
activities have been identified, we must make sure they work by allocating the resources needed
to support them.
The third process in project management, implementation, is most easily understood as the
stage in which the actual “work” of the project is being performed. For example, engineers and
other technical experts determine the series of tasks necessary to complete the overall project,
including their individual task responsibilities, and each of the tasks is actively managed by the
manager and team to ensure that there are no significant delays that can cause the project to exceed
its schedule. Chapter 13 addresses the project challenges of control and evaluation. During the
implementation phase, a considerable amount of ambiguity regarding the status of the project is
possible unless specific, practical steps are taken to establish a clear method for tracking and con-
trolling the project.
Finally, the processes of project termination reflect the fact that a project is a unique organi-
zational endeavor, marked by a specified beginning and ending. The process of closing down a
project, whether due to the need to “kill” it because it is no longer viable or through the steps of
a planned termination, offers its own set of challenges. A number of procedures have been devel-
oped to make this process as smooth and logical as possible. Chapter 14 discusses the elements in
project closeout— the phase in which the project is concluded and resources (both monetary and
human) are reassigned.
This book was written to help create a new generation of effective project managers. By
exploring the various roles of project managers and addressing the challenges and opportunities
they constantly face, we will offer a comprehensive and integrative approach to better understand
the task of project management—one that explores the full range of strategic, technical, and behav-
ioral challenges and duties for project managers.
This text also includes, at the end of relevant chapters, a series of activities designed to help
students develop comprehensive project plans. It is absolutely essential that persons complet-
ing a course in project management carry away with them practical knowledge about the steps
www.ebook3000.com
26 Chapter 1 • Introduction
involved in creating a project, planning its development, and overseeing its work. Future manag-
ers need to develop the skills to convert the theories of project management into the successful
practice of the craft. With this goal in mind, the text contains a series of exercises designed to help
professors and students construct overall project plans. Activities involve the development, from
beginning to end, of a project plan, including narrative, risk analysis, work breakdown structure,
activity estimation and network diagramming, resource leveling and project budgeting, and so
forth. In order to add a sense of realism to the process, later chapters in the book also include a
series of hypothetical problems. By the end of the course, students should have created a compre-
hensive project document that details the necessary steps in converting project plans into practi-
cal accomplishments.
As a template for providing examples, the text employs a hypothetical company called
ABCups Inc., which is about to initiate an important project. Chapter-ending activities, including
exercises in scheduling, budgeting, risk management, and so forth, will often include examples
created from the ABCups project for students to use as a model for their own work. In this way,
students will be presented both with a challenge and with an example for generating their own
deliverables as they progressively build their project plans.
Several software packages are available for planning and tracking the current status of a
project. Some of them (e.g., products by SAP and Oracle) are large, quite complex, and capable
of linking project management functions to other critical through-put operations of a company.
Other desktop software packages are more readily accessible and easier to interpret for the aver-
age novice interested in improving his or her project management skills. This text uses examples
throughout from Microsoft’s Project 2013, including screen captures, to illustrate how MSP 2013
can be used for a variety of planning and tracking purposes. Additionally, some simple tutorials
are included in the appendices at the end of the text to give readers a feel for how the software
works and some of the features it offers. As a method for learning the capabilities of the soft-
ware, it’s a start. For those committed to fully learning one of these project management schedul-
ing packages, I encourage you to investigate alternative packages and, once you have made your
choice, invest in a comprehensive training manual.
An additional feature of this text is the linkage between concepts that are discussed through-
out and the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK), which was developed by the
Project Management Institute (PMI). As the world’s leading professional organization for project
management and with nearly half a million members, PMI has been in the forefront of efforts to
standardize project management practices and codify the necessary skills to be successful in our
field. Now in its fifth edition, the PMBoK identifies ten critical “knowledge areas” of project man-
agement skills and activities that all practitioners need to master in order to become fully trained
in their profession. These knowledge areas, which are shown in Figure 1.12, encompass a broad
overview of the component processes for project management. Although it is not my intention to
create a text to serve as a primer for taking a professional certification exam, it is important for us
to recognize that the skills we develop through reading this work are directly applicable to the
professional project management knowledge areas.
Students will find several direct links to the PMBoK in this text. First, the key terms and their
definitions are intended to follow the updated, fifth edition PMBoK glossary (included as an appen-
dix at the end of the text). Second, chapter introductions will also highlight references to the PMBoK
as we address them in turn. We can see how each chapter not only adds to our knowledge of project
management but also directly links to elements within the PMBoK. Finally, many end-of-chapter
exercises and Internet references will require direct interaction with PMI through its Web site.
As an additional link to the Project Management Institute and the PMBoK, this text will
include sample practice questions at the end of relevant chapters to allow students to test their
in-depth knowledge of aspects of the PMBoK. Nearly 20 years ago, PMI instituted its Project
Management Professional (PMP) certification as a means of awarding those with an expert knowl-
edge of project management practice. The PMP certification is the highest professional designation
for project management expertise in the world and requires in-depth knowledge in all nine areas
of the PMBoK. To date, more than 600,000 project professionals worldwide have attained the PMP
certification and the numbers are steadily growing each year. The inclusion of questions at the end
of the relevant chapters offers students a way to assess how well they have learned the impor-
tant course topics, the nature of PMP certification exam questions, and to point to areas that may
require additional study in order to master this material.
Summary 27
This text offers an opportunity for students to begin mastering a new craft—a set of skills that
is becoming increasingly valued in contemporary corporations around the world. Project manag-
ers represent the new corporate elite: a corps of skilled individuals who routinely make order out
of chaos, improving a firm’s bottom line and burnishing their own value in the process. With these
goals in mind, let us begin.34
12.1 Plan Procurement Management
12.2 Conduct Procurements
12.3 Control Procurements
12.4 Close Procurements
11.1 Plan Risk Management
11.2 Identify Risks
11.3 Perform Qualitative Risk
Analysis
11.4 Perform Quantitative Risk
Analysis
11.5 Plan Risk Responses
11.6 Control Risks
10.1 Plan Communications
Management
10.2 Manage Communications
10.3 Control Communications
8.1 Plan Quality Management
8.2 Perform Quality Assurance
8.3 Control Quality
7.1 Plan Cost Management
7.2 Estimate Costs
7.3 Determine Budget
7.4 Control Costs
6.1 Plan Schedule Management
6.2 Define Activities
6.3 Sequence Activities
6.4 Estimate Activity Resources
6.5 Estimate Activity Durations
6.6 Develop Schedule
6.7 Control Schedule
Project Management
4.1 Develop Project Charter
4.2 Develop Project Management Plan
4.3 Direct & Manage Project Work
4.4 Monitor & Control Project Work
4.5 Perform Integrated Change
Control
4.6 Close Project or Phase
4. Integration Management
5.1 Plan Scope Management
5.2 Collect Requirements
5.3 Define Scope
5.4 Create WBS
5.5 Validate Scope
5.6 Control Scope
5. Scope Management 6. Time Management
9.1 Plan HR Management
9.2 Acquire Project Team
9.3 Develop Project Team
9.4 Manage Project Team
9. Human Resource
Management
12. Procurement Management11. Risk Management
13. Stakeholder Management
8. Quality Management
10. Communications
Management
7. Cost Management
13.1 Identify Stakeholders
13.2 Plan Stakeholder Management
13.3 Manage Stakeholder
Engagement
13.4 Control Stakeholder Engagement
Figure 1.12 overview of the Project Management institute’s PMBoK Knowledge Areas
Source: Project Management Institute. (2013). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK
Guide), 5th ed. Project Management Institute, Inc. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication
has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
Summary
1. Understand why project management is becoming
such a powerful and popular practice in business.
Project management offers organizations a number
of practical competitive advantages, including the
ability to be both effective in the marketplace and
efficient with the use of organizational resources,
and the ability to achieve technological break-
throughs, to streamline new-product development,
and to manage the challenges arising from the busi-
ness environment.
2. recognize the basic properties of projects, includ-
ing their definition. Projects are defined as
temporary endeavors undertaken to create a unique
product or service. Among their key properties are
that projects are complex, one-time processes; proj-
ects are limited by budget, schedule, and resources;
they are developed to resolve a clear goal or set of
goals; and they are customer-focused.
3. Understand why effective project management is
such a challenge. Projects operate outside of nor-
mal organizational processes, typified by the work
done by functional organizational units. Because
they are unique, they require a different mind-
set: one that is temporary and aimed at achieving
www.ebook3000.com
28 Chapter 1 • Introduction
a clear goal within a limited time frame. Projects
are ad hoc endeavors with a clear life cycle. They
are employed as the building blocks in the design
and execution of organizational strategies, and they
provide a philosophy and a strategy for the man-
agement of change. Other reasons why they are a
challenge include the fact that project management
requires the crossing of functional and organiza-
tional boundaries while trying to satisfy the mul-
tiple constraints of time, budget, functionality, and
customer satisfaction.
4. differentiate between project management prac-
tices and more traditional, process-oriented busi-
ness functions. Projects involve new process or
product ideas, typically with one objective or a lim-
ited set of objectives. They are one-shot activities
with a defined beginning and end, employing a het-
erogeneous group of organizational members as the
project team. They operate under circumstances of
change and uncertainty, outside of normal organiza-
tional channels, and are intended to upset the status
quo and violate established practice, if need be, in
order to achieve project goals. Process-oriented func-
tions adhere more closely to rigid organizational
rules, channels of communication, and procedures.
The people within the functional departments are
homogenous, engaged in ongoing activities, with
well-established systems and procedures. They rep-
resent bastions of established practice designed to
reinforce the organization’s status quo.
5. recognize the key motivators that are pushing
companies to adopt project management practices.
Among the key motivators in pushing organiza-
tions to adopt project management are (1) shortened
product life cycles, (2) narrow product launch win-
dows, (3) increasingly complex and technical prod-
ucts, (4) the emergence of global markets, and (5) an
economic period marked by low inflation.
6. Understand and explain the project life cycle, its
stages, and the activities that typically occur at
each stage in the project. The project life cycle is
a mechanism that links time to project activities and
refers to the stages in a project’s development. The
common stages used to describe the life cycle for a
project are (1) conceptualization, (2) planning, (3)
execution, and (4) termination. A wide and diverse
set of activities occurs during different life cycle
stages; for example, during the conceptualization
phase, the basic project mission and scope is devel-
oped and the key project stakeholders are signed on
to support the project’s development. During plan-
ning, myriad project plans and schedules are cre-
ated to guide the development process. Execution
requires that the principal work of the project be
performed, and finally, during the termination stage,
the project is completed, the work is finished, and
the project is transferred to the customer.
7. Understand the concept of project “success,”
including various definitions of success, as well
as the alternative models of success. Originally,
project success was predicated simply on a triple-
constraint model that rewarded projects if they
were completed with regard to schedule, budget,
and functionality. This model ignored the emphasis
that needs to be placed on project clients, however.
In more accurate terms, project success involves a
“quadruple constraint,” linking the basic project
metrics of schedule adherence, budget adherence,
project quality (functionality), and customer satis-
faction with the finished product. Other models of
project success for IT projects employ the measures
of (1) system quality, (2) information quality, (3) use,
(4) user satisfaction, (5) individual impact, and (6)
organizational impact.
8. Understand the purpose of project management
maturity models and the process of benchmarking
in organizations. Project management maturity
models are used to allow organizations to bench-
mark the best practices of successful project man-
agement firms. Project maturity models recognize
that different organizations are at different levels
of sophistication in their best practices for manag-
ing projects. The purpose of benchmarking is to
systematically manage the process improvements
of project delivery by a single organization over a
period of time. As a firm commits to implement-
ing project management practices, maturity models
offer a helpful, multistage process for moving for-
ward through increasing levels of sophistication of
project expertise.
9. identify the relevant maturity stages that organiza-
tions go through to become proficient in their use
of project management techniques. Although
there are a number of project maturity models, sev-
eral of the most common share some core features.
For example, most take as their starting point the
assumption that unsophisticated organizations initi-
ate projects in an ad hoc fashion, with little overall
shared knowledge or procedures. As the firm moves
through intermediate steps, it will begin to initiate
processes and project management procedures that
diffuse a core set of project management techniques
and cultural attitudes throughout the organization.
Finally, the last stage in maturity models typically
recognizes that by this point the firm has moved
beyond simply learning the techniques of project
management and is working at continuous improve-
ment processes to further refine, improve, and
solidify project management philosophies among
employees and departments.
Case Study 1.1 29
Key Terms
Benchmarking (p. 20)
Client acceptance (p. 16)
Clients (p. 14)
Budget (p. 16)
Deliverables (p. 5)
Performance (p. 16)
Process (p. 5)
Project (p. 5)
Project life cycle (p. 13)
Project management (p. 8)
Project management
maturity models (p. 19)
Project success (p. 16)
Stakeholders (p. 13)
Time (p. 16)
Triple constraint (p. 16)
Discussion Questions
1.1 What are some of the principal reasons why project manage-
ment has become such a popular business tool in recent years?
1.2 What do you see as being the primary challenges to
introducing a project management philosophy in most
organizations? That is, why is it difficult to shift to a
project- based approach in many companies?
1.3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using proj-
ect management?
1.4 What key characteristics do all projects possess?
1.5 Describe the basic elements of a project life cycle. Why is
an understanding of the life cycle relevant for our under-
standing of projects?
1.6 Think of a successful project and an unsuccessful project
with which you are familiar. What distinguishes the two,
both in terms of the process used to develop them and
their outcomes?
1.7. Consider the Expedition Everest case at the end of
the chapter: What elements in Disney’s approach to
developing its theme rides do you find particularly im-
pressive? How can a firm like Disney balance the need for
efficiency and smooth development of projects with the
desire to be innovative and creative? Based on this case,
what principles appear to guide its development process?
1.8 Consider the six criteria for successful IT projects. Why is
IT project success often so difficult to assess? Make a case
for some factors being more important than others.
1.9 As organizations seek to become better at managing
projects, they often engage in benchmarking with other
companies in similar industries. Discuss the concept of
benchmarking. What are its goals? How does bench-
marking work?
1.10 Explain the concept of a project management maturity
model. What purpose does it serve?
1.11 Compare and contrast the four project management
maturity models shown in Table 1.3. What strengths and
weaknesses do you perceive in each of the models?
CaSe STuDy 1.1
MegaTech, Inc.
MegaTech, Inc., designs and manufactures automo-
tive components. For years, the company enjoyed a
stable marketplace, a small but loyal group of custom-
ers, and a relatively predictable environment. Though
slowly, annual sales continued to grow until recently
hitting $300 million. MegaTech products were popular
because they required little major updating or yearly
redesign. The stability of its market, coupled with the
consistency of its product, allowed MegaTech to fore-
cast annual demand accurately, to rely on production
runs with long lead times, and to concentrate on inter-
nal efficiency.
Then, with the advent of the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and other international
trade agreements, MegaTech found itself competing
with auto parts suppliers headquartered in countries
around the world. The company was thrust into an
unfamiliar position: It had to become customer-focused
and quicker to market with innovative products. Facing
these tremendous commercial challenges, top manage-
ment at MegaTech decided to recreate the company as a
project-based organization.
The transition, though not smooth, has nonethe-
less paid big dividends. Top managers determined, for
instance, that product updates had to be much more
frequent. Achieving this goal meant yearly redesigns
and new technologies, which, in turn, meant making
innovative changes in the firm’s operations. In order
to make these adjustments, special project teams
were formed around each of the company’s prod-
uct lines and given a mandate to maintain market
competitiveness.
At the same time, however, MegaTech wanted
to maintain its internal operating efficiencies. Thus
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www.ebook3000.com
30 Chapter 1 • Introduction
all project teams were given strict cost and schedule
guidelines for new product introductions. Finally, the
company created a sophisticated research and devel-
opment team, which is responsible for locating likely
new avenues for technological change 5 to 10 years
down the road. Today, MegaTech operates project
teams not only for managing current product lines but
also for seeking longer-term payoffs through applied
research.
MegaTech has found the move to project man-
agement challenging. For one thing, employees are
still rethinking the ways in which they allocate their
time and resources. In addition, the firm’s success
rate with new projects is still less than management
had hoped. Nevertheless, top managers feel that, on
balance, the shift to project management has given
the company the operating advantage that it needed
to maintain its lead over rivals in its globally com-
petitive industry. “Project management,” admits one
MegaTech executive, “is certainly not a magic pill for
success, but it has started us thinking about how we
operate. As a result, we are doing smarter things in a
faster way around here.”
Questions
1. What is it about project management that of-
fers MegaTech a competitive advantage in its
industry?
2. What elements of the marketplace in which
MegaTech operates led the firm to believe that proj-
ect management would improve its operations?
CaSe STuDy 1.2
The IT Department at Hamelin Hospital
Hamelin Hospital is a large (700-bed) regional hospi-
tal in the northeastern United States. The information
technology (IT) department employs 75 people and
has an operating budget of over $35 million. The de-
partment is responsible for managing 30–40 projects,
ranging from small (redesigning computer screens) to
very large, such as multimillion-dollar system develop-
ment projects that can run for over a year. Hamelin’s
IT department has been growing steadily, reflecting
the hospital’s commitment to expanding its informa-
tion storage and processing capacities. The two princi-
pal functions of the IT department are developing new
software applications and maintaining the current in-
formation system. Project management is a way of life
for the department.
The IT department jobs fall into one of five cat-
egories: (1) help-desk technician, (2) programmer, (3)
senior programmer, (4) systems analyst, and (5) proj-
ect manager. Help-desk technicians field queries from
computer system users and solve a wide range of
problems. Most new hires start at the help desk, where
they can become familiar with the system, learn about
problem areas, become sensitive to users’ frustrations
and concerns, and understand how the IT department
affects all hospital operations. As individuals move up
the ladder, they join project teams, either as program-
mers or systems analysts. Finally, five project manag-
ers oversee a constantly updated slate of projects. In
addition, the workload is always being supplemented
by new projects. Team personnel finish one assignment
and then move on to a new one. The typical IT depart-
ment employee is involved in seven projects, each at a
different stage of completion.
The project management system in place at
Hamelin is well regarded. It has spearheaded a tre-
mendous expansion of the hospital’s IT capabilities
and thus helped the hospital to gain a competitive
advantage over other regional hospitals. Recently, in
fact, Hamelin began “farming out” its IT services on
a fee-for-service basis to competing hospitals needing
help with their records, administration, order-entry
systems, and so forth. Not surprisingly, the results have
improved the hospital’s bottom line: At a time when
more and more health care organizations are feeling
the effects of spiraling health care costs, Hamelin’s IT
department has helped the hospital sustain continuous
budget increases, additional staffing, a larger slate of
projects, and a track record of success.
Questions
1. What are the benefits and drawbacks of starting
most new hires at the help-desk function?
2. What are the potential problems with requiring
project team members to be involved in multiple
projects at the same time? What are the potential
advantages?
3. What signals does the department send by mak-
ing “project manager” the highest position in the
department?
Case Study 1.3 31
CaSe STuDy 1.3
Disney’s Expedition Everest
One of the newest thrill rides to open in the Walt Disney
World Resort may just be the most impressive. As Disney
approached its 50th anniversary, the company wanted
to celebrate in a truly special way. What was its idea?
Create a park attraction that would, in many ways, serve
as the link between Disney’s amazing past and its prom-
ising future. Disney showed that it was ready to pull out
all stops in order to get everything just right.
In 2006, The Walt Disney Company introduced
Expedition Everest in Disney’s Animal Kingdom Park
at Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Expedition Everest is more
than just a roller coaster. It is the embodiment of the
Disney spirit: a ride that combines Disney’s trademark
thrills, unexpected twists and turns, incredible attention
to detail, and impressive project management skills.
First, let’s consider some of the technical details of
Expedition Everest:
• With a peak of just under 200 feet, the ride is con-
tained within the tallest of 18 mountains created by
Disney’s Imagineers at Disney parks worldwide.
• The ride contains nearly a mile of track, with
twists, tight turns, and sudden drops.
• The Disney team created a Yeti: an enormous,
fur-covered, Audio-Animatronics monster pow-
ered by a set of hydraulic cylinders whose com-
bined thrust equals that of a Boeing 747 airliner.
Through a series of sketches, computer-animated
drawings, sculptures, and tests that took more
than two years to perfect, Disney created and pro-
grammed its Abominable Snowman to stand over
10 feet tall and serve as the focal point of the ride.
• More than 900 bamboo plants, 10 species of trees,
and 110 species of shrubs were planted to re-create
the feeling of the Himalayan lowlands surrounding
Mount Everest.
• More than 1,800 tons of steel were used to construct
the mountain. The covering of the framework was
done using more than 3,000 prefabricated “chips”
created from 25,000 individual computer-molded
pieces of steel.
• To create the proper color schemes, 2,000 gallons
of stain and paint were used on rockwork and
throughout the village Disney designed to serve
as a backdrop for the ride.
• More than 2,000 handcrafted items from Asia
are used as props, cabinetry, and architectural
ornamentation.
Building an attraction does not come easily or
quickly for Disney’s Imagineers. Expedition Everest
was several years in development as Disney sent
teams, including Walt Disney Imagineering’s Creative
Executive Joe Rohde, on repeated trips to the Himalayas
in Nepal to study the lands, architecture, colors, ecol-
ogy, and culture in order to create the most authentic
setting for the new attraction. Disney’s efforts reflect a
desire to do much more than provide a world-class ride
experience; they demonstrate the Imagineers’ eagerness
to tell a story—a story that combines the mythology of
the Yeti figure with the unique history of the Nepalese
living in the shadow of the world’s tallest mountain.
Ultimately, the attraction, with all its background and
thematic elements, took nearly five years to complete.
Riders on Expedition Everest gain a real feel for
the atmosphere that Disney has worked so hard to cre-
ate. The guests’ adventure starts by entering the build-
ing of the “Himalayan Escape” tour company, complete
with Norbu and Bob’s booking office to obtain permits
for their trip. Overhead flutter authentic prayer flags
from monasteries in Nepal. Next, guests pass through
Tashi’s General Store and Bar to stock up on supplies
for their journey to the peak of the mountain. Finally,
guests pass through an old tea warehouse that contains
a remarkable museum of artifacts reflecting Nepal’s
culture, a history of the Himalayas, and tales of the Yeti,
which is said to inhabit the slopes of Mount Everest.
It is only now that guests are permitted to board the
Anandapur Rail Service for their trip to the peak. Each
train is modeled after an aging, steam-engine train,
seating 34 guests per train.
Over the next several minutes, guests are trans-
ported up the roller coaster track, through a series of
winding turns, until their encounter with the Yeti. At this
point another unique feature of the attraction emerges:
The train begins rushing backward down the track, as
though it were out of control. Through the balance of the
ride, guests experience a landscape of sights and sounds
culminating in a 50 mph final dash down the mountain
and back to the safety of the Nepalese village.
Disney’s approach to the management of projects
such as Expedition Everest is to combine careful plan-
ning, including schedule and budget preparation, with
the imagination and vision for which the company is
so well known. Creativity is a critical element in the
development of new projects at Disney. The company’s
Imagineers include some of the most skilled artists and
computer-animation experts in the world. Although it
is easy to be impressed by the technical knowledge of
Disney’s personnel, it is important to remember that
each new project is approached with an understanding
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www.ebook3000.com
32 Chapter 1 • Introduction
of the company’s underlying business and attention
to market projections, cost control, and careful project
management discipline. New attraction proposals are
carefully screened and researched. The result is the
creation of some of the most innovative and enjoyable
rides in the world. Disney does not add new attractions
to its theme parks frequently, but when it does so, it
does so with style!
Questions
1. Suppose you were a project manager for Disney.
Based on the information in this case, what
critical success metrics do you think the com-
pany uses when designing a new ride; that
is, how would you prioritize the needs for
addressing project cost, schedule, quality, and
client acceptance? What evidence supports your
answer?
2. Why is Disney’s attention to detail in its rides
unique? How does the company use the “atmo-
sphere” discussed in the case to maximize the
experience while minimizing complaints about
length of wait for the ride?
CaSe STuDy 1.4
Rescue of Chilean Miners
On October 13, 2010, Foreman Luiz Urzua stepped out of
the rescue capsule to thunderous applause and cries of
“Viva, Chile!”; he was the last of 33 miners rescued after
spending 70 days trapped beneath 2,000 feet of earth and
rock. Following a catastrophic collapse, the miners were
trapped in the lower shafts of the mine, initially without
contact with the surface, leaving the world in suspense
as to their fate. Their discovery and ultimate rescue are a
story of courage, resourcefulness, and ultimately, one of
the most successful projects in recent times.
The work crew of the San Jose copper and gold
mine near Copiapo, in northern Chile, were in the middle
of their shift when suddenly, on August 5, 2010, the earth
shook and large portions of the mine tunnels collapsed,
trapping 33 miners in a “workshop” in a lower gallery of
the mine. Though they were temporarily safe, they were
nearly a half mile below the surface, with no power and
food for two days. Worse, they had no means of com-
municating with the surface, so their fate remained a
mystery to the company and their families. Under these
conditions, their main goal was simple survival, con-
serving and stretching out meager food supplies for
17 days, until the first drilling probe arrived, punching a
hole in the ceiling of the shaft where they were trapped.
Once they had established contact with the surface and
provided details of their condition, a massive rescue
operation was conceived and undertaken.
The first challenge was simply keeping the min-
ers alive. The earliest supply deliveries down the nar-
row communication shaft included quantities of food
and water, oxygen, medicine, clothing, and necessities
for survival as well as materials to help the miners pass
their time. While groups worked to keep up the miners’
spirits, communicating daily and passing along mes-
sages from families, other project teams were formed to
begin developing a plan to rescue the men.
The challenges were severe. Among the signifi-
cant questions that demanded practical and immediate
answers were:
1. How do we locate the miners?
2. How quickly can we drill relief shafts to their
location?
3. How do we bring them up safely?
The mine tunnels had experienced such dam-
age in the collapse that simply digging the miners out
would have taken several months. A full-scale res-
cue operation was conceived to extract the miners as
quickly as possible. The U.S.-Chilean company Geotec
Boyles Brothers, a subsidiary of Layne Christensen
Company, assembled the critical resources from
around the world. In western Pennsylvania, two com-
panies that were experienced in mine collapses in the
South American region were brought into the project.
They had UPS ship a specialty drill, capable of creating
wide-diameter shafts, large enough to fit men without
collapsing. The drill arrived within 48 hours, free of
charge. In all, UPS shipped more than 50,000 pounds of
specialty equipment to the drilling and rescue site. The
design of the rescue pod was the work of a NASA engi-
neer, Clinton Cragg, who drew on his experience as a
former submarine captain in the Navy and directed a
team of 20 to conceive of and develop a means to carry
the miners one at a time to the surface.
Doctors from NASA and U.S. submarine experts
arrived at the mine site in mid-August, to assess the
psychological state of the miners. Using their expertise
in the physical and mental pressures of dealing with
extended isolation, they worked with local officials to
develop an exercise regimen and a set of chores for the
workers in order to give them a sense of structure and
responsibilities. The miners knew that help was being
Internet Exercises 33
assembled, but they had no notion of the technical chal-
lenges of making each element in the rescue succeed.
Nevertheless, with contact firmly established with the
surface through the original contact drill shaft, the min-
ers now began receiving news, updates from the surface,
and a variety of gifts to ease the tedium of waiting.
The United States also provided an expert driller,
Jeff Hart, who was called from Afghanistan, where he
was helping American forces find water at forward
operating bases, to man the specialty drilling machine.
The 40-year-old drilled for 33 straight days, through
tough conditions, to reach the men trapped at the mine
floor. A total of three drilling rigs were erected and
began drilling relief shafts from different directions.
By September 17, Hart’s drill (referred to as “Plan B”)
reached the miners, though the diameter of the shaft
was only 5 inches. It would take a few weeks to ream
the shaft with progressively wider drill bits to the final
25-inch diameter necessary to support the rescue cap-
sules being constructed. Nevertheless, the rescue team
was exuberant over the speed with which the shaft
reached the trapped miners. Because of the special skills
of the mining professionals, it is estimated that they cut
more than two months off the time that experts expected
this phase of the operation to take.
The first rescue capsule, named Phoenix, arrived
at the site on September 23, with two more under con-
struction and due to be shipped in two weeks. The
Phoenix capsule resembled a specially designed cylin-
drical tube. It was 13 feet long and weighed 924 pounds
with an interior width of 22 inches. It was equipped
with oxygen and a harness to keep occupants upright,
communication equipment, and retractable wheels.
The idea was for the capsule to be narrow enough to be
lowered into the rescue shaft but wide enough for one
person at a time to be fitted inside and brought back to
the surface. To ensure that all 33 miners would fit into
the Phoenix, they were put on special liquid diets and
given an exercise regimen to follow while waiting for
the final preparations to be made.
Finally, after extensive tests, the surface team
decided that the shaft was safe enough to support the
rescue efforts and lowered the first Phoenix capsule
into the hole. In two successive trips, the capsule car-
ried down a paramedic and rescue expert who vol-
unteered to descend into the mine to coordinate the
removal of the miners. The first rescued miner broke
the surface just after midnight on October 13 follow-
ing a 15-minute ride in the capsule. A little more than
22 hours later, the shift manager, Urzua, was brought
out of the mine, ending a tense and stressful rescue
project.
The rescue operation of the Chilean miners was
one of the most successful emergency projects in recent
memory. It highlighted the ability of people to work
together, marshal resources, gather support, and use
innovative technologies in a humanitarian effort that
truly captured the imagination of the world. The chal-
lenges that had to be overcome were significant: first,
the technical problems associated with simply finding
and making contact with survivors; second, devising
a means to recover the men safely; third, undertaking
special steps to ensure the miners’ mental and physi-
cal health remained strong; and finally, requiring all
parties to develop and rely on radical technologies that
had never been used before. In all these challenges,
the rescue team performed wonders, recovering and
restoring to their families all 33 trapped miners. On
November 7, just one month after the rescue, one of the
miners, Edison Pena, realized his own personal dream:
running in and completing the New York City mara-
thon. Quite an achievement for a man who had just
spent more than two months buried a half mile below
the surface of the earth!35
Questions
1. What does the story of the Chilean miners res-
cue suggest to you about the variety of ways that
project management can be used in the modern
world?
2. Successful project management requires clear
organization, careful planning, and good execu-
tion. How were each of these traits shown in this
rescue example?
Internet exercises
1.1 The largest professional project management organiza-
tion in the world is the Project Management Institute
(PMI). Go to its Web site, www.pmi.org, and examine
the links you find. Which links suggest that project man-
agement has become a sophisticated and vital element
in corporate success? Select at least three of the related
links and report briefly on the content of these links.
1.2 Go to the PMI Web site and examine the link “Membership.”
What do you discover when you begin navigating among
the various chapters and cooperative organizations
associated with PMI? How does this information cause you
to rethink project management as a career option?
1.3 Go to www.pmi.org/Business-Solutions/OPM3-Case-Study-
Library.aspx and examine some of the cases included on the
Web page. What do they suggest about the challenges of
managing projects successfully? The complexity of many of
today’s projects? The exciting breakthroughs or opportunities
that projects allow us to exploit?
1.4 Using your favorite search engine (Google, Yahoo!, etc.),
type in the keywords “project” and “project management.”
www.ebook3000.com
34 Chapter 1 • Introduction
Notes
Randomly select three of the links that come up on the
screen. Summarize what you find.
1.5 Go to the Web site for the Software Engineering Institute of
Carnegie Mellon University at https://resources.sei.cmu.
edu/asset_files/SpecialReport/1994_003_001_16265 and
access the software process maturity questionnaire. What are
some of the questions that IT companies need to consider
when assessing their level of project management maturity?
PMP certificAtion sAMPle QUestions
1. The majority of the project budget is expended upon:
a. Project plan development.
b. Project plan execution.
c. Project termination.
d. Project communication.
2. Which of the following is the most critical component
of the triple constraint?
a. Time, then cost, then quality.
b. Quality, then budget, then time.
c. Scope.
d. They are all of equal importance unless otherwise
stated.
3. Which of the following best describes a project
stakeholder?
a. A team member.
b. The project manager.
c. Someone who works in an area affected by the
project.
d. All of the above are stakeholders.
4. All of the following are elements in the definition of a
project, except:
a. A project is time-limited.
b. A project is unique.
c. A project is composed of unrelated activities.
d. A project is undertaken for a purpose.
5. All of the following distinguish project management
from other process activities, except:
a. There are no fundamental differences between
project and process management.
b. Project management often involves greater cer-
tainty of performance, cost, and schedule.
c. Process management operates outside of line
organizations.
d. None of the above correctly distinguish project
from process management.
Answers: 1. b—The majority of a project budget is spent
during the execution phase; 2. d—Unless otherwise stated,
all elements in the triple-constraint model are equally
critical; 3. d—All of the examples listed are types of project
stakeholders; 4. c—A project is composed of “interrelated”
activities; 5. d—None of the answers given correctly
differentiates “process” from “project” management.
1. Valery, Paul, quoted in “Extreme chaos” (Boston: Standish
Group International, 2001).
2. Duthiers, V., and Kermeliotis, T. (2012, August 22).
“Lagos of the future: Megacity’s ambitious plans.” CNN.
http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/22/business/lagos-
urbanization-regeneration-infrastructure/; Walt, V.
(2014, June 30). “Africa’s Big Apple,” Fortune, pp. 92–94;
Ogunbiyi, T. (2014, February 6). “On Lagos’ investment
in infrastructure development,” Business Day. http://
businessdayonline.com/2014/02/on-lagos-investment-
in-infrastructure-development/#.U6hKwPldV8E; Joy, O.
(2013, October 10). “Tech cities and mega dams: Africa’s
giant infrastructure projects,” CNN. http://edition.
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5). “The daily grind of commuting in Africa’s economic
hubs,” CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/05/world/
africa/commuting-africa/index.html?iref=allsearch
3. Peters, Thomas. (1994). Liberation Management: Necessary
Disorganization for the Nanosecond Nineties. New York:
Fawcett Books.
4. Stewart, Thomas H. (1995). “The corporate jungle spawns
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5. Gilbreath, Robert D. (1988). “Working with pulses not
streams: Using projects to capture opportunity,” in Cleland,
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York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 3–15.
6. Buchanan, D. A., and Boddy, D. (1992). The Expertise of the
Change Agent: Public Performance and Backstage Activity.
London: Prentice Hall.
7. Frame, J. D. (1995). Managing Projects in Organizations, 2nd ed.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. See also Frame, J. D. (2002).
The New Project Management, 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
8. Kerzner, H. (2003). Project Management, 8th ed. New York:
Wiley.
9. Field, M., and Keller, L. (1998). Project Management.
London: The Open University.
10. Project Management Institute. (2013). A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge, 5th ed. Newtown Square,
PA: PMI.
11. Cleland, D. I. (2001). “The discipline of project manage-
ment,” in Knutson, J. (Ed.), Project Management for Business
Professionals. New York: Wiley, pp. 3–22.
12. Lundin, R. A., and Soderholm, A. (1995). “A theory of
the temporary organization,” Scandinavian Journal of
Management, 11(4): 437–55.
13. Graham, R. J. (1992). “A survival guide for the acciden-
tal project manager.” Proceedings of the Annual Project
Management Institute Symposium. Drexel Hill, PA: Project
Management Institute, pp. 355–61.
14. Sources: http://macs.about.com/b/a/087641.htm; Mossberg,
W. S. (2004). “The music man,” Wall Street Journal, June 14,
p. B1. Project Management Institute, Sohmen, Victor.
“Project termination: Why the delay?” PMI Research
Conference. Proceedings, p. 467–475. Paper presented at
PMI Research Conference. Project Management Institute,
Inc (2002). Copyright and all rights reserved. Material
from this publication has been reproduced with the per-
mission of PMI.
Notes 35
15. Pinto, J. K., and Millet, I. (1999). Successful Information
Systems Implementation: The Human Side, 2nd ed. Newtown
Square, PA: PMI.
16. Kapur, G. K. (1998). “Don’t look back to create the future.”
Presentation at the Frontiers of Project Management
Conference, Boston, MA.
17. Ted Ritter ( 2007, May 17). Public sector IT projects have only
30% success rate – CIO for Department for Work and Pensions.
Retrieved from: http://www.computerweekly.com/blogs/
public-sector/2007/05/public-sector-it- projects-have.html
18. Clausing, J., and Daly, M. (2013, September 14). “US nuclear
agency faulted for laxity and overspending,” Boston Globe.
www.bostonglobe.com/news/nation/2013/09/13/
nation-bloated-nuclear-spending-comes-under-fire/
O2uP7gv06vTAEw0AIcCIlL/story.html
19. “How to establish an organizational culture that pro-
motes projects,” www.bia.ca/articles/HowToEstablisha
ProjectManagementCulture.htm; Standish Group. (2006).
The Trends in IT Value report; Standish Group. (2013).
Chaos Manifesto 2013. Boston, MA.
20. Kelley, M. (2008, November 18). “$600M spent on can-
celed contracts,” USA Today, p. 1; Francis, D. (2014, June 12).
“How squandered U.S. money fuels Iraqi insurgents,” Fiscal
Times. www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2014/06/12/How-
Squandered-US-Money-Fuels-Iraq-s-Insurgents; Mulrine, A.
(2013, July 12). “Rebuilding Iraq: Final report card on US efforts
highlights massive waste,” Christian Science Monitor. www.
csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2013/0712/Rebuilding-Iraq-
Final-report-card-on-US-efforts-highlights-massive-waste
21. Cleland, D. I. (1994). Project Management: Strategic Design
and Implementation. New York: McGraw-Hill; Pinto, J. K.,
and Rouhiainen, P. (2001). Building Customer-Based Project
Organizations. New York: Wiley; Gray, C. F., and Larson,
E. W. (2003). Project Management, 2nd ed. Burr Ridge, IL:
McGraw-Hill.
22. Petroski, H. (1985). To Engineer Is Human—The Role of
Failure in Successful Design. London: St. Martin’s Press.
23. Hewlett, S. (2014, February 3). “BBC’s Digital Media Initiative
failed because of more than poor oversight,” The Guardian.
www.theguardian.com/media/media-blog/ 2014/
feb/03/bbc-digital-media-initiative-failed-mark-thompson;
Conlan, T. (2013, May 24). “BBC axes £98m technology proj-
ect to avoid ‘throwing good money after bad,’” The Guardian.
www.theguardian.com/media/2013/may/24/bbc-tech-
nology-project-digital-media-initiative; Commons Select
Committee. (2014, April 10). “BBC’s Digital Media Initiative
a complete failure.” www.parliament.uk/business/com-
mittees/committees-a-z/commons-select/public-accounts-
committee/news/bbc-dmi-report-substantive/; BBC.
(2013, December 18). “BBC ‘not effective’ in running failed
£100m IT scheme.” www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-
arts-25433174; Daniel, E., and Ward, J. (2013, June). “BBC’s
DMI project failure is a warning to all organisations,”
Computer Weekly. www.computerweekly.com/opinion/
BBCs-DMI-project-failure-is-a-warning-to-all-organisations
24. Sohmen, Victor. (2002, July). “Project termination: Why
the delay?” Paper presented at PMI Research Conference,
Seattle, WA.
25. Freeman, M., and Beale, P. (1992). “Measuring project suc-
cess,” Project Management Journal, 23(1): 8–17.
26. Morris, P. W. G. (1997). The Management of Projects. Thomas
Telford: London; McKain, S. (2005). What Customers Really
Want. Thomas Nelson: Nashville, TN.
27. Shenhar, A. J., Levy, O., and Dvir, D. (1997). “Mapping
the dimensions of project success,” Project Management
Journal, 28(2): 5–13.
28. DeLone, W. H., and McLean, E. R. (1992). “Information
systems success: The quest for the dependent variable,”
Information Systems Research, 3(1): 60–95; Seddon, P. B.
(1997). “A respecification and extension of the DeLone and
McLean model of IS success,” Information Systems Research,
8(3): 249–53; DeLone, W. H., and McLean, E. R. (2003). “The
DeLone and McLean model of information system suc-
cess: A ten-year update,” Journal of Management Information
Systems, 19(4): 9–30.
29. Atkinson, R. (1999). “Project management: Cost, time and
quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon, it’s time to
accept other success criteria,” International Journal of Project
Management, 17(6): 337–42; Cooke-Davies, T. (2002). “The
‘real’ success factors on projects,” International Journal of
Project Management, 20(3): 185–90; Olson, D. L. (2001).
Introduction to Information Systems Project Management.
Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
30. Pennypacker, J. S., and Grant, K. P. (2003). “Project man-
agement maturity: An industry benchmark,” Project
Management Journal, 34(1): 4–11; Ibbs, C. W., and Kwak, Y.
H. (1998). “Benchmarking project management organiza-
tions,” PMNetwork, 12(2): 49–53.
31. Reginato, P. E., and Ibbs, C. W. (2002). “Project manage-
ment as a core competency,” Proceedings of PMI Research
Conference 2002, Slevin, D., Pinto, J., and Cleland, D. (Eds.),
The Frontiers of Project Management Research. Newtown
Square, PA: Project Management Institute, pp. 445–50.
32. Crawford, K. (2002). Project Management Maturity Model:
Providing a Proven Path to Project Management Excellence.
New York: Marcel Dekker; Foti, R. (2002). “Implementing
maturity models,” PMNetwork, 16(9): 39–43; Gareis, R.
(2001). “Competencies in the project-oriented organiza-
tion,” in Slevin, D., Cleland, D., and Pinto, J. (Eds.), The
Frontiers of Project Management Research. Newtown Square,
PA: Project Management Institute, pp. 213–24; Gareis, R.,
and Huemann, M. (2000). “Project management compe-
tencies in the project-oriented organization,” in Turner, J.
R., and Simister, S. J. (Eds.), The Gower Handbook of Project
Management, 3rd ed. Aldershot, UK: Gower, pp. 709–22;
Ibbs, C. W., and Kwak, Y. H. (2000). “Assessing project man-
agement maturity,” Project Management Journal, 31(1): 32–43.
33. Humphrey, W. S. (1988). “Characterizing the software pro-
cess: A maturity framework,” IEEE Software, 5(3): 73–79;
Carnegie Mellon University. (1995). The Capability Maturity
Model: Guidelines for Improving the Software Process. Boston,
MA: Addison-Wesley; Kerzner, H. (2001). Strategic Planning for
Project Management Using a Project Management Maturity Model.
New York: Wiley; Crawford, J. K. (2002). Project Management
Maturity Model. New York: Marcel Dekker; Pritchard, C.
(1999). How to Build a Work Breakdown Structure: The Cornerstone
of Project Management. Arlington, VA: ESI International.
34. Jenkins, Robert N. (2005). “A new peak for Disney,” St.
Petersburg Times Online, www.sptimes.com/2005/12/11/
news_pf/travel/A_new_peak_for_Disney.
35. www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/15/chile.
mine.rescue.recap/index.html; www.cnn.com/2010/
OPINION/10/12/gergen.miners/index.html; www.
t h e n e w a m e r i c a n . c o m / i n d e x . p h p / o p i n i o n / s a m –
blumenfeld/5140-how-americans-engineered-the-rescue-
of-the-chilean-miners
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2
■ ■ ■
The Organizational Context
Strategy, Structure, and Culture
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
Tesla’s $5 Billion Gamble
introduction
2.1 Projects and organizational
strategy
2.2 stakeholder ManageMent
Identifying Project Stakeholders
Managing Stakeholders
2.3 organizational structure
2.4 forMs of organizational
structure
Functional Organizations
Project Organizations
Matrix Organizations
Moving to Heavyweight Project
Organizations
Project ManageMent research
in Brief
The Impact of Organizational Structure on
Project Performance
2.5 Project ManageMent offices
2.6 organizational culture
How Do Cultures Form?
Organizational Culture and Project
Management
Project Profile
Electronic Arts and the Power of Strong
Culture in Design Teams
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Case Study 2.1 Rolls-Royce Corporation
Case Study 2.2 Classic Case: Paradise Lost—The
Xerox Alto
Case Study 2.3 Project Task Estimation and the
Culture of “Gotcha!”
Case Study 2.4 Widgets ‘R Us
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
Integrated Project—Building Your
Project Plan
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand how effective project management contributes to achieving strategic objectives.
2. Recognize three components of the corporate strategy model: formulation, implementation,
and evaluation.
3. See the importance of identifying critical project stakeholders and managing them within the
context of project development.
4. Recognize the strengths and weaknesses of three basic forms of organizational structure and
their implications for managing projects.
5. Understand how companies can change their structure into a “heavyweight project
organization” structure to facilitate effective project management practices.
6. Identify the characteristics of three forms of project management office (PMO).
7. Understand key concepts of corporate culture and how cultures are formed.
8. Recognize the positive effects of a supportive organizational culture on project management
practices versus those of a culture that works against project management.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core
concePts covered in this chAPter
1. Project Procurement Management (PMBoK sec. 12)
2. Identify Stakeholders (PMBoK sec. 13.1)
3. Plan Stakeholder Management (PMBoK 13.2)
4. Manage Stakeholder Engagement (PMBoK 13.3)
5. Organizational Influences on Project Management (PMBoK sec. 2.1)
6. Organizational Structures (PMBoK sec. 2.1.3)
7. Organizational Cultures and Styles (PMBoK sec. 2.1.1)
8. Enterprise Environmental Factors (PMBoK sec. 2.1.5)
Project Profile
case—tesla’s $5 Billion Gamble
Tesla Motors, developer of the iconic Model S “electric sports car,” recently unveiled plans to create a “gigafactory”
in order to produce batteries to power its automobiles. The concept was introduced by Tesla’s owner, Elon Musk, who
called the proposed battery plant the world’s largest, and would lead to hiring 6,500 new workers and creating thou-
sands of ancillary jobs in the process. Musk’s plan is to develop a factory that will cover 10 million square feet of space
with a manufacturing capacity to produce 35 gigawatt hours of batteries per year. To put this in perspective, Tesla’s
closest competitor in producing car batteries would be Nissan’s battery factory in Tennessee, which employs only 300
workers and can turn out 4.8 gigawatt hours of batteries. In setting their sights on building the world’s largest battery
factory, Tesla (and Elon Musk) are gambling that demand for electric cars is rapidly growing. Musk’s plan is for the plant
to start producing batteries by 2017, which puts pressure on the company to break ground by the end of 2014.
Tesla’s first car, the Tesla Model S, is a fully-electric powered sports car that has generated huge publicity for its
performance, styling, and quality. Consumer Reports gave the car a “99” rating; its highest score ever. Selling for over
$80,000 per car, however, has limited the market for the Tesla Model S to the very affluent. As a result, Tesla has already
announced plans for a mid-priced car, the Gen III, which is expected to have a starting price of around $35,000. Tesla’s
challenge lies in reducing the cost of its batteries. For example, the 85 kilowatt-hour battery pack for the Model S can
cost over $25,000. Clearly, for a mid-priced car to be a possibility, Tesla has to find a way to lower battery costs, with an
initial target of a 30% reduction.
With the promise of such a massive factory, including the thousands of jobs the project would bring, it is no sur-
prise that a number of western states are actively competing to be the host site for the structure. Officials in Arizona,
Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas have all promised tax breaks, the opportunity for Tesla to open their own retail stores
statewide, and a list of other incentives for them to agree to build in their state.
Not everyone has greeted Tesla’s plan with enthusiasm, however. For example, Volkswagen CEO Martin
Winterkorn recently observed that the current supply of car batteries was more than enough, given the slow accep-
tance rate with which electric cars are entering the American marketplace. Sales of electric vehicles remain small—less
than 1% of the total U.S. market. The U.S. government spent more than $1 billion on new electric-vehicle battery
plants as part of the Obama administration’s economic stimulus, but many of those plants now run at just 15% to 20%
of capacity. Numerous CEOs of car companies, battery makers, and others with a stake in the automotive industry share
concerns about the advisability of devoting such huge capital investment in one factory for a market that is, at best,
slowly developing.
Tesla, with sales of just over 22,400 cars last year, is already the largest buyer of lithium-ion battery cells in the
world. Its plans to sell 500,000 vehicles means that its own demand would be greater than the demand for every laptop,
mobile phone, and tablet sold in the world. To help meet this demand, as well as offset some of the cost of the huge
factory project, Elon Musk has been negotiating with some skeptical potential partners, including Panasonic’s automo-
tive and industrial systems subsidiary, to invest in the new Gigafactory and run battery-cell production. Tesla executives
(continued)
Project Profile 37
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38 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
argue that they need a plant to guarantee future supplies of the millions of battery cells they need at the reduced costs
that come from economies of scale and logistics savings.
The risks in taking on this huge project are not solely technical or demand-based. Given Tesla’s tight timetable for
completion of the factory, there is concern that it may not be possible to complete a structure within the window Mr.
Musk envisions. While it may be doable, there is no doubt that the vision to imagine, design, and build a Gigafactory
makes this a unique opportunity, coupled with significant risks.1
IntroductIon
For successful project management, the organizational setting matters—its culture, its structure,
and its strategy each play an integral part, and together they create the environment in which
a project will flourish or founder. For example, a project’s connection to your organization’s
overall strategy, the care with which you staff the team, and the goals you set for the proj-
ect can be critical. Similarly, your organization’s policies, structure, culture, and operating
systems can work to support and promote project management or work against the ability to
effectively run projects. Contextual issues provide the backdrop around which project activi-
ties must operate, so understanding what is beneath these issues truly contributes to under-
standing how to manage projects. Issues that affect a project can vary widely from company
to company.
Before beginning a project, the project manager and team must be certain about the struc-
ture of the organization as it pertains to their project and the tasks they seek to accomplish.
As clearly as possible, all reporting relationships must be specified, the rules and procedures
that will govern the project must be established, and any issues of staffing the project team
must be identified. General Electric’s efforts to acquire French conglomerate Alstom for $17
billion has been an enormously complicated undertaking, involving the combined efforts of
multiple business units, financial analysis, and constant interaction with Alstom’s principle
stakeholders, especially the French government. As part of their strategy, GE must identify the
business groups that can be blended in with their own organization, units that are redundant
to GE operations, and a logical organizational structure to best link the combined organization
FIgure 2.1 the tesla Model S “Skateboard” design with the flat battery pack located in the
base of the car
Source: Car Culture/Corbis
2.1 Projects and Organizational Strategy 39
together in as efficient a manner as possible. Integrating Alstom’s nearly 85,000 employees and
global business units with their own operations makes GE’s efforts a showcase in the project
management of a strategic acquisition.
For many organizations, projects and project management practices are not the operating
norm. In fact, as Chapter 1 discussed, projects typically exist outside of the formal, process-
oriented activities associated with many organizations. As a result, many companies are sim-
ply not structured to allow for the successful completion of projects in conjunction with other
ongoing corporate activities. The key challenge is discovering how project management may
best be employed, regardless of the structure the company has adopted. What are the strengths
and weaknesses of various structural forms and what are their implications for our ability
to manage projects? This chapter will examine the concept of organizational culture and its
roots and implications for effective project management. By looking closely at three of the
most important contextual issues for project management—strategy, organizational structure,
and culture—you will see how the variety of structural options can affect, either positively or
negatively, the firm’s ability to manage projects.
2.1 Projects and organIzatIonal strategy
strategic management is the science of formulating, implementing, and evaluating cross-functional
decisions that enable an organization to achieve its objectives.2 In this section we will consider the
relevant components of this definition as they apply to project management. Strategic management
consists of the following elements:
1. Developing vision statements and mission statements. Vision and mission statements
establish a sense of what the organization hopes to accomplish or what top managers
hope it will become at some point in the future. Vision statements describe the organi-
zation in terms of where it would like to be in the future. Effective vision statements
are both inspirational and aspirational. A corporate vision serves as a focal point for
members of the organization who may find themselves pulled in different directions
by competing demands. In the face of multiple expectations and even contradictory
efforts, an ultimate vision can serve as a “tie breaker,” which is highly beneficial in
establishing priorities. A sense of vision is also an extremely important source of moti-
vation and purpose. As the Book of Proverbs points out: “Where there is no vision, the
people perish” (Prov. 29:18).3 Mission statements explain the company’s reason for exis-
tence and support the vision. Many firms apply their vision and mission statements to
evaluating new project opportunities as a first screening device. For example, Bechtel
Corporation, a large construction organization, employs as its vision the goal of being
“the world’s premier engineering, construction, and project management company.”4
For Bechtel, this means (1) Customers and partners will see Bechtel as integral to their
success; (2) People will be proud to work at Bechtel; and (3) Communities will regard
Bechtel as “ responsible—and responsive.” Projects they undertake must support this
vision and those that do not are not pursued.
2. Formulating, implementing, and evaluating. Projects, as the key ingredients in strategy
implementation, play a crucial role in the basic process model of strategic management.
A firm devotes significant time and resources to evaluating its business opportunities
through developing a corporate vision or mission, assessing internal strengths and weak-
nesses as well as external opportunities and threats, establishing long-range objectives,
and generating and selecting among various strategic alternatives. All these components
relate to the formulation stage of strategy. Within this context, projects serve as the vehicles
that enable companies to seize opportunities, capitalize on their strengths, and implement
overall corporate objectives. New product development, for example, fits neatly into
this framework. New products are developed and commercially introduced as a compa-
ny’s response to business opportunities. Effective project management enables firms to
efficiently and rapidly respond.
3. Making cross-functional decisions. Business strategy is a corporate-wide venture,
requiring the commitment and shared resources of all functional areas to meet overall
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40 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
table 2.1 Projects reflect Strategy
Strategy Project
Technical or operating initiatives (such as new distribution
strategies or decentralized plant operations)
Construction of new plants or
modernization of facilities
Development of products for greater market penetration and
acceptance
New product development projects
New business processes for greater streamlining and efficiency Reengineering projects
Changes in strategic direction or product portfolio reconfiguration New product lines
Creation of new strategic alliances Negotiation with supply chain members
(including suppliers and distributors)
Matching or improving on competitors’ products and services Reverse engineering projects
Improvement of cross-organizational communication and efficiency
in supply chain relationships
Enterprise IT efforts
Promotion of cross-functional interaction, streamlining of
new product or service introduction, and improvement of
departmental coordination
Concurrent engineering projects
objectives. Cross-functional decision making is a critical feature of project management, as
experts from various functional groups come together into a team of diverse personalities
and backgrounds. Project management work is a natural environment in which to opera-
tionalize strategic plans.
4. Achieving objectives. Whether the organization is seeking market leadership through
low-cost, innovative products, superior quality, or other means, projects are the most
effective tools to allow objectives to be met. A key feature of project management is
that it can potentially allow firms to be effective in the external market as well as inter-
nally efficient in operations; that is, it is a great vehicle for optimizing organizational
objectives, whether they incline toward efficiency of production or product or process
effectiveness.
Projects have been called the “stepping-stones” of corporate strategy.5 This idea implies that
an organization’s overall strategic vision is the driving force behind its project development. For
example, 3M’s desire to be a leading innovator in business gives rise to the creation and man-
agement of literally hundreds of new product development projects within the multinational
organization every year. Likewise, Rubbermaid Corporation is noted for its consistent pursuit of
new product development and market introduction. The manner in which organizational strategies
affect new project introductions will be addressed in greater detail in the chapter on project selection
(Chapter 3). Projects are the building blocks of strategies; they put an action-oriented face on the
strategic edifice. Some examples of how projects operate as strategic building blocks are shown in
Table 2.1. Each of the examples illustrates the underlying theme that projects are the “operational
reality” behind strategic vision. In other words, they serve as the building blocks to create the
reality a strategy can only articulate.
The tows matrix (See Figure 2.2) is a useful way to see the links between projects and an
organization’s strategic choices. TOWS comes from the acronym for “Threats–Opportunities–
Weaknesses–Strengths” and refers to the challenges companies face in both their internal envi-
ronment (within the organization) and their external environment (outside the company). In
first identifying and then formulating strategies for addressing internal strengths and weak-
nesses and external opportunities and threats, firms rely on projects as a device for pursuing
these strategic choices. As Figure 2.2 suggests, once an organization determines the appropri-
ate strategies to pursue (e.g., “maxi-maxi” strategy), it can then identify and undertake project
choices that support this TOWS matrix. Projects offer companies the ability to create concrete
means for realizing strategic goals.6
2.2 Stakeholder Management 41
An organization’s strategic management is the first important contextual element in its proj-
ect management approaches. Because projects form the building blocks that allow us to implement
strategic plans, it is vital that there exist a clear sense of harmony, or complementarity, between
strategy and projects that have been selected for development. In a later section, we will add to our
understanding of the importance of creating the right context for projects by adding an additional
variable into the mix: the organization’s structure.
2.2 stakeholder ManageMent
Organizational research and direct experience tell us that organizations and project teams cannot
operate in ways that ignore the external effects of their decisions. One way to understand the rela-
tionship of project managers and their projects to the rest of the organization is through employing
stakeholder analysis. stakeholder analysis is a useful tool for demonstrating some of the seem-
ingly irresolvable conflicts that occur through the planned creation and introduction of any new
project. Project stakeholders are defined as all individuals or groups who have an active stake in
the project and can potentially impact, either positively or negatively, its development.7 Project
stakeholder analysis, then, consists of formulating strategies to identify and, if necessary, manage
for positive results the impact of stakeholders on the project.
Stakeholders can affect and are affected by organizational actions to varying degrees.8 In
some cases, a corporation must take serious heed of the potential influence some stakeholder
groups are capable of wielding. In other situations, a stakeholder group may have relatively
little power to influence a company’s activities but its presence may still require attention.
Contrast, for example, the impact that the government has on regulating the tobacco indus-
try’s activities with the relative weakness of a small subcontractor working for Oracle on new
software development. In the first case, the federal government has, in recent years, strongly
limited the activities and sales strategies of the tobacco companies through the threat of regula-
tion and litigation. On the other hand, Oracle, a large organization, can easily replace one small
subcontractor with another.
Stakeholder analysis is helpful to the degree that it compels firms to acknowledge the poten-
tially wide-ranging effects, both intended and unintended, that their actions can have on various
stakeholder groups.9 For example, the strategic decision to close an unproductive manufacturing
facility may make good business sense in terms of costs versus benefits that the company derives
from the manufacturing site. However, the decision to close the plant has the potential to unleash
External
Opportunities (O)
Internal Strengths (S)
Internal
Weaknesses (W)
SO
“Maxi-Maxi” Strategy
ST
“Maxi-Mini” Strategy
WT
“Mini-Mini” Strategy
WO
“Mini-Maxi” Strategy
Develop projects that
use strengths to maximize
opportunities
Develop projects that
use strengths to minimize
threats
Develop projects that
minimize weaknesses and
avoid threats
Develop projects that
minimize weaknesses by
taking advantage of
opportunities
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
External Threats (T)
FIgure 2.2 toWS Matrix
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42 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
a torrent of stakeholder complaints in the form of protests and challenges from local unions, work-
ers, community leaders in the town affected by the closing, political and legal groups, environmen-
tal concerns, and so forth. Sharp managers will consider the impact of stakeholder reaction as they
weigh the possible effects of their strategic decisions.
Just as stakeholder analysis is instructive for understanding the impact of major strate-
gic decisions, project stakeholder analysis is extremely important when it comes to managing
projects. The project development process itself can be directly affected by stakeholders. This
relationship is essentially reciprocal in that the project team’s activities can also affect external
stakeholder groups.10 Some common ways the client stakeholder group has an impact on proj-
ect team operations include agitating for faster development, working closely with the team to
ease project transfer problems, and influencing top management in the parent organization to
continue supporting the project. The project team can reciprocate this support through actions
that show willingness to closely cooperate with the client in development and transition to
user groups.
The nature of these various demands can place them seemingly in direct conflict. That is, in
responding to the concerns of one stakeholder, project managers often unwittingly find themselves
having offended or angered another stakeholder who has an entirely different agenda and set of
expectations. For example, a project team working to install a new software application across the
organization may go to such levels to ensure customer satisfaction that they engage in countless
revisions of the package until they have, seemingly, made their customers happy. However, in
doing so, the overall project schedule may now have slipped to the point where top management
is upset by the cost and schedule overruns. In managing projects, we are challenged to find ways
to balance a host of demands and still maintain supportive and constructive relationships with
each important stakeholder group.
Identifying Project stakeholders
Internal stakeholders are a vital component in any stakeholder analysis, and their impact
is usually felt in relatively positive ways; that is, while serving as limiting and control-
ling influences (in the case of the company accountant), for example, most internal stake-
holders want to see the project developed successfully. On the other hand, some external
stakeholder groups operate in manners that are quite challenging or even hostile to
project development. Consider the case of spikes in the price of oil. With oil prices remain-
ing unstable, ranging from $60 to above $100 per barrel through much of 2014, the impact on
the global economy, attempting to emerge from the Great Recession, has been severe. Many
groups in the United States have advocated taking steps to lessen the country’s dependence on
foreign oil, including offshore exploration and the development of a new generation of nuclear
power plants. Hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) technology has been widely embraced as
a means for developing shale deposits across the country, resulting in projections that the
United States will go from a net importer of 1.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in 2012 to an
exporter by 2016. Environmental groups, however, continue to oppose these steps, vowing to
use litigation, political lobbying, and other measures to resist the development of these alter-
native energy sources. As a recent example of the danger, they cite the Deepwater Horizon
disaster that leaked thousands of barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Political efforts by
environmentalists and their supporters have effectively delayed for years the development of
the 1,700-mile-long Keystone XL oil pipeline from Canada’s oil sands region to refineries in
Texas. Cleland refers to these types of external stakeholders as intervenor groups, defined as
groups external to the project but possessing the power to effectively intervene and disrupt
the project’s development.11
Among the set of project stakeholders that project managers must consider are:
Internal
• Top management
• Accounting
• Other functional managers
• Project team members
2.2 Stakeholder Management 43
External
• Clients
• Competitors
• Suppliers
• Environmental, political, consumer, and other intervenor groups
clIents Our focus throughout this entire book will be on maintaining and enhancing client rela-
tionships. In most cases, for both external and internal clients, a project deals with an investment.
Clients are concerned with receiving the project from the team as quickly as possible because the
longer the project implementation, the longer the money invested sits without generating any re-
turns. As long as costs are not passed on to them, clients seldom are overly interested in how
much expense is involved in a project’s development. The opposite is usually the case, however.
Costs typically must be passed on, and customers are avidly interested in getting what they pay
for. Also, many projects start before client needs are fully defined. Product concept screening and
clarification are often made part of the project scope of work (see Chapter 5). These issues—costs
and client needs—are two strong reasons why many customers seek the right to make suggestions
and request alterations in the project’s features and operating characteristics well into the schedule.
Customers feel, with justification, that a project is only as good as it is acceptable and useful. This
sets a certain flexibility requirement and requires willingness from the project team to be amenable
to specification changes.
Another important fact to remember about dealing with client groups is that the term client
does not in every case refer to the entire customer organization. The reality is often far more complex.
A client firm consists of a number of internal interest groups, and in many cases they have different
agendas. For example, a company can probably readily identify a number of distinct clients within the
customer organization, including the top management team, engineering groups, sales teams, on-site
teams, manufacturing or assembly groups, and so on. Under these normal circumstances, it becomes
clear that the process of formulating a stakeholder analysis of a customer organization can be a
complex undertaking.
The challenge is further complicated by the need to communicate, perhaps using different
business language, with the various customer stakeholder groups (see Figure 2.3). Preparing a
presentation to deal with the customer ’s engineering staff requires mastery of technical infor-
mation and solid specification details. On the other hand, the finance and contractual people
are looking for tightly presented numbers. Formulating stakeholder strategies requires you
first to acknowledge the existence of these various client stakeholders, and then to formulate
a coordinated plan for uncovering and addressing each group’s specific concerns and learning
how to reach them.
Parent
Organization
External
Environment
Top
Management
Accountant Project
Team
Project
Manager
Clients
Other Functional
Managers
FIgure 2.3 Project Stakeholder relationships
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44 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
coMPetItors Competitors can be an important stakeholder element because they are affected by
the successful implementation of a project. Likewise, should a rival company bring a new product
to market, the project team’s parent organization could be forced to alter, delay, or even abandon
its project. In assessing competitors as a project stakeholder group, project managers should try
to uncover any information available about the status of a competitor’s projects. Further, where
possible, any apparent lessons a competitor may have learned can be a source of useful informa-
tion for a project manager who is initiating a similar project. If a number of severe implementation
problems occurred within the competitor’s project, that information could offer valuable lessons
in terms of what to avoid.
suPPlIers Suppliers are any group that provides the raw materials or other resources the proj-
ect team needs in order to complete the project. When a project requires a significant supply
of externally purchased components, the project manager needs to take every step possible to
ensure steady deliveries. In most cases this is a two-way street. First, the project manager has to
ensure that each supplier receives the information necessary to implement its part of the proj-
ect in a timely way. Second, the project manager must monitor the deliveries so they are met
according to plan. In the ideal case, the supply chain becomes a well-greased machine that au-
tomatically both draws the input information from the project team and delivers the products
without excessive involvement of the project manager. For example, in large-scale construction
projects, project teams daily must face and satisfy an enormous number of supplier demands.
The entire discipline of supply chain management is predicated on the ability to streamline
logistics processes by effectively managing the project’s supply chain.12 When this process fails
or is disrupted the consequences can be severe, as in the case of the catastrophic tsunami that
struck the northeastern coast of Japan in March 2011, The supply chains and product develop-
ment capabilities of Japanese corporations were badly damaged. Economists estimate that the
natural disaster cost the country’s economy over $300 billion. Further, numerous corporations
(both Japanese companies and those that are their supply chain partners) were affected by the
disaster. Japan manufactures 20% of the world’s semiconductor products, leading to serious
shortages and delivery delays for companies such as Intel, Toshiba, and Apple.
Intervenor grouPs Environmental, political, social, community-activist, or consumer
groups that can have a positive or negative effect on the project’s development and successful
launch are referred to as intervenor groups.13 That is, they have the capacity to intervene in the
project development and force their concerns to be included in the equation for project imple-
mentation. There are some classic examples of intervenor groups curtailing major construction
projects, particularly in the nuclear power plant construction industry. As federal, state, and
even local regulators decide to involve themselves in these construction projects, intervenors
have at their disposal the legal system as a method for tying up or even curtailing projects.
For example, while wind farms supply more than half of the electricity needs for the country
of Denmark, an alternative energy “wind farm” project being proposed for sites off the coast
of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, have encountered strong resistance from local groups opposed
to the threat from these farms ruining the local seascape. Litigation has tied this wind farm
project up for years and shows no sign of being approved in the near future. Prudent project
managers need to make a realistic assessment of the nature of their projects and the likelihood
that one intervenor group or another may make an effort to impose its will on the development
process.
toP ManageMent In most organizations, top management holds a great deal of control over
project managers and is in the position to regulate their freedom of action. Top management is,
after all, the body that authorizes the development of the project through giving the initial “go” de-
cision, sanctions additional resource transfers as they are needed by the project team, and supports
and protects project managers and their teams from other organizational pressures. Top manage-
ment requires that the project be timely (they want it out the door quickly), cost-efficient (they do
not want to pay more for it than they have to), and minimally disruptive to the rest of the functional
organization.
accountIng The accountant’s raison d’être in the organization is maintaining cost efficiency of
the project teams. Accountants support and actively monitor project budgets and, as such, are
2.2 Stakeholder Management 45
sometimes perceived as the enemy by project managers. This perception is wrong minded. To
be able to manage the project, to make the necessary decisions, and to communicate with the
customer, the project manager has to stay on top of the cost of the project at all times. An efficient
cost control and reporting mechanism is vital. Accountants perform an important administrative
service for the project manager.
FunctIonal Managers Functional managers who occupy line positions within the tradition-
al chain of command are an important stakeholder group to acknowledge. Most projects are
staffed by individuals who are essentially on loan from their functional departments. In fact,
in many cases, project team members may only have part-time appointments to the team; their
functional managers may still expect a significant amount of work out of them per week in
performing their functional responsibilities. This situation can create a good deal of confusion,
conflict, and the need for negotiation between project managers and functional supervisors
and lead to seriously divided loyalties among team members, particularly when performance
evaluations are conducted by functional managers rather than the project manager. In terms of
simple self-survival, team members often maintain closer allegiance to their functional group
than to the project team.
Project managers need to appreciate the power of the organization’s functional managers as
a stakeholder group. Functional managers are not usually out to discourage project development.
Rather, they have loyalty to their functional roles, and they act and use their resources accordingly,
within the limits of the company’s structure. Nevertheless, as a formidable stakeholder group,
functional managers need to be treated with due consideration by project managers.
Project teaM MeMbers The project team obviously has a tremendous stake in the project’s out-
come. Although some may have a divided sense of loyalty between the project and their functional
group, in many companies the team members volunteer to serve on projects and, hopefully, receive
the kind of challenging work assignments and opportunities for growth that motivate them to
perform effectively. Project managers must understand that their project’s success depends on the
commitment and productivity of each member of the project team. Thus, team members’ impact on
the project is, in many ways, more profound than that of any other stakeholder group.
Managing stakeholders
Project managers and their companies need to recognize the importance of stakeholder groups
and proactively manage with their concerns in mind. Block offers a useful framework of the
political process that has application to stakeholder management.14 In his framework, Block suggests
six steps:
1. Assess the environment.
2. Identify the goals of the principal actors.
3. Assess your own capabilities.
4. Define the problem.
5. Develop solutions.
6. Test and refine the solutions.
assess the envIronMent Is the project relatively low-key or is it potentially so significant
that it will likely excite a great deal of attention? For example, when EMC Corporation, a large
computer manufacturer, began development of a new line of minicomputers and storage units
with the potential for either great profits or serious losses, it took great care to first determine the
need for such a product. Going directly to the consumer population with market research was
the key to assessing the external environment. Likewise, one of the shapers of autonomous and
near-autonomous care technology (driverless cars) has been companies such as Google working
closely with consumers to determine their expectations and comfort level with the technology.
In testing to date, autonomous vehicles have driven over 700,000 miles with only one accident
(which was human-caused). Current projections are that a safe and workable driverless car could
be ready for release as early as 2017. Ultimately, it is estimated that over 1 billion automobiles
and trucks worldwide and over 450,000 civilian and military aircraft could be affected by this
new technology.15
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46 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
IdentIFy the goals oF the PrIncIPal actors As a first step in fashioning a strategy to defuse
negative reaction, a project manager should attempt to paint an accurate portrait of stakehold-
er concerns. Fisher and Ury16 have noted that the positions various parties adopt are almost
invariably based on need. What, then, are the needs of each significant stakeholder group
regarding the project? A recent example will illustrate this point. A small IT firm specializing
in network solutions and software development recently contracted with a larger publishing
house to develop a simulation for college classroom use. The software firm was willing to
negotiate a lower-than-normal price for the job because the publisher suggested that excellent
performance on this project would lead to future business. The software organization, inter-
ested in follow-up business, accepted the lower fee because its more immediate needs were to
gain entry into publishing and develop long-term customer contacts. The publisher needed a
low price; the software developer needed new market opportunities.
Project teams must look for hidden agendas in goal assessment. It is common for departments
and stakeholder groups to exert a set of overt goals that are relevant, but often illusionary.17 In haste
to satisfy these overt or espoused goals, a common mistake is to accept these goals on face value,
without looking into the needs that may drive them or create more compelling goals. Consider, for
example, a project in a large, project-based manufacturing company to develop a comprehensive proj-
ect management scheduling system. The project manager in charge of the installation approached
each department head and believed that he had secured their willingness to participate in creating
a scheduling system centrally located within the project management division. Problems developed
quickly, however, because IT department members, despite their public professions of support, began
using every means possible to covertly sabotage the implementation of the system, delaying comple-
tion of assignments and refusing to respond to user requests. What was their concern? They believed
that placing a computer-generated source of information anywhere but in the IT department threat-
ened their position as the sole disseminator of information. In addition to probing the overt goals and
concerns of various stakeholders, project managers must look for hidden agendas and other sources
of constraint on implementation success.
assess your own caPabIlItIes As Robert Burns said, “Oh wad some Power the giftie gie us/To
see oursels as ithers see us!”18 Organizations must consider what they do well. Likewise, what are
their weaknesses? Do the project manager and her team have the political savvy and a sufficiently
strong bargaining position to gain support from each of the stakeholder groups? If not, do they
have connections to someone who can? Each of these questions is an example of the importance of
the project team understanding its own capacities and capabilities. For example, not everyone has
the contacts to upper management that may be necessary for ensuring a steady flow of support
and resources. If you realistically determine that political acumen is not your strong suit, then the
solution may be to find someone who has these skills to help you.
deFIne the ProbleM We must seek to define problems both in terms of our own perspective and
in consideration of the valid concerns of the other party. The key to developing and maintaining
strong stakeholder relationships lies in recognizing that different parties can have very different
but equally legitimate perspectives on a problem. When we define problems not just from our
viewpoint but also by trying to understand how the same issue may be perceived by stakeholders,
we are operating in a “win-win” mode. Further, we must be as precise as possible, staying focused
on the specifics of the problem, not generalities. The more accurately and honestly we can define
the problem, the better able we will be to create meaningful solution options.
develoP solutIons There are two important points to note about this step. First, developing
solutions means precisely that: creating an action plan to address, as much as possible, the needs of
the various stakeholder groups in relation to the other stakeholder groups. This step constitutes the
stage in which the project manager, together with the team, seeks to manage the political process.
What will work in dealing with top management? In implementing that strategy, what reaction
is likely to be elicited from the accountant? The client? The project team? Asking these questions
helps the project manager develop solutions that acknowledge the interrelationships of each of the
relevant stakeholder groups. The topics of power, political behavior, influence, and negotiation will
be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6.
As a second point, it is necessary that we do our political homework prior to developing
solutions.19 Note the late stage at which this step is introduced. Project managers can fall into a
2.3 Organizational Structure 47
trap if they attempt to manage a process with only fragmentary or inadequate information. The
philosophy of “ready, fire, aim” is sometimes common in stakeholder management. The result is a
stage of perpetual firefighting during which the project manager is a virtual pendulum, swinging
from crisis to crisis. Pendulums and these project managers share one characteristic: They never
reach a goal. The process of putting out one fire always seems to create a new blaze.
test and reFIne the solutIons Implementing the solutions implies acknowledging that the
project manager and team are operating under imperfect information. You may assume that stake-
holders will react to certain initiatives in predictable ways, but such assumptions can be errone-
ous. In testing and refining solutions, the project manager and team should realize that solution
implementation is an iterative process. You make your best guesses, test for stakeholder reactions,
and reshape your strategies accordingly. Along the way, many of your preconceived notions about
the needs and biases of various stakeholder groups must be refined as well. In some cases, you will
have made accurate assessments. At other times, your suppositions may have been dangerously
naive or disingenuous. Nevertheless, this final step in the stakeholder management process forces
the project manager to perform a critical self-assessment. It requires the flexibility to make accurate
diagnoses and appropriate midcourse corrections.
When done well, these six steps form an important method for acknowledging the role that stake-
holders play in successful project implementation. They allow project managers to approach “political
stakeholder management” much as they would any other form of problem solving, recognizing it as a
multivariate problem as various stakeholders interact with the project and with one another. Solutions
to political stakeholder management can then be richer, more comprehensive, and more accurate.
An alternative, simplified stakeholder management process consists of planning, organizing,
directing, motivating, and controlling the resources necessary to deal with the various internal and
external stakeholder groups. The various stakeholder management functions are interlocked and
repetitive; that is, this stakeholder management process is really best understood as a cycle. As you
continually assess the environment, you refine the goals of the principal stakeholders. Likewise, as
you assess your own capabilities, define the problems and possible solutions, you are constantly
observing the environment to make sure that your proposed solutions are still valid. Finally, in
testing and refining these solutions, it is critical to ensure that they will be the optimal alterna-
tives, given likely changes in the environment. In the process of developing and implementing
your plans, you are likely to uncover new stakeholders whose demands must also be considered.
Further, as the environment changes or as the project enters a new stage of its life cycle, you may be
required to cycle through the stakeholder management model again to verify that your old man-
agement strategies are still effective. If, on the other hand, you deem that new circumstances make
it necessary to alter those strategies, you must work through this stakeholder management model
anew to update the relevant information.
2.3 organIzatIonal structure
The word structure implies organization. People who work in an organization are grouped so that
their efforts can be channeled for maximum efficiency. organizational structure consists of three
key elements:20
1. Organizational structure designates formal reporting relationships, including the number of
levels in the hierarchy and the span of control of managers and supervisors. Who reports
to whom in the structural hierarchy? This is a key component of a firm’s structure. A span of
control determines the number of subordinates directly reporting to each supervisor. In some
structures, a manager may have a wide span of control, suggesting a large number of subor-
dinates, while other structures mandate narrow spans of control and few individuals report-
ing directly to any supervisor. For some companies, the reporting relationship may be rigid
and bureaucratic; other firms require flexibility and informality across hierarchical levels.
2. Organizational structure identifies the grouping together of individuals into departments and
departments into the total organization. How are individuals collected into larger groups?
Starting with the smallest, units of a structure continually recombine with other units to create larger
groups, or organizations of individuals. These groups, referred to as departments, may be grouped
along a variety of different logical patterns. For example, among the most common reasons for
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48 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
creating departments are (1) function—grouping people performing similar activities into similar
departments, (2) product—grouping people working on similar product lines into departments, (3)
geography—grouping people within similar geographical regions or physical locations into depart-
ments, and (4) project—grouping people involved in the same project into a department. We will
discuss some of these more common departmental arrangements in detail later in this chapter.
3. Organizational structure includes the design of systems to ensure effective communication,
coordination, and integration of effort across departments. This third feature of organizational
structure refers to the supporting mechanisms the firm relies on to reinforce and promote its
structure. These supporting mechanisms may be simple or complex. In some firms, a method
for ensuring effective communication is simply to mandate, through rules and procedures, the
manner in which project team members must communicate with one another and the types
of information they must routinely share. Other companies use more sophisticated or complex
methods for promoting coordination, such as the creation of special project offices apart from the
rest of the company where project team members work for the duration of the project. The key
thrust behind this third element in organizational structure implies that simply creating a logical
ordering or hierarchy of personnel for an organization is not sufficient unless it is also supported
by systems that ensure clear communication and coordination across the departments.
It is also important to note that within the project management context two distinct structures
operate simultaneously, and both affect the manner in which the project is accomplished. The first
is the overall structure of the organization that is developing the project. This structure consists of
the arrangement of all units or interest groups participating in the development of the project; it
includes the project team, the client, top management, functional departments, and other relevant
stakeholders. The second structure at work is the internal structure of the project team; it specifies
the relationship between members of the project team, their roles and responsibilities, and their
interaction with the project manager. The majority of this chapter examines the larger structure of
the overall organization and how it pertains to project management. The implications of internal
project team structure will be discussed here but explored more thoroughly in Chapter 6.
2.4 ForMs oF organIzatIonal structure
Organizations can be structured in an infinite variety of ways, ranging from highly complex to
extremely simple. What is important to understand is that typically the structure of an organization
does not happen by chance; it is the result of a reasoned response to forces acting on the firm. A num-
ber of factors routinely affect the reasons why a company is structured the way it is. Operating envi-
ronment is among the most important determinants or factors influencing an organization’s structure.
An organization’s external environment consists of all forces or groups outside the organization that
have the potential to affect the organization. Some elements in a company’s external environment
that can play a significant role in a firm’s activities are competitors, customers in the marketplace,
the government and other legal or regulatory bodies, general economic conditions, pools of available
human or financial resources, suppliers, technological trends, and so forth. In turn, these organiza-
tional structures, often created for very sound reasons in relation to the external environment, have a
strong impact on the manner in which projects are best managed within the organization. As we will
see, each organizational type offers its own benefits and drawbacks as a context for creating projects.
Some common structural types classify the majority of firms. These structure types include
the following:
1. Functional organizations—Companies are structured by grouping people performing similar
activities into departments.
2. Project organizations—Companies are structured by grouping people into project teams on
temporary assignments.
3. Matrix organizations—Companies are structured by creating a dual hierarchy in which
functions and projects have equal prominence.
Functional organizations
The functional structure is probably the most common organizational type used in business today.
The logic of the functional structure is to group people and departments performing similar activi-
ties into units. In the functional structure, it is common to create departments such as accounting,
2.4 Forms of Organizational Structure 49
Board of Directors
Chief Executive
Vice President of
Marketing
Vice President of
Finance
Vice President of
Research
New Product
Development
Testing
Research Labs
Quality
Market Research
Sales
After-Market
Support
Advertising
Logistics
Outsourcing
Distribution
Warehousing
Manufacturing
Accounting
Services
Contracting
Investments
Employee
Benefits
Vice President of
Production
FIgure 2.4 example of a functional organizational Structure
marketing, or research and development. Division of labor in the functional structure is not based
on the type of product or project supported, but rather according to the type of work performed.
In an organization having a functional structure, members routinely work on multiple projects or
support multiple product lines simultaneously.
Figure 2.4 shows an example of a functional structure. Among the clear strengths of the
functional organization is efficiency; when every accountant is a member of the accounting
department, it is possible to more efficiently allocate the group’s services throughout the orga-
nization, account for each accountant’s work assignments, and ensure that there is no duplica-
tion of effort or unused resources. Another advantage is that it is easier to maintain valuable
intellectual capital when all expertise is consolidated under one functional department. When
you need an expert on offshore tax implications for globally outsourced projects, you do not
have to conduct a firmwide search but can go right to the accounting department to find a resi-
dent expert.
The most common weakness in a functional structure from a project management perspec-
tive relates to the tendency for employees organized this way to become fixated on their concerns
and work assignments to the exclusion of the needs of other departments. This idea has been
labeled functional siloing, named for the silos found on farms (see Figure 2.5). Siloing occurs when
similar people in a work group are unwilling or unable to consider alternative viewpoints, col-
laborate with other groups, or work in cross-functional ways. For example, within Data General
Corporation, prior to its acquisition by EMC, squabbles between engineering and sales were con-
stant. The sales department complained that its input to new product development was mini-
mized as the engineering department routinely took the lead on innovation without meaningful
consultation with other departments. Likewise, Robert Lutz, former President of Chrysler, argued
that an ongoing weakness at the automobile company was the inability of the various functional
departments to cooperate with and recognize the contributions of each other. Another weakness
of functional structures is a generally poor responsiveness to external opportunities and threats.
Communication channels tend to run up and down the hierarchy, rather than across functional
boundaries. This vertical hierarchy can overload, and decision making takes time. Functional
structures also may not be very innovative due to the problems inherent in the design. With siloed
functional groups typically having a restricted view of the overall organization and its goals, it is
difficult to achieve the cross-functional coordination necessary to innovate or respond quickly to
market opportunities.
For project management, an additional weakness of the functional structure is that it
provides no logical location for a central project management function. Top management may
assign a project and delegate various components of that project to specialists within the dif-
ferent functional groups. Overall coordination of the project, including combining the efforts
of the different functions assigned to perform project tasks, must then occur at a higher, top
management level. A serious drawback for running projects in this operating environment is
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50 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
Vice President of
Marketing
Vice President of
Research
New Product
Development
Testing
Board of Directors
Chief Executive
Research Labs
Quality
Market Research
Sales
After-Market
Support
Advertising
Vice President of
Production
Logistics
Outsourcing
Distribution
Warehousing
Manufacturing
Vice President of
Finance
Accounting
Services
Contracting
Investments
Employee
Benefits
FIgure 2.5 the Siloing effect found in functional Structures
that they often must be layered, or applied on top of the ongoing duties of members of func-
tional groups. The practical effect is that individuals whose main duties remain within their
functional group are assigned to staff projects; when employees owe their primary allegiance
to their own department, their frame of reference can remain functional. Projects can be tem-
porary distractions in this sense, taking time away from “real work.” This can explain some of
the behavioral problems that occur in running projects, such as low team member motivation
or the need for extended negotiations between project managers and department supervisors
for personnel to staff project teams.
Another project-related problem of the functional organization is the fact that it is easy to
suboptimize the project’s development.21 When the project is developed as the brainchild of one
department, that group’s efforts may be well considered and effective. In contrast, departments
not as directly tied to or interested in the project may perform their duties to the minimum pos-
sible level. A successful project-based product or service requires the fully coordinated efforts of all
functional groups participating in and contributing to the project’s development.
Another problem is that customers are not the primary focus of everyone within the function-
ally structured organization. The customer in this environment might be seen as someone else’s
problem, particularly among personnel whose duties tend to be supportive. Customer require-
ments must be met, and projects must be created with a customer in mind. Any departmental
representatives on the project team who have not adopted a “customer-focused” mind-set add to
the possibility of the project coming up short.
Summing up the functional structure (see Table 2.2), as it relates to the external environment,
the functional structure is well suited to firms with relatively low levels of external uncertainty
because their stable environments do not require rapid adaptation or responsiveness. When the
environment is relatively predictable, the functional structure works well because it emphasizes
efficiency. Unfortunately, project management activities within the functionally organized firm can
often be problematic when they are applied in settings for which this structure’s strengths are not
well suited. As the above discussion indicates, although there are some ways in which the func-
tional structure can be advantageous to managing projects, in the main, it is perhaps the poorest
form of structure when it comes to getting the maximum performance out of project management
assignments.22
Project organizations
Project organizations are those that are set up with their exclusive focus aimed at running projects.
Construction companies, large manufacturers such as Boeing or Airbus, pharmaceutical firms, and
many software consulting and research and development organizations are organized as pure
2.4 Forms of Organizational Structure 51
table 2.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of functional Structures
Strengths for Project Management Weaknesses for Project Management
1. Projects are developed within the basic func-
tional structure of the organization, requiring
no disruption or change to the firm’s design.
1. Functional siloing makes it difficult to achieve
cross-functional cooperation.
2. Enables the development of in-depth
knowledge and intellectual capital.
2. Lack of customer focus.
3. Allows for standard career paths. Project
team members only perform their duties as
needed while maintaining maximum
connection with their functional group.
3. Projects generally take longer to complete due to
structural problems, slower communication, lack of
direct ownership of the project, and competing
priorities among the functional
departments.
4. Projects may be suboptimized due to varying interest
or commitment across functional boundaries.
project organizations. Within the project organization, each project is a self-contained business unit
with a dedicated project team. The firm assigns resources from functional pools directly to the
project for the time period they are needed. In the project organization, the project manager has
sole control over the resources the unit uses. The functional departments’ chief role is to coordinate
with project managers and ensure that there are sufficient resources available as they need them.
Figure 2.6 illustrates a simple form of the pure project structure. Projects Alpha and Beta
have been formed and are staffed by project team members from the company’s functional groups.
The project manager is the leader of the project and the staff all report to her. The staffing decisions
and duration of employees’ tenure with the project are left to the discretion of the project manager,
who is the chief point of authority for the project. As the figure suggests, there are several advan-
tages to the use of a pure project structure.
• First, the project manager does not occupy a subordinate role in this structure. All major deci-
sions and authority remain under the control of the project manager.
• Second, the functional structure and its potential for siloing or communication problems are
bypassed. As a result, communication improves across the organization and within the proj-
ect team. Because authority remains with the project manager and the project team, decision
making is speeded up. Project decisions can occur quickly, without lengthy delays, as func-
tional groups are consulted or allowed to veto project team decisions.
Vice President of
Projects
Vice President of
Production
Vice President of
Marketing
Vice President of
Finance
Vice President of
Research
Board of Directors
Chief Executive
Project
Alpha
Project
Beta
FIgure 2.6 example of a Project organizational Structure
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52 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
table 2.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Project Structures
Strengths for Project Management Weaknesses for Project Management
1. Assigns authority solely to the project
manager.
1. Setting up and maintaining teams can be expensive.
2. Leads to improved communication
across the organization and among
functional groups.
2. Potential for project team members to develop loyalty to the
project rather than to the overall organization.
3. Promotes effective and speedy
decision making.
3. Difficult to maintain a pooled supply of intellectual capital.
4. Promotes the creation of cadres of
project management experts.
4. Concern among project team members about their future
once the project ends.
5. Encourages rapid response to market
opportunities.
• Third, this organizational type promotes the expertise of a cadre of project management
professionals. Because the focus for operations within the organization is project-based,
everyone within the organization understands and operates with the same focus, ensuring
that the organization maintains highly competent project management resources.
• Finally, the pure project structure encourages flexibility and rapid response to environmental
opportunities. Projects are created, managed, and disbanded routinely; therefore, the abil-
ity to create new project teams as needed is common and team formation can be quickly
undertaken.
Although there are a number of advantages in creating dedicated project teams using a proj-
ect structure (see Table 2.3), this design does have some disadvantages that should be considered.
• First, the process of setting up and maintaining a number of self-contained project teams can
be expensive. The different functional groups, rather than controlling their resources, must
provide them on a full-time basis to the different projects being undertaken at any point. This
can result in forcing the project organization to hire more project specialists (e.g., engineers)
than they might need otherwise, with a resulting loss of economies of scale.
• Second, the potential for inefficient use of resources is a key disadvantage of the pure project
organization. Organizational staffing may fluctuate up and down as the number of projects
in the firm increases or decreases. Hence, it is possible to move from a state in which many
projects are running and organizational resources are fully employed to one in which only
a few projects are in the pipeline, with many resources underutilized. In short, manpower
requirements across the organization can increase or decrease rapidly, making staffing prob-
lems severe.
• Third, it is difficult to maintain a supply of technical or intellectual capital, which is one of the
advantages of the functional structure. Because resources do not typically reside within the
functional structure for long, it is common for them to shift from project to project, prevent-
ing the development of a pooled knowledge base. For example, many project organizations
hire technically proficient contract employees for various project tasks. These employees may
perform their work and, once finished and their contract is terminated, leave the organi-
zation, taking their expertise with them. Expertise resides not within the organization, but
differentially within the functional members who are assigned to the projects. Hence, some
team members may be highly knowledgeable while others are not sufficiently trained and
capable.
• A fourth problem with the pure project form has to do with the legitimate concerns of project
team members as they anticipate the completion of the project. What, they wonder, will be
in their future once their project is completed? As noted above, staffing can be inconsistent,
and often project team members finish a project only to discover that they are not needed
for new assignments. Functional specialists in project organizations do not have the kind of
permanent “home” that they would have in a functional organization, so their concerns are
2.4 Forms of Organizational Structure 53
justified. In a similar manner, it is common in pure project organizations for project team
members to identify with the project as their sole source of loyalty. Their emphasis is project-
based and their interests reside not with the larger organization, but within their own project.
When a project is completed, they may begin searching for new challenges, and may even
leave the company for appealing new assignments.
Matrix organizations
One of the more innovative organization designs to emerge in the past 30 years has been the matrix
structure. The matrix organization, which is a combination of functional and project activities,
seeks a balance between the functional organization and the pure project form. The way it achieves
this balance is to emphasize both function and project focuses at the same time. In practical terms,
the matrix structure creates a dual hierarchy in which there is a balance of authority between the
project emphasis and the firm’s functional departmentalization. Figure 2.7 illustrates how a matrix
organization is set up; note that the vice president of projects occupies a unique reporting relation-
ship in that the position is not formally part of the organization’s functional department structure.
The vice president is the head of the projects division and occupies one side of the dual hierarchy,
a position shared with the CEO and heads of functional departments.
Figure 2.7 also provides a look at how the firm staffs project teams. The vice president of
projects controls the activities of the project managers under his authority. They, however, must
work closely with functional departments to staff their project teams through loans of personnel
from each functional group. Whereas in functional organizations project team personnel are still
almost exclusively under the control of the functional departments and to some degree serve at
the pleasure of their functional boss, in the matrix organizational structure these personnel are
shared by both their departments and the project to which they are assigned. They remain under
the authority of both the project manager and their functional department supervisor. Notice,
for example, that the project manager for Project Alpha has negotiated the use of two resources
(personnel) from the vice president of marketing, 1.5 resources from production, and so forth. Each
project and project manager is responsible for working with the functional heads to determine the
optimal staffing needs, how many people are required to perform necessary project activities, and
when they will be available. Questions such as “What tasks must be accomplished on this proj-
ect?” are best answered by the project manager. However, other equally important questions, such
as “Who will perform the tasks?” and “How long should the tasks take?”, are matters that must be
jointly negotiated between the project manager and the functional department head.
Vice President of
Projects
Project
Alpha
Vice President of
Production
Vice President of
Marketing
Vice President of
Finance
Vice President of
Research
Board of Directors
Chief Executive
Project
Beta
2 resources
1 resource 2 resources 2 resources 2.5 resources
3 resources1.5 resources 1 resource
FIgure 2.7 example of a Matrix organizational Structure
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54 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
It is useful to distinguish between three common forms of the matrix structure: the weak matrix
(sometimes called the functional matrix), the balanced matrix, and the strong matrix (sometimes
referred to as a project matrix). In a weak matrix, functional departments maintain control over their
resources and are responsible for managing their components of the project. The project manager’s
role is to coordinate the activities of the functional departments, typically as an administrator. She
is expected to prepare schedules, update project status, and serve as the link between the depart-
ments with their different project deliverables, but she does not have direct authority to control
resources or make significant decisions on her own. The goal of the balanced matrix is to equally
distribute authority and resource assignment responsibility between the project manager and the
functional department head. In a strong matrix, the balance of power has further shifted in favor
of the project manager. She now controls most of the project activities and functions, including the
assignment and control of project resources, and has key decision-making authority. Although func-
tional managers have some input into the assignment of personnel from their departments, their role
is mostly consultative. The strong matrix is probably the closest to a “project organization” mentality
that we can get while working within a matrix environment.
Creating an organizational structure with two bosses may seem awkward, but there are some
important advantages to this approach, provided certain conditions are met. Matrix structures are
useful under circumstances in which:23
1. There is pressure to share scarce resources across product or project opportunities. When
an organization has scarce human resources and a number of project opportunities, it faces
the challenge of using its people and material resources as efficiently as possible to support
the maximum number of projects. A matrix structure provides an environment in which the
company can emphasize efficient use of resources for the maximum number of projects.
2. There is a need to emphasize two or more different types of output. For example, the firm
may need to promote its technical competence (using a functional structure) while continu-
ally creating a series of new products (requiring a project structure). With this dual pressure
for performance, there is a natural balance in a matrix organization between the functional
emphasis on technical competence and efficiency and the project focus on rapid new product
development.
3. The environment of the organization is complex and dynamic. When firms face the twin
challenges of complexity and rapidly shifting environmental pressures, the matrix structure
promotes the exchange of information and coordination across functional boundaries.
In the matrix structure, the goal is to create a simultaneous focus on the need to be quickly
responsive to both external opportunities and internal operating efficiencies. In order to achieve
this dual focus, equal authority must reside within both the project and the functional groups. One
advantage of the matrix structure for managing projects is that it places project management parallel
to functional departments in authority. This advantage highlights the enhanced status of the project
manager in this structure, who is expected to hold a similar level of power and control over resources
as department managers. Another advantage is that the matrix is specifically tailored to encour-
age the close coordination between departments, with an emphasis on producing projects quickly
and efficiently while sharing resources among projects as they are needed. Unlike the functional
structure, in which projects are, in effect, layered over a structure that is not necessarily supportive
of their processes, the matrix structure balances the twin demands of external responsiveness and
internal efficiency, creating an environment in which projects can be performed expeditiously. Finally,
because resources are shared and “movable” among multiple projects, there is a greater likelihood
that expertise will not be hoarded or centered on some limited set of personnel, as in the project orga-
nization, but will be diffused more widely across the firm.
Among the disadvantages of the matrix structure’s dual hierarchy is the potentially negative
effect that creating multiple authority points has on operations. When two parts of the organiza-
tion share authority, the workers caught between them can experience great frustration when they
receive mixed or conflicting messages from the head of the project group and the head of their
functional departments. Suppose that the vice president of projects signaled the need for workers
to concentrate their efforts on a critical project with a May 1 deadline. If, at the same time, the head
of finance were to tell his staff that with tax season imminent, it was necessary for his employees
to ignore projects for the time being to finish tax-related work, what might happen? From the
team member’s perspective, this dual hierarchy can be very frustrating. Workers daily experience
2.4 Forms of Organizational Structure 55
a sense of being pulled in multiple directions as they receive conflicting instructions from their
bosses—both on projects and in their departments. Consequently, ordinary work often becomes a
balancing act based on competing demands for their time.
Another disadvantage is the amount of time and energy required by project managers in
meetings, negotiations, and other coordinative functions to get decisions made across multiple
groups, often with different agendas. Table 2.4 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the
matrix structure.
Although matrix structures seem to be a good solution for project management, they require a
great deal of time to be spent coordinating the use of human resources. Many project managers com-
ment that as part of the matrix, they devote a large proportion of their time to meetings, to resolving
or negotiating resource commitments, and to finding ways to share power with department heads.
The matrix structure offers some important benefits and drawbacks from the perspective of managing
projects. It places project management on an equal footing with functional efficiency and promotes
cross-functional coordination. At the same time, however, the dual hierarchy results in some signifi-
cant behavioral challenges as authority and control within the organization are constantly in a state of
flux.24 A common complaint from project managers operating in matrix organizations is that an enor-
mous amount of their time is taken up with “playing politics” and bargaining sessions with functional
managers to get the resources and help they need. In a matrix, negotiation skills, political savvy, and
networking become vital tools for project managers who want to be successful.
Moving to heavyweight Project organizations
The term heavyweight project organization refers to the belief that organizations can sometimes
gain tremendous benefits from creating a fully dedicated project organization.25 The heavyweight
project organization concept is based on the notion that successful project organizations do not
happen by chance or luck. Measured steps in design and operating philosophy are needed to
get to the top and remain there. Taking their formulation from the “Skunkworks” model, named
after the famous Lockheed Corporation programs, autonomous project teams represent the final
acknowledgment by the firm of the priority of project-based work in the company. In these orga-
nizations, the project manager is given full authority, status, and responsibility to ensure project
success. Functional departments are either fully subordinated to the projects or the project teams
are accorded an independent resource base with which to accomplish their tasks.
In order to achieve the flexibility and responsiveness that the heavyweight organization can
offer, it is important to remember some key points. First, no one goes directly to the autonomous
team stage when it comes to running projects. This project organizational form represents the last
transitional stage in a systematically planned shift in corporate thinking. Instead, managers gradu-
ally move to this step through making conscious decisions about how they are going to improve
the way they run projects. Successful project firms work to expand the authority of the project
manager, often in the face of stiff resistance from functional department heads who like the power
balance the way it currently exists. Part of the process of redirecting the power balance involves
giving project managers high status, authority to conduct performance evaluations of team mem-
bers, authority over project resources, and direct links to the customers. Project managers who are
constantly forced to rely on the good graces of functional managers for their team staffing, coor-
dination, and financial and other resources are operating with one hand tied behind their backs.
table 2.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of Matrix Structures
Strengths for Project Management Weaknesses for Project Management
1. Suited to dynamic environments. 1. Dual hierarchies mean two bosses.
2. Emphasizes the dual importance of project
management and functional efficiency.
2. Requires significant time to be spent negotiating the
sharing of critical resources between projects and
departments.
3. Promotes coordination across functional
units.
3. Can be frustrating for workers caught between com-
peting project and functional demands.
4. Maximizes scarce resources between compet-
ing project and functional responsibilities.
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56 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
Second, heavyweight project organizations have realigned their priorities away from func-
tional maintenance to market opportunism, a realignment that can occur only when the resources
needed to respond rapidly to market opportunities rest with the project team rather than being
controlled by higher level bureaucracies within a company. Finally, as noted throughout this book,
the shift in focus for many firms toward project-based work profoundly affects the manner in
which the project organization, manager, and the team operate. The new focus on the external cus-
tomer becomes the driving force for operations, not simply one of several competing demands that
the project team must satisfy as best they can.
Ultimately, the decision of which organizational structure is appropriate to use may simply
come down to one of expediency; although it may, in fact, be desirable to conduct projects within
a structure that offers maximum flexibility and authority to the project manager (the pure project
structure), the fact remains that for many project managers it will be impossible to significantly
influence decisions to alter the overall organizational structure in support of their project. As a
result, perhaps a more appropriate question to ask is: What issues should I be aware of, given the
structure of the organization within which I will be managing projects? The previous discussion
in this chapter has developed this focus as our primary concern. Given the nature of the structure
within which we must operate and manage our projects, what are the strengths and weaknesses
of that form as it pertains to our ability to do our job as best we can? In formulating a thoughtful
answer to this question, we are perhaps best positioned to understand and adapt most effectively
to finding the link between our organization’s structure and project management success.
Box 2.1
Project Management research in Brief
The Impact of Organizational Structure on Project Performance
It is natural to suppose that projects may run more smoothly in some types of organizational structures than in oth-
ers. Increasingly, research evidence suggests that depending on the type of project being initiated, some structural
forms do, in fact, offer greater advantages in promoting successful completion of the project than others. The
work of Gobeli and Larson, for example, is important in highlighting the fact that the type of structure a firm has
when it runs projects will have either a beneficial or detrimental effect on the viability of the projects.
Very
effective
Effective
Ineffective
Very
ineffective
Functional
organization
Functional
matrix
Balanced
matrix
Project
matrix
Project
organization
New product development
Construction
FIgure 2.8 Managers’ Perceptions of effectiveness of Various Structures on Project Success
Source: D. H. Gobeli and E. W. Larson. (1987). “Relative Effectiveness of Different Project Management
Structures,” Project Management Journal, 18(2): 81–85, figure on page 83. Copyright and all rights
reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
2.5 Project Management Offices 57
Larson and Gobeli compared projects that had been managed in a variety of structural types, including
functional, matrix, and pure project. They differentiated among three subsets of matrix structure, labeled func-
tional matrix, balanced matrix, and project matrix, based on their perception of whether the matrix structure of a
firm leaned more heavily toward a functional approach, an evenly balanced style, or one more favorable toward
projects. After collecting data from a sample of more than 1,600 project managers, they identified those who
were conducting projects in each of the five organizational types and asked them to assess the effectiveness of
that particular structure in promoting or inhibiting effective project management practices. Their findings are
shown in Figure 2.8, highlighting the fact that, in general, project organizations do promote an atmosphere more
supportive of successful project management.
Interestingly, when Gobeli and Larson broke their sample up into new product development projects and
those related to construction, their findings were largely similar, with the exception that construction projects
were marginally more effective in matrix organizations. This suggests that structure plays a significant role in
the creation of successful projects.26
2.5 Project ManageMent oFFIces
A project management office (PMO) is defined as a centralized unit within an organization or depart-
ment that oversees or improves the management of projects.27 It is seen as a center for excellence in
project management in many organizations, existing as a separate organizational entity or subunit
that assists the project manager in achieving project goals by providing direct expertise in vital project
management duties such as scheduling, resource allocation, monitoring, and controlling the project.
PMOs were originally developed in recognition of the poor track record that many organizations have
demonstrated in running their projects. We cited some sobering statistics on the failure rates of IT proj-
ects, for example, in Chapter 1, indicating that the majority of such projects are likely to fail.
PMOs were created in acknowledgment of the fact that a resource center for project manage-
ment within a company can offer tremendous advantages. First, as we have noted, project managers
are called upon to engage in a wide range of duties, including everything from attending to the human
side of project management to handling important technical details. In many cases, these individuals
may not have the time or ability to handle all the myriad technical details—the activity scheduling,
resource allocation, monitoring and control processes, and so forth. Using a PMO as a resource center
shifts some of the burden for these activities from the project manager to a support staff that is dedi-
cated to providing this assistance. Second, it is clear that although project management is emerging as
a profession in its own right, there is still a wide gap in knowledge and expectations placed on project
managers and their teams. Simply put, they may not have the skills or knowledge for handling a num-
ber of project support activities, such as resource leveling or variance reporting. Having trained proj-
ect management professionals available through a PMO creates a “clearinghouse” effect that allows
project teams to tap into expertise when they need it.
Another benefit of the PMO is that it can serve as a central repository of all lessons learned,
project documentation, and other pertinent record keeping for ongoing projects, as well as for past
projects. This function allows all project managers a central access to past project records and lessons
learned materials, rather than having to engage in a haphazard search for these documents through-
out the organization. A fourth benefit of the PMO is that it serves as the dedicated center for project
management excellence in the company. As such, it becomes the focus for all project management pro-
cess improvements that are then diffused to other organizational units. Thus, the PMO becomes the
place in which new project management improvements are first identified, tested, refined, and finally,
passed along to the rest of the organization. Each project manager can use the PMO as a resource,
trusting that they will make themselves responsible for all project management innovations.
A PMO can be placed in any one of several locations within a firm.28 As Figure 2.9 demon-
strates, the PMO may be situated at a corporate level (Level 3) where it serves an overall corporate
support function. It can be placed at a lower functional level (Level 2) where it serves the needs
within a specific business unit. Finally, the PMO can be decentralized down to the actual proj-
ect level (Level 1) where it offers direct support for each project. The key to understanding the
function of the PMO is to recognize that it is designed to support the activities of the project man-
ager and staff, not replace the manager or take responsibility for the project. Under these circum-
stances, we see that the PMO can take a lot of the pressure off the project manager by handling the
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58 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
administration duties, leaving the project manager free to focus on the equally important people
issues, including leading, negotiating, customer relationship building, and so forth.
Although Figure 2.9 gives us a sense of where PMOs may be positioned in the organization
and, by extension, clues to their supporting role depending on how they are structured, it is also
helpful to consider some of the PMO models. PMOs have been described as operating under one
of three alternative forms and purposes in companies: (1) weather station, (2) control tower, and (3)
resource pool.29 Each of these models has an alternative role for the PMO.
1. Weather station—Under the weather station model, the PMO is typically used only as a
tracking and monitoring device. In this approach, the assumption is often one in which
top management, feeling nervous about committing money to a wide range of projects,
wants a weather station as a tracking device, to keep an eye on the status of the projects
without directly attempting to influence or control them. The weather station PMO is
intended to house independent observers who focus almost exclusively on some key
questions, such as:
• What’s our progress? How is the project progressing against the original plan? What key
milestones have we achieved?
• How much have we paid for the project so far? How do our earned value projections look?
Are there any budgetary warning signals?
• What is the status of major project risks? Have we updated our contingency planning as
needed?
2. Control tower—The control tower model treats project management as a business skill to
be protected and supported. It focuses on developing methods for continually improving
project management skills by identifying what is working, where the shortcomings exist,
and how to resolve ongoing problems. Most importantly, unlike the weather station model,
which monitors project management activities only to report results to top management, the
control tower is a model that is intended to directly work with and support the activities of
the project manager and team. In doing so, it performs four functions:
• Establishes standards for managing projects—The control tower model of the PMO is
designed to create a uniform methodology for all project management activities, including
duration estimation, budgets, risk management, scope development, and so forth.
PO Level 3
PO Level 2
Level 1
Project A
Project B
PO
Project C
Business Unit
Corporate
Support
Chief Operating
Officer
Sales Delivery Support
PO
PO
FIgure 2.9 Alternative levels of Project offices
Source: W. Casey and W. Peck. (2001). “Choosing the Right PMO Setup,” PMNetwork,
15(2): 40–47, figure on page 44. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this
publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
2.6 Organizational Culture 59
• Consults on how to follow these standards—In addition to determining the appropriate
standards for running projects, the PMO is set up to help project managers meet those stan-
dards through providing internal consultants or project management experts throughout
the development cycle as their expertise is needed.
• Enforces the standards—Unless there is some process that allows the organization to
enforce the project management standards it has developed and disseminated, it will not
be taken seriously. The control tower PMO has the authority to enforce the standards it has
established, either through rewards for excellent performance or sanctions for refusal to
abide by the standard project management principles. For example, the PMO for Accident
Fund Insurance Co. of America has full authority to stop projects that it feels are violating
accepted practices or failing to bring value to the company.
• Improves the standards—The PMO is always motivated to look for ways to improve the
current state of project management procedures. Once a new level of project performance
has been created, under a policy of continuous improvement, the PMO should already be
exploring how to make good practices better.
3. Resource pool—The goal of the resource pool PMO is to maintain and provide a cadre of
trained and skilled project professionals as they are needed. In essence, it becomes a clear-
inghouse for continually upgrading the skills of the firm’s project managers. As the company
initiates new projects, the affected departments apply to the resource pool PMO for assets
to populate the project team. The resource pool PMO is responsible for supplying project
managers and other skilled professionals to the company’s projects. In order for this model to
be implemented successfully, it is important for the resource pool to be afforded sufficiently
high status within the organization that it can bargain on an equal footing with other top
managers who need project managers for their projects. Referring back to Figure 2.7, the
resource pool model seems to work best when the PMO is generally viewed as a Level 3
support structure, giving the head of the PMO the status to maintain control of the pool of
trained project managers and the authority to assign them as deemed appropriate.
The PMO concept is rapidly being assimilated in a number of companies. However, it has some
critics. For example, some critics contend that it is a mistake to “place all the eggs in one basket” with
PMOs by concentrating all project professionals in one location. This argument suggests that PMOs
actually inhibit the natural, unofficial dissemination of project skills across organizational units by
maintaining them at one central location. Another potential pitfall is that the PMO, if its philosophy
is not carefully explained, can simply become another layer of oversight and bureaucracy within the
organization; in effect, rather than freeing up the project team by performing supporting functions, it
actually handcuffs the project by requiring additional administrative control. Another potential dan-
ger associated with the use of PMOs is that they may serve as a bottleneck for communications flow
across the organization,30 particularly between the parent organization and the project’s customer.
Although some of the criticisms of PMOs contain an element of truth, they should not be
used to avoid the adoption of a project office under the right circumstances. The PMO is, at its core,
recognition that project management skill development must be encouraged and reinforced, that
many organizations have great need of standardized project practices, and that a central, support-
ing function can serve as a strong source for continuous project skill improvement. Viewed in this
light, the PMO concept is likely to gain in popularity in the years to come.
2.6 organIzatIonal culture
The third key contextual variable in how projects are managed effectively is that of organizational
culture. So far, we have examined the manner in which a firm’s strategy affects its project manage-
ment, and how projects and portfolios are inextricably tied to a company’s vision and serve to
operationalize strategic choices. Structure constitutes the second piece of the contextual puzzle,
and we have demonstrated how various organizational designs can help or hinder the project
management process. Now we turn to the third contextual variable: an organization’s culture and
its impact on managing projects.
One of the unique characteristics of organizations is the manner in which each develops
its own outlook, operating policies and procedures, patterns of thinking, attitudes, and norms
of behavior. These characteristics are often as unique as an individual’s fingerprints or DNA
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60 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
signature; in the same way, no two organizations, no matter how similar in size, products, operat-
ing environment, or profitability, are the same. Each has developed its own unique method for
indoctrinating its employees, responding to environmental threats and opportunities, and sup-
porting or discouraging operating behaviors. In other settings, such as anthropology, a culture is
seen as the collective or shared learning of a group, and it influences how that group is likely to
respond in different situations. These ideas are embedded in the concept of organizational culture.
One of the original writers on culture defined it as “the solution to external and internal problems
that has worked consistently for a group and that is therefore taught to new members as the correct
way to perceive, think about, and feel in relation to these problems.”31
Travel around Europe and you will quickly become immersed in a variety of cultures. You
will discern the unique cultural characteristics that distinguish nationalities, such as the Finnish
and Swedish. Differences in language, social behavior, family organization, and even religious
beliefs clearly demonstrate these cultural differences. Even within a country, cultural attitudes and
values vary dramatically. The norms, attitudes, and common behaviors of northern and southern
Italians lead to differences in dress, speech patterns, and even evening dining times. One of the key
elements in courses on international business identifies cultural differences as patterns of unique
behavior, so that business travelers or those living in other countries will be able to recognize
“appropriate” standards of behavior and cultural attitudes, even though these cultural patterns
may be very different from those of the traveler’s country or origin.
For project team members who are called upon to work on projects overseas, or who are linked
via the Internet and e-mail to other project team members from different countries, developing an
appreciation for cross-border cultural differences is critical. The values and attitudes expressed by
these various cultures are strong regulators of individual behavior; they define our belief systems
and work dedication, as well as our ability to function on cross-cultural project teams.
Research has begun to actively explore the impact that workplace cultures have on the per-
formance of projects and the manner in which individual project team members decide whether
or not they will commit to its goals. Consider two contrasting examples the author has witnessed:
In one Fortune 500 company, functional department heads for years have responded to all resource
requests from project managers by assigning their worst, newest, or lowest-performing personnel
to these teams. In effect, they have treated projects as dumping grounds for malcontents or poor
performers. In this organization, project teams are commonly referred to as “leper colonies.” It is
easy to imagine the response of a member of the firm to the news that he has just been assigned to
a new project! On the other hand, I have worked with an IT organization where the unspoken rule
is that all departmental personnel are to make themselves available as expert resources when their
help is requested by a project manager. The highest priority in the company is project delivery, and
all other activities are subordinated to achieving this expectation. It is common, during particu-
larly hectic periods, for IT members to work 12-plus hours per day, assisting on 10 or more projects
at any time. As one manager put it, “When we are in crunch time, titles and job descriptions don’t
mean anything. If it has to get done, we are all responsible—jointly—to make sure it gets done.”
The differences in managing projects at the companies illustrated in these stories are striking,
as is the culture that permeates their working environment and approach to project delivery. Our
definition of culture can be directly applied in both of these cases to refer to the unwritten rules of
behavior, or norms that are used to shape and guide behavior, that are shared by some subset of
organizational members, and that are taught to all new members of the company. This definition
has some important elements that must be examined in more detail:
• Unwritten—Cultural norms guide the behavior of each member of the organization but are
often not written down. In this way, there can be a great difference between the slogans or
inspirational posters found on company walls and the real, clearly understood culture that
establishes standards of behavior and enforces them for all new company members. For
example, Erie Insurance, annually voted one of the best companies to work for, has a strong,
supportive culture that emphasizes and rewards positive collaboration between functional
groups. Although the policy is not written down, it is widely held, understood by all, and
taught to new organization members. When projects require the assistance of personnel from
multiple departments, the support is expected to be there.
• Rules of behavior—Cultural norms guide behavior by allowing us a common language for
understanding, defining, or explaining phenomena and then providing us with guidelines
2.6 Organizational Culture 61
as to how best to react to these events. These rules of behavior can be very powerful and
commonly held: They apply equally to top management and workers on the shop floor.
However, because they are unwritten, we may learn them the hard way. For example, if you
were newly hired as a project engineer and were working considerably slower or faster than
your coworkers, it is likely that one of them would quickly clue you in on an acceptable level
of speed that does not make you or anyone else look bad by comparison.
• Held by some subset of the organization—Cultural norms may or may not be companywide.
In fact, it is very common to find cultural attitudes differing widely within an organization. For
example, blue-collar workers may have a highly antagonistic attitude toward top management;
members of the finance department may view the marketing function with hostility and vice
versa; and so forth. These “subcultures” reflect the fact that an organization may contain a num-
ber of different cultures, operating in different locations or at different levels. Pitney-Bowes, for
example, is a maker of postage meters and other office equipment. Its headquarters unit reflects
an image of stability, orderliness, and prestige. However, one of its divisions, Pitney-Bowes
Credit Corporation (PBCC), headquartered in Shelton, Connecticut, has made a name for itself
by purposely adopting an attitude of informality, openness, and fun. Its décor, featuring fake gas
lamps, a French café, and Internet surfing booths, has been described as resembling an “indoor
theme park.” PBCC has deliberately created a subculture that reflects its own approach to busi-
ness, rather than adopting the general corporate vision.32 Another example is the Macintosh
project team’s approach to creating a distinct culture at Apple while they were developing this
revolutionary system, to the point of being housed in different facilities from the rest of the com-
pany and flying a pirate flag from the flagpole!
• Taught to all new members—Cultural attitudes, because they are often unwritten, may not be
taught to newcomers in formal ways. New members of an organization pick up the behaviors
as they observe others engaging in them. In some organizations, however, all new hires are
immersed in a formal indoctrination program to ensure that they understand and appreciate the
organization’s culture. The U.S. Marines, for example, take pride in the process of indoctrination
and training for all recruits, which develops a collective, committed attitude toward the Marine
Corps. Google takes its new indoctrination procedures (“onboarding”) seriously. The company,
which onboarded over 7,000 new hires in 2013, has experimented with its orientation procedures
to help new employees, called “Nooglers,” make more social connections and get up to speed
more quickly. General Electric also sends new employees away for orientation, to be “tattooed
with the meatball,” as members of the company refer to the GE logo.
On the other hand, when allowed to get out of control, a culture can quickly become toxic and
work against the goals of the organization. For example, the Australian Olympic swim team has
historically been one of the strongest competitors at the summer competition and yet, in London
in 2012, the team managed to win just one gold medal, a stunningly poor result. An independent
review, commissioned in the aftermath of their performance, focused the blame on a failure of
leadership and culture on the team. The report cited a “toxic” culture involving “bullying, the mis-
use of prescription drugs, and a lack of discipline.” The worst performance in 20 years was directly
attributable to a lack of moral authority and discipline among team members.33
how do cultures Form?
When it is possible to view two organizations producing similar products within the context of
very individualistic and different cultures, the question of how cultures form gets particularly
interesting. General Electric’s Jet Engine Division and Rolls-Royce share many features, includ-
ing product lines. Both produce jet engines for the commercial and defense aircraft industries.
However, GE prides itself on its competitive, high-pressure culture that rewards aggressiveness
and high commitment, but also has a high “burnout” rate among engineers and mid-level manag-
ers. Rolls-Royce, on the other hand, represents an example of a much more paternalistic culture
that rewards loyalty and long job tenure.
Researchers have examined some of the powerful forces that can influence how a company’s
culture emerges. Among the key factors that affect the development of a culture are technology,
environment, geographical location, reward systems, rules and procedures, key organizational
members, and critical incidents.34
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62 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
technology The technology of an organization refers to its conversion process whereby it trans-
forms inputs into outputs. For example, the technology of many project organizations is the project
development process in which projects are developed to fill a current need or anticipate a future
opportunity. The technical means for creating projects can be highly complex and automated or
relatively simple and straightforward. Further, the projects may be in the form of products or ser-
vices. Research suggests that the type of technology used within a project organization can influ-
ence the culture that it promotes. “High-technology” organizations represent an example of how a
fast-paced, technologically based culture can permeate through an organization.
envIronMent Organizations operate under distinct environmental pressures. A firm’s environ-
ment may be complex and rapidly changing, or it may remain relatively simple and stable. Some
firms are global, because their competition is literally worldwide, while other companies focus on
regional competition. Regardless of the specific circumstances, a company’s environment affects
the culture of the firm. For example, companies with simple and slow-changing environments may
develop cultures that reinforce low risk taking, stability, and efficiency. Firms in highly complex
environments often develop cultures aimed at promoting rapid response, external scanning for
opportunities and threats, and risk taking. In this way, the firm’s operating environment affects the
formation of the culture and the behaviors that are considered acceptable within it. For example,
a small, regional construction firm specializing in commercial real estate development is likely to
have more stable environmental concerns than a Fluor-Daniel or Bechtel, competing for a variety
of construction projects on a worldwide basis.
geograPhIcal locatIon Different geographical regions develop their own cultural mores and
attitudes. The farther south in Europe one travels, for example, the later the evening meal is typi-
cally eaten; in Spain, dinner may commence after 9 pm. Likewise, in the business world, culturally
based attitudes often coordinate with the geographical locations of firms or subsidiaries. It can
even happen within countries: Xerox Corporation, for example, had tremendous difficulty in try-
ing to marry the cultures of its corporate headquarters in Connecticut with the more informal and
down-to-earth mentalities of its Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) personnel. Projects at one site
were done much differently than those undertaken at another location. It is important not to over-
state the effect that geography can play, but it certainly can result in cultural disconnects, particu-
larly in cases where organizations have developed a number of dispersed locations, both within
and outside of their country of origin.
reward systeMs The types of rewards that a firm offers to employees go a long way toward
demonstrating the beliefs and actions its top management truly values, regardless of what official
company policies might be. Reward systems support the view that, in effect, a company gets what
it pays for. An organization that publicly espouses environmental awareness and customer service
but routinely promotes project managers who violate these principles sends a loud message about
its real interests. As a result, the culture quickly forms around acts that lead to pollution, dishon-
esty, or obfuscation. One has only to look at past business headlines regarding corporate malfea-
sance at Enron, WorldCom, Goldman Sachs, or Adelphia Cable Company to see how the culture of
those organizations rewarded the type of behavior that ultimately led to accounting fraud, public
exposure, and millions of dollars in fines.
rules and Procedures One method for influencing a project management culture is to create
a rulebook or system of procedures for employees to clarify acceptable behavior. The idea behind
rules and procedures is to signal companywide standards of behavior to new employees. The
obvious problem arises when public or formal rules conflict with informal rules of behavior. At
Texas Instruments headquarters in Dallas, Texas, a formal rule is that all management staff works
a standard 40-hour workweek. However, the informal rule is that each member of the company
is really expected to work a 45-hour week, at a minimum, or as one senior manager explained
to a newly hired employee, “Here, you work nine hours each day: eight for you and one for TI.”
In spite of the potential for disagreements between formal and informal rules, most programs
in creating supportive project-based organizations argue that the first step toward improving
patterns of behavior is to formally codify expectations in order to alter dysfunctional project
cultures. Rules and procedures, thus, represent a good starting point for developing a strong
project culture.
2.6 Organizational Culture 63
key organIzatIonal MeMbers Key organizational members, including the founder of the or-
ganization, have a tremendous impact on the culture that emerges within the company. When the
founder is a traditional entrepreneur who encourages free expression or flexibility, this attitude
becomes ingrained in the organization’s culture in a powerful way. The founders of Ben and Jerry’s
Ice Cream, two proud ex-hippies, created a corporate culture that was unique and expressed their
desire to develop a “fun” alternative to basic capitalism. A corporate culture in which senior execu-
tives routinely flaunt the rules or act contrary to stated policies demonstrates a culture in which
there is one rule for the people at the top and another for everyone else.
crItIcal IncIdents Critical incidents express culture because they demonstrate for all workers
exactly what it takes to succeed in an organization. In other words, critical incidents are a public
expression of what rules really operate, regardless of what the company formally espouses. Critical
incidents usually take the form of stories that are related to others, including new employees, illus-
trating the types of actions that are valued. They become part of the company’s lore, either for good
or ill. In a recent year, General Electric’s Transportation Systems Division built up a large backlog
of orders for locomotives. The company galvanized its production facilities to work overtime to
complete this backlog of work. As one member of the union related, “When you see a unit vice
president show up on Saturday, put on an environmental suit, and work on the line spray painting
locomotives with the rest of the workers, you realize how committed the company was to getting
this order completed on time.”
organizational culture and Project Management
What are the implications of an organizational culture on the project management process? Culture
can affect project management in at least four ways. First, it affects how departments are expected
to interact and support each other in pursuit of project goals. Second, the culture influences the
level of employee commitment to the goals of the project on balance with other, potentially com-
peting goals. Third, the organizational culture influences project planning processes such as the
way work is estimated or how resources are assigned to projects. Finally, the culture affects how
managers evaluate the performance of project teams and how they view the outcomes of projects.
• Departmental interaction—Several of the examples cited in this chapter have focused on the
importance of developing and maintaining a solid, supportive relationship between functional
departments and project teams. In functional and matrix organizations, power either resides
directly with department heads or is shared with project managers. In either case, the manner
in which these department heads approach their willingness to support projects plays a hugely
important role in the success or failure of new project initiatives. Not surprisingly, cultures that
favor active cooperation between functional groups and new projects are much more success-
ful than those that adopt a disinterested or even adversarial relationship.
• Employee commitment to goals—Projects depend on the commitment and motivation of the
personnel assigned to their activities. A culture that promotes employee commitment and,
when necessary, self-sacrifice through working extra hours or on multiple tasks is much
more successful than a culture in which the unwritten rules seem to imply that, provided
you don’t get caught, there is nothing wrong with simply going through the motions. AMEC
Corporation, for example, takes its training of employees seriously when it comes to instill-
ing a commitment to safety. AMEC is a multinational construction company, headquartered
in Canada. With annual revenues of nearly $7 billion and 29,000 employees, AMEC is one of
the largest construction firms in the world. It takes its commitment to core values extremely
seriously, impressing upon all employees their responsibilities to customers, business part-
ners, each other, the company, and the wider social environment. From the moment new
people enter the organization, they are made aware of the need to commit to the guiding
principles of ethical behavior, fairness, commitment to quality, and safety.35
• Project planning—We will explore the process of activity duration estimation in a later chapter;
however, for now it is important just to note that the way in which employees decide to support the
project planning processes is critical. Because activity estimation is often an imprecise process, it
is common for some project team members to “pad” their estimates to give themselves as much
time as possible. These people are often responding to a culture that reinforces the idea that it is
better to engage in poor estimation and project planning than to be late with deliverables.
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64 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
Conversely, when there is a culture of trust among project team members, they are more
inclined to give honest assessments, without fearing that, should they be wrong, they will be
punished for our mistakes.
• Performance evaluation—Supportive cultures encourage project team members taking the
initiative, even if it means taking risks to boost performance. When a culture sends the signal
that the goal of the firm is to create innovative products, it reinforces a project management
culture that is aggressive and offers potentially high payoffs (and the occasional significant
loss!). As noted earlier, organizations get what they pay for. If the reward systems are posi-
tive and reinforce a strong project mentality, they will reap a whirlwind of opportunities. On
the other hand, if they tacitly support caution and playing it safe, the project management
approaches will equally reflect this principle.
A culture can powerfully affect the manner in which departments within an organization view
the process of project management. The culture also influences the manner in which employees
commit themselves to the goals of their projects as opposed to other, potentially competing goals.
Through symbols, stories, and other signs, companies signal their commitment to project manage-
ment. This message is not lost on members of project teams, who take their cues regarding expected
performance from supervisors and other cultural artifacts. Visible symbols of a culture that advo-
cates cross-functional cooperation will create employees who are prepared and motivated to work in
harmony with other groups on project goals. Likewise, when an IT department elevates some of its
members to hero status because they routinely went the extra mile to handle system user complaints
or problems, the company has sent the message that they are all working toward the same goals and
all provide value to the organization’s operations, regardless of their functional background.
To envision how culture can influence the planning and project monitoring processes, suppose
that, in your organization, it was clear that those involved in late projects would be severely punished
for the schedule slippage. You and your fellow project team members would quickly learn that it is
critical to avoid going out on a limb to promise early task completion dates. It is much safer to grossly
overestimate the amount of time necessary to complete a task in order to protect yourself. The orga-
nizational culture in this case breeds deceit. Likewise, it may be safer in some organizations to delib-
erately hide information in cases where a project is running off track, or mislead top management
with optimistic and false estimates of project progress. Essentially, the issue is this: Does the corporate
culture encourage authentic information and truthful interactions, or is it clear that the safer route is to
first protect yourself, regardless of the effect this behavior may have on the success of a project?
Project Profile
electronic Arts and the Power of Strong culture in Design teams
Electronic Arts is one of the top computer gaming companies in the world, known for perennial console and PC best-
sellers like Madden NFL, FIFA, Battlefield, Need for Speed, the Sims, and more. In the computer gaming industry, speed
to market for new games is critical. Making award-winning games requires a combination of talented designers, graphic
artists, programmers, and testers, all working to constantly update best-selling games and introduce new choices for
the gaming community. It is a fast-paced environment that thrives on a sense of chaos and disruptive new technologies
and ideas. In this setting, the former head of the EA Labels group, Frank Gibeau, has developed a winning formula for
game design. He doesn’t believe in large teams for developing games; instead his goal is to preserve each studio’s cul-
ture by supporting its existing talent.
Gibeau’s belief is that the best games come from small teams with strong cultures. One of his principles is to limit
the size of project teams to promote their commitment to each other and to the quality of the games they design.
Gibeau notes that when too many people get involved, there is a law of diminishing returns that sets in, because every-
thing becomes too hard to manage – too many people, too many problems. In addition, it’s easier to maintain a unique
culture when teams are kept small and allowed to stay in place for an extended time. As a result, EA supports the use of
smaller teams over a longer period of time to get the game right. As a result, he is careful to ensure that the different
studios don’t over-expand and get too big. Gibeau remains a firm believer in the “small is better” philosophy because
it supports dynamic cultures and action-oriented attitudes.
Electronic Arts’ approach to game design is centered on small teams, given the opportunity to work as freely
as possible, maintain their distinctive group identities, and thereby promote a strong internal culture. EA executives
have recognized that these unique team cultures are critical for encouraging the kind of creativity and commitment to
the work that make for technologically advanced games, so necessary for maintaining a competitive edge in a rapidly
evolving industry.36
Summary 65
What are some examples of an organization’s culture influencing how project teams actually
perform and how outcomes are perceived? One common situation is the phenomenon known as
escalation of commitment. It is not uncommon to see this process at work in project organizations.
escalation of commitment occurs when, in spite of evidence identifying a project as failing, no
longer necessary, or beset by huge technical or other difficulties, organizations continue to support
it past the point an objective assessment would suggest that it should be terminated.37 Although
there are a number of reasons for escalation of commitment to a failed decision, one important rea-
son is the unwillingness of the organization to acknowledge failure or its culture’s working toward
blinding key decision makers to the need to take corrective action.
The reverse is also true: In many organizations, projects are managed in an environment in
which the culture strongly supports cross-functional cooperation, assigns sufficient resources to
enable project managers to schedule aggressively, and creates an atmosphere that makes it pos-
sible to develop projects optimally. It is important to recognize that an organization’s culture can
be a strong supporter of (as well as an inhibitor to) the firm’s ability to manage effective projects.
Because of this impact, organizational culture must be managed, constantly assessed, and, when
necessary, changed in ways that promote project management rather than discouraging its effi-
cient practice.
The context within which we manage our projects is a key determinant in the likelihood of
their success or failure. Three critical contextual factors are the organization’s strategy, structure,
and culture. Strategy drives projects; projects operationalize strategy. The two must work together
in harmony. The key is maintaining a clear linkage between overall strategy and the firm’s portfo-
lio of projects, ensuring that some form of alignment exists among all key elements: vision, objec-
tives, strategies, goals, and programs. Further, companies are recognizing that when they adopt
a structure that supports projects, they get better results. Likewise, when the cultural ambience
of the organization favors project management approaches, they are much more likely to be suc-
cessful. Some of these project management approaches are the willingness to take risks, to think
creatively, to work closely with other functional departments, and so forth. More and more we
are seeing successful project-based organizations recognizing the simple truth that the context in
which they are trying to create projects is a critical element in seeing their projects through to com-
mercial and technical success.
Summary
1. Understand how effective project management
contributes to achieving strategic objectives. This
chapter linked projects with corporate strategy.
Projects are the “building blocks” of strategy because
they serve as the most basic tools by which firms can
implement previously formulated objectives and
strategies.
2. recognize three components of the corporate
strategy model: formulation, implementation,
and evaluation. The chapter explored a generic
model of corporate strategic management,
distinguishing between the three components of
strategy formulation, strategy implementation,
and strategy evaluation. Each of these compo-
nents incorporates a number of subdimensions.
For example, strategy formulation includes the
stages of:
• Developing a vision and mission.
• Performing an internal audit (assessing
strengths and weaknesses).
• Performing an external audit (assessing
opportunities and threats).
• Establishing long-term objectives.
• Generating, evaluating, and selecting strategies.
Strategy implementation requires the coordi-
nation of managerial, technological, financial, and
functional assets to reinforce and support strategies.
Projects often serve as the means by which strategy
implementation is actually realized. Finally, strategy
evaluation requires an ability to measure results and
provide feedback to all concerned parties.
3. see the importance of identifying critical proj-
ect stakeholders and managing them within the
context of project development. The chapter
addresses a final strategic question: the relation-
ship between the firm and its stakeholder groups.
Project stakeholders are either internal to the
firm (top management, other functional depart-
ments, support personnel, internal customers) or
external (suppliers, distributors, intervenors,
governmental agencies and regulators, and
customers). Each of these stakeholder groups must
be managed in a systematic manner; the process
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66 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
moves from identification to needs assessment,
choice of strategy, and routine evaluation and
adjustment. Stakeholder management, in con-
junction with strategic management, forms the
context by which projects are first evaluated and
then managed.
4. recognize the strengths and weaknesses of three
basic forms of organizational structure and their
implications for managing projects. We exam-
ined the strengths and weaknesses of three major
organizational structure types, including func-
tional, project, and matrix structures. The nature
of each of the three structural types and their
relationship to project management were addressed.
The functional structure, while the most common
type of organizational form, was shown to be per-
haps the least effective type for managing projects
due to a variety of limitations. The project structure,
in which the organization uses its projects as the
primary form of grouping, has several advantages
for managing projects, although it has some general
disadvantages as well. Finally, the matrix structure,
which seeks to balance the authority and activities
between projects and functions using a dual hier-
archy system, demonstrates its own unique set of
strengths and weaknesses for project management
practice.
5. Understand how companies can change their
structure into a “heavyweight project organiza-
tion” structure to facilitate effective project man-
agement practices. The movements within many
organizations to a stronger customer focus in their
project management operations has led to the
creation of a heavyweight project organization, in
which the project manager is given high levels of
authority in order to further the goals of the project.
Because customer satisfaction is the goal of these
organizations, they rely on their project managers
to work toward project success within the frame-
work of greater control of project resources and
direct contact with clients.
6. identify the characteristics of three forms of proj-
ect management office (PMo). Project manage-
ment offices (PMOs) are centralized units within an
organization or department that oversee or improve
the management of projects. There are three
predominant types of PMO in organizations. The
weather station is typically used only as a tracking
and monitoring device. In this approach, the role
of the PMO is to keep an eye on the status of the
projects without directly attempting to influence or
control them. The second form of PMO is the con-
trol tower, which treats project management as
a business skill to be protected and supported.
It focuses on developing methods for continu-
ally improving project management skills by
identifying what is working, where the shortcom-
ings exist, and methods for resolving ongoing prob-
lems. Most importantly, unlike the weather station
model, which only monitors project management
activities to report results to top management, the
control tower is a model that is intended to directly
work with and support the activities of the project
manager and team. Finally, the resource pool is a
PMO intended to maintain and provide a cadre of
trained and skilled project professionals as they are
needed. It serves as a clearinghouse for continually
upgrading the skills of the firm’s project managers.
As the company initiates new projects, the affected
departments apply to the resource pool PMO for
assets to populate the project team.
7. Understand key concepts of corporate culture and
how cultures are formed. Another contextual
factor, organizational culture, plays an important
role in influencing the attitudes and values shared
by members of the organization, which, in turn,
affects their commitment to project management
and its practices. Culture is defined as the unwrit-
ten rules of behavior, or the norms that are used to
shape and guide behavior, that are shared by some
subset of organizational members and are taught
to all new members of the company. When the firm
has a strong culture that is supportive of project
goals, members of the organization are more likely
to work collaboratively, minimize departmental
loyalties that could take precedence over proj-
ect goals, and commit the necessary resources to
achieve the objectives of the project.
Organizational cultures are formed as the result
of a variety of factors, including technology, environ-
ment, geographical location, reward systems, rules
and procedures, key organizational members, and
critical incidents. Each of these factors can play a role
in determining whether the organization’s culture
is strong, collaborative, customer-focused, project-
oriented, fast-paced, and so forth.
8. recognize the positive effects of a supportive
organizational culture on project management
practices versus those of a culture that works
against project management. Finally, this chapter
examined the manner in which supportive cultures
can work in favor of project management and ways
in which the culture can inhibit project success. One
common facet of a “sick” culture is the escalation of
a commitment problem, in which key members of
the organization continue to increase their support
for clearly failing courses of action or problematic
projects. The reasons for escalation are numerous,
including our prestige is on the line, the conviction
that we are close to succeeding, fear of ridicule if we
admit to failure, and the culture of the organization
in which we operate.
Key Terms
Balanced matrix (p. 54)
Culture (p. 60)
Escalation of
commitment (p. 65)
External environment (p. 48)
Functional structure (p. 48)
Heavyweight project
organization (p. 55)
Intervenor groups (p. 42)
Matrix organization (p. 53)
Matrix structure (p. 53)
Objectives (p. 39)
Organizational
culture (p. 60)
Organizational
structure (p. 47)
Project management
office (p. 57)
Project organizations
(p. 50 )
Project stakeholders
(p. 41)
Project structure (p. 51)
Resources (p. 53)
Stakeholder
analysis (p. 41)
Strategic management
(p. 39)
Strong matrix (p. 54)
Technology (p. 62)
TOWS matrix (p. 40)
Weak matrix (p. 54)
Discussion Questions
2.1 The chapter suggests that a definition of strategic man-
agement includes four components:
a. Developing a strategic vision and sense of mission
b. Formulating, implementing, and evaluating
c. Making cross-functional decisions
d. Achieving objectives
Discuss how each of these four elements is important in un-
derstanding the challenge of strategic project management.
How do projects serve to allow an organization to realize
each of these four components of strategic management?
2.2 Discuss the difference between organizational objectives
and strategies.
2.3 Your company is planning to construct a nuclear power
plant in Oregon. Why is stakeholder analysis important
as a precondition of the decision whether or not to follow
through with such a plan? Conduct a stakeholder analysis
for a planned upgrade to a successful software product.
Who are the key stakeholders?
2.4 Consider a medium-sized company that has decided to
begin using project management in a wide variety of its
operations. As part of its operational shift, it is going to
adopt a project management office somewhere within the
organization. Make an argument for the type of PMO it
should adopt (weather station, control tower, or resource
pool). What are some key decision criteria that will help it
determine which model makes the most sense?
2.5 What are some of the key organizational elements that
can affect the development and maintenance of a sup-
portive organizational culture? As a consultant, what
advice would you give to a functional organization that
was seeking to move from an old, adversarial culture,
where the various departments actively resisted helping
one another, to one that encourages “project thinking”
and cross-functional cooperation?
2.6 You are a member of the senior management staff at XYZ
Corporation. You have historically been using a functional
structure setup with five departments: finance, human re-
sources, marketing, production, and engineering.
a. Create a drawing of your simplified functional struc-
ture, identifying the five departments.
b. Assume you have decided to move to a project struc-
ture. What might be some of the environmental
pressures that would contribute to your belief that it is
necessary to alter the structure?
c. With the project structure, you have four ongoing proj-
ects: stereo equipment, instrumentation and testing
equipment, optical scanners, and defense communica-
tions. Draw the new structure that creates these four proj-
ects as part of the organizational chart.
2.7 Suppose you now want to convert the structure from that
in Question 6 to a matrix structure, emphasizing dual
commitments to function and project.
a. Re-create the structural design to show how the matrix
would look.
b. What behavioral problems could you begin to anticipate
through this design? That is, do you see any potential
points of friction in the dual hierarchy setup?
CaSe STuDy 2.1
Rolls-Royce Corporation
(continued)
Although the name Rolls-Royce is inextricably linked
with its ultra-luxurious automobiles, the modern Rolls-
Royce operates in an entirely different competitive en-
vironment. A leading manufacturer of power systems
for aerospace, marine, and power companies, Rolls’s
market is focused on developing jet engines for a
variety of uses, both commercial and defense-related.
In this market, the company has two principal competi-
tors, General Electric and Pratt & Whitney (owned by
United Technologies). There are a limited number of
smaller, niche players in the jet engine market, but their
impact from a technical and commercial perspective is
minor. Rolls, GE, and Pratt & Whitney routinely engage
in fierce competition for sales to defense contractors
Case Study 2.1 67
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68 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
and the commercial aviation industry. The two main
airframe manufacturers, Boeing and Airbus, make
continual multimillion-dollar purchase decisions that
are vital for the ongoing success of the engine makers.
Airbus, a private consortium of several European part-
ner companies, has drawn level with Boeing in sales in
recent years. Because the cost of a single jet engine, in-
cluding spare parts, can run to several million dollars,
winning large orders from either defense or commer-
cial aircraft builders represents an ongoing challenge
for each of the “big three” jet engine manufacturers.
Airlines in developing countries can often be a lucra-
tive but risky market for these firms. Because the countries
do not maintain high levels of foreign exchange, it is not
unknown, for example, for Rolls (or its competitors) to
take partial payment in cash with assorted commodities to
pay the balance. Hence, a contract with Turkey’s national
airline may lead to some monetary payment for Rolls,
along with several tons of pistachios or other trade goods!
To maintain their sales and service targets, these jet engine
makers routinely resort to creative financing, long-term
contracts, or asset-based trading deals. Overall, however,
the market for jet engines is projected to continue to expand
at huge rates. Rolls-Royce projects a 20-year window with
a potential market demand of 70,000 engines, valued at
over $400 billion in civil aerospace alone. When defense
contracts are factored in as well, the revenue projections
for jet engine sales are likely to be enormous. As Rolls sees
the future, the single biggest market growth opportunity
is in the larger, greater thrust engines, designed to be
paired with larger jet aircraft.
Rolls-Royce is currently engaged in a strategic
decision that offers the potential for huge payoffs or sig-
nificant losses as it couples its latest engine technology,
the “Trent series,” with Airbus’s decision to develop an
ultra-large commercial aircraft for long-distance travel.
The new Airbus design, the 380 model, seats more than
550 people, flying long-distance routes (up to 8,000
miles). The Trent 900, with an engine rating of 70,000
pounds thrust per engine, has been created at great
expense to see service in the large jet market. The proj-
ect reflects a strategic vision shared by both Airbus and
Rolls-Royce that the commercial passenger market will
triple in the next 20 years. As a result, future opportu-
nities will involve larger, more economically viable air-
craft. Since 2007, Airbus has delivered a total of 40 A380s
to its customers, with 17 in 2010. Their total order book
currently sits at 234 aircraft ordered. Collectively, Airbus
and Rolls-Royce have taken a large financial gamble that
their strategic vision of the future is the correct one.
Questions
1. Who are Rolls’s principal project management
stakeholders? How would you design stakeholder
management strategies to address their concerns?
2. Given the financial risks inherent in developing a
jet engine, make an argument, either pro or con,
for Rolls to develop strategic partnerships with
other jet engine manufacturers in a manner similar
to Airbus’s consortium arrangement. What are the
benefits and drawbacks in such an arrangement?
CaSe STuDy 2.2
Classic Case: Paradise Lost—The Xerox Alto38
Imagine the value of cornering the technological market
in personal computing. How much would a five-year
window of competitive advantage be worth to a company
today? It could easily mean billions in revenue, a stellar
industry reputation, future earnings ensured—and the
list goes on. For Xerox Corporation, however, something
strange happened on the way to industry leadership. In
1970, Xerox was uniquely positioned to take advantage
of the enormous leaps forward it had made in office au-
tomation technology. Yet the company stumbled badly
through its own strategic myopia, lack of nerve, structural
inadequacies, and poor choices. This is the story of the
Xerox Alto, the world’s first personal computer and one
of the great “what if?” stories in business history.
The Alto was not so much a step forward as it was
a quantum leap. Being in place and operating at the end
of 1973, it was the first stand-alone personal computer to
combine bit-mapped graphics, a mouse, menu screens,
icons, an Ethernet connection, a laser printer, and word
processing software. As a result of the combined efforts
of an impressive collection of computer science geniuses
headquartered at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC), the Alto was breathtaking in its innovative
appeal. It was PARC’s answer to Xerox’s top management
command to “hit a home run.” Xerox had profited earlier
from just such a home run in the form of the Model 914
photocopier, a technological innovation that provided the
impetus to turn Xerox into a billion-dollar company in the
1960s. The Alto represented a similar achievement.
What went wrong? What forces combined to
ensure that no more than 2,000 Altos were produced
and that none was ever brought to market? (They were
used only inside the company and at some university
sites.) The answer could lie in the muddled strategic
thinking that took place at Xerox while the Alto was in
development.
I recently worked with an organization that adopted
a mind-set in which it was assumed that the best way
to keep project team members working hard was to
unilaterally trim their task duration estimates by 20%.
Suppose that you were asked to estimate the length of time
necessary to write computer code for a particular software
product and you determined that it should take about 80
hours. Knowing you were about to present this informa-
tion to your supervisor and that she was going to immedi-
ately cut the estimate by 20%, what would be your course
of action? You would probably first add a “fudge factor” to
the estimate in order to protect yourself. The conversation
with the boss might go something like this:
Boss “Have you had a chance to estimate that
coding sequence yet?”
You Yes, it should take me 100 hours.”
Boss “That’s too long. I can only give you 80
hours, tops.”
You (Theatrical sigh) “Well, if you say so, but
I really don’t know how
I can pull this off.”
Once you leave the office and shut the door, you
turn with a smile and whisper, “Gotcha!”
Questions
1. How does the organization’s culture support this
sort of behavior? What pressures does the manager
face? What pressures does the subordinate face?
2. Discuss the statement, “If you don’t take my esti-
mates seriously, I’m not going to give you serious
estimates!” How does this statement apply to this
example?
CaSe STuDy 2.3
Project Task Estimation and the Culture of “Gotcha!”
The history of Xerox during this period shows a
company that stepped back from technological leader-
ship into a form of incrementalism, making it content to
follow IBM’s lead in office automation. Incrementalism
refers to adopting a gradualist approach that plays it
safe, avoiding technological leaps, large risks, and con-
sequently the possibility of large returns. In 1974, Xerox
decided to launch the Model 800 magnetic tape word
processor rather than the Alto because the Model 800
was perceived as the safer bet. During the next five years,
a series of ill-timed acquisitions, lawsuits, and reorgani-
zations rendered the Alto a casualty of inattention. What
division would oversee its development and launch?
Whose budget would support it, and PARC in general?
By leaving such tough decisions unmade, Xerox wasted
valuable time and squandered its technological window
of opportunity. Even when clear indications showed that
competitor Wang was in line to introduce its own line
of office systems, Xerox could not take the step to bring
the Alto to market. By 1979, Xerox’s unique opportunity
was lost. No longer was the Alto a one-of-a-kind tech-
nology, and the company quietly shelved any plans for
its commercial introduction.
Perhaps the ultimate irony is this: Here was a
company that had made its name through the phenom-
enal success of a highly innovative product, the Model
914 photocopier, but it did not know how to handle
the opportunities presented by the next phenomenon.
The Alto was so advanced that the company seemed
unable to comprehend its possibilities. Executives did
not have a strategic focus that emphasized a continual
progression of innovation. Instead, they were directed
toward remaining neck-and-neck with the competition in
an incremental approach. When competitor IBM released
a new electric typewriter, Xerox responded in the same
incremental way. The organizational structure at Xerox
did not allow any one division or key manager to become
the champion for new technologies like the Alto.
In 1979 Steven Jobs, president of Apple Computer,
was given a tour of the PARC complex and saw an Alto
in use. He was so impressed with the machine’s features
and operating capabilities that he asked when it was due
to be commercially launched. When told that much of
this technology had been developed in 1973, Jobs became
“physically sick,” he later recounted, at the thought of the
opportunity Xerox had forgone.
Questions
1. Do you see a logical contradiction in Xerox’s will-
ingness to devote millions of dollars to support
pure research sites like PARC and its refusal to
commercially introduce the products developed?
2. How did Xerox’s strategic vision work in favor of
or against the development of radical new tech-
nologies such as the Alto?
3. What other unforeseeable events contributed to
making Xerox’s executives unwilling to take any
new risks precisely at the time the Alto was ready
to be released?
4. “Radical innovation cannot be too radical if we
want it to be commercially successful.” Argue ei-
ther in favor of or against this statement.
Case Study 2.3 69
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70 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
Widgets ’R Us (WRU) is a medium-sized firm specializ-
ing in the design and manufacturing of quality widgets.
The market for widgets has been stable. Historically,
WRU has had a functional organization design with
four departments: accounting, sales, production, and
engineering. This design has served the company well,
and it has been able to compete by being the low-priced
company in the industry.
In the past three years, the demand for widgets
has exploded. New widgets are constantly being
developed to feed the public’s seemingly insatiable
demand. The average life cycle of a newly released
widget is 12–15 months. Unfortunately, WRU is find-
ing itself unable to compete successfully in this new,
dynamic market. The CEO has noted a number of
problems. Products are slow to market. Many new
innovations have passed right by WRU because the
company was slow to pick up signs from the mar-
ketplace that they were coming. Internal communi-
cation is very poor. Lots of information gets kicked
“upstairs,” and no one seems to know what hap-
pens to it. Department heads constantly blame other
department heads for the problems.
Questions
1. You have been called in as a consultant to analyze
the operations at WRU. What would you advise?
2. What structural design changes might be under-
taken to improve the operations at the company?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the
alternative solutions the company could employ?
CaSe STuDy 2.4
Widgets ’R Us
2.1 Wegmans has been consistently voted one of the 100 best com-
panies to work for in the United States by Fortune magazine. In
fact, in 2005 it was ranked number 1, and in 2012 it was ranked
number 4. Go to its Web site, www.wegmans.com, and click on
“About Us.” What messages, formal and informal, are being
conveyed about Wegmans through its Web site? What does the
Web site imply about the culture of the organization?
2.2 Go to the Web site www.projectstakeholder.com and ana-
lyze some of the case studies found on the Web site. What
do these cases suggest about the importance of assessing
stakeholder expectations for a project before it has begun
its development process? In other words, what are the
risks of waiting to address stakeholder concerns until after
a project has begun?
2.3 Go to a corporate Web site of your choice and access the
organizational chart. What form of organization does this
chart represent: functional, project, matrix, or some other
form? Based on our discussion in this chapter, what would
be the likely strengths and weaknesses of this organiza-
tion’s project management activities?
2.4 Access the corporate Web site for Fluor-Daniel Corporation
and examine its “Compliance and Ethics” section at www.
fluor.com/sustainability/ethics_compliance/Pages/
default.aspx. What does the “Fluor Code of Business
Conduct and Ethics” suggest about the way the company
does business? What are the strategic goals and directions
that naturally flow from the ethical code? In your opinion,
how would the ethics statement influence the manner in
which the company manages its projects?
PMP certificAtion sAMPle QUestions
1. What is the main role of the functional manager?
a. To control resources
b. To manage the project when the project manager
isn’t available
c. To define business processes
d. To manage the project manager
2. What is the typical role of senior management on a project?
a. Support the project
b. Pay for it
c. Support the project and resolve resource and other
conflicts
d. Resolve resource and other conflicts
3. What is an organization that controls project managers,
documentation, and policies called?
a. Project management office
b. Strong matrix
c. Functional
d. Pure project
4. A business analyst has a career path that has been very
important to her throughout the 10 years of her career.
She is put on a project with a strong matrix organiza-
tional structure. Which of the following is likely viewed
as a negative of being on the project?
a. Being away from the group and on a project that
might make it more difficult to get promoted
b. Working with people who have similar skills
Internet exercises
c. Working long hours because the project is a high
priority
d. Not being able to take her own certification tests
because she is so busy
5. The functional manager is planning the billing system
replacement project with the newest project manager at
the company. In discussing this project, the functional
manager focuses on the cost associated with running
the system after it is created and the number of years the
system will last before it must be replaced. What best
describes what the functional manager is focusing on?
a. Project life cycle
b. Product life cycle
c. Project management life cycle
d. Program management life cycle
Internet Exercises 71
Answers: 1. a—The functional manager runs the day-to-day
operations of his department and controls the resources;
2. c—Because senior managers usually outrank the project
manager, they can help with resolving any resource or other
conflicts as they arise; 3. a—The project management office
(PMO) typically has all of these responsibilities; 4. a—Being
away from her functional group may cause her to feel that
her efforts on behalf of the project are not being recognized
by her functional manager, since the project employs a strong
matrix structure; 5. b—The functional manager is focusing on
the product life cycle, which is developed based on an example
of a successful project and encompasses the range of use for the
product.
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72 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
inteGrAteD Project
Building Your Project Plan
exercIse 1—develoPIng the Project narratIve and goals
You have been assigned to a project team to develop a new product or service for your organiza-
tion. Your challenge is to first decide on the type of product or service you wish to develop. The
project choices can be flexible, consisting of options as diverse as construction, new product devel-
opment, IT implementation, and so forth.
Develop a project scope write-up on the project you have selected. Your team is expected to cre-
ate a project history, complete with an overview of the project, an identifiable goal or goals (including
project targets), the general project management approach to be undertaken, and significant proj-
ect constraints or potential limiting effects. Additionally, if appropriate, identify any basic resource
requirements (i.e., personnel or specialized equipment) needed to complete the project. What is most
important at this stage is creating a history or narrative of the project you have come up with, includ-
ing a specific statement of purpose or intent (i.e., why the project is being developed, what it is, what
niche or opportunity it is aimed to address).
The write-up should fully explain your project concept, constraints, and expectations. It is
not necessary to go into minute detail regarding the various subactivities or subcomponents of the
project; it is more important to concentrate on the bigger picture for now.
saMPle background analysIs and Project
narratIve For abcuPs, Inc.
Founded in 1990, ABCups, Inc., owns and operates 10 injection-molding machines that produce
plastic drinkware. ABCups’s product line consists of travel mugs, thermal mugs, steins, and sports
tumblers. The travel mugs, thermal mugs, and steins come in two sizes: 14 and 22 ounces. The sports
tumblers are offered only in the 32-ounce size. All products except the steins have lids. The travel and
thermal mugs consist of a liner, body, and lid. The steins and sports tumblers have no lining. There
are 15 colors offered, and any combination of colors can be used. The travel and thermal mugs have
a liner that needs to be welded to the outer body; subcontractors and screen printers weld the parts
together. ABCups does no welding, but it attaches the lid to the mug. ABCups’s customer base
consists primarily of distributors and promotional organizations. Annual sales growth has remained
steady, averaging 2%–3% each year. Last year’s revenues from sales were $70 million.
current Process
ABCups’s current method for producing its product is as follows:
1. Quote job.
2. Receive/process order.
3. Schedule order into production.
4. Mold parts.
5. Issue purchase order to screen printer with product specifications.
6. Ship parts to screen printer for welding and artwork.
7. Receive returned product from screen printer for final assembly and quality control.
8. Ship product to customer.
At current processing levels, the entire process can take from two to four weeks, depending
on order size, complexity, and the nature of current production activity.
overvIew oF the Project
Because of numerous complaints and quality rejects from customers, ABCups has determined to
proactively resolve outstanding quality issues. The firm has determined that by bringing welding
and screen printing functions “in-house,” it will be able to address the current quality problems,
Goals targets
1. Meet all project deadlines without jeopardizing customer satis-
faction within a one-year project time frame.
Excellent = 0 missed deadlines
Good = 1–5 missed deadlines
Acceptable = <8 missed deadlines
2. Deplete dependence on subcontracted screen printing by
100% within six months without increasing customer’s price or
decreasing product quality.
Excellent = 100% independence
Good = 80–99% independence
Acceptable = 60–79% independence
3. Perform all process changes without affecting current customer
delivery schedules for the one-year project time frame.
Excellent = 0% delivery delays
Good = <5% delivery delays
Acceptable = 5–10% delivery delays
4. Decrease customer wait time over current wait time within one
year without decreasing quality or increasing price.
Excellent = 2/3 decrease in wait time
Good = 1/2 decrease in wait time
Acceptable = 1/3 decrease in wait time
5. Stay within 10% of capital budget without exceeding 20%
within the project baseline schedule.
Excellent = 1% variance
Good = 5% variance
Acceptable = 10% variance
6. Decrease customer rejections by 25% within one year. Excellent = 45% reduction
Good = 35% reduction
Acceptable = 25% reduction
Objectives
expand its market, maintain better control over delivery and order output, and be more responsive
to customers. The project consists of adding three new processes (welding, screen printing, and
improved quality control) to company operations.
ABCups has no experience in or equipment for welding and screen printing. The organization
needs to educate itself, investigate leasing or purchasing space and equipment, hire trained workers,
and create a transition from subcontractors to in-house operators. The project needs a specified date
of completion so that the transition from outsourcing to company production will be smooth and
products can be delivered to customers with as little disruption to shipping as possible.
Management’s strategy is to vertically integrate the organization to reduce costs, increase
market share, and improve product quality. ABCups is currently experiencing problems with
its vendor base, ranging from poor quality to ineffectual scheduling, causing ABCups to miss
almost 20% of its customers’ desired ship dates. Maintaining complete control over the product’s
development cycle should improve the quality and on-time delivery of ABCups’s product line.
Integrated Project 73
General approach
1. Managerial approach—The equipment will be purchased from outside vendors; however,
ABCups’s internal employees will perform the assembly work. Given the type of equipment
that is required, outside contractors will not be needed because the company’s facility em-
ploys the necessary maintenance staff to set up the equipment and troubleshoot as required,
once the initial training has been supplied by the vendor.
2. technical approach—The equipment manufacturers will utilize CAD to design the equip-
ment. Initially, the firm will require a bank of parts to be available once the equipment arrives
in order to fine-tune the machinery. Fixtures will be designed as required, but will be supplied
by the machine manufacturer.
Constraints
1. Budget constraints—This project must ultimately increase profitability for the company. In
addition, the project will have a constraining budget. It must be shown that any additional
expense for both the conversion and producing finished cups on-site will result in increased
profitability.
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74 Chapter 2 • The Organizational Context
1. Ramsey, M., 2014. Does Tesla Really Need a $5 Billion
Battery? Wall Street Journal, April 2, pp. B1–B2.
2. David, F. R. (2001). Strategic Management, 8th ed. Upper
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3. The Holy Bible, King James Version. Cambridge Edition:
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4. Vision Statement of Bechtel Corporation
5. Cleland, D. I. (1998). “Strategic project management,”
in Pinto, J. K. (Ed.), Project Management Handbook. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 27–40.
6. Weihrich, H. (1982). “The TOWS matrix—A tool for
situational analysis,” Long Range Planning, 15: 54–66;
Hillson, D. (2002), “Extending the risk process to
manage opportunities,” International Journal of Project
Management, 20: 235–40.
7. Wheelen, T. L., and Hunger, J. D. (1992). Strategic
Management and Business Policy, 4th ed. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
8. Wiener, E., and Brown, A. (1986). “Stakeholder analy-
sis for effective issues management,” Planning Review,
36: 27–31.
9. Mendelow, A. (1986). “Stakeholder analysis for strate-
gic planning and implementation,” in King, W. R., and
Cleland, D. I. (Eds.), Strategic Planning and Management
Handbook. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 67–81;
Winch, G. M. (2002). Managing Construction Projects.
Oxford: Blackwell; Winch, G. M., and Bonke, S. (2001).
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of project stakeholders,” in Slevin, D. P., Cleland, D. I.,
and Pinto, J. K. (Eds.), The Frontiers of Project Management
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10. Wideman, R. M. (1998). “How to motivate all stake-
holders to work together,” in Cleland, D. I. (Ed.), Project
Management Field Guide. New York: Van Nostrand
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Your Brain Outside. Newtown Square, PA: PMI.
11. Cleland, D. I. (1988). “Project stakeholder manage-
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Management Handbook, 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, pp. 275–301.
12. Vrijhoef, R., and Koskela, L. (2000). “The four roles of sup-
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13. Cleland, D. I. (1988), as cited in note 12.
14. Block, R. (1983). The Politics of Projects. New York: Yourdon
Press.
15. Manyika, J., Chui, M., Bughin, J., Dobbs, R., Bisson, P., and
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MGI_Disruptive_technologies_Executive_summary_
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Agreement Without Giving In. New York: Houghton
Mifflin.
17. Frame, J. D. (1987). Managing Projects in Organizations. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
18. Robert Burns, a Scottish poet and lyricist. (1759–1796).
19. Grundy, T. (1998). “Strategy implementation and project
management,” International Journal of Project Management,
16(1): 43–50.
20. Daft, R. L. (2001). Organization Theory and Design, 7th
ed. Mason, OH: Southwestern; Moore, D. (2002). Project
Management: Designing Effective Organizational Structures
in Construction. Oxford: Blackwell; Yourker, R. (1977).
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Project Management Quarterly, 8(1): 24–33.
21. Meredith, J. R., and Mantel, Jr., S. J. (2003). Project
Management, 5th ed. New York: Wiley.
22. Larson, E. W., and Gobeli, D. H. (1987). “Matrix manage-
ment: Contradictions and insights,” California Management
Review, 29(4): 126–37; Larson, E. W., and Gobeli, D. H.
(1988). “Organizing for product development projects,”
Journal of Product Innovation Management, 5: 180–90.
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Mason, OH: Southwestern; Anderson, C. C., and Fleming,
M. M. K. (1990). “Management control in an engineering
matrix organization: A project engineer’s perspective,”
Notes
2. limited plant space—ABCups is assuming this conversion does not involve building a new
plant or significantly increasing facility size. Space for new machinery, new employees, and
storage for dyes and inventory must be created through conversion of existing floor space. If
additional floor space is required, leasing or purchasing options will need to be investigated.
3. time—Since this project will require the company to break existing contracts with vendors,
any missed milestones or other delays will cause an unacceptable delay to customers. A back-
up plan must be in place to avoid losing customers to competitors in case the time frame is
not strictly met. The conversion must be undertaken with a comprehensive project schedul-
ing system developed and adhered to.
4. safety regulations—The installation and conversion activities must be in accordance with
several agencies’ specifications, including but not limited to guidelines from the Occupation-
al Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the insurance carrier, and the financing agency.
5. current orders must be filled on time—All activities must be designed to avoid any delay in
current orders. The transition should appear seamless to customers to avoid losing any part
of the extant customer base.
Industrial Management, 32(2): 8–13; Ford, R. C., and
Randolph, W. A. (1992). “Cross-functional structures:
A review and integration of matrix organization and project
management,” Journal of Management, 18: 267–94.
24. Larson, E. W., and Gobeli, D. H. (1987). “Matrix manage-
ment: Contradictions and insights,” California Management
Review, 29(4): 126–37; Larson, E. W., and Gobeli,
D. H. (1988). “Organizing for product development
projects,” Journal of Product Innovation Management, 5:
180–90; Engwall, M., and Kallqvist, A. S. (2000). “Dynamics
of a multi-project matrix: Conflicts and coordination,”
Working paper, Chalmers University, www.fenix.
chalmers.se/publications/ 2001/pdf/WP%202001-
07 .
25. Wheelwright, S. C., and Clark, K. (1992). “Creating project
plans to focus product development,” Harvard Business
Review, 70(2): 70–82.
26. Gobeli, D. H., and Larson, E. W. (1987). “Relative effec-
tiveness of different project management structures,”
Project Management Journal, 18(2): 81–85; Gray, C.,
Dworatschek, S., Gobeli, D. H., Knoepfel, H., and Larson,
E. W. (1990). “International comparison of project orga-
nization structures,” International Journal of Project
Management, 8: 26–32.
27. Gray, C. F., and Larson, E. W. (2003). Project Management,
2nd ed. Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill; Dai, C. (2000).
The Role of the Project Management Office in Achieving
Project Success. PhD Dissertation, George Washington
University.
28. Block, T. (1998). “The project office phenomenon,”
PMNetwork, 12(3): 25–32; Block, T. (1999). “The seven
secrets of a successful project office,” PMNetwork, 13(4):
43–48; Block, T., and Frame, J. D. (1998). The Project Office.
Menlo Park, CA: Crisp Publications; Eidsmoe, N. (2000).
“The strategic project management office,” PMNetwork,
14(12): 39–46; Kerzner, H. (2003). “Strategic planning
for the project office,” Project Management Journal, 34(2):
13–25; Dai, C. X., and Wells, W. G. (2004). “An explora-
tion of project management office features and their rela-
tionship to project performance,” International Journal
of Project Management, 22: 523–32; Aubry, M., Müller,
R., Hobbs, B., and Blomquist, T. (2010). “Project manage-
ment offices in transition,” International Journal of Project
Management, 28(8): 766–78.
29. Casey, W., and Peck, W. (2001). “Choosing the right
PMO setup,” PMNetwork, 15(2): 40–47; Gale, S. (2009).
“Delivering the goods,” PMNetwork, 23(7): 34–39.
30. Kerzner, H. (2003). Project Management, 8th ed. New
York: Wiley; Englund, R. L., and Graham, R. J. (2001).
“Implementing a project office for organizational change,”
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(1998). “Project teams: The role of the project office,” Cost
Engineering, 40: 33–36.
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A Dynamic View. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 19–21;
Schein, E. H. (1985). “How culture forms, develops and
changes,” in Kilmann, R. H., Saxton, M. J., and Serpa,
R. (Eds.), Gaining Control of the Corporate Culture. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass, pp. 17–43; Elmes, M., and Wilemon,
D. (1989). “Organizational culture and project leader effec-
tiveness,” Project Management Journal, 19(4): 54–63.
32. Kirsner, S. (1998, November). “Designed for innovation,”
Fast Company, pp. 54, 56; Daft, R. L. (2001). Organization
Theory and Design, 7th ed. Mason, OH: Southwestern.
33. “Australian London 2012 Olympic swim team ‘toxic’”
(2013, February 19). BBC News Asia,. www.bbc.com/
news/world-asia-21501881.
34. Kilmann, R. H., Saxton, M. J., and Serpa, R. (1985).
Gaining Control of the Corporate Culture. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
35. “The US must do as GM has done.” (1989). Fortune, 124(2):
70–79.
36. Hillier, B. (2013, July 24), “Gibeau: ‘You get the best games
from small teams with strong cultures,’” VG 24/7. www.
vg247.com/2013/07/24/gibeau-you-get-the-best-games-
from-small-teams-with-strong-cultures/; Takahashi, D.
(2013, July 23). “EA exec Frank Gibeau: Betting on next-
gen consoles, mobile, and doing right by consumers,”
Venture Beat. http://venturebeat.com/2013/07/23/
eas-frank-gibeau-on-interview-part-1.
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38. Smith, D. K., and Alexander, R. C. (1988). Fumbling the
Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal
Computer. New York: Macmillan; Kharbanda, O. P., and
Pinto, J. K. (1996). What Made Gertie Galdop? New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Notes 75
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3
■ ■ ■
Project Selection and Portfolio
Management
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
Project Selection Procedures:
A Cross-Industry Sampler
introduction
3.1 Project Selection
3.2 APProAcheS to Project Screening
And Selection
Method One: Checklist Model
Method Two: Simplified Scoring Models
Limitations of Scoring Models
Method Three: The Analytical
Hierarchy Process
Method Four: Profile Models
3.3 finAnciAl ModelS
Payback Period
Net Present Value
Discounted Payback
Internal Rate of Return
Choosing a Project Selection Approach
Project Profile
Project Selection and Screening at GE:
The Tollgate Process
3.4 Project Portfolio MAnAgeMent
Objectives and Initiatives
Developing a Proactive Portfolio
Keys to Successful Project Portfolio
Management
Problems in Implementing Portfolio
Management
Summary
Key Terms
Solved Problems
Discussion Questions
Problems
Case Study 3.1 Keflavik Paper Company
Case Study 3.2 Project Selection at Nova
Western, Inc.
Internet Exercises
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain six criteria for a useful project selection/screening model.
2. Understand how to employ checklists and simple scoring models to select projects.
3. Use more sophisticated scoring models, such as the Analytical Hierarchy Process.
4. Learn how to use financial concepts, such as the efficient frontier and risk/return models.
5. Employ financial analyses and options analysis to evaluate the potential for new project
investments.
6. Recognize the challenges that arise in maintaining an optimal project portfolio for an
organization.
7. Understand the three keys to successful project portfolio management.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core
concePts covered in this chAPter
1. Portfolio Management (PMBoK sec. 1.4.2)
Project Profile
Project Selection Procedures: A cross-industry Sampler
The art and science of selecting projects is one that organizations take extremely seriously. Firms in a variety of indus-
tries have developed highly sophisticated methods for project screening and selection to ensure that the projects they
choose to fund offer the best promise of success. As part of this screening process, organizations often evolve their own
particular methods, based on technical concerns, available data, and corporate culture and preferences. The following
list gives you a sense of the lengths to which some organizations go with project selection:
• Hoechst AG, a pharmaceutical firm, uses a scoring portfolio model with 19 questions in five major categories when
rating project opportunities. The five categories include probability of technical success, probability of commercial
success, reward to the company, business strategy fit, and strategic leverage (ability of the project to employ and
elevate company resources and skills). Within each of these factors are a number of specific questions, which are
scored on a 1 to 10 scale by management.
• At German industrial giant Siemens, every business unit in each of the 190 countries in which the company oper-
ates uses a system entitled “PM@Siemens” for categorizing projects that employs a two-digit code. Each project is
awarded a letter from A to F, indicating its significance to the company, and a number from 0 to 3, indicating its
overall risk level. Larger or riskier projects (e.g., an “A0”) require approval from Siemens’s main board in Germany,
but many of the lesser projects (e.g., an “F3”) can be approved by local business units. Too many A0s in the portfolio
can indicate mounting risks while too many F3 projects may signal a lack of economic value overall.
• The Royal Bank of Canada has developed a scoring model to rate its project opportunities. The criteria for the port-
folio scoring include project importance (strategic importance, magnitude of impact, and economic benefits) and
ease of doing (cost of development, project complexity, and resource availability). Expected annual expenditure and
total project spending are then added to this rank-ordered list to prioritize the project options. Decision rules are
used (e.g., projects of low importance that are difficult to execute get a “no-go” rating).
• The Weyerhaeuser corporate research and development (R&D) program has put processes in place to align and
prioritize R&D projects. The program has three types of activities: technology assessment (changes in external en-
vironment and impact to the company), research (building knowledge bases and competencies in core technical
areas), and development (development of specific commercial opportunities). Four key inputs are considered when
establishing priorities: significant changes in the external environment; long-term future needs of lead customers;
business strategies, priorities, and technology needs; and corporate strategic direction.
• Mobil Chemical uses six categories of projects to determine the right balance of projects that will enter its portfo-
lio: (1) cost reductions and process improvements; (2) product improvements, product modifications, and customer
satisfaction; (3) new products; (4) new platform projects and fundamental/breakthrough research projects; (5) plant
support; and (6) technical support for customers. Senior management reviews all project proposals and determines
the division of capital funding across these six project types. One of the key decision variables involves a comparison
of “what is” with “what should be.”
• The Texas Department of Transportation identifies several criteria in its project selection process. Infrastructure and
building projects are selected by the Texas Transportation Commission based on the following criteria: safety, main-
tenance and preservation of the existing system, congestion relief, access and mobility, economic vitality, efficient
system management and operations, and any additional transportation goals identified in the statewide long-range
transportation plans. These projects must adhere to all department design standards as well as applicable state and
federal law and regulations.1
• At 3M’s Traffic Control Materials Division, during project screening and selection, management uses a project vi-
ability chart to score project alternatives. As part of the profile and scoring exercise, personnel must address how
the project accomplishes strategic project objectives and critical business issues affecting a specific group within the
target market. Projected project return on investment is always counterbalanced with riskiness of the project option.
• Exxon Chemical’s management begins evaluating all new project proposals in light of the business unit’s strategy and
strategic priorities. Target spending is decided according to the overall project mix portfolio. As the year progresses,
all projects are reprioritized using a scoring model. As significant differences between projected and actual spending
are uncovered, the top management group makes adjustments for the next year’s portfolio.2
Project Profile 77
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78 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
IntroductIon
All organizations select projects they decide to pursue from among numerous opportunities. What
criteria determine which projects should be supported? Obviously, this is no simple decision. The
consequences of poor decisions can be enormously expensive. Recent research suggests that in the
realm of information technology (IT), companies squander nearly $100 billion a year on projects that
are created but never used by their intended clients. How do we make the most reasonable choices in
selecting projects? What kind of information should we collect? Should decisions be based strictly on
financial analysis, or should other criteria be considered? In this chapter, we will try to answer such
questions as we take a closer look at the process of project selection.
We will examine a number of different approaches for evaluating and selecting potential
projects. The various methods for project selection run along a continuum from highly qualita-
tive, or judgment-based approaches to those that rely on quantitative analysis. Of course, each
approach has its benefits and drawbacks, which must be considered in turn.
We will also discuss a number of issues related to the management of a project portfolio—
the set of projects that an organization is considering/undertaking at any given time. For example,
Rubbermaid, Inc., routinely undertakes hundreds of new product development projects simul-
taneously, always searching for opportunities with strong commercial prospects. When a firm is
pursuing multiple projects, the challenges of strategic decision making, resource management,
scheduling, and operational control are magnified.
3.1 Project SelectIon
Firms are literally bombarded with opportunities, but no organization enjoys infinite resources with
which to pursue every opportunity that presents itself. Choices must be made, and to best ensure
that they select the most viable projects, many managers develop priority systems—guidelines for
balancing the opportunities and costs entailed by each alternative. The goal is to balance the compet-
ing demands of time and advantage.3 The pressures of time and money affect most major decisions,
and decisions are usually more successful when they are made in a timely and efficient manner. For
example, if your firm’s sales department recognizes a commercial opportunity it can exploit, you
need to generate alternative approaches to the project quickly to capitalize on the prospect. Time
wasted is generally opportunity lost. On the other hand, you need to be careful: You want to be sure
that, at least as far as possible, you are making the best choice among your options. Thus organi-
zational decision makers develop guidelines—selection models—that permit them to save time and
money while maximizing the likelihood of success.
A number of decision models are available to managers responsible for evaluating and
selecting potential projects. As you will see, they run the gamut from qualitative to quantitative
and simple to complex. All firms, however, try to develop a screening model (or set of models)
that will allow them to make the best choices among alternatives within the usual constraints of
time and money.
Suppose you were interested in developing a model that allowed you to effectively screen proj-
ect alternatives. How might you ensure that the model was capable of picking potential “winners”
from the large set of possible project choices? After much consideration, you decide to narrow the
focus for your screening model and create one that will allow you to select only projects that have
high potential payoffs. All other issues are ignored in favor of the sole criterion of commercial profit-
ability. The question is: Would such a screening model be useful? Souder4 identifies five important
issues that managers should consider when evaluating screening models:
1. Realism: An effective model must reflect organizational objectives, including a firm’s
strategic goals and mission. Criteria must also be reasonable in light of such constraints on
resources as money and personnel. Finally, the model must take into account both commer-
cial risks and technical risks, including performance, cost, and time. That is: Will the project
work as intended? Can we keep to the original budget or is there a high potential for escalat-
ing costs? Is there a strong risk of significant schedule slippage?
2. Capability: A model should be flexible enough to respond to changes in the conditions
under which projects are carried out. For example, the model should allow the company to
compare different types of projects (long-term versus short-term projects, projects of differ-
ent technologies or capabilities, projects with different commercial objectives). It should be
3.1 Project Selection 79
robust enough to accommodate new criteria and constraints, suggesting that the screening
model must allow the company to use it as widely as possible in order to cover the greatest
possible range of project types.
3. Flexibility: The model should be easily modified if trial applications require changes. It
must, for example, allow for adjustments due to changes in exchange rates, tax laws, building
codes, and so forth.
4. Ease of use: A model must be simple enough to be used by people in all areas of the organi-
zation, both those in specific project roles and those in related functional positions. Further,
the screening model that is applied, the choices made for project selection, and the reasons
for those choices should be clear and easily understood by organizational members. The
model should also be timely: It should generate the screening information rapidly, and peo-
ple should be able to assimilate that information without any special training or skills.
5. Cost: The screening model should be cost-effective. A selection approach that is expensive
to use in terms of either time or money is likely to have the worst possible effect: causing
organizational members to avoid using it because of the excessive cost of employing it. The
cost of obtaining selection information and generating optimal results should be low enough
to encourage use of the models rather than diminish their applicability.
Let’s add a sixth criterion for a successful selection model:
6. Comparability: The model must be broad enough to be applied to multiple projects. If a
model is too narrowly focused, it may be useless in comparing potential projects or foster
biases toward some over others. A useful model must support general comparisons of project
alternatives.
Project selection models come in two general classes: numeric and nonnumeric.5 numeric
models seek to use numbers as inputs for the decision process involved in selecting projects. These
values can be derived either objectively or subjectively; that is, we may employ objective, external
values (“The bridge’s construction will require 800 cubic yards of cement”) or subjective, internal
values (“We will need to hire two code checkers to finish the software development within eight
weeks”). Neither of these two input alternatives is necessarily wrong: An expert’s opinion on an
issue may be subjective but very accurate. On the other hand, an incorrectly calibrated surveyor’s
level can give objective but wrong data. The key is to remember that most selection processes for
project screening involve a combination of subjective and objective data assessment and decision
making. nonnumeric models, on the other hand, do not employ numbers as decision inputs, rely-
ing instead on other data.
Companies spend great amounts of time and effort trying to make the best project selection
decisions possible. These decisions are typically made with regard for the overall objectives that
the company’s senior management staff have developed and promoted based on their strategic
plan. Such objectives can be quite complex and may reflect a number of external factors that can
affect a firm’s operations. For example, suppose the new head of Sylvania’s Lighting Division
mandated that the strategic objective of the organization was to be sales growth at all costs. Any
new project opportunity would be evaluated against this key strategic imperative. Thus, a project
offering the potential for opening new markets might be viewed more favorably than a competing
project promising a higher potential rate of return.
The list of factors that can be considered when evaluating project alternatives is enormous.
Table 3.1 provides only a partial list of the various elements that a company must address, orga-
nized into the general categories of risk and commercial factors, internal operating issues, and
other factors. Although such a list can be long, in reality the strategic direction emphasized by
top management often highlights certain criteria over others. In fact, if we apply Pareto’s 80/20
principle, which states that a few issues (20%) are vital and many (80%) are trivial, it may be fairly
argued that, for many projects, less than 20% of all possible decision criteria account for over 80%
of the decision about whether to pursue the project.
This being said, we should reflect on two final points regarding the use of any decision-
making approach to project selection. First, the most complete model in the world is still only a
partial reflection of organizational reality. The potential list of inputs into any project selection
decision is literally limitless—so much so, in fact, that we must recognize this truth before explor-
ing project selection lest we erroneously assume that it is possible, given enough time and effort,
to identify all relevant issues that play a role. Second, embedded in every decision model are both
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80 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
table 3.1 issues in Project Screening and Selection
1. Risk—Factors that reflect elements of unpredictability to the firm, including:
a. Technical risk—risks due to the development of new or untested technologies
b. Financial risk—risks from the financial exposure caused by investing in the project
c. Safety risk—risks to the well-being of users or developers of the project
d. Quality risk—risks to the firm’s goodwill or reputation due to the quality of the completed project
e. Legal exposure—potential for lawsuits or legal obligation
2. Commercial—Factors that reflect the market potential of the project, including:
a. Expected return on investment
b. Payback period
c. Potential market share
d. Long-term market dominance
e. Initial cash outlay
f. Ability to generate future business/new markets
3. Internal operating issues—Factors that have an impact on internal operations of the firm, including:
a. Need to develop/train employees
b. Change in workforce size or composition
c. Change in physical environment
d. Change in manufacturing or service operations resulting from the project
4. Additional factors, including:
a. Patent protection
b. Impact on company’s image
c. Strategic fit
objective and subjective factors. We may form opinions based on objective data; we also may derive
complex decision models from subjective inputs. Acknowledging that there exists a place for both
subjective and objective inputs and decisions in any useful screening model is worthwhile.
3.2 aPProacheS to Project ScreenIng and SelectIon
A project screening model that generates useful information for project choices in a timely and
useful fashion at an acceptable cost can serve as a valuable tool in helping an organization make
optimal choices among numerous alternatives.6 With these criteria in mind, let’s consider some of
the more common project selection techniques.
Method one: checklist Model
The simplest method of project screening and selection is developing a checklist, or a list of cri-
teria that pertain to our choice of projects, and then applying them to different possible projects.
Let’s say, for example, that in our company, the key selection criteria are cost and speed to market.
Because of our strategic competitive model and the industry we are in, we favor low-cost projects
that can be brought to the marketplace within one year. We would screen each possible project
against these two criteria and select the project that best satisfies them. But depending on the type
and size of our possible projects, we may have to consider literally dozens of relevant criteria. In
deciding among several new product development opportunities, a firm must weigh a variety of
issues, including the following:
• Cost of development: What is a reasonable cost estimate?
• Potential return on investment: What kind of return can we expect? What is the likely pay-
back period?
• Riskiness of the new venture: Does the project entail the need to create new-generation tech-
nology? How risky is the venture in terms of achieving our anticipated specifications?
• Stability of the development process: Are both the parent organization and the project team
stable? Can we expect this project to face funding cuts or the loss of key personnel, including
senior management sponsors?
• Governmental or stakeholder interference: Is the project subject to levels of governmental
oversight that could potentially interfere with its development? Might other stakeholders
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 81
oppose the project and attempt to block completion? For example, environmental groups,
one of the “intervenor” stakeholders, have a long history of opposing natural resource devel-
opment projects and may work in opposition to our project objectives.7
• Product durability and future market potential: Is this project a one-shot opportunity, or
could it be the forerunner of future opportunities? A software development firm may, for
example, develop an application for a client in hopes that successful performance on this
project will lead to future business. On the other hand, the project may be simply a one-time
opportunity with little potential for future work with the customer.
This is just a partial list of criteria that may be relevant when we are selecting among proj-
ect alternatives. A checklist approach to the evaluation of project opportunities is a fairly simple
device for recording opinions and encouraging discussion. Thus, checklists may be best used in a
consensus-group setting, as a method for initiating conversation, stimulating discussion and the
exchange of opinions, and highlighting the group’s priorities.
exaMPle 3.1 Checklist
Let’s assume that SAP Corporation, a leader in the business applications software industry, is inter-
ested in developing a new application package for inventory management and shipping control.
It is trying to decide which project to select from a set of four potential alternatives. Based on past
commercial experiences, the company feels that the most important selection criteria for its choice
are cost, profit potential, time to market, and development risks. Table 3.2 shows a simple checklist model
with only four project choices and the four decision criteria. In addition to developing the decision
criteria, we create evaluative descriptors that reflect how well the project alternatives correspond to
our key selection criteria. We evaluate each criterion (which is rated high, medium, or low) in order to
see which project accumulates the highest checks—and thus may be regarded as the optimal choice.
solution
Based on this analysis, Project Gamma is the best alternative in terms of maximizing our key
criteria—cost, profit potential, time to market, and development risks.
table 3.2 Simplified checklist Model for Project Selection
Performance on criteria
Project criteria High Medium low
Project Alpha Cost X
Profit potential X
Time to market X
Development risks X
Project Beta Cost X
Profit potential X
Time to market X
Development risks X
Project Gamma Cost X
Profit potential X
Time to market X
Development risks X
Project Delta Cost X
Profit potential X
Time to market X
Development risks X
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82 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
The flaws in a model such as that shown in Table 3.2 include the subjective nature of the high,
medium, and low ratings. These terms are inexact and subject to misinterpretation or misunder-
standing. Checklist screening models also fail to resolve trade-off issues. What if our criteria are
differentially weighted—that is, what if some criteria are more important than others? How will rela-
tive, or weighted, importance affect our final decision? Let’s say, for instance, that we regard time
to market as our paramount criterion. Is Project Gamma, which is rated low on this criterion, still
“better” than Project Beta or Delta, both of which are rated high on time to market though lower on
other, less important criteria? Are we willing to make a trade-off, accepting low time to market in
order to get the highest benefits in cost, profit potential, and development risks?
Because the simple checklist model does not deal satisfactorily with such questions, let’s turn
next to a more complex screening model in which we distinguish more important from less impor-
tant criteria by assigning each criterion a simple weight.
Method two: Simplified Scoring Models
In the simplified scoring model, each criterion is ranked according to its relative importance. Our
choice of projects will thus reflect our desire to maximize the impact of certain criteria on our deci-
sion. In order to score our simplified checklist, we assign a specific weight to each of our four criteria:
criterion importance Weight
Time to market 3
Profit potential 2
Development risks 2
Cost 1
Now let’s reconsider the decision that we made using the basic checklist approach illustrated
in Table 3.2.
exaMPle 3.2 Scoring Models
SAP Corporation is attempting to determine the optimal project to fund using the criterion weight-
ing values we developed above. As you can see in Table 3.3, although adding a scoring component
to our simple checklist complicates our decision, it also gives us a more precise screening model—
one that more closely reflects our desire to emphasize certain criteria over others.
solution
In Table 3.3, the numbers in the column labeled Importance Weight specify the numerical values
that we have assigned to each criterion: Time to market always receives a value of 3, profit potential a
value of 2, development risk a value of 2, and cost a value of 1. We then assign relative values to each
of our four dimensions.
The numbers in the column labeled Score replace the Xs of Table 3.2 with their assigned score
values:
High = 3
Medium = 2
Low = 1
In Project Alpha, for example, the High rating given Cost becomes a 3 in Table 3.3 because High is
here valued at 3. Likewise, the Medium rating given Time to market in Table 3.2 becomes a 2. But
notice what happens when we calculate the numbers in the column labeled Weighted Score. When
we multiply the numerical value of Cost (1) by its rating of High (3), we get a Weighted Score of 3.
But when we multiply the numerical value of Time to market (3) by its rating of Medium (2), we get a
Weighted Score of 6. Once we add the numbers in the Weighted Score column for each project in Table
3.3 and examine the totals, Project Beta (with a total score of 19) is the best alternative, compared to
the other options: Project Alpha (with a total score of 13), Project Gamma (with a total score of 18),
and Project Delta (with a total score of 16).
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 83
table 3.3 Simple Scoring Model
(A) (B) (A) : (B)
Project criteria
importance
Weight Score
Weighted
Score
Project Alpha
Cost 1 3 3
Profit potential 2 1 2
Development risk 2 1 2
Time to market 3 2 6
total Score 13
Project Beta
Cost 1 2 2
Profit potential 2 2 4
Development risk 2 2 4
Time to market 3 3 9
total Score 19
Project Gamma
Cost 1 3 3
Profit potential 2 3 6
Development risk 2 3 6
Time to market 3 1 3
total Score 18
Project Delta
Cost 1 1 1
Profit potential 2 1 2
Development risk 2 2 4
Time to market 3 3 9
total Score 16
Thus, the simple scoring model consists of the following steps:
• Assign importance weights to each criterion: The first step is to develop logic for differenti-
ating among various levels of importance and to devise a system for assigning appropriate
weights to each criterion. Relying on collective group judgment may help to validate the rea-
sons for determining importance levels. The team may also designate some criteria as “must”
items. Safety concerns, for example, may be stipulated as nonnegotiable. In other words, all
projects must achieve an acceptable safety level or they will not be considered further.
• Assign score values to each criterion in terms of its rating (High = 3, Medium = 2,
Low = 1): The logic of assigning score values is often an issue of scoring sensitivity—of making
differences in scores distinct. Some teams, for example, prefer to widen the range of possible
values—say, by using a 1-to-7 scale instead of a 1-to-3 scale—in order to ensure a clearer distinc-
tion among scores and, therefore, among project choices. Such decisions will vary according
to the number of criteria being applied and, perhaps, the team members’ experience with the
accuracy of outcomes produced by a given approach to screening and selection.
• Multiply importance weights by scores to arrive at a weighted score for each criterion: The
weighted score reflects both the value that the team assigns to each criterion and the ratings
that the team gives each criterion for the project.
• Add the weighted scores to arrive at an overall project score: The final score for each project
represents the sum of all its weighted criteria.
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84 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
The pharmaceutical company Hoechst Marion Roussel uses a scoring model for selecting
projects that identifies not only five main criteria—reward, business strategy fit, strategic leverage,
probability of commercial success, and probability of technical success—but also a number of more
specific subcriteria. Each of these 19 subcriteria is scored on a scale of 1 to 10. The score for each
criterion is then calculated by averaging the scores for each criterion. The final project score is deter-
mined by adding the average score of each of the five subcategories. Hoechst has had great success
with this scoring model, both in setting project priorities and in making go/no-go decisions.8
The simple scoring model has some useful advantages as a project selection device. First,
it is easy to use in tying critical strategic goals for the company to various project alternatives. In
the case of the pharmaceutical company Hoechst, the company has assigned several categories to
strategic goals for its project options, including business strategy fit and strategic leverage. These
strategic goals become a critical hurdle for all new project alternatives. Second, the simple scoring
model is easy to comprehend and use. With a checklist of key criteria, evaluation options (high,
medium, and low), and attendant scores, top managers can quickly grasp how to employ this
technique.
limitations of Scoring Models
The simple scoring model illustrated here is an abbreviated and unsophisticated version of the
weighted-scoring approach. In general, scoring models try to impose some structure on the
decision- making process while, at the same time, combining multiple criteria.
Most scoring models, however, share some important limitations. A scale from 1 to 3 may
be intuitively appealing and easy to apply and understand, but it is not very accurate. From the
perspective of mathematical scaling, it is simply wrong to treat evaluations on such a scale as real
numbers that can be multiplied and summed. If 3 means High and 2 means Medium, we know that
3 is better than 2, but we do not know by how much. Furthermore, we cannot assume that the
difference between 3 and 2 is the same as the difference between 2 and 1. Thus, in Table 3.3, if the
score for Project Alpha is 13 and the score for Project Beta is 19, may we assume that Beta is 46%
better than Alpha? Unfortunately, no. Critics of scoring models argue that their ease of use may
blind novice users to the false assumptions that sometimes underlie them.
From a managerial perspective, another drawback of scoring models is the fact that they
depend on the relevance of the selected criteria and the accuracy of the weight given them. In other
words, they do not ensure that there is a reasonable link between the selected and weighted crite-
ria and the business objectives that prompted the project in the first place.
For example As a means of selecting projects, the Information Systems steering
committee of a large bank has adopted three criteria: contribution to quality, financial performance,
and service. The bank’s strategy is focused on customer retention, but the criteria selected by the
committee do not reflect this fact. As a result, a project aimed at improving service to potential new
markets might score high on service even though it would not serve existing customers (the people
whose business the bank wants to retain). Note, too, that the criteria of quality and service may
overlap, leading managers to double-count and overestimate the value of some factors.9 Thus, the
bank has employed a project selection approach that neither achieves its desired ends nor matches
its overall strategic goals.
Method three: the analytical hierarchy Process
The Analytical hierarchy Process (AhP) was developed by Dr. Thomas Saaty10 to address many
of the technical and managerial problems frequently associated with decision making through
scoring models. An increasingly popular method for effective project selection, the AHP is a
four-step process.
StructurIng the hIerarchy of crIterIa The first step consists of constructing a hierarchy of
criteria and subcriteria. Let’s assume, for example, that a firm’s IT steering committee has selected
three criteria for evaluating project alternatives: (1) financial benefits, (2) contribution to strategy, and
(3) contribution to IT infrastructure. The financial benefits criterion, which focuses on the tangible
benefits of the project, is further subdivided into long-term and short-term benefits. Contribution
to strategy, an intangible factor, is subdivided into three subcriteria: (a) increasing market share for
product X, (b) retaining existing customers for product Y, and (c) improving cost management.
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 85
Table 3.4 is a representational breakdown of all these criteria. Note that subdividing rele-
vant criteria into a meaningful hierarchy gives managers a rational method for sorting among and
ordering priorities. Higher-order challenges, such as contribution to strategy, can be broken down
into discrete sets of supporting requirements, including market share, customer retention, and cost
management, thus building a hierarchy of alternatives that simplifies matters. Because the hierar-
chy can reflect the structure of organizational strategy and critical success factors, it also provides
a way to select and justify projects according to their consistency with business objectives.11 This
illustrates how we can use meaningful strategic issues and critical factors to establish logic for both
the types of selection criteria and their relative weighting.
Recently, a large U.S. company used the AHP to rank more than a hundred project
proposals worth millions of dollars. Because the first step in using the AHP is to establish
clear criteria for selection, 10 managers from assorted disciplines, including finance, market-
ing, management information systems, and operations, spent a full day establishing the hier-
archy of criteria. Their challenge was to determine the key success criteria that should be used
to guide project selection, particularly as these diverse criteria related to each other (relative
weighting). They found that, in addition to clearly defining and developing the criteria for
evaluating projects, the process also produced a more coherent and unified vision of organiza-
tional strategy.
allocatIng WeIghtS to crIterIa The second step in applying AHP consists of allocating
weights to previously developed criteria and, where necessary, splitting overall criterion weight
among subcriteria. Mian and Dai12 and others have recommended the so-called pairwise compari-
son approach to weighting, in which every criterion is compared with every other criterion. This
procedure, argue the researchers, permits more accurate weighting because it allows managers to
focus on a series of relatively simple exchanges—namely, two criteria at a time.
The simplified hierarchy in Figure 3.1 shows the breakdown of criterion weights across the
same three major criteria that we used in Table 3.4. As Figure 3.1 shows, Finance (that is, financial
benefits) received a weighting value of 52%, which was split between Short-term benefits (30%) and
Long-term benefits (70%). This configuration means that long-term financial benefits receives an over-
all weighting of (0.52) * (0.7) = 36.4%.
table 3.4 Hierarchy of Selection criteria choices
first level Second level
1. Financial benefits 1A: Short-term
1B: Long-term
2. Contribution to strategy 2A: Increasing market share for product X;
2B: Retaining existing customers for product Y;
2C: Improving cost management
3. Contribution to IT infrastructure
Rank Information Systems
Project Proposals
Goal
(1.000)
Information
Technology
(0.140)
Poor
Fair
Good
Very Good
Excellent
Strategy
(0.340)
Market Share
Retention
Cost Mgmt.
Short-term
Long-term
Finance
(0.520)
fIgure 3.1 Sample AHP with rankings
for Salient Selection criteria
Source: J. K. Pinto and I. Millet. (1999). Successful
Information System Implementation: The Human
Side, 2nd ed., figure on page 76. Newtown Square,
PA: Project Management Institute. Copyright and
all rights reserved. Material from this publication
has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
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86 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
The hierarchical allocation of criteria and splitting of weights resolves the problem of dou-
ble counting in scoring models. In those models, criteria such as service, quality, and customer
satisfaction may be either separate or overlapping factors, depending on the objectives of the
organization. As a result, too little or too much weight may be assigned to a given criterion.
With AHP, however, these factors are grouped as subcriteria and share the weight of a common
higher-level criterion.
aSSIgnIng nuMerIcal ValueS to eValuatIon dIMenSIonS For the third step, once the hierar-
chy is established, we can use the pairwise comparison process to assign numerical values to the
dimensions of our evaluation scale. Figure 3.2 is an evaluation scale with five dimensions: Poor,
Fair, Good, Very Good, and Excellent. In this figure, for purposes of illustration, we have assigned
the values of 0.0, 0.10, 0.30, 0.60, and 1.00, respectively, to these dimensions. Naturally, we can
change these values as necessary. For example, if a company wants to indicate a greater discrep-
ancy between Poor and Fair, managers may increase the range between these two dimensions.
By adjusting values to suit specific purposes, managers avoid the fallacy of assuming that the
differences between numbers on a scale of, say, 1 to 5 are equal—that is, assuming that the differ-
ence between 4 and 5 is the same as the difference between 3 and 4. With the AHP approach, the
“best” outcome receives a perfect score of 1.00 and all other values represent some proportion
relative to that score.
When necessary, project managers are encouraged to apply different scales for each crite-
rion. Note, for example, that Figure 3.2 uses scale points ranging from Poor to Excellent. Suppose,
however, that we were interviewing a candidate for our project team and one of the criterion items
was “Education level.” Clearly, using a scale ranging from Poor to Excellent makes no sense, so
we would adjust the scales to make them meaningful; for example, using levels such as “High
School,” “Some College,” “College Graduate,” and so forth. Allocating weights across dimensions
gives us a firmer understanding of both our goals and the methods by which we are comparing
opportunities to achieve them.
eValuatIng Project ProPoSalS In the final step, we multiply the numeric evaluation of the
project by the weights assigned to the evaluation criteria and then add the results for all crite-
ria. Figure 3.3 shows how five potential projects might be evaluated by an AHP program offered
by Expert Choice, a maker of decision software.13 Here’s how to read the key features of the
spreadsheet:
• The second row specifies the value assigned to each of five possible ratings (from
Poor = 1 = .000 to Excellent = 5 = 1.000).
• The fourth row specifies the five decision criteria and their relative weights (Finance/Short-
Term = .1560, Strategy/Cost Management = .0816, and so forth). (Note that three criteria have
been broken down into six subcriteria.)
• The second column lists the five projects (Perfect Project, Aligned, etc.).
• The third column labeled “Total” gives a value for each alternative. This number is found by
multiplying each evaluation by the appropriate criterion weight and summing the results
across all criteria evaluations.
Nominal
Poor 0.00000 0.000
0.050
1.000
0.500
0.300
0.150
2.00000
1.00000
0.60000
0.30000
0.10000Fair
Excellent
Total
Very Good
Good
Priority Bar Graph
fIgure 3.2 Assigning Numerical Values to labels
Source: J. K. Pinto and I. Millet. (1999). Successful Information System
Implementation: The Human Side, 2nd ed., figure on page 77. Newtown
Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Copyright and all rights reserved.
Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 87
Finance
Poor
1 (.000)
Fair
2 (.100)
Alternatives
1 Perfect Project 1.000 Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Very Good Very Good Very Good Very Good Very Good Very Good
Very GoodFairPoor
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
0.762
0.538
0.284
0.600
Aligned
Not Aligned
All Very Good
Mixed
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
Finance
Short-Term Long-Term
Strategy
Market Share Retention Cost
Management
Technology
.1400.0816.1564.1020.3640.1560
Good
3 (.300)
Very Good
4 (.600)
Excellent
5 (1.000)
Short-term
fIgure 3.3 the Project rating Spreadsheet
Source: J. K. Pinto and I. Millet. (1999). Successful Information System
Implementation: The Human Side, 2nd ed., figure on page 78. Newtown Square,
PA: Project Management Institute. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material
from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
To illustrate how the calculations are derived, let us take the Aligned project as an example.
Remember that each rating (Excellent, Very Good, Good, etc.) carries with it a numerical score
Figure 3.2. These scores, when multiplied by the evaluation criteria and then added together, yield:
(.1560)(.3) + (.3640)(1.0) + (.1020)(.3) + (.1564)(1.0) + (.0816)(.3) + (.1400)(1.0) = .762
The Perfect Project, as another example, was rated Excellent on all six dimensions and thus received
a total score of 1.000. Also, compare the evaluations of the Aligned and Not Aligned project choices.
Although both projects received an equal number of Excellent and Good rankings, the Aligned proj-
ect was clearly preferable because it was rated higher on criteria viewed as more important and
thus more heavily weighted.
Unlike the results of typical scoring models, the AHP scores are significant. The Aligned proj-
ect, for example, which scored 0.762, is almost three times better than the Mixed project, with its
score of 0.284. This feature—the ability to quantify superior project alternatives—allows project
managers to use AHP scores as input to other calculations. We might, for example, sort projects by
the ratios of AHP scores to total their development costs. Let’s say that based on this ratio, we find
that the Not Aligned project is much cheaper to initiate than the Aligned project. This finding may
suggest that from a cost/benefit perspective, the Not Aligned project offers a better alternative than the
Aligned project.
The AHP methodology can dramatically improve the process of developing project propos-
als. In firms that have incorporated AHP analysis, new project proposals must contain, as part of
their core information, a sophisticated AHP breakdown listing the proposed project, alternatives,
and projected outcomes. The Analytical Hierarchy Process offers a true advantage over traditional
scoring models, primarily because it reduces many of the technical and managerial problems that
plague such approaches.
The AHP does have some limitations, however. First, current research suggests that the
model does not adequately account for “negative utility”; that is, the fact that certain choice
options do not contribute positively to the decision goals but actually lead to negative results.
For example, suppose that your company identified a strong project option that carried a
prohibitively expensive price tag. As a result, selecting this project is really not an option
because it would be just too high an investment. However, using the AHP, you would first
need to weigh all positive elements, develop your screening score, and then compare this
score against negative aspects, such as cost. The result can lead to bias in the project scoring
calculations.14 A second limitation is that the AHP requires that all criteria be fully exposed
and accounted for at the beginning of the selection process. Powerful members of the orga-
nization with political agendas or pet projects they wish to pursue may resist such an open
selection process.
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88 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
Method four: Profile Models
Profile models allow managers to plot risk/return options for various alternatives and then select
the project that maximizes return while staying within a certain range of minimum acceptable risk.
“Risk,” of course, is a subjective assessment: It may be difficult to reach overall agreement on the
level of risk associated with a given project. Nevertheless, the profile model offers another way of
evaluating, screening, and comparing projects.15
Let’s return to our example of project screening at SAP Corporation. Suppose that instead of
the four project alternatives for the new software project we discussed earlier, the firm had identi-
fied six candidates for development. For simplicity’s sake, managers chose to focus on the two
criteria of risk and reward.
In Figure 3.4, the six project alternatives are plotted on a graph showing perceived Risk on the
y-axis and potential Return on the x-axis. Because of the cost of capital to the firm, we will specify
some minimum desired rate of return. All projects will be assigned some risk factor value and be
plotted relative to the maximum risk that the firm is willing to assume. Figure 3.4, therefore, graphi-
cally represents each of our six alternatives on a profile model. (Risk values have been created here
simply for illustrative purposes.) In our example, SAP can employ a variety of measures to assess
the likely return offered by this project, including discounted cash flow analysis and internal rate of
return expectations. Likewise, it is increasingly common for firms to quantify their risk assessment
of various projects, enabling us to plot them along the y-axis. The key lies in employing identical
evaluation criteria and quantification approaches across all projects to be profiled on the graph.
Clearly, when project risks are unique or we have no way of comparing the relative risks from proj-
ect to project, it is impossible to accurately plot project alternatives.
In Figure 3.4, we see that Project X2 and Project X3 have similar expected rates of return. Project
X3, however, represents a better selection choice. Why? Because SAP can achieve the same rate of
return with Project X3 as it can with Project X2 but with less risk. Likewise, Project X5 is a superior
choice to X4: Although they have similar risk levels, X5 offers greater return as an investment. Finally,
while Project X6 offers the most potential return, it does so at the highest level of risk.
The profile model makes use of a concept most widely associated with financial management
and investment analysis—the efficient frontier. In project management, the efficient frontier is the set
of project portfolio options that offers either a maximum return for every given level of risk or the
minimum risk for every level of return.16 When we look at the profile model in Figure 3.4, we note
that certain options (X1, X3, X5, X6) lie along an imaginary line balancing optimal risk and return
combinations. Others (X2 and X4), however, are less desirable alternatives and would therefore be
considered inferior choices. The efficient frontier serves as a decision-making guide by establishing
the threshold level of risk/return options that all future project choices must be evaluated against.
R
is
k
Return
Maximum
Desired Risk
Minimum
Desired Return
X6
X2
X4 X5
X3
X1
Efficient Frontier
fIgure 3.4 Profile Model
3.2 Approaches to Project Screening and Selection 89
Risk
12
10
8
6
4
2
8%6% 10% 12% 16% 20% 24% 28% 32%
Return
Maximum
Allowable
Risk
Efficient Frontier
Saturn
Mercury
Minimum
Desired
Return
X2
X3
X1
X4
fIgure 3.5 efficient frontier for our firm
One advantage of the profile model is that it offers another method by which to compare proj-
ect alternatives, this time in terms of the risk/return trade-off. Sometimes it is difficult to evaluate
and compare projects on the basis of scoring models or other qualitative approaches. The profile
model, however, gives managers a chance to map out potential returns while considering the risk
that accompanies each choice. Thus, profile models give us a method for eliminating alternatives
that either carry too much risk or promise too little return.
On the other hand, profile models also have disadvantages:
1. They limit decision criteria to just two—risk and return. Although an array of issues, includ-
ing safety, quality, and reliability, can come under the heading of “risk,” the approach still
necessarily limits the decision maker to a small set of criteria.
2. In order to be evaluated in terms of an efficient frontier, some value must be attached to risk.
Expected return is a measure that is naturally given to numerical estimate. But because risk
may not be readily quantified, it may be misleading to designate “risk” artificially as a value
for comparison among project choices.
exaMPle 3.3 Profile Model
Let’s consider a simple example. Suppose that our company has identified two new project alter-
natives and we wish to use risk/return analysis to determine which of the two projects would fit
best with our current project portfolio. We assess return in terms of the profit margin we expect to
achieve on the projects. Risk is evaluated at our company in terms of four elements: (1) technical
risk—the technical challenge of the project, (2) capital risk—the amount invested in the project, (3)
safety risk—the risk of accidents or employee safety, and (4) goodwill risk—the risk of losing cus-
tomers or diminishing our company’s image. The magnitude of each of these types of risk is deter-
mined by applying a “low, medium, high” risk scale where 1 = low, 2 = medium, and 3 = high.
After conducting a review of the likely profitability for both of the projects and evaluating
their riskiness, we conclude the following:
risk return Potential
Project Saturn 10 23%
Project Mercury 6 16%
Figure 3.5 shows our firm’s efficient frontier for the current portfolio of projects. How would
we evaluate the attractiveness of either Project Saturn or Project Mercury?
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90 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
solution
When we consider the two choices, Projects Saturn and Mercury, in terms of their projected risk
and return, we can chart them on our profile model relative to other projects that we are undertak-
ing. Figure 3.5 illustrates the placement of the two new project options. Note that Project Saturn,
although within our maximum risk limit, does not perform as well as the other projects in our cur-
rent portfolio (it has a higher risk rating for its projected return than other comparable projects).
On the other hand, Project Mercury offers us a 16% rate of return for a lower level of risk than the
current efficient frontier, suggesting that this project is an attractive option and a better alternative
than Project Saturn.
3.3 fInancIal ModelS
Another important series of models rely on financial analysis to make project selection decisions.
In this section, we will examine three commonly used financial models: discounted cash flow analy-
sis, net present value, and internal rate of return.
Financial models are all predicated on the time value of money principle. The time value of
money suggests that money earned today is worth more than money we expect to earn in the future.
In other words, $100 that I receive four years from now is worth significantly less to me than if I were
to receive that money today. In the simplest example, we can see that putting $100 in a bank account
at 3% interest will grow the money at a compounded rate each year. Hence, at the end of year 1, the
initial investment will be worth $103. After two years, it will have grown to $106.09, and so on. The
principle also works in reverse: To calculate the present value of $100 that I expect to have in the bank in
four years’ time, I must first discount the amount by the same interest rate. Hence, assuming an inter-
est rate of 3%, I need only invest $88.85 today to yield $100 in four years.
We expect future money to be worth less for two reasons: (1) the impact of inflation, and (2)
the inability to invest the money. Inflation, as we know, causes prices to rise and hence erodes con-
sumers’ spending power. In 1900, for example, the average house may have cost a few thousand
dollars to build. Today housing costs have soared. As a result, if I am to receive $100 in four years,
its value will have decreased due to the negative effects of inflation. Further, not having that $100
today means that I cannot invest it and earn a return on my money for the next four years. Money
that we cannot invest is money that earns no interest. In real terms, therefore, the present value
of money must be discounted by some factor the farther out into the future I expect to receive it.
When deciding among nearly identical project alternatives, if Project A will earn our firm $50,000
in two years and Project B will earn our company $50,000 in four years, Project A is the best choice
because we will receive the money sooner.
Payback Period
The project payback period is the estimated amount of time that will be necessary to recoup
the investment in a project, that is, how long will it take for the project to pay back its initial
investment and begin to generate positive cash flow for the company. In determining the pay-
back period for a project, we employ a discounted cash flow analysis, based on the principle
of the time value of money. The goal of the discounted cash flow (dcf) analysis is to estimate
cash outlays and expected cash inflows resulting from investment in a project. All potential
costs of development (most of which are contained in the project budget) are assessed and
projected prior to the decision to initiate the project. They are then compared with all expected
sources of revenue from the project. For example, if the project is a new chemical plant, pro-
jected revenue streams will be based on expected capacity, production levels, sales volume,
and so forth.
We then apply to this calculation a discount rate based on the firm’s cost of capital. The value
of that rate is weighted across each source of capital to which the firm has access (typically, debt
and equity markets). In this way we weight the cost of capital, which can be calculated as follows:
Kfirm = (wd)(kd)(1 - t) + (we)(ke)
3.3 Financial Models 91
The weighted cost of capital is the percentage of capital derived from either debt (wd) or equity (we)
multiplied by the percentage costs of debt and equity (kd and ke, respectively). (The value t refers to
the company’s marginal tax rate: Because interest payments are tax deductible, we calculate the cost
of debt after taxes.)
There is a standard formula for payback calculations:
Payback period = investment/annual cash savings
The reciprocal of this formula can be used to calculate the average rate of return for the
project. However, note that the above formula only works in simple circumstances when
cash flows (or annual cash savings) are the same for each year. So, for example, if we
invested $150,000 and would receive $30,000 a year in annual savings, the payback period is
straightforward:
Payback period = +150,000/+30,000 = 5 years
On the other hand, when projected cash flows from annual savings are not equal, you must
determine at what point the cumulative cash flow becomes positive. Thus:
Cumulative cashflow(CF) = (Initial investment) + CF(year 1) + CF(year 2) + p
Once cost of capital has been calculated, we can set up a table projecting costs and revenue streams
that are discounted at the calculated rate. The key is to determine how long it will take the firm to
reach the breakeven point on a new project. Breakeven point represents the amount of time neces-
sary to recover the initial investment of capital in the project. Shorter paybacks are more desirable
than longer paybacks, primarily because the farther we have to project payback into the future, the
greater the potential for additional risk.
exaMPle 3.4 Payback Period
Our company wants to determine which of two project alternatives is the more attractive invest-
ment opportunity by using a payback period approach. We have calculated the initial investment
cost of the two projects and the expected revenues they should generate for us (see Table 3.5).
Which project should we invest in?
solution
For our example, the payback for the two projects can be calculated as in Table 3.6. These results
suggest that Project A is a superior choice over Project B, based on a shorter projected payback pe-
riod (2.857 years versus 4.028 years) and a higher rate of return (35% versus 24.8%).
table 3.5 initial outlay and Projected revenues for two Project options
Project A Project B
revenues outlays revenues outlays
Year 0 $500,000 $500,000
Year 1 $ 50,000 $ 75,000
Year 2 150,000 100,000
Year 3 350,000 150,000
Year 4 600,000 150,000
Year 5 500,000 900,000
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92 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
table 3.6 comparison of Payback for Projects A and B
Project A Year cash flow cum. cash flow
0 ($500,000) ($ 500,000)
1 50,000 (450,000)
2 150,000 (300,000)
3 350,000 50,000
4 600,000 650,000
5 500,000 1,150,000
Payback = 2.857 years
Rate of Return = 35%
Project B Year cash flow cum. cash flow
0 ($500,000) ($ 500,000)
1 75,000 (425,000)
2 100,000 (325,000)
3 150,000 (175,000)
4 150,000 (25,000)
5 900,000 875,000
Payback = 4.028 years
Rate of Return = 24.8%
net Present Value
The most popular financial decision-making approach in project selection, the net present value
(nPv) method, projects the change in the firm’s value if a project is undertaken. Thus a positive
NPV indicates that the firm will make money—and its value will rise—as a result of the project.
Net present value employs discounted cash flow analysis, discounting future streams of income to
estimate the present value of money.
The simplified formula for NPV is as follows:
NPV(project) = I0 + a
t
n = 1
Ft/(1 + r + pt)t
where
Ft = net cash flow for period t
r = required rate of return
I = initial cash investment (cash outlay at time 0)
pt = inflation rate during period
The optimal procedure for developing an NPV calculation consists of several steps, including
the construction of a table listing the outflows, inflows, discount rate, and discounted cash flows
across the relevant time periods. We construct such a table in Example 3.5 (see Table 3.7).
exaMPle 3.5 Net Present Value
Assume that you are considering whether or not to invest in a project that will cost $100,000 in ini-
tial investment. Your company requires a rate of return of 10%, and you expect inflation to remain
relatively constant at 4%. You anticipate a useful life of four years for the project and have projected
future cash flows as follows:
Year 1: $20,000
Year 2: $50,000
Year 3: $50,000
Year 4: $25,000
3.3 Financial Models 93
solution
We know the formula for determining NPV:
NPV = I0 + a
t
n = 1
Ft/(1 + r + p)t
We can now construct a simple table to keep a running score on discounted cash flows (both in-
flows and outflows) to see if the project is worth its initial investment. We already know that we
will need the following categories: Year, Inflows, Outflows, and NPV. We will also need two more
categories:
Net flows: the difference between inflows and outflows
Discount factor: the reciprocal of the discount rate (1/(1 + r + p)t)
In Table 3.7, if we fill in the Discount Factor column assuming that r = 10% and p = 4%, we can
begin work on the NPV. Note that Year 0 means the present time, and Year 1 the first year of operation.
How did we arrive at the Discount Factor for Year 3? Using the formula we set above, we cal-
culated the appropriate data:
Discount factor = (1/(1 + .10 + .04)3) = .6749
Now we can supply the data for the Inflows, Outflows, and Net Flow columns.
Finally, we complete the table by multiplying the Net Flow amount by the Discount Factor. The
results give us the data for the NPV column of our table. The sum of the discounted cash flows
(their net present value) shown in Table 3.8 gives us the NPV of the project. The total is a positive
number, indicating that the investment is worthwhile and should be pursued.
table 3.7 running Score on Discounted cash flows
Year inflows outflows Net flow Discount factor NPV
0 $100,000 $(100,000) 1.0000
1 $20,000 20,000 0.8772
2 50,000 50,000 0.7695
3 50,000 50,000 0.6749
4 25,000 25,000 0.5921
table 3.8 Discounted cash flows and NPV (i)
Year inflows outflows Net flow Discount factor NPV
0 $100,000 $(100,000) 1.0000 $(100,000)
1 $20,000 20,000 0.8772 17,544
2 50,000 50,000 0.7695 38,475
3 50,000 50,000 0.6749 33,745
4 25,000 25,000 0.5921 14,803
Total $ 4,567
Net present value is one of the most common project selection methods in use today. Its
principal advantage is that it allows firms to link project alternatives to financial performance,
better ensuring that the projects a company chooses to invest its resources in are likely to
generate profit. Among its disadvantages is the difficulty in using NPV to make accurate long-
term predictions. For example, suppose that we were considering investing in a project with
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94 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
an expectation that it would continue to generate returns during the next 10 years. In choosing
whether or not to invest in the project today, we must make some assumptions about future
interest rates, inflation, and our required rate of return (rrr) for the next 10 years. In uncer-
tain financial or economic times, it can be risky to make long-term investment decisions when
discount rates may fluctuate.
discounted Payback
Now that we have considered the time value of money, as shown in the NPV method, we can apply
this logic to the simple payback model to create a screening and selection model with a bit more
power. Remember that with NPV we use discounted cash flow as our means to decide whether or
not to invest in a project opportunity. Now, let’s apply that same principle to the discounted pay-
back method. With this method, the time period in which we are interested is the length of time
until the sum of the discounted cash flows is equal to the initial investment.
A simple example will illustrate the difference between straight payback and discounted
payback methods. Suppose we require a 12.5% return on new investments, and we have a proj-
ect opportunity that will cost an initial investment of $30,000 with a promised return per year of
$10,000. Under the simple payback model, the initial investment should be paid off in only three
years. However, as Table 3.9 demonstrates, when we discount our cash flows at 12.5% and start
adding them, it actually takes four years to pay back the initial project investment.
The advantage of the discounted payback method is that it allows us to make a more “intel-
ligent” determination of the length of time needed to satisfy the initial project investment. That is,
while simple payback is useful for accounting purposes, discounted payback is actually more rep-
resentative of the financial realities that all organizations must consider when pursuing projects.
The effects of inflation and future investment opportunities matter with individual investment
decisions; hence, these factors should also matter when evaluating project opportunities.
Internal rate of return
internal rate of return (irr) is an alternative method for evaluating the expected outlays and
income associated with a new project investment opportunity. The IRR method asks the simple
question: What rate of return will this project earn? Under this model, the project must meet some
required “hurdle” rate applied to all projects under consideration. Without detailing the math-
ematics of the process, we will say that IRR is the discount rate that equates the present values of a
project’s revenue and expense streams. If a project has a life of time t, the IRR is defined as:
IO = a
t
n = 1
ACFt
(1 + IRR)t
where
ACFt = annual after-tax cash flow for time period t
IO = initial cash outlay
n = project’s expected life
IRR = project’s internal rate of return
table 3.9 Discounted Payback Method
Project cash flow*
Year Discounted Undiscounted
1 $8,900 $10,000
2 7,900 10,000
3 7,000 10,000
4 6,200 10,000
5 5,500 10,000
Payback Period 4 Years 3 Years
*Cash flows rounded to the nearest $100.
3.3 Financial Models 95
The IRR is found through a straightforward process, although it requires tables representing
present value of an annuity in order to determine the project’s rate of return. Alternatively, many
pocket calculators can determine IRR quickly. Without tables or access to a calculator, it is neces-
sary to employ an iterative process to identify the approximate IRR for the project.
exaMPle 3.6 Internal Rate of Return
Let’s take a simple example. Suppose that a project required an initial cash investment of $5,000
and was expected to generate inflows of $2,500, $2,000, and $2,000 for the next three years. Further,
assume that our company’s required rate of return for new projects is 10%. The question is: Is this
project worth funding?
solution
Answering this question requires four steps:
1. Pick an arbitrary discount rate and use it to determine the net present value of the stream of
cash inflows.
2. Compare the present value of the inflows with the initial investment; if they are equal, you
have found the IRR.
3. If the present value is larger (or less than) than the initial investment, select a higher (or
lower) discount rate for the computation.
4. Determine the present value of the inflows and compare it with the initial investment. Con-
tinue to repeat steps 2–4 until you have determined the IRR.
Using our example, we know:
Cash investment = $5,000
Year 1 inflow = $2,500
Year 2 inflow = $2,000
Year 3 inflow = $2,000
Required rate of return = 10%
step one: try 12%.
Discount factor
Year inflows at 12% NPV
1 $2,500 .893 $2,233
2 2,000 .797 1,594
3 2,000 .712 1,424
Present value of inflows 5,251
Cash investment –5,000
Difference $ 251
decision: Present value difference at 12% is 250.50, which is too high. Try a higher discount rate.
step two: try 15%.
Discount factor
Year inflows at 15% NPV
1 $2,500 .870 $2,175
2 2,000 .756 1,512
3 2,000 .658 1,316
Present value of inflows 5,003
Cash investment 5,000
Difference $ 3
decision: Present value difference at 15% is $3, which suggests that 15% is a close approximation
of the IRR.
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96 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
If the IRR is greater than or equal to the company’s required rate of return, the project is
worth funding. In Example 3.6, we found that the IRR is 15% for the project, making it higher
than the hurdle rate of 10% and a good candidate for investment. The advantage of using IRR
analysis lies in its ability to compare alternative projects from the perspective of expected
return on investment (ROI). Projects having higher IRR are generally superior to those having
lower IRR.
The IRR method, however, does have some disadvantages. First, it is not the rate of return
for a project. In fact, the IRR equals the project’s rate of return only when project-generated cash
inflows can be reinvested in new projects at similar rates of return. If the firm can reinvest revenues
only on lower-return projects, the “real” return on the project is something less than the calculated
IRR. Several other problems with the IRR method make NPV a more robust determinant of project
viability:17
• IRR and NPV calculations typically agree (that is, make the same investment recommenda-
tions) only when projects are independent of each other. If projects are not mutually exclu-
sive, IRR and NPV may rank them differently. The reason is that NPV employs a weighted
average cost of capital discount rate that reflects potential reinvestment while IRR does not.
Because of this distinction, NPV is generally preferred as a more realistic measure of invest-
ment opportunity.
• If cash flows are not normal, IRR may arrive at multiple solutions. For example, if net cash
outflows follow a period of net cash inflows, IRR may give conflicting results. If, following
the completion of plant construction, it is necessary to invest in land reclamation or other
incidental but significant expenses, an IRR calculation may result in multiple return rates,
only one of which is correct.
choosing a Project Selection approach
What can we conclude from our discussion of project selection methods? First and foremost, we
have learned to focus on the method that we use in making selection decisions. Have we been
consistent and objective in considering our alternatives? The author has worked in a consulting
and training capacity with a number of firms that have experienced recurrent problems in their
project selections (they kept picking losers). Why? One reason was their failure to even attempt
objectivity in their selection methods. Proposed projects, often “sacred cows” or the pet ideas
of senior managers, were pushed to the head of the line or, worse, financially “tweaked” until
they yielded satisfactory conclusions. Team members knew in advance that such projects would
fail because the projects had been massaged to the point at which they seemingly optimized the
selection criteria. The key to project selection lies in being objective about the process. If you
operate according to the “GIGO” principle—garbage in/garbage out—you’ll soon be up to your
knees in garbage.
A second conclusion we can draw is that although a wide variety of selection methods
exist, certain ones may be more appropriate for specific companies and project circumstances.
Some projects require sophisticated financial evidence of their viability. Others may only
need to demonstrate no more than an acceptable profile when compared to other options.
In other words, any of the previously discussed selection methods may be appropriate under
certain situations. Some experts, for example, favor weighted scoring models on the grounds
that they offer a more accurate reflection of a firm’s strategic goals without sacrificing long-
term effectiveness for short-term financial gains.18 They argue that such important, nonfi-
nancial criteria should not be excluded from the decision-making process. In fact, research
suggests that although very popular, financial selection models, when used exclusively, do not
yield optimal portfolios.19 On the other hand, when they are combined with scoring models
into a more comprehensive selection procedure, they can be highly effective. It is also criti-
cal to match the types of projects we are selecting from to the appropriate screening method.
Is it possible to estimate future return on investment? Potential risk? These issues should be
carefully thought through when developing a suitable screening model. Perhaps the key lies
3.3 Financial Models 97
in choosing a selection algorithm broad enough to encompass both financial and nonfinan-
cial considerations. Regardless of the approach that a company selects, we can be sure of one
thing: Making good project choices is a crucial step in ensuring good project management
downstream.
Project Profile
Project Selection and Screening at Ge: the tollgate Process
General Electric has developed a highly sophisticated approach to project screening and selection that the company
calls the Tollgate Process. As you can see from Figure 3.6, Tollgate involves a series of seven formal procedural check-
points (labeled 100 to 700) established along the project development time line. Therefore, Tollgate is more than just a
project selection methodology; it involves controlling the selection and development of the project as it moves through
its life cycle. Each stage in this control process is carefully monitored.
Each of the seven Tollgate stages can be broken down into a so-called process map that guides manag-
ers and teams in addressing specific necessary elements in the completion of a stage. These elements are the
substeps that guide project screening in order to ensure that all projects conform to the same set of internal GE
standards.
Figure 3.7 lays out the process flow map that is used to evaluate the progress each project makes at the vari-
ous stages to final completion. Note that teams must complete all action substeps at each Tollgate stage. Once they
have completed a given stage, a cross-functional management review team provides oversight at a review conference.
Approval at this stage permits the team to proceed to the next stage. Rejection means that the team must back up and
deal with any issues that the review team feels it has not addressed adequately. For example, suppose that the project
fails a technical conformance test during field testing at the system verification stage. The technical failure would re-
quire the team to cycle back to the appropriate point to analyze the cause for the field test failure and begin remedial
steps to correct it. After a project team has received approval from the review team, it needs the approval of senior
management before moving on to the next Tollgate stage. Rejection at this point by senior management often effec-
tively kills the project.
New Product Introduction Process
Seven Stages
Identify
Customer
Require-
ments
Proposal
Negotiation/
Resource
Planning
Systems
Design
Detailed
Design
System
Verification
Production/
Release
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
fIgure 3.6 Ge’s tollgate Process
Source: Used with permission of General Electric Company.
(continued)
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98 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
Some critics argue that formalized and sophisticated review processes such as Tollgate add excessive layers of
bureaucratic oversight to the project screening process. In fact, the sheer number of actions, steps, checklists, and mana-
gerial reviews stipulated by the Tollgate process can add significant delays to projects—a critical concern if a project is
needed to address an immediate problem. On the other hand, proponents of such techniques argue that the benefits—
standardization across business units, comprehensive step-by-step risk analysis, clear links to top management—more
than compensate for potential problems. At GE, the company credits Tollgate with promoting significant improvements
in early problem discovery and “real-time” risk management.
Cross-Functional
Section Management
Review Team
Senior Leadership
Team (SLT)
Senior Mgmt.
Review or
CEO Override
Tollgate
Review
Tollgate
Stage
Project
Team
Review, Cost,
Schedule, Risk Actions
and Plans
Actions, Comments,
Direction on Risk Issues,
Status, Remedial Actions
to Maintain Process Integrity
Approval to Continue
Tollgate Process
to Next Stage
with Risk Mitigation
and Action Plans
Checksheets Completed or
Risk Issue for Incomplete Items
Risk Management
Plans with Risk
Score Card and
Summary Sheet
Project
Team
Reject Stop Work and
Inform Customer
Reject
Approval
Approval
Project Team Works Issues
Raised During the Review;
After Three Rejections the
Project Team Must Go to
Senior Management for
ApprovalProject Team
fIgure 3.7 the Ge tollgate review Process flow Map
Source: Used with permission of General Electric Company.
3.4 Project PortfolIo ManageMent
Project portfolio management is the systematic process of selecting, supporting, and man-
aging a firm’s collection of projects. According to the Project Management Institute, a
company’s project portfolio consists of its projects, programs, subportfolios, and operations
managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives.20 Projects are managed concurrently under
a single umbrella and may be either related or independent of one another. The key to port-
folio management is realizing that a firm’s projects share a common strategic purpose and
the same scarce resources.21 For example, Pratt & Whitney Jet Engines, a subsidiary of United
Technologies Corporation, is similar to other major jet engine manufacturers in creating a wide
portfolio of engine types, from those developed for helicopters to those for jet aircraft, from
civilian use to military consumption. Although the products share common features, the tech-
nical challenges ensure that the product line is highly diverse. The concept of project portfolio
management holds that firms should not manage projects as independent entities, but rather
should regard portfolios as unified assets. There may be multiple objectives, but they are also
shared objectives.22
Cooper23 has suggested that project portfolio management should have four goals: (1) max-
imizing the value of the portfolio—the goal is to ensure that the total worth of projects in the
pipeline yields maximum value to the company; (2) achieving the right balance of projects in the
portfolio—there should be a balance between high-risk and low-risk, short-term and long-term,
genuine new products and product improvement projects; (3) achieving a strategically aligned
portfolio—leading companies have a clear product innovation strategy that directs their R&D proj-
ect investments; and (4) resource balancing—having the right number of projects in the portfolio
is critical. Too many firms invest in too many different projects that they cannot simultaneously
support. Overextension just drains resources and causes top management to constantly shift their
view from new project venture to new project venture, without providing sufficient support for
any of them.
3.4 Project Portfolio Management 99
Artto24 notes that in a project-oriented company, project portfolio management poses a con-
stant challenge between balancing long-term strategic goals and short-term needs and constraints.
Managers routinely pose such questions as the following:
• What projects should the company fund?
• Does the company have the resources to support them?
• Do these projects reinforce future strategic goals?
• Does this project make good business sense?
• Is this project complementary to other company projects?
objectives and Initiatives
Each of the questions in the previous list has both short-term and long-term implications, and,
taken together, they constitute the basis for both strategic project management and effective
risk management. Portfolio management, therefore, entails decision making, prioritization,
review, realignment, and reprioritization of a firm’s projects. Let’s consider each of these tasks
in more detail.
decISIon MakIng The decision on whether or not to proceed in specific strategic directions is
often influenced by market conditions, capital availability, perceived opportunity, and acceptable
risk. A variety of project alternatives may be considered reasonable alternatives during portfolio
development.
PrIorItIzatIon Because firms have limited resources, they typically cannot fund every project
opportunity. Thus they must prioritize. For this task, several criteria may be used:
• Cost: Projects with lower development costs are more favorable because they come with less
upfront risk.
• Opportunity: The chance for a big payout is a strong inducement for funding.
• Top management pressure: Political pressure from top management (say, managers with pet
projects) can influence decisions.
• Risk: Project payouts must justify some level of acceptable risk; those that are too risky are
scratched.
• Strategic “fit”: If a firm has a policy of pursuing a family of products, all opportunities are
evaluated in terms of their complementarity—that is, either their strategic fit with existing
product lines or their ability to augment the current product family.
• Desire for portfolio balance: A firm may want to offset risky initiatives by funding other
projects. The Boston Consulting Group’s product matrix framework, for example, balances
company product lines in terms of relative market share and product growth, suggesting that
firms can maintain a strategic balance within their portfolios between products with differ-
ent profiles. A firm might use its profitable but low-growth products to fund investment into
projects with high growth prospects. Portfolio balance supports developing a strategy that
allows companies the ability to balance or offset risk, explore alternative market opportuni-
ties, and fund innovation in other product lines.
reVIeW All project alternatives are evaluated according to the company’s prioritization scheme.
Projects selected for the firm’s portfolio are the ones that, based on those priorities, offer maximum
return. For example, at the start of the current economic downturn, DHL Express started evaluat-
ing its project portfolio through a new lens. The organization’s portfolio review board decided
that all ongoing projects had to meet the following criteria: deliver return on investment (ROI) in
2009, be “mission-critical” to running the business, and address government or regulatory issues
required to keep the business operational. Following an extensive portfolio review, a number of
projects were temporarily discontinued.
realIgnMent When portfolios are altered by the addition of new projects, managers must re-
examine company priorities. In the wake of new project additions, a number of important ques-
tions should be considered. Does the new project conform to strategic goals as characterized
by the project portfolio, or does it represent a new strategic direction for the firm? Does a new
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100 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
project significantly alter the firm’s strategic goals? Does the portfolio now require additional
rebalancing? The decision to change a portfolio by adding new projects restarts the analysis
cycle in which we must again reexamine the portfolio for signs of imbalance or updating.
rePrIorItIzatIon If strategic realignment means shifting the company’s focus (i.e., creating new
strategic directions), then managers must also reprioritize corporate goals and objectives. In this
sense, then, portfolio management means managing overall company strategy. For example, Bayer
Corporation, a global pharmaceutical giant, has found its corporate identity becoming less distinct
due to the wide variety of acquisitions and other brands under which it markets its products. The
company recently announced its intention to gradually eliminate many of the other brands that it
owns under the “Bayer product umbrella” in order to emphasize the Bayer label. They found, after
thorough analysis, that supporting a diverse set of brands in the Bayer Group was having the effect
of diluting their signature brand. Consumers were confused about what Bayer actually made and
that confusion was in danger of altering their perceptions of the quality of Bayer products.
developing a Proactive Portfolio
Portfolio management, therefore, is an important component in strategic project management. In
addition to managing specific projects, organizations plan for profitability, and the road to prof-
itability often runs through the area of strategic project management. One of the most effective
methods for aligning profit objectives and strategic plans is the development of a proactive project
portfolio, or an integrated family of projects, usually with a common strategic goal. Such a portfo-
lio supports overall strategic integration, rather than an approach that would simply move from
project opportunity to opportunity.
A useful model that has been applied to project portfolio management links the two issues
of commercial potential and technical feasibility in judging among potential project alternatives to
select for a firm’s portfolio. This portfolio classifies projects among four distinct types, depending
on where they fall in the matrix (see Figure 3.8):25
1. Bread and butter projects are those with a high probability of technical feasibility and a modest
likelihood for commercial profitability. These projects are typically evolutionary improve-
ments to existing product lines or modest extensions to existing technology. A new release
of a software product or “new and improved” laundry detergent are examples of bread and
butter projects.
2. Pearls are projects that offer a strong commercial potential and are technically feasible. These
projects can be used to gain strategic advantage in the marketplace. Pearls involve revolu-
tionary commercial applications that have the potential to revolutionize a field while relying
on well-known or understood technology. Examples of pearls are projects that involve new
applications of existing technology, such as sonar imaging systems to detect deep-water oil
reserves.
3. Oysters are early-stage projects that have the potential to unleash significant strategic and
commercial advantages for the company that can solve the technical challenges. Because oys-
ter projects involve unknown or revolutionary technologies, they are still at the early stages
of possible success. If these technical challenges can be overcome, the company stands to
make a great deal of money. An example of an oyster project is developing viable fusion
power generation or extended life batteries for electric cars.
4. White elephant projects are a combination of low technical feasibility coupled with low
commercial impact. The question could be asked: Why would a firm select white elephant
projects that combine the worst of profitability and technical feasibility? The answer is
that they do not deliberately select projects of this sort. Most white elephants start life
as bread and butter projects or oysters that never live up to their potential. As a result,
although originally undertaken with high hopes, white elephants end up consuming
resources and wasting time, but they are often maintained with rationalizations such as,
“We’ve already spent too much on it to just kill it now,” or “Influential members of the
organization support it.”
Project matrixes like the one in Figure 3.8 are a useful means for companies to take a hard
look at the current state of their project portfolio. Is there a good balance among project types?
3.4 Project Portfolio Management 101
Are there some obvious white elephants that need to be killed? Should the firm be investing in
more (or fewer) strategic projects at the expense of bread and butter projects? Balancing tech-
nical risk and potential return are twin goals of the project portfolio matrix and this process
should be redone periodically to ensure that the state of the company’s portfolio is always
updated.
It is also important to avoid making snap judgments or quick opinions of project oppor-
tunities in order to classify them on the grid. Classifying your portfolio of projects into a matrix
means that a company uses comprehensive and careful methods to identify projects of various
types—white elephants, bread and butter, oysters, and pearls. Should we use quantitative scor-
ing or screening models? Financial models? Some combination of several methods? Any of these
approaches can be a useful starting point for classifying the current projects in the portfolio and
identifying the value of potential new investments.
Consider the example of the large pharmaceutical firm Pfizer.26 Pfizer and its competi-
tors routinely manage large families of projects in an integrated manner. The overall integration
of project management efforts helps the company’s managers deal with certain realities of the
pharmaceutical industry, such as extremely high development costs and long lead times for new
products. In fact, as Table 3.10 shows, the lead time for bringing a new drug to market can easily
stretch over 15 years, and the success rate of a drug being commercially developed is estimated
to be less than 0.002%.
Therefore, at any particular point in time, Pfizer has numerous projects under research
and development, a smaller number of projects entering various stages of clinical trials,
and finally, an even smaller line of projects already on the market. Each step in the cycle is
fraught with risks and uncertainties. Will a drug work in clinical trials? Will it have mini-
mal negative side effects? Can it be produced in a cost-effective manner? Is it’s release time-
sensitive (is there, for instance, a limited market opportunity of which to take advantage)?
Often the answers to such questions will reduce Pfizer ’s ongoing portfolio of development
projects.
Commercial Potential – Why do it?
Low
Net Present Value Given Success
Maintain
competitiveness
Gain strategic
advantage
White Elephants Oysters
Bread and Butter Pearls
High
H
ig
h
P
ro
b
a
b
il
it
y
o
f
S
u
c
c
e
s
s
L
o
w
T
e
c
h
n
ic
a
l
F
e
a
s
ib
il
it
y
–
H
o
w
e
a
s
y
i
s
i
t?
fIgure 3.8 Project Portfolio Matrix
Source: D. Matheson, D. and J. E. Matheson. (1998). The Smart
Organization: Creating Value through Strategic R&D. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business School Press.
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102 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
Under the risky circumstances of this industry, in which development time is lengthy, the
financial repercussions of failure are huge, and success is never certain, pharmaceutical firms must
practice highly sophisticated project portfolio management. Because failure rates are high and
washouts constant, the need to take advantage of new product opportunities is critical. Only in
this way can the company ensure a steady supply of new products in the pipeline.
The pitfalls and possibilities of the pharmaceuticals development process are illustrated in
Figure 3.9. Drug companies compensate for the lengthy lead times necessary to get final approval
table 3.10 Phases in New Drug Development
Phase Duration % of Success contents
Discovery 4–7 yrs 1% Research a selected pool of molecules in computer
models and test tubes.
Preclinical
research
Test on animals and in test tubes to research the
safety, possible indications, toxicology,
and metabolism of the molecule.
Phase I 1 yr 70%–75% Small clinical studies on healthy volunteers to
study the safety and ADME characteristics of the
molecule.
Phase II 2 yrs 50% Small studies on patients with the target disease
to study the efficacy, dosage, and formulation of
the drug.
Phase III 3 yrs 75%–85% Large clinical studies on patients to confirm the
results of phase II. The most expensive phase in
the project.
Marketing
Application (MA)
1.5–3 yrs 75%–80% Compile marketing authorization application
(MAA) and send to the authorities. After the
authorization the drug may be sold and marketed.
Total 12–16 yrs < 0.002%
Source: M. Lehtonen (2001). “Resource allocation and project portfolio management in pharmaceutical R&D,” in Artto,
Martinsuo, and Aalto (Eds.), Project Portfolio Management: Strategic Management through Projects, pp. 107–140, figure on
page 112. Helsinki, Finland: Project Management Association.
B
u
s
in
e
s
s
L
a
u
n
c
h
Product support
Time
MAMAA
Time to market
Proof of
Concept
D
is
c
o
v
e
ry
Start
Phase I
Selection of
molecule
Time to approval
Name of phase
Implementation
Planning
I
II
III
Pre
fIgure 3.9 the flow of New Drug Development over time
Source: M. Lehtonen. (2001). “Resource allocation and project portfolio management in
pharmaceutical R&D,” in Artto, Martinsuo, and Aalto (Eds.), Project Portfolio Management:
Strategic Management through Projects, pp. 107–140, figure on page 120. Helsinki, Finland: Project
Management Association.
3.4 Project Portfolio Management 103
of new products by simultaneously funding and managing scores of development efforts.
Unfortunately, only a small proportion of an R&D portfolio will show sufficient promise to be
advanced to the clinical trial stage. Many projects are further weeded out during this phase, with
very few projects reaching the stage of commercial rollout.
Pfizer uses portfolio management to manage the flow of new drug development projects,
much as Samsung and Erickson use it to keep track of product pipelines that include mobile phones,
baseband modems, and firewall systems. Scott Paper manages a large portfolio of products and
new project initiatives through the same portfolio management approaches. Project portfolios are
necessary because a certain percentage of projects will be canceled prior to full funding, others will
be eliminated during development, and still others will fail commercially. This cycle leaves only
a few projects to account for a firm’s return on all of its investments. In short, any company that
puts all its R&D eggs in one project basket runs huge risks if that project fails during development
or proves disappointing in the marketplace. As a rule, therefore, companies guarantee themselves
fallback options, greater financial stability, and the chance to respond to multiple opportunities by
constantly creating and updating portfolios of projects.
Although there are no standard “rules” for the projects a company’s portfolio should
contain, research into portfolio management across industries has found that for companies
in certain industries, there may be general guidelines for the types of projects routinely being
developed. For example, in a study of the IT industry, researchers found that the average firm’s
project portfolio budget consists of 47% spent on infrastructure projects (intended to support
essential elements of the organization, its networks, PCs, development tools, training and help
desk support, and maintenance). The remaining 53% of the IT portfolio budget is spent on
application projects, including “frontier” projects to alter the competitive landscape, enhancement
projects to support better corporate performance, and utility applications for improving internal
company processes. For the majority of IT firms, nearly 67% of their portfolio budget is spent
on infrastructure and utility projects that make no direct business performance improvement
but are nevertheless essential for the smooth-running operations of a company.27 This example
demonstrates that it is possible to use research to determine the optimal mix of alternative
project types within the portfolios of firms in other industries as a means to guide portfolio-
balancing decisions.
keys to Successful Project Portfolio Management
Although examples of successfully managed portfolios abound, few researchers have investigated
the key reasons why some companies are better at it than others. Brown and Eisenhardt28 studied
six firms in the computer industry; all were involved in multiple project development activities.
They determined that successfully managed project portfolios usually reflect the following three
factors:
flexIble Structure and freedoM of coMMunIcatIon Multiple-project environments can-
not operate effectively when they are constrained by restrictive layers of bureaucracy, narrow
communication channels, and rigid development processes. Successful portfolios emerge from
environments that foster flexibility and open communication. When project teams are allowed
to improvise and experiment on existing product lines, innovative new product ideas are more
likely to emerge.
loW-coSt enVIronMental ScannIng Many firms devote a lot of time and money in efforts to
hit product “home runs.” They put their faith (and financing) in one promising project and aim
to take the marketplace by storm, often without sufficiently analyzing alternative opportunities
or future commercial trends. As a rule, successful project portfolio strategies call for launching a
number of low-cost probes into the future, the idea behind environmental scanning—developing
and market-testing a number of experimental product prototypes, sometimes by entering strategic
alliances with potential partners. Successful firms do not rely on home runs and narrowly con-
centrated efforts. They are constantly building and testing new projects prior to full-scale devel-
opment. Rubbermaid, for example, routinely brings dozens of new product ideas to the market,
samples the commercial response, and uses the resulting information to improve potential winners
and discard products that don’t measure up.
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104 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
tIMe-Paced tranSItIon Successful portfolio management requires a sense of timing, especially
as firms make transitions from one product to the next. Successful firms use project portfolio plan-
ning routinely to develop long lead times and plan ahead in order to make the smoothest possible
transition from one product to another, whether the product lines are diverse or constitute creating
a follow-on upgrade. Gillette, for example, has made a lucrative business out of developing and
selling new models of shaving razors. Gillette’s product life cycle planning is highly sophisticated,
allowing it to make accurate predictions of the likely life cycle of current products and the timing
necessary for beginning new product development projects to maintain a seamless flow of con-
sumer products.
Problems in Implementing Portfolio Management
What are some of the common problems in creating an effective portfolio management system?
Although numerous factors can adversely affect the practice of portfolio management, recent
research seems to suggest that the following are among the most typical problem areas.29
conSerVatIVe technIcal coMMunItIeS In many organizations, there is a core of technical
professionals—project engineers, research scientists, and other personnel—who develop project
prototypes. A common phenomenon is this group’s unwillingness, whether out of pride, organiza-
tional inertia, or due to arguments supporting pure research, to give up project ideas that are too
risky, too costly, or out of sync with strategic goals. Often, when top management tries to trim the
portfolio of ongoing projects for strategic reasons, they find engineers and scientists reluctant to
accept their reasoning. Data General Corporation, a manufacturer of computers and IT products,
found itself increasingly under the dominance of its hardware engineering department, a group
intent on pursuing their own new product goals and fostering their own vision for the organiza-
tion. By the mid-1990s, with one product after another resulting in significant losses, the company
could not continue to operate independently and was acquired by EMC Corporation.
out-of-Sync ProjectS and PortfolIoS Sometimes after a firm has begun realigning and repri-
oritizing its strategic outlook, it continues to develop projects or invest in a portfolio that no longer
accurately reflects its new strategic focus. Strategy and portfolio management must accurately re-
flect a similar outlook. When strategy and portfolio management are out of alignment, one or both
of two things will probably happen: Either the portfolio will point the firm toward outmoded goals
or the firm’s strategy will revert to its old objectives.
unProMISIng ProjectS The worst-case scenario finds a company pursuing poor-quality or
unnecessary projects. Honda, for example, has been pursuing hydrogen fuel technology for over
10 years and is marketing its FCX car in southern California with compressed hydrogen as its
fuel source. Unfortunately, while the efficiency of the engine is high, the current difficulties in the
technology make the FCX a questionable project choice to continue to support. The tanker trucks
that replenish gasoline stations carrying hydrogen refueling pumps can carry about 300 fill-ups.
However, hydrogen takes up much more space and requires high-pressure cylinders that weigh
65 times as much as the hydrogen they contain. Therefore, one giant, 13-ton hydrogen delivery
truck can carry only about 10 fill-ups! By ignoring this critical flaw in the hydrogen economy
idea Honda has a product is grossly inefficient compared to electric cars. Well-to-wheel efficiency
analysis of the Honda FCX shows that the Tesla pure electric car is three times more efficient
while producing only one-third the CO2 emissions.
30
When portfolio management is geared to product lines, managers routinely rebalance the
portfolio to ensure that there are a sufficient number of products of differing types to offset those
with weaknesses. Revenues from “cash cows,” for example, can fund innovative new products.
Sometimes critical analysis of a portfolio requires hard decisions, project cancellations, and real-
located resources. But it is precisely this ongoing attention to the portfolio that prevents it from
becoming weighted down with unpromising projects.
Scarce reSourceS A key resource for all projects is human capital. In fact, personnel costs
comprise one of the highest sources of project expense. Additional types of resources include
any raw materials, financial resources, or supplies that are critical to successfully completing
the project. Before spending large amounts of time creating a project portfolio, organizations
thus like to ensure that the required resources will be available when needed. A principal cause
of portfolio underperformance is a lack of adequate resources, especially personnel, to support
required development.
Portfolio management is the process of bringing an organization’s project management
practices into line with its overall corporate strategy. By creating complementary projects and
creating synergies within its project portfolio, a company can ensure that its project manage-
ment teams are working together rather than at cross-purposes. Portfolio management is also a
visible symbol of the strategic direction and commercial goals of a firm. Taken together, the proj-
ects that a firm chooses to promote and develop send a clear signal to the rest of the company
about priorities, resource commitment, and future directions. Finally, portfolio management is
an alternative method for managing overall project risk by seeking a continuous balance among
various families of projects, between risks and return trade-offs, and between efficiently run
projects and nonperformers. As more and more organizations rely on project management to
achieve these ends, it is likely that more and more firms will take the next logical step: organiz-
ing projects by means of portfolio management.
Summary
1. explain six criteria for a useful project selection/
screening model. No organization can pursue
every opportunity that presents itself. Choices must
be made, and to best ensure that they select the
most viable projects, firms develop priority systems
or guidelines—selection/screening models (or a set of
models) that will help them make the best choices
within the usual constraints of time and money—
that is, help them save time and money while maxi-
mizing the likelihood of success.
A number of decision models are available
to managers who are responsible for evaluat-
ing and selecting potential projects. Six impor-
tant issues that managers should consider when
evaluating screening models are: (1) Realism: An
effective model must reflect organizational objec-
tives, must be reasonable in light of constraints
on resources such as money and personnel, and
must take into account both commercial risks and
technical risks. (2) Capability: A model should be
flexible enough to respond to changes in the con-
ditions under which projects are carried out and
robust enough to accommodate new criteria and
constraints. (3) Flexibility: The model should be
easily modified if trial applications require chang-
es. (4) Ease of use: A model must be simple enough
to be used by people in all areas of the organiza-
tion, and it should be timely in that it generates
information rapidly and allows people to assimi-
late that information without any special training
or skills. (5) Cost: The cost of gathering, storing,
and arranging information in the form of useful
reports or proposals should be relatively low in
relation to the costs associated with implement-
ing a project (i.e., the cost of the models must be
low enough to encourage their use rather than
diminish their applicability). (6) Comparability:
The model must be broad enough that it can be
applied to multiple projects and support general
comparisons of project alternatives.
2. understand how to employ checklists and sim-
ple scoring models to select projects. Checklists
require decision makers to develop a list of the cri-
teria that are deemed important when considering
project alternatives. For example, a firm may decide
that all project alternatives must be acceptable on
criteria such as return on investment, safety, cost of
development, commercial opportunities, and stake-
holder acceptability. Once the list of criteria is cre-
ated, all project alternatives are evaluated against
it and assigned a rating of high, medium, or low
depending on how well they satisfy each criterion
in the checklist. Projects that rate highest across the
relevant criteria are selected. Checklists are use-
ful because they are simple and require the firm to
make trade-off decisions among criteria to deter-
mine which issues are most important in selecting
new projects. Among their disadvantages are the
subjective nature of the rating process and the fact
that they assume equal weighting for all criteria
when some, in fact, may be much more important
than others in making the final decision.
Simple scoring models are similar to checklists
except that they employ criterion weights for each
of the decision criteria. Hence, all project alterna-
tives are first weighted by the importance score for
the criterion, and then final scores are evaluated
against one another. The advantage of this method is
that it recognizes the fact that decision criteria may
be weighted differently, leading to better choices
among project alternatives. The disadvantages of
the method arise from the difficulty in assigning
meaningful values to scoring anchors such as “High
= 3, Medium = 2, Low = 1.” Thus, there is some
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106 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
uncertainty in the interpretation of the results of sim-
ple scoring models using weighted rankings. The
usefulness of these models depends on the relevance
of the selected criteria and the accuracy of the weight
given to them.
3. use more sophisticated scoring models, such as
the Analytical hierarchy Process. The Analytical
Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a four-step process that
allows decision makers to understand the nature of
project alternatives in making selection decisions.
Using the AHP, decision makers (a) structure the
hierarchy of criteria to be used in the decision pro-
cess, (b) allocate weights to these criteria, (c) assign
numerical values to all evaluation dimensions, and
(d) use the scores to evaluate project alternatives.
The AHP has been shown to create more accurate
decision alternatives and lead to more informed
choices, provided the organization’s decision mak-
ers develop accurate decision criteria and evaluate
and weight them honestly.
4. learn how to use financial concepts, such as the
efficient frontier and risk/return models. Many
projects are selected as a result of their perceived
risk/return trade-off potential. That is, all projects
entail risk (uncertainty), so project organizations
seek to balance higher risk with comparatively
higher expectations of return when consider-
ing which projects to fund. The efficient frontier
concept allows projects to be evaluated against
each other by assessing the potential returns for
each alternative compared to the risk the firm is
expected to undertake in producing the project.
The efficient frontier is the set of project portfolio
options that offers either a maximum return for
every given level of risk or the minimum risk for
every level of return.
5. employ financial analyses and options analysis
to evaluate the potential for new project invest-
ments. Financial analyses using discounted cash
flows and internal rates of return allow us to apply
the concept of the time value of money to any deci-
sion we have to make regarding the attractiveness of
various project alternatives. The time value of money
suggests that future streams of return from a project
investment should at least offset the initial invest-
ment in the project plus provide some required rate
of return imposed by the company. Options analy-
sis takes this process one step further and considers
alternatives in which an investment is either made
or foregone, depending upon reasonable alternative
investments the company can make in the future.
Each of these financial models argues that the prin-
cipal determinant of an attractive project investment
must be the money it promises to return. Clearly,
therefore, a reasonably accurate estimate of future
streams of revenue is required for financial models to
create meaningful results.
6. recognize the challenges that arise in maintain-
ing an optimal project portfolio for an organiza-
tion. A number of challenges are associated with
managing a portfolio of projects, including (a) con-
servative technical communities that refuse to sup-
port new project initiatives, (b) out-of-sync projects
and portfolios in which the projects no longer align
with overall strategic portfolio plans, (c) unpromis-
ing projects that unbalance the portfolio, and (d)
scarce resources that make it impossible to support
new projects.
7. understand the three keys to successful project
portfolio management. There are three keys to suc-
cess project portfolio management. First, firms need
to create or make available a flexible structure and
freedom of communication by reducing excessive
bureaucracy and administrative oversight so that the
portfolio management team maximum has flexibil-
ity in seeking out and investing in projects. Second,
use of successful portfolio management strategies
allows for low-cost environmental scanning, which
launches a series of inexpensive “probes” into the
future to develop and test-market project alterna-
tives. Finally, successful portfolio management
requires a time-paced transition strategy based on a
sense of the timing necessary to successfully transi-
tion from one product to the next, whether the next
product is a direct offshoot of the original or an addi-
tional innovative product for the firm’s portfolio.
Key Terms
Analytical Hierarchy
Process (AHP) (p. 84)
Checklist (p. 80)
Discounted cash flow
(DCF) method (p. 90)
Discounted payback
method (p. 94)
Efficient frontier
(p. 88)
Internal rate of
return (IRR) (p. 94)
Lead time (p. 101)
Net present value (NPV)
method (p. 92)
Nonnumeric models (p. 79)
Numeric models (p. 79)
Pairwise comparison
approach (p. 85)
Payback period (p. 90)
Present value of
money (p. 90)
Profile models (p. 88)
Project portfolio (p. 78)
Project portfolio
management (p. 98)
Project screening
model (p. 80)
Required rate of return
(RRR) (p. 94)
Risk/return (p. 88)
Simplified scoring
model (p. 82)
Time value of money
(p. 90)
3.1 Net PreSeNt VAlUe
Your firm is trying to decide whether to invest in a new proj-
ect opportunity based on the following information. The initial
cash outlay will total $250,000 over two years. The firm expects
to invest $200,000 immediately and the final $50,000 in one
year ’s time. The company predicts that the project will gen-
erate a stream of earnings of $50,000, $100,000, $200,000, and
$75,000 per year, respectively, starting in Year 2. The required
rate of return is 12%, and the expected rate of inflation over the
life of the project is forecast to remain steady at 3%. Should you
invest in this project?
SoluTIoN
In order to answer this question, we need to organize the fol-
lowing data in the form of a table:
Total outflow = $250,000
Total inflow = $400,000
Required rate of return (r) = 12%
Inflation rate (p) = 3%
Discount factor = 1/(1 + r + p)t
The result is shown in Table 3.11. Because the discounted
revenue stream is positive ($11,725), the project would be a good
investment and should be pursued.
3.2 DiScoUNteD PAYBAck
Your firm has the opportunity to invest $75,000 in a new
project opportunity but due to cash flow concerns, your boss
wants to know when you can pay back the original invest-
ment. Using the discounted payback method, you determine
that the project should generate inflows of $30,000, $30,000,
$25,000, $20,000, and $20,000 respectively for an expected five
years after completion of the project. Your firm’s required
rate of return is 10%.
SoluTIoN
To answer this question, it is helpful to organize the information
into a table. Remember that:
Total outflow = $75,000
Required rate of return = 10%
Discount factor = 1/(1 + .10)t
Year cash flow
Discount
factor
Net
inflows
0 ($75,000) 1.00 ($75,000)
1 30,000 .91 27,300
2 30,000 .83 24,900
3 25,000 .75 18,750
4 20,000 .68 13,600
5 20,000 .62 12,400
Payback = 3.3 years
3.3 iNterNAl rAte of retUrN
Suppose that a project required an initial cash investment
of $24,000 and was expected to generate inflows of $10,000,
$10,000, and $10,000 for the next three years. Further, assume
that our company’s required rate of return for new projects is
12%. Is this project worth funding? Would it be a good invest-
ment if the company’s required rate of return were 15%? Use
the following figures to determine the answers to these ques-
tions:
Cash investment = $24,000
Year 1 inflow = $10,000
Year 2 inflow = $10,000
Year 3 inflow = $10,000
Required rate of return = 12%
table 3.11 Discounted cash flows and NPV (ii)
Year inflows outflows Net flow Discount factor NPV
0 $ 0 $200,000 $(200,000) 1.0000 $(200,000)
1 0 50,000 (50,000) .8696 (43,480)
2 50,000 0 50,000 .7561 37,805
3 100,000 0 100,000 .6575 65,750
4 200,000 0 200,000 .5718 114,360
5 75,000 0 75,000 .4972 37,290
total $ 11,725
Solved Problems
Solved Problems 107
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108 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
SoluTIoN
step one: trying 10%.
Discount factor
Year inflows at 10% NPV
1 $10,000 .909 $ 9,090
2 10,000 .826 8,260
3 10,000 .751 7,510
Present value of inflows 24,860
Cash investment −24,000
Difference $ 860
decision: Present value difference at 10% is $860, which is too
high. Try a higher discount rate.
step two: using 12%.
Discount factor
Year inflows at 12% NPV
1 $10,000 .893 $ 8,930
2 10,000 .797 7,970
3 10,000 .712 7,120
Present value of inflows 24,020
Cash investment −24,000
Difference $ 20
decision: Present value difference at 12% is $20, which
suggests that 12% is a close approximation of the IRR. This project
would be a good investment at 12%, but it would not be acceptable
if the firm’s required rate of return were 15%.
Discussion Questions
1. If you were to prioritize the criteria for a successful
screening model, which criteria would you rank at the
top of your priority list? Why?
2. What are the benefits and drawbacks of checklists as a
method for screening project alternatives?
3. How does use of the Analytical Hierarchy Process
(AHP) aid in project selection? In particular, what as-
pects of the screening process does the AHP seem to
address and improve directly?
4. What are the benefits and drawbacks of the profile
model for project screening? Be specific about the
problems that may arise in identifying the efficient
frontier.
5. How are financial models superior to other screening
models? How are they inferior?
6. How does the options model address the problem of
nonrecoverable investment in a project?
7. What advantages do you see in the GE Tollgate screen-
ing approach? What disadvantages do you see? How
would you alter it?
8. Why is project portfolio management particularly chal-
lenging in the pharmaceutical industry?
9. What are the keys to successful project portfolio
management?
10. What are some of the key difficulties in successfully
implementing project portfolio management practices?
Problems
3.1 checklist. Suppose that you are trying to choose which
of two IT projects to accept. Your company employs
three primary selection criteria for evaluating all IT
projects: (1) proven technology, (2) ease of transition, and
(3) projected cost savings.
One option, Project Demeter, is evaluated as:
Technology high
Ease of transition low
Projected cost savings high
The second option, Project Cairo, is evaluated as:
Technology medium
Ease of transition high
Projected cost savings high
Construct a table identifying the projects, their evaluative
criteria, and ratings. Based on your analysis, which project
would you argue in favor of adopting? Why?
3.2 checklist. Consider the following information in choosing
among the four project alternatives below (labeled A, B, C,
and D). Each has been assessed according to four criteria:
• Payoff potential
• Lack of risk
• Safety
• Competitive advantage
Project A is rated:
Payoff potential high Safety high
Lack of risk low Competitive
advantage
medium
Project B is rated:
Payoff potential low Safety medium
Lack of risk medium Competitive
advantage
medium
Project C is rated:
Payoff potential medium Safety low
Lack of risk medium Competitive
advantage
low
Project D is rated:
Payoff potential high Safety medium
Lack of risk high Competitive
advantage
medium
Construct a project checklist model for screening these four
alternatives. Based on your model, which project is the best
choice for selection? Why? Which is the worst? Why?
3.3 scoring Model. Suppose the information in Problem 2
was supplemented by importance weights for each of the
four assessment criteria, where 1 = low importance and
4 = high importance:
Assessment criteria importance Weights
1. Payoff potential 4
2. Lack of risk 3
3. Safety 1
4. Competitive advantage 3
Assume, too, that evaluations of high receive a score of 3,
medium 2, and low 1. Recreate your project scoring model
and reassess the four project choices (A, B, C, and D). Now
which project alternative is the best? Why?
3.4 scoring Model. Now assume that for Problem 3, the im-
portance weights are altered as follows:
Assessment criteria importance Weights
1. Payoff potential 1
2. Lack of risk 1
3. Safety 4
4. Competitive advantage 2
How does this new information alter your decision? Which
project now looks most attractive? Why?
3.5 screening Model. Assume that the following criteria rel-
evant to the process of screening various project opportu-
nities are weighted in importance as follows:
Quality (7)
Cost (3)
Speed to market (5)
Visibility (1)
Reliability (7)
Our company has four project alternatives that satisfy
these key features as follows:
Alpha Beta Gamma Delta
Quality 1 3 3 5
Cost 7 7 5 3
Speed 5 5 3 5
Visibility 3 1 5 1
Reliability 5 5 7 7
Construct a project screening matrix to identify among these
four projects the most likely candidate to be implemented.
3.6 screening Model. Assume that the following criteria rel-
evant to the process of screening various construction proj-
ect opportunities are weighted in importance as follows:
Safety (10)
Speed to completion (5)
Sustainable development (4)
Infrastructure modifications (3)
Traffic congestion (5)
Cost (8)
Our company has four project alternatives that satisfy
these key features as follows:
Midtown Uptown Downtown Suburb
Safety 6 5 3 8
Speed 3 4 2 5
Sustainable 7 7 5 4
Infrastructure 4 5 4 1
Traffic 2 4 1 8
Cost 5 5 3 6
Construct a project screening matrix to identify among these
four projects the most likely candidate to be implemented.
3.7 Profile Model. Assume the project profile model shown in
Figure 3.10. Define the efficient frontier. The dotted lines
represent the minimum return and the maximum risk that
the company will accept. Which projects would be suitable
for retaining and which should be dropped from the com-
pany’s portfolio? Why?
3.8 Profile Model. Using the information from the profile
model in Problem 7, construct an argument as to why proj-
ect B is preferable to project C.
3.9 discounted Payback. Your company is seriously consider-
ing investing in a new project opportunity, but cash flow is
tight. Top management is concerned about how long it will
take for this new project to pay back the initial investment of
$50,000. You have determined that the project should gener-
ate inflows of $30,000, $30,000, $40,000, $25,000, and $15,000
for the next five years. Your firm’s required rate of return is
15%. How long will it take to pay back the initial investment?
3.10 net Present value. Assume that your firm wants to choose
between two project options:
• Project A: $500,000 invested today will yield an expected
income stream of $150,000 per year for five years, start-
ing in Year 1.
• Project B: an initial investment of $400,000 is expected
to produce this revenue stream: Year 1 = 0, Year 2 =
$50,000, Year 3 = $200,000, Year 4 = $300,000, and Year
5 = $200,000.
D
E
C
Risk
F
B
A
Return
fIgure 3.10 Project Profile Model (Problem 7)
Problems 109
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110 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
Assume that a required rate of return for your company is
10% and that inflation is expected to remain steady at 3% for
the life of the project. Which is the better investment? Why?
3.11 net Present value. Your vice president of Management
Information Systems informs you that she has re-
searched the possibility of automating your organiza-
tion’s order-entry system. She has projected that the
new system will reduce labor costs by $35,000 each year
over the next five years. The purchase price (including
installation and testing) of the new system is $125,000.
What is the net present value of this investment if the
discount rate is 10% per year?
3.12 net Present value. A company has four project investment
alternatives. The required rate of return on projects is 20%,
and inflation is projected to remain at 3% into the foresee-
able future. The pertinent information about each alterna-
tive is listed in the following chart:
Which project should be the firm’s first priority? Why? If
the company could invest in more than one project, indi-
cate the order in which it should prioritize these project
alternatives.
3.13 Portfolio Management. Crown Corporation is interested
in expanding its project portfolio. This firm, which special-
izes in water conservation and land reclamation projects,
anticipates a huge increase in the demand for home fuel
cells as an alternative to current methods of energy gen-
eration and usage. Although fuel-cell projects involve dif-
ferent technologies than those in which Crown currently
specializes, the profit potential is very large. Develop a list
of benefits and drawbacks associated with this potential
expansion of Crown’s project portfolio. In your opinion,
do the risks outweigh the advantages from such a move?
Justify your answer.
Project carol Year investment revenue Streams
0 $ 500,000 $ 0
1 50,000
2 250,000
3 350,000
Project George Year investment revenue Streams
0 $ 250,000 $ 0
1 75,000
2 75,000
3 75,000
4 50,000
Project thomas Year investment revenue Streams
0 $1,000,000 $ 0
1 200,000
2 200,000
3 200,000
4 200,000
5 200,000
6 200,000
Project Anna Year investment revenue Streams
0 $ 75,000 $ 0
1 15,000
2 25,000
3 50,000
4 50,000
5 150,000
3.14 Project screening. Assume you are the IT manager for
a large urban health care system. Lately you have been
bombarded with requests for new projects, including sys-
tem upgrades, support services, automated record keep-
ing, billing, and so forth. With an average of 50 software
and hardware support projects going on at any time, you
have decided that you must create a system for screening
new project requests from the various departments within
the health care system. Develop a project selection and
screening system similar to GE’s Tollgate process. What
elements would you include in such a system? How many
steps would you recommend? At what points in the pro-
cess should “gates” be installed? How might a tollgate
system for a software development company differ from
one used by an architectural firm specializing in the de-
velopment of commercial office buildings?
CaSe STuDy 3.1
Keflavik Paper Company
In recent years, Keflavik Paper Company has been
having problems with its project management process.
A number of commercial projects, for example, have
come in late and well over budget, and product perfor-
mance has been inconsistent. A comprehensive anal-
ysis of the process has traced many of the problems
back to faulty project selection methods.
Keflavik is a medium-sized corporation that
manufactures a variety of paper products, including
specialty papers and the coated papers used in the
photography and printing industries. Despite cycli-
cal downturns due to general economic conditions,
the firm’s annual sales have grown steadily though
slowly. About five years ago, Keflavik embarked on
a project-based approach to new product opportu-
nities. The goal was to improve profitability and
generate additional sales volume by developing
new commercial products quickly, with better tar-
geting to specific customer needs. The results so far
have not been encouraging. The company’s project
development record is spotty. Some projects have
been delivered on time, but others have been late;
budgets have been routinely overrun; and product
performance has been inconsistent, with some proj-
ects yielding good returns and others losing money.
Top management hired a consultant to analyze
the firm’s processes and determine the most efficient
way to fix its project management procedures. The con-
sultant attributed the main problems not to the project
management processes themselves, but to the manner
in which projects are added to the company’s portfo-
lio. The primary mechanism for new project selection
focused almost exclusively on discounted cash flow
models, such as net present value analysis. Essentially,
if a project promised profitable revenue streams, it was
approved by top management.
One result of this practice was the develop-
ment of a “family” of projects that were often almost
completely unrelated. No one, it seems, ever asked
whether projects that were added to the portfolio fit
with other ongoing projects. Keflavik attempted to
expand into coated papers, photographic products,
shipping and packaging materials, and other lines
that strayed far from the firm’s original niche. New
projects were rarely measured against the firm’s
strategic mission, and little effort was made to eval-
uate them according to its technical resources. Some
new projects, for example, failed to fit because they
required significant organizational learning and
new technical expertise and training (all of which
was expensive and time-consuming). The result was
a portfolio of diverse, mismatched projects that was
difficult to manage.
Further, the diverse nature of the new product
line and development processes decreased organiza-
tional learning and made it impossible for Keflavik’s
project managers to move easily from one assignment
to the next. The hodgepodge of projects made it dif-
ficult for managers to apply lessons learned from one
project to the next. Because the skills acquired on one
project were largely nontransferable, project teams
routinely had to relearn processes whenever they
moved to a new project.
The consultant suggested that Keflavik rethink
its project selection and screening processes. In order
to lend some coherence to its portfolio, the firm
needed to include alternative screening mechanisms.
All new projects, for instance, had to be evaluated
in terms of the company’s strategic goals and were
required to demonstrate complementarity with its
current portfolio. He further recommended that in
order to match project managers with the types of
projects that the company was increasingly under-
taking, it should analyze their current skill sets.
Although Keflavik has begun implementing these
and other recommendations, progress so far has
been slow. In particular, top managers have found it
hard to reject opportunities that offer positive cash
flow. They have also had to relearn the importance of
project prioritization. Nevertheless, a new prioritiza-
tion scheme is in place, and it seems to be improving
both the selection of new project opportunities and
the company’s ability to manage projects once they
are funded.
Questions
1. Keflavik Paper presents a good example of the
dangers of excessive reliance on one screening
technique (in this case, discounted cash flow).
How might excessive or exclusive reliance on
other screening methods discussed in this chap-
ter lead to similar problems?
2. Assume that you are responsible for maintaining
Keflavik’s project portfolio. Name some key cri-
teria that should be used in evaluating all new
projects before they are added to the current
portfolio.
3. What does this case demonstrate about the ef-
fect of poor project screening methods on a firm’s
ability to manage its projects effectively?
(continued)
Case Study 3.1 111
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112 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
CaSe STuDy 3.2
Project Selection at Nova Western, Inc.
Phyllis Henry, vice president of new product devel-
opment, sat at her desk, trying to make sense of the
latest new project proposals she had just received
from her staff. Nova Western, Inc., a large developer
of business software and application programs, had
been experiencing a downturn in operating revenues
over the past three quarters. The senior management
team was feeling pressure from the board of direc-
tors to take steps to correct this downward drift in
revenues and profitability. The consensus opinion
was that Nova Western needed some new product
ideas, and fast.
The report Phyllis was reading contained the
results of a project screening conducted by two
independent groups within the new product devel-
opment department. After several weeks of analysis,
it appeared that two top contenders had emerged as
the optimal new project opportunities. One project,
code-named Janus, was championed by the head
of software development. The other project idea,
Gemini, had the support of the business applications
organization. Phyllis’s original charge to her staff
was to prepare an evaluation of both projects in order
to decide which one Nova Western should support.
Because of budget restrictions, there was no way that
both projects could be funded.
The first evaluation team used a scoring
model, based on the key strategic categories at Nova
Western, to evaluate the two projects. The catego-
ries they employed were: (1) strategic fit, (2) prob-
ability of technical success, (3) financial risk, (4)
potential profit, and (5) strategic leverage (ability of
the project to employ and enhance company
resources and technical capabilities). Using these
categories, the team evaluated the two projects
as shown here. Scores were based on: 1 = low,
2 = medium, and 3 = high.
Project janus
category importance Score
Weighted
Score
1. Strategic fit 3 2 6
2. Probability
of technical
success 2 2 4
3. Financial risk 2 1 2
4. Potential profit 3 3 9
5. Strategic leverage 1 1 1
Score = 22
Project Gemini
category importance Score
Weighted
Score
1. Strategic fit 3 3 9
2. Probability
of technical
success 2 2 4
3. Financial risk 2 2 4
4. Potential profit 3 3 9
5. Strategic leverage 1 2 2
Score = 28
The results obtained by this first team suggested
that Project Gemini would the best choice for the next
new project.
The second team of evaluators presented an NPV
analysis of the two projects to Phyllis. In that analysis,
the evaluators assumed a required rate of return of 15%
and an anticipated inflation rate of 3% over the life of
the project. The findings of this team were as follows:
Project janus
Initial investment = $250,000
Life of the project = 5 years
Anticipated stream of future cash flows:
Year 1 = $ 50,000
Year 2 = 100,000
Year 3 = 100,000
Year 4 = 200,000
Year 5 = 75,000
Calculated NPV = $ 60,995
Project Gemini
Initial investment = $400,000
Life of the project = 3 years
Anticipated stream of future cash flows:
Year 1 = $ 75,000
Year 2 = 250,000
Year 3 = 300,000
Calculated NPV = $ 25,695
Thus, according to this analysis, Project Janus
would be the project of choice.
The analyses of the two projects by different
means yielded different findings. The scoring model
indicated that Project Gemini was the best alternative,
and the financial screening favored the higher pro-
jected NPV of Project Janus. Phyllis, who was due to
present her recommendation to the full top manage-
ment team in the afternoon, was still not sure which
project to recommend. The evaluations seemed to
present more questions than answers.
Questions
1. Phyllis has called you into her office to help
her make sense of the contradictions in the two
project evaluations. How would you explain the
reasons for the divergence of opinion from one
technique to the next? What are the strengths and
weaknesses of each screening method?
2. Choose the project that you think, based on
the two analyses, Nova Western should select.
Defend your choice.
3. What does this case suggest to you about the use
of project selection methods in organizations?
How would you resolve the contradictions found
in this example?
Internet exercises
3.1 Go to the Web sites for the following organizations:
a. Merck & Company Pharmaceuticals: www.merck.com/
about/
b. Boeing Corporation: http://www.boeing.com/boeing/
companyoffices/aboutus/index.page
c. Rolls-Royce, Plc.: www.rolls-royce.com
d. ExxonMobil, Inc.: www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/
about.aspx
Based on your review of the companies’ posted mission
and strategic goals, what types of projects would you
expect them to pursue? If you worked for one of these
firms and sought to maintain strategic alignment with
their project portfolio, what project options would you
suggest?
3.2 Access the Web site www-01.ibm.com/software/awd-
tools/portfolio/. What is IBM’s philosophy regarding
project portfolio management as demonstrated by this
software product? What do they mean by stating that their
goal is to help clients overcome the influence of the loudest
voice in the room and use objective information to support
decision making?
Notes
1. Texas Department of Transportation (2013). Project
Selection Process.
2. Foti, R. (2002). “Priority decisions,” PMNetwork, 16(4):
24–29; Crawford, J. K. (2001). “Portfolio management:
Overview and best practices,” in J. Knutson (Ed.), Project
Management for Business Professionals. New York: Wiley, pp.
33–48; Wheatley, M. (2009). “Making the cut,” PMNetwork,
23(6): 44–48; Texas Department of Transportation. (2013).
Project Selection Process, http://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/
txdot-info/fin/utp/2013_psp .
3. Pascale, S., Carland, J. W., and Carland, J. C. (1997). “A
comparative analysis of two concept evaluation meth-
ods for new product development projects,” Project
Management Journal, 28(4): 47–52; Wheelwright, S. C.,
and Clark, K. B. (1992, March–April). “Creating project
plans to focus product development,” Harvard Business
Review, 70(2): 70–82.
4. Souder, W. E., and Sherman, J. D. (1994). Managing New
Technology Development. New York: McGraw-Hill; Souder,
W. E. (1983). Project Selection and Economic Appraisal. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
5. Meredith, J. R., and Mantel, Jr., S. J. (2003). Project
Management, 5th ed. New York: Wiley.
6. Khorramshahgol, R., Azani, H., and Gousty, Y. (1988).
“An integrated approach to project evaluation and selec-
tion,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management,
EM-35(4): 265–70; Raz, T. (1997). “An iterative screening
methodology for selecting project alternatives,” Project
Management Journal, 28(4): 34–39.
7. Cleland, D. I. (1988). “Project stakeholder manage-
ment,” in Cleland, D. I., and King, W. R. (Eds.), Project
Management Handbook, 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, pp. 275–301.
8. Artto, K. A., Martinsuo, M., and Aalto, T. (Eds.) (2001).
Project Portfolio Management: Strategic Management Through
Projects. Helsinki: Project Management Association; Artto,
K. A. (2001). “Management of project-oriented organiza-
tion—Conceptual analysis,” in Artto, K. A., Martinsuo,
M., and Aalto, T. (Eds.), Project Portfolio Management:
Strategic Management Through Projects. Helsinki: Project
Management Association.
9. Pinto, J. K., and Millet, I. (1999). Successful Information System
Implementation: The Human Side, 2nd ed. Newtown Square,
PA: Project Management Institute.
10. Saaty, T. L. (1996). The Analytical Hierarchy Process.
Pittsburgh, PA: RWS Publications.
11. Millet, I. (1994, February 15). “Who’s on first?” CIO
Magazine, pp. 24–27.
12. Mian, S. A., and Dai, C. X. (1999). “Decision-making over
the project life cycle: An analytical hierarchy approach,”
Project Management Journal, 30(1): 40–52.
13. Foreman, E. H., Saaty, T. L., Selly, M., and Waldron, R.
(1996). Expert Choice. McLean, VA: Decision Support
Software.
Notes 113
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114 Chapter 3 • Project Selection and Portfolio Management
14. Millet, I., and Schoner, B. (2005). “Incorporating negative
values into the Analytical Hierarchy Process,” Computers
and Operations Research, 12(3): 163–73.
15. Evans, D. A., and Souder, W. E. (1998). “Methods for
selecting and evaluating projects,” in Pinto, J. K. (Ed.), The
Project Management Institute Project Management Handbook.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
16. Reilly, F. K. (1985). Investment Analysis and Portfolio
Management, 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: The Dryden Press.
17. Keown, A. J., Scott, Jr., D. F., Martin, J. D., and Petty, J. W.
(1996). Basic Financial Management, 7th ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Evans, D. A., and Souder, W. E.
(1998). “Methods for selecting and evaluating projects,”
in Pinto, J. K. (Ed.), The Project Management Institute Project
Management Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
18. Meredith, J. R., and Mantel, S. J. (2003). Project Management,
5th ed. New York: Wiley.
19. Cooper, R. G. (2007). Doing it Right: Winning with New
Products. Product Development Institute. www.iirusa.
com/upload/wysiwyg/2008-M-Div/M2004/White_
Papers/Doing-it-right .
20. Project Management Institute (2013). A Guide to the Project
Management Body of Knowledge, 5th ed. Newtown Square,
PA: PMI.
21. Dye, L. D., and Pennypacker, J. S. (Eds.) (1999). Project Portfolio
Management: Selecting and Prioritizing Projects for Competitive
Advantage. West Chester, PA: Center for Business Practices.
22. Elton, J., and Roe, J. (1998, March–April). “Bringing dis-
cipline to project management,” Harvard Business Review,
76(2): 153–59.
23. Cooper, R. G. (2007), as cited in note 19.
24. Artto, K. A. (2001). “Management of project-oriented
organization—Conceptual analysis,” in Artto, K. A.,
Martinsuo, M., and Aalto, T. (Eds.), Project Portfolio
Management: Strategic Management Through Projects.
Helsinki: Project Management Association.
25. Matheson, D., and Matheson, J. E. (1998). The Smart
Organization: Creating Value through Strategic R&D. Boston,
MA: Harvard Business School Press; Cooper, R. G., Edgett,
S. J., and Kleinschmidt, E. J. (2001), Portfolio Management
for New Products, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Press.
26. Lehtonen, M. (2001). “Resource allocation and project
portfolio management in pharmaceutical R&D,” in Artto,
K. A., Marinsuo, M., and Aalto, T. (Eds.). (2001). Project
Portfolio Management: Strategic Management Through
Projects. Helsinki: Project Management Association, pp.
107–140.
27. Light, M., Rosser, B., and Hayward, S. (2005). Realizing the
Benefits of Project and Portfolio Management. Stamford, CT:
Gartner. www.atlantic-ec.com/edm/edm132/images/
gartner_PPM_magic_quadrant_2009
28. Brown, S. L., and Eisenhardt, K. M. (1997). “The art of
continuous change: Linking complexity theory and time-
paced evolution in relentlessly shifting organizations,”
Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(1): 1–34.
29. Cooper, R., and Edgett, S. (1997). “Portfolio manage-
ment in new product development: Less from the
leaders I,” Research Technology Management, 40(5):
16–28; Longman, A., Sandahl, D., and Speir, W.
(1999). “Preventing project proliferation,” PMNetwork,
13(7): 39–41; Dobson, M. (1999). The Juggler’s Guide
to Managing Multiple Projects. Newtown Square, PA:
Project Management Institute.
30. Blakeslee, T. R. (2008, September 2). “The elephant
under the rug: Denial and failed energy projects,”
RenewableEnergyWorld.com. www.renewableenergy-
world.com/rea/news/article/2008/09/the-elephant-
under-the-rug-denial-and-failed-energy-projects-53467;
Baime, A. J. (2014, January 14). “Life with a Hydrogen
Fuel Cell Honda,” Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.
com/news/articles/SB100014240527023045495045793206
41877168558.
115
4
■ ■ ■
Leadership and the Project
Manager
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
Leading by Example for the London
Olympics—Sir John Armitt
introduction
4.1 leaders Versus Managers
4.2 How tHe Project Manager leads
Acquiring Project Resources
Motivating and Building Teams
Having a Vision and Fighting Fires
Communicating
Project ManageMent researcH in Brief
Leadership and Emotional Intelligence
4.3 traits of effectiVe Project leaders
Conclusions About Project Leaders
Project Profile
Dr. Elattuvalapil Sreedharan, India’s Project
Management Guru
4.4 Project cHaMPions
Champions—Who Are They?
What Do Champions Do?
How to Make a Champion
4.5 tHe new Project leadersHiP
Project Managers in Practice
Bill Mowery, CSC
Project Profile
The Challenge of Managing
Internationally
4.6 Project ManageMent
ProfessionalisM
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Case Study 4.1 In Search of Effective Project
Managers
Case Study 4.2 Finding the Emotional
Intelligence to Be a Real Leader
Case Study 4.3 Problems with John
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand how project management is a “leader-intensive” profession.
2. Distinguish between the role of a manager and the characteristics of a leader.
3. Understand the concept of emotional intelligence as it relates to how project managers lead.
4. Recognize traits that are strongly linked to effective project leadership.
5. Identify the key roles project champions play in project success.
6. Recognize the principles that typify the new project leadership.
7. Understand the development of project management professionalism in the discipline.
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116 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core
concePts covered in this chAPter
1. Responsibilities and Competencies of the Project Manager (PMBoK sec. 1.7.1)
2. Interpersonal Skills of the Project Manager (PMBoK sec. 1.7.2)
3. Manage Project Team (PMBoK sec. 9.4)
4. Project Communications Management (PMBoK sec. 10)
5. Manage Stakeholder Engagement (PMBoK sec. 13.3)
Project Profile
leading by example for the london olympics—Sir john Armitt
England’s John Armitt had run major contractor, including pioneering pioneered UK’s first high-speed-rail system, and steer-
ing the national railroad infrastructure company out of bankruptcy, when he was named chairman of the Olympic Delivery
Authority (ODA), charged with building all infrastructure and facilities for London’s 2012 Olympic and Paralympic games.
“I was immediately interested,” he says.
When London won the bid to develop the 2012 Olympics, the challenges it faced were significant. London is a
city that is heavily congested, with little open ground or natural sites left for development. The challenge of putting up
multiple stadiums, sporting venues, Olympic Village structures, and transportation infrastructure defines the complex-
ity of the massive project, all under the requirement that the completed work meet a fixed deadline. More than $10
billion worth of construction later, London’s widely acclaimed Olympics were enhanced by complete and fully function-
ing facilities. A 600-acre urban site had been converted into a multi-venue park and athletes’ village on schedule and
$1.6 billion under budget. In addition, not one life was lost during 70 million worker hours, and the project’s accident
rate was well below the UK average. For his performance in steering the complex development project, Armitt was
granted a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II for his services.
Following some high-profile, troubled UK projects and the steady history of Olympic Games cost overruns (see
the Sochi Olympics case in Chapter 8), the preparations for these games came under intense scrutiny. Armitt dealt with
numerous external interests aiming to create “an atmosphere of calm,” allowing his team to focus on the task.
Described as a “stabilizing influence, giving confidence that the project could be delivered,” Armitt brought high
credibility and a history of competence to his role in leading the development effort. Both politicians and executives
involved in the multiple construction projects lauded his leadership. Ray O’Rourke, chairman and chief executive of
Laing O’Rourke construction, was particularly complementary, noting that the success of London 2012 was a result of
the careful leadership, continual presence, and understanding of the requirements needed to complete this enormous
Figure 4.1 Sir john Armitt
Source: Philip Wolmuth/Alamy
Introduction 117
undertaking. According to O’Rourke, perhaps Armitt’s biggest impact lay in his ability to manage the politics and inter-
ests of numerous project stakeholders throughout the development of the Olympic sites.
When asked about the keys to making the Olympic project so successful, Armitt pointed to his approach to man-
aging projects, honed through years of experience and overcoming multiple challenges. “What was different about
the Olympics was the level of collaboration across all the projects. This came because of the recognition that to deliver
these projects successfully, the client had a responsibility to provide the leadership,” he noted. Much of the project’s
success comes from the clarity of the ODA’s vision, the leadership the ODA provided, and the way two years were set
aside at the start for planning and preparation. Sir John says the credit belongs to the whole team. When he joined in
2007, construction was at an early stage, but the program “was in good shape,” he says.
Although Armitt is modest about his contribution, others associated with the London Games success are much
more generous in pointing to his critical role in making the process come together. They note that, thanks to Armitt’s
leadership in coordinating the work of hundreds of professionals, the project has consistently met targets throughout
the building phase and set new benchmarks for sustainable construction and technical expertise. He was pivotal in
all aspects of the Olympic and Paralympic Games infrastructure project, including finance, engineering, environment,
management, and external relations, as well as acting as an ambassador for the project in explaining its complexities
to the public. He is perhaps most proud of the long-term outcomes from the development: “The big opportunity was
to take 600 acres of wasteland, a very heavily contaminated, rundown part of the east side of the city, and transform it
into what is now going to be a new, magical place in London for the next 100 years.”
On the heels of his Olympic triumph, Sir John is not slowing down. He was appointed chair of a national commission
to review how Britain could improve its poor record of project planning and delivery and assess the current state of the
UK’s infrastructure, including transport, energy, telecommunications, and water infrastructure. For example, he recently
warned about the dangers of energy brownouts throughout England if the needed construction of power plants contin-
ues to be delayed due to political pressures. Finding major problems with a national infrastructure that was ranking 24th
internationally in overall quality, Sir John has been an advocate of taking politicians out of the equation. For too long, he
observed, politicians ducked the hard choices, delaying crucial decisions and repairs to the nation’s infrastructure because
they were politically unpopular or lacked broad-based support. The Armitt review’s key recommendation is for a prop-
erly independent body, along the lines of the Office of Budget Responsibility or the Committee on Climate Change, that
would take the electoral cycle and political cowardice out of big infrastructure decisions.
“We need to find ministers who are prepared to say to their departments, ‘You are free to make mistakes. You are
free to mentally allocate some of what you are doing to the 70/30 projects where, in fact, there is a good 30% chance
that it will not work—but the 70% is worth going for, so let’s go for that. If it goes wrong, you won’t be hanged, but
you will actually be praised for having a go. Because we are willing to take a risk, there will be certain things that will
be successful.’” As he noted, innovation carries risk, but it can also deliver big wins.
“If you want to innovate, you have to accept that there are risks, and so you need flexibility in your budget,”
states Armitt. “And you need to be open and honest about that.”1
introduction
Leadership is often recognized by its accomplishments. After cofounding Apple in 1976, Steven
Jobs served as both a visible spokesperson for the corporation for many years, as well as the guid-
ing hand behind many of its most significant product developments. Starting with his work in
developing many of the technical and crowd-pleasing features of the Macintosh computer in 1984,
Jobs always made his presence felt, often to the discomfort of other members of the organization
who found his leadership style abrasive and demanding. In fact, less than two years after the suc-
cess of the Macintosh, Jobs was fired from the company he started. His return as an older and wiser
executive a decade later sparked a resurgence in a company that was nearly bankrupt, devoid of
new ideas, and without a strong sense of strategic direction. At the time of his return, Apple’s
market capitalization was $3 billion. However, over the following 15 years (until his death in 2011),
Jobs spearheaded some of the most innovative new electronic consumer products ever conceived,
revaluing the firm at over $350 billion. His impact on iconic products such as the iPhone, iPad, and
iPod left him with a reputation as a visionary technology leader and helped make Apple one of the
most profitable and valuable corporations in the world.
The situation Jeff Immelt faced as CEO of General Electric was very different. Taking over for
the charismatic and highly successful Jack Welch, Immelt inherited a company that was quite liter-
ally the face of American business, phenomenally successful, and perhaps the most valued brand
in the world. Immelt set about recasting the corporation along his own vision. By most accounts,
his record has been mixed. Stock prices have been sluggish and a number of acquisitions did not
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118 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
pan out and had to be resold (notably, GE’s purchase of NBC Universal). On the other hand, he has
been quick to lead the firm’s recovery from the Great Recession of 2009 and has been instrumental in
rebuilding the company’s reputation as one of the most admired firms in the world. Coupled with
his leadership of President Obama’s Council on Jobs and Competitiveness, Immelt remains a widely
recognized head of a highly respected organization. By his own account, his tenure at GE has been
challenging and demanding, but he also expects to leave the firm on solid footing when he retires.
Leadership is a difficult concept to examine because we all have our own definition of lead-
ership, our own examples of leaders in actions, and our own beliefs about what makes leaders
work. The topic of leadership has generated more than 30,000 articles and thousands of books.
Although there are many definitions of leadership, one useful definition that we will employ in
this chapter is that leadership is the ability to inspire confidence and support among the people
who are needed to achieve organizational goals.2 For the project manager, leadership is the process
by which she influences the project team to get the job done!
True leadership from the project manager has been shown time and again to be one of the
most important characteristics in successful project management. The impact of good leader-
ship is felt within the team and has an effect on other functional managers and important project
stakeholders.3 In fact, project management has been viewed as one of the most “leader-intensive”
undertakings within an organization.4
4.1 Leaders Versus Managers
Most leaders are quick to reject the idea that they were, by themselves, responsible for the suc-
cesses attained or the important changes undertaken within their organizations. For them, leader-
ship involves an awareness of a partnership, an active collaboration between the leader and the
team. In project management, successful team leaders are often those who were best able to create
the partnership attitude between themselves and their teams. As Peter Block5 notes, the idea of
leadership as partnership is critical to project management because it highlights the important
manner in which all leaders are ultimately dependent on their teams to achieve project goals. Four
things are necessary to promote the partnership idea between the project manager and the team:
1. Exchange of purpose: Partnerships require that every worker be responsible for defining the
project’s vision and goals. A steady dialogue between the project manager and team mem-
bers can create a consistent and widely shared vision.
2. A right to say no: It is critical that all members of the project team feel they have the ability
to disagree and to offer contrary positions. Supporting people’s right to voice their disagree-
ments is a cornerstone of a partnership. Losing arguments is acceptable; losing the right to
disagree is not.
3. Joint accountability: In a partnership, each member of the project team is responsible for
the project’s outcomes and the current situation, whether it is positive or shows evidence of
problems. The project is shared among multiple participants and the results of the project are
also shared.
4. Absolute honesty: Partnerships demand authenticity. An authentic atmosphere promotes
straightforwardness and honesty among all participants. Because we respect each team mem-
ber’s role on the project, we make an implicit pact that all information, both good and bad,
becomes community information. Just as honesty is a cornerstone of successful marriages, it
is critical in project team relationships.
Leadership is distinguishable from other management roles in a number of ways. A manager
is an individual who has received a title within the organization that permits her to plan, organize,
direct, and control the behavior of others within her department or area of oversight. Although
leadership may be part of the manager’s job, the other management roles are more administrative
in nature. Leadership, on the other hand, is less about administration and more about interper-
sonal relationships. Leadership involves inspiring, motivating, influencing, and changing behav-
iors of others in pursuit of a common goal. Leaders embrace change; managers support the status
quo. Leaders aim for effectiveness; managers aim for efficiency. Figure 4.2 illustrates some of the
distinctions between typical management behavior and the kinds of processes with which leaders
are engaged. Although leaders need to recognize the importance of managerial duties, it is often
difficult for managers to recognize the nonstandard, interpersonal nature of leadership. However,
4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 119
this is not to say that leadership is merely an innate characteristic that some of us have and others
do not. Most research and common experience seem to indicate that leadership behaviors can be
taught. That is the good news: Leadership can be learned. And a number of properties and models
of leadership are quite relevant for project managers.
Although we will use the term project manager throughout the chapter, we do so only because
it has become the common designation for the head or leader of a project team. A much better
description would be “project leader.” Successful project managers are successful project leaders.
This chapter will examine both the general concept of organizational leadership and the spe-
cial conditions under which project managers are expected to operate. What is it about projects
that make them a unique challenge to manage? Why is leadership such an integral role in success-
ful project management? The more we are able to understand the dynamics of this concept, the
better able we will be to effectively manage our implementation projects and train a future genera-
tion of managers in the tasks and skills required for them to perform their jobs.
4.2 How tHe Project Manager Leads
The wide range of duties that a project manager is expected to take on covers everything from
direct supervision to indirect influence, from managing “hard” technical details to controlling
“soft” people issues, from developing detailed project plans and budgets to adjudicating team
member quarrels and smoothing stakeholder concerns. In short, the project manager’s job encap-
sulates, in many ways, the role of a mini-CEO, someone who is expected to manage holistically,
focusing on the complete project management process from start to finish. In this section, we will
examine a variety of the duties and roles that project managers must take on as they work to suc-
cessfully manage their projects.
acquiring Project resources
Project resources refer to all personnel and material resources necessary to successfully accomplish
project objectives. Many projects are underfunded in the concept stage. This lack of resource sup-
port can occur for several reasons, including:
1. The project’s goals are deliberately vague. Sometimes a project is kicked off with its overall
goals still somewhat “fluid.” Perhaps the project is a pure research effort in a laboratory or an
information technology project designed to explore new possibilities for chip design or com-
puter speed. Under circumstances such as these, companies sponsor projects with a deliber-
ately “fuzzy” mandate, in order to allow the project team maximum flexibility.
administer
demand respect
maintain the status quo focus on systems
strive for control
short-term view
focused on the bottom lineimitate
do things right
state their position
innovate
command respect
develop new processes focus on people
inspire trust
have long-term goal
focused on potentialoriginate
do the right thing
earn their position
LEADERS
MANAGERS
Figure 4.2 Differences Between Managers and leaders
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120 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
2. The project lacks a top management sponsor. As we will learn, having a project champion
in the top management of the organization can be very helpful to project development, par-
ticularly in gaining support for the project with sufficient resources. On the other hand, when
no powerful sponsor emerges for the project, it may face underfunding compared to other
projects competing for scarce company resources.
3. The project requirements were deliberately understated. It is not uncommon for project
resource needs to be purposely understated at the outset in order to get them accepted by the
organization. Contractors bidding on work for governmental agencies are known to some-
times underbid to win these jobs and then renegotiate contracts after the fact or find other
ways to increase profit margins later.
4. So many projects may be under development that there is simply not enough money to go
around. A common reason for lack of resource support for a project is that the company is
constantly developing so many projects that it cannot fund all of them adequately. Instead,
the company adopts a “take it or leave it” attitude, presenting project managers with the
option of either accepting insufficient funding or receiving none at all.
5. An attitude of distrust between top management and project managers. Sometimes projects
receive low funding because top management is convinced that project managers are deliber-
ately padding their estimates to gain excessive funding.
Regardless of the reasons for the lack of project resources, there is no doubt that many projects face
extremely tight budgets and inadequate human resources.
Project managers, however, do have some options open to them as they seek to supplement
their project’s resource support. If the resource problem is a personnel issue, they may seek alter-
native avenues to solve the difficulty. For example, suppose that you were the project manager
for an upgrade to an existing software package your company uses to control materials flow and
warehousing in manufacturing. If trained programmers were simply unavailable to work on your
upgrade project, you might seek to hire temporary contract employees. People with specialized
skills such as programming can often be acquired on a short-term basis to fill gaps in the availability
of in-house personnel to do the same assignments. The key point to remember is that recognizing
and responding to resource needs is a critical function of project leadership.
Another common tactic project managers use in the face of resource shortfalls is to rely on
negotiation or political tactics to influence top management to provide additional support. Because
resources must often be negotiated with top management, clearly the ability to successfully negoti-
ate and apply influence where the project manager has no direct authority is a critical skill. Again,
leadership is best demonstrated by the skills a project manager uses to maintain the viability of
the project, whether dealing with top management, clients, the project team, or other significant
stakeholders.
Motivating and Building teams
The process of molding a diverse group of functional experts into a cohesive and collaborative
team is not a challenge to be undertaken lightly. Team building and motivation present enor-
mously complex hurdles, and dealing comfortably with human processes is not part of every man-
ager’s background. For example, it is very common within engineering or other technical jobs for
successful employees to be promoted to project manager. They typically become quickly adept at
dealing with the technical challenges of project management but have a difficult time understand-
ing and mastering the human challenges. Their background, training, education, and experiences
have prepared them well for technical problems but have neglected the equally critical behavioral
elements in successful project management.
In considering how to motivate individuals on our project teams, it is important to recognize
that motivation ultimately comes from within each of us; it cannot be stimulated solely by an
external presence. Each of us decides, based on the characteristics of our job, our work environ-
ment, opportunities for advancement, coworkers, and so forth, whether we will become motivated
to do the work we have been assigned. Does that imply that motivation is therefore outside of the
influence of project managers? Yes and no. Yes, because motivation is an individual decision: We
cannot make someone become motivated. On the other hand, as one career army officer puts it, “In
the army, we can’t force people to do anything, but we can sure make them wish they had done it!”
Underlying motivation is typically something that team members desire, whether it comes from a
4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 121
challenging work assignment, opportunity for recognition and advancement, or simply the desire
to stay out of trouble. Successful project managers must recognize that one vital element in their
job description is the ability to recognize talent, recruit it to the project team, mold a team of inter-
active and collaborative workers, and apply motivational techniques as necessary.
Having a Vision and Fighting Fires
Successful project managers must operate on boundaries. The boundary dividing technical and
behavioral problems is one example, and project managers need to be comfortable with both
tasks. Another boundary is the distinction between being a strategic visionary and a day-to-day
firefighter. Project managers work with conceptual plans, develop the project scope in line with
organizational directives, and understand how their project is expected to fit into the company’s
project portfolio. In addition, they are expected to keep their eyes firmly fixed on the ultimate
prize: the completed project. In short, project managers must be able to think strategically and to
consider the “big picture” for their projects. At the same time, however, crises and other project
challenges that occur on a daily basis usually require project managers to make immediate, tacti-
cal decisions, to solve current problems, and to be detail-oriented. Leaders are able to make the
often daily transition from keeping an eye on the big picture to dealing with immediate, smaller
problems that occur on a fairly regular basis.
One executive in a project organization highlighted this distinction very well. He stated, “We
seek people who can see the forest for the trees but at the same time, are intimately familiar with
the species of each variety of tree we grow. If one of those trees is sick, they have to know the best
formula to fix it quickly.” His point was that a visionary who adopts an exclusively strategic view
of the project will discover that he cannot deal with the day-to-day “fires” that keep cropping up.
At the same time, someone who is too exclusively focused on dealing with the daily challenges
may lose the ultimate perspective and forget the overall picture or the goals that define the project.
The balance between strategic vision and firefighting represents a key boundary that successful
project managers must become comfortable occupying.
communicating
Former president Ronald Reagan was labeled “The Great Communicator.” He displayed a seem-
ingly natural and fluent ability to project his views clearly, to identify with his audience and shape
his messages accordingly, and to not waver or contradict his basic themes. Project managers require
the same facility of communication. In Chapter 2 we examined the role of stakeholder management
in successful projects. These stakeholders can have a tremendous impact on the likelihood that a
project will succeed or fail; consequently, it is absolutely critical to maintain strong contacts with all
stakeholders throughout the project’s development. There is a common saying in project manage-
ment regarding the importance of communication with your company’s top management: “If they
know nothing of what you are doing, they assume you are doing nothing.” The message is clear: We
must take serious steps to identify relevant stakeholders and establish and maintain communica-
tions with them, not sporadically but continually, throughout the project’s development.
Negotiating is another crucial form of communicating. We will discuss the process of nego-
tiation in detail in Chapter 6; however, it is important to recognize that project leaders must
become adept at negotiating with a wide variety of stakeholders. Leaders negotiate with clients
over critical project specifications (for example, a builder may negotiate with house buyers over
the number of windows or the type of flooring that will be laid in the kitchen); they negotiate
with key organizational members, such as department heads, for resources or budget money;
they negotiate with suppliers for prices and delivery dates for materials. In fact, the total num-
ber of ways in which project leaders routinely engage in negotiation is difficult to count. They
understand that within many organizations, their authority and power to impose their will auto-
cratically is limited. As a result, negotiation is typically a constant and necessary form of com-
munication for effective project leaders.
Communicating also serves other valuable purposes. Project managers have been described
as “mini billboards,” the most visible evidence of the status of their project. The ways in which
project managers communicate, the messages they send (intentional or unintentional), and the
manner in which they discuss their projects send powerful signals to other important stakehold-
ers about the project. Whether through developing good meeting and presentation skills, a facility
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122 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
for writing and speaking, or through informal networking, project managers must recognize the
importance of communication and become adept at it.
One of the most critical means by which project managers can communicate is through their
ability to run productive meetings. Meeting skills are important because project managers spend
a large amount of time in meetings—meetings with team members, top management, clients,
and other critical project stakeholders. Meetings serve a number of purposes for the project team,
including:6
1. They define the project and the major team players.
2. They provide an opportunity to revise, update, and add to all participants’ knowledge base,
including facts, perceptions, experience, judgments, and other information pertinent to the
project.
3. They assist team members in understanding how their individual efforts fit into the overall
whole of the project as well as how they can each contribute to project success.
4. They help all stakeholders increase their commitment to the project through participation in
the management process.
5. They provide a collective opportunity to discuss the project and decide on individual work
assignments.
6. They provide visibility for the project manager’s role in managing the project.
As a result of the wide variety of uses meetings serve, the ability of project managers to become
adept at running them in an efficient and productive manner is critical. Meetings are a key method
for communicating project status, collectivizing the contributions of individual team members,
developing a sense of unity and esprit de corps, and keeping all important project stakeholders
up-to-date concerning the project status.7
Two forms of leadership behaviors are critical for effectively running project meetings. The
first type of behavior is task-oriented; that is, it is intended to emphasize behaviors that contribute to
completing project assignments, planning and scheduling activities and resources, and providing
the necessary support and technical assistance. Task-oriented behavior seeks to get the job done. At
the same time, effective project leaders are also concerned about group maintenance behavior. Group
maintenance suggests that a project manager cannot act at the expense of concern for the team.
Group maintenance behavior consists of supportive activities, including showing confidence and
trust, acting friendly and supportive, working with subordinates to understand their problems, and
recognizing their accomplishments. Group maintenance behavior increases cohesiveness, trust, and
commitment, and it satisfies all team members’ needs for recognition and acceptance.
Table 4.1 identifies some of the critical task and group maintenance behaviors that occur
in productive project meetings. Among the important task-oriented behaviors are structuring
taBLe 4.1 task and Group Maintenance Behaviors for Project Meetings8
task-oriented Behavior Specific outcome
1. Structuring process Guide and sequence discussion
2. Stimulating communication Increase information exchange
3. Clarifying communication Increase comprehension
4. Summarizing Check on understanding and assess progress
5. Testing consensus Check on agreement
Group Maintenance Behavior Specific outcome
1. Gatekeeping Increase and equalize participation
2. Harmonizing Reduce tension and hostility
3. Supporting Prevent withdrawal, encourage exchange
4. Setting standards Regulate behavior
5. Analyzing process Discover and resolve process problems
Source: Gary A. Yukl. Leadership in Organizations, 5th ed., p. 329. Copyright © 2002. Adapted by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
4.2 How the Project Manager Leads 123
the flow of discussion to ensure that a proper meeting agenda is followed, stimulating conversa-
tion among all meeting participants, clarifying and summarizing decisions and perceptions, and
testing consensus to identify points of agreement and discord. The project manager is the key to
achieving effective task behaviors, particularly through a clear sense of timing and pacing.9 For
example, pushing for consensus too quickly or stifling conversation and the free flow of ideas will
be detrimental to the development of the project team and the outcomes of meetings. Likewise,
continually stimulating conversation even after agreement has been achieved only serves to pro-
long a meeting past the point where it is productive.
Among the group maintenance behaviors that effective project leaders need to consider
in running meetings are gatekeeping to ensure equal participation, harmonizing to reduce ten-
sion and promote team development, supporting by encouraging an exchange of views, regulat-
ing behavior through setting standards, and identifying and resolving any “process” problems
that cause meeting participants to feel uncomfortable, hurried, or defensive. Group maintenance
behaviors are just as critical as those related to task and must be addressed as part of a successful
meeting strategy. Taken together, task and group maintenance goals allow the project manager
to gain the maximum benefit from meetings, which are so critical for project communication and
form a constant demand on the project manager’s time.
Although running productive meetings is a critical skill for project leaders, they also need
to recognize that face-to-face opportunities to communicate are not always possible. In situations
where team members are geographically dispersed or heavily committed to other activities, find-
ing regular times for progress meetings can be difficult. As we will discuss in Chapter 6 on virtual
teams, modern international business often requires that meetings be conducted virtually, through
platforms such as Skype or Adobe Connect. These electronic media and new technologies have
shifted the manner in which many business communications are handled. That is, project leaders
must possess the ability to handle modern electronic forms of communication, including e-mail,
Twitter, and Facebook social networking sites, and emerging methods for online communication.
For example, it is becoming more common for project leaders to set up social networking or group
collaboration sites for their projects, including project team Facebook accounts, Twitter feeds, and
Yammer collaboration spaces. These sites can create an atmosphere of teamwork and help pro-
mote networking, while also maximizing the ways in which project leaders can communicate with
members of their team. In short, although project team meetings remain one of the most useful
methods for leaders to effectively communicate with their subordinates and other stakeholders, it
is not a requirement that their meetings have to be face-to-face to be effective.
Table 4.2 paints a portrait of the roles project leaders play in project success by ranking the
nine most important characteristics of effective project managers in order of importance. The
data are based on a study of successful American project managers as perceived by project team
members.10 Note that the most important is the willingness of the project manager to lead by
example, to highlight the project’s goals, and to first commit to the challenge before calling upon
other team members to make a similar commitment.
Equally interesting are findings related to the reasons why a project manager might be viewed
as ineffective. These reasons include both personal quality flaws and organizational factors. Table 4.3
taBLe 4.2 characteristics of Project Managers Who lead
rank characteristics of an effective Project Manager
1 Leads by example
2 Visionary
3 Technically competent
4 Decisive
5 A good communicator
6 A good motivator
7 Stands up to top management when necessary
8 Supports team members
9 Encourages new ideas
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124 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
Box 4.1
Project Management research in Brief
Leadership and Emotional Intelligence
An interesting perspective on leadership has emerged in recent years as greater levels of research have exam-
ined the traits and abilities associated with effective project leadership. While characteristics such as technical
skill, analytical ability, and intelligence are all considered important traits in project managers, an additional
concept, the idea of emotional intelligence, has been suggested as a more meaningful measure of leadership
effectiveness. Emotional intelligence refers to leaders’ ability to understand that effective leadership is part of
the emotional and relational transaction between subordinates and themselves. There are five elements that
characterize emotional intelligence: (1) self-awareness, (2) self-regulation, (3) motivation, (4) empathy, and
(5) social skill. With these traits, a project manager can develop the kind of direct, supportive relationships with
the project team members that are critical to creating and guiding an effective team.
Self-AwAreneSS. Self-awareness implies having a deep understanding of one’s own strengths and weak-
nesses, ego needs, drives, and motives. To be self-aware means to have a clear perspective of one’s self; it does
not mean to be excessively self-centered or self-involved. When I am self-aware, I am capable of interacting
better with others because I understand how my feelings and attitudes are affecting my behavior.
Self-regulAtion. A key ability in successful leaders is their willingness to keep themselves under control. One
way each of us practices self-control is our ability to think before we act—in effect, to suspend judgment.
Effective leaders are those individuals who have developed self-regulation; that is, the ability to reflect on
events, respond to them after careful consideration, and avoid the mistake of indulging in impulsive behavior.
MotivAtion. Effective project leaders are consistently highly motivated individuals. They are driven to achieve
their maximum potential and they recognize that in order to be successful, they must also work with members
of the project team to generate the maximum performance from each of them. There are two important traits
of effective managers with regard to motivation: First, they are always looking for ways to keep score; that is,
they like concrete or clear markers that demonstrate progress. Second, effective project managers consistently
strive for greater and greater challenges.
eMpAthy. One important trait of successful project managers is their ability to recognize the differences in
each of their subordinates, make allowances for those differences, and treat each team member in a manner
that is designed to gain the maximum commitment from that person. empathy means the willingness to
consider other team members’ feelings in the process of making an informed decision.
SociAl Skill. The final trait of emotional intelligence, social skill, refers to a person’s ability to manage relation-
ships with others. Social skill is more than simple friendliness; it is friendliness with a purpose. Social skill is our
ability to move people in a direction we think desirable. Among the offshoots of strong social skills are the
manner in which we demonstrate persuasiveness, rapport, and building networks.
Emotional intelligence is a concept that reflects an important point: Many of the most critical project man-
agement skills that define effective leadership are not related to technical prowess, native analytical ability, or
IQ. Of much greater importance are self-management skills, as reflected in self-awareness, self-regulation, and
motivation and relationship management skills, shown through our empathy and social abilities. Remember:
Project management is first and foremost a people management challenge. Once we understand the role that
leadership behaviors play in effective project management, we can better identify the ways in which we can use
leadership to promote our projects.11
taBLe 4.3 characteristics of Project Managers Who Are Not leaders
Personal flaws Percentage organizational factors Percentage
Sets bad example 26.3% Lack of top management support 31.5%
Not self-assured 23.7 Resistance to change 18.4
Lacks technical expertise 19.7 Inconsistent reward system 13.2
Poor communicator 11.8 A reactive organization rather than a proactive, planning one 9.2
Poor motivator 6.6 Lack of resources 7.9
4.3 Traits of Effective Project Leaders 125
lists the most important personal flaws and the organizational factors that render a project man-
ager ineffective. These factors are rank-ordered according to the percentage of respondents who
identified them.
4.3 traits oF eFFectiVe Project Leaders
A great deal of research on organizational leadership has been aimed at uncovering the traits that
are specific to leaders. Because leaders are not the same thing as managers, they are found in all
walks of life and occupying all levels of organizational hierarchies. A study that sought to uncover
the traits that most managers believe leaders should possess is particularly illuminating. A large
sample survey was used to ask a total of 2,615 managers within U.S. corporations what they con-
sidered to be the most important characteristics of effective leaders.12
The results of this survey are intriguing. A significant majority of managers felt that the most
important characteristic of superior leaders was basic honesty. They sought leaders who say what
they mean and live up to their promises. In addition, they sought competence and intelligence,
vision, inspiration, fairness, imagination, and dependability, to list a few of the most important
characteristics. These traits offer an important starting point for better understanding how lead-
ers operate and, more importantly, how the other members of the project team or organization
expect them to operate. Clearly, the most important factors we seek in leaders are the dimensions
of trust, strength of character, and the intelligence and competence to succeed. The expectation of
success is also important; the majority of followers do not tag along after failing project managers
for very long.
Research also has been done that is specifically related to project managers and the leadership
traits necessary to be successful in this more specialized arena. Three studies in particular shed
valuable light on the nature of the special demands that project managers face and the concomitant
nature of the leadership characteristics they must develop. One study analyzed data from a number
of sources and synthesized a set of factors that most effective project leaders shared in common.13
It identified five important characteristics for proficient project management: oral communication
skills; influencing skills; intellectual capabilities; the ability to handle stress; and diverse manage-
ment skills, including planning, delegation, and decision making. These findings correlate with the
fact that most project managers do not have the capacity to exercise power that derives from formal
positional authority; consequently, they are forced to develop effective influencing skills.
The second study also identified five characteristics closely associated with effective project
team leaders:14
• Credibility: Is the project manager trustworthy and taken seriously by both the project team
and the parent organization?
• Creative problem-solver: Is the project manager skilled at problem analysis and identification?
• Tolerance for ambiguity: Is the project manager adversely affected by complex or ambiguous
(uncertain) situations?
• Flexible management style: Is the project manager able to handle rapidly changing situations?
• Effective communication skills: Is the project manager able to operate as the focal point for
communication from a variety of stakeholders?
The final study of necessary abilities for effective project managers collected data from 58 firms
on their project management practices and the skills most important for project managers.15 The
researchers found seven essential project manager abilities, including:
1. Organizing under conflict: Project managers need the abilities to delegate, manage their
time, and handle conflict and criticism.
2. Experience: Having knowledge of project management and other organizational proce-
dures, experience with technical challenges, and a background as a leader are helpful.
3. Decision making: Project managers require sound judgment, systematic analytical ability,
and decision-making skills.
4. Productive creativity: This ability refers to the need for project managers to show creativ-
ity; develop and implement innovative ideas; and challenge the old, established order.
5. Organizing with cooperation: Project managers must be willing to create a positive team
atmosphere, demonstrate a willingness to learn, and engage in positive interpersonal contact.
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126 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
6. Cooperative leadership: This skill refers to the project manager’s ability to motivate others,
to cooperate, and to express ideas clearly.
7. Integrative thinking: Project managers need to be able to think analytically and to involve
others in the decision-making process.
conclusions about Project Leaders
Given the wide-ranging views, it is important to note the commonalities across these studies and
to draw some general conclusions about the nature of project leadership. The specific conclusions
that have practical relevance to selecting and training effective project leaders suggest several
themes, including:
• Effective project managers must be good communicators.
• Project leaders must possess the flexibility to respond to uncertain or ambiguous situations
with a minimum of stress.
• Strong project leaders work well with and through their project team.
• Good project leaders are skilled at various influence tactics.
Although examining the traits of successful leaders, and specifically project leaders, is valu-
able, it presents only part of the picture. One key to understanding leadership behavior is to focus
on what leaders do rather than who they are.
Project Profile
Dr. elattuvalapil Sreedharan, india’s Project Management Guru
The capital of India, Delhi, is a city of amazing contrasts. Home to 17 million people, many living in abject poverty, the
city boasts some of the country’s leading high-tech centers for industry and higher learning. Traffic snarls are notorious,
and pollution levels are high as the city’s 7,500 buses slowly navigate crowded streets. Like other urban centers in India,
Delhi desperately needs enhanced infrastructure and a commuter rail system. Unfortunately, India’s track record for
large-capital projects is poor; there are many examples of projects that have run well over budget and behind schedule.
A recent example highlights the continuing problems with managing infrastructure projects in India. Delhi launched
Figure 4.3 Dr. e. Sreedharan in one of the Delhi Metro tunnels
Source: Prakash Singh/AFP/Getty Images
4.4 Project Champions 127
a multiyear project to host the Commonwealth Games in the fall of 2010, a sporting event bringing together athletes
from 71 territories and countries associated with the former British Empire. Unfortunately, problems with sanitation,
inadequate construction, numerous delays, and poor planning left the country with a very visible black eye and rein-
forced the popular view that large-scale infrastructure projects in India are, at best, a chancy venture.
Set against this backdrop, when the city announced its intention to develop a metro system, the rest of the coun-
try was hesitant of its chances of success. After all, Calcutta’s metro had taken 22 years to create a mere 17-kilometer
stretch, had overrun its budget by a multiple of 14, and had resulted in building collapses and multiple deaths from
the construction. What chance did Delhi have of doing better? In fact, Delhi’s Metro system has been a huge success,
and it has recently completed the second phase of the $2.3 billion project, with current daily ridership of 2.2 million
passengers, earning the Metro organization nearly $900,000 a day in revenues. Not only that, the rail line planned for
this phase, covering nearly 160 kilometers, with 132 operational stations, is running well ahead of schedule. So unex-
pected was this circumstance that it led BusinessWeek magazine to label the project’s leader, Elattuvalapil Sreedharan,
“a miracle worker.”
Sreedharan came to the project with an already enviable record of managing projects throughout India. In 1963,
he had been given six months to repair the Pamban Bridge. Sreedharan, barely 30 at the time, took 46 days to finish
the job. In the 1990s, he was in charge of Konkan Railway, a 760-kilometer stretch cutting across the Western Ghats
mountain range. Nearly 150 bridges and 92 tunnels had to be built. He took seven years from the initial survey until
the launch. Clearly, Mr. Sreedharan has determined the secrets to making projects work. So what has been the secret of
Sreedharan’s success, especially in a land where so many before him have failed in similar ventures?
First, he says, is the importance of accountability. “One of the biggest impediments to the timely completion of
infrastructure projects in India today is a lack of focus and accountability.” Poor performers are not held responsible for
failure to hit their targets, so where is the incentive to be on time? According to Sreedharan, his organization took a
different approach: “The organization’s mission and culture include clearly defined objectives and a vision, which was
to complete the project on time and within the budget without causing inconvenience to the public.” Sreedharan also
has almost an obsession with deadlines. Every officer in the Metro project keeps a digital board that shows the number
of days left for the completion of the next target. Another critical element in his success has been meticulous advance
planning. Sreedharan said, “All tenders (bids) from contractors are decided very fast, sometimes in 18 or 19 days. [I]t is
essential to lay down the criteria for settling tenders clearly in advance.”
Finally, Sreedharan is adamant about transparency and constant communication with all project stakeholders.
Under his watch, the project maintains open communication with all contractors, updating them about plans and hold-
ing frequent meetings and workshops. A unique feature of the Delhi Metro project is that it has held nearly a hundred
“community interaction programs” (CIPs), which are open forums during which local residents are given the chance to
discuss aspects of the construction that could affect them. The CIP meetings are designed to allow advocacy groups,
neighborhood organizations, and other stakeholders to share ideas, air grievances, and ask questions as the project
moves forward. Regarding the questions from CIP meetings, Sreedharan comments, “Most of them are resolved on the
spot, while necessary action and remedial measures are taken on the rest.” Sreedharan’s team has used this transpar-
ency and open communication approach to allay the concerns of affected groups and spur their cooperation with the
project rather than their antagonism.
The total project is designed to be rolled out in four phases, with a total coverage of 152 miles when finished. The
final phase is due to be completed in 2020. The Metro project is currently in the midst of its phase three goals. In fact,
work on the Metro is proceeding so smoothly that Sreedharan, now 80 years old, does not believe his presence is needed
at the work site on a regular basis, knowing that the principles he established will continue to guide the work to its
completion. Sreedharan retired in December 2011. He wanted to return to his ancestral village and live a placid life in
Ponnani, on the southwestern Malabar Coast. As with so many successful people, retired life has not worked out the way
he had planned. Kerala’s Chief Minister has already enlisted Sreedharan’s help in implementing the Kochi Metro project.
Sreedharan’s leadership principles echo beyond the challenge of infrastructure: “I believe that there are three
basic qualities for a successful life,” he notes, “punctuality, integrity and good morals, and professional competence.
The future of India will be in good hands if these qualities are assiduously nurtured by the youth of our nation.”16
4.4 Project cHaMPions
Dr. Thomas Simpson (not his real name) came back from a recent medical conference enthusiastic
about an innovative technique that he felt sure was just right for his hospital. He had witnessed the
use of information system technology that allowed doctors to link wirelessly with patient records,
retrieve documentation, and place prescription orders online. With this system, a doctor could
directly input symptoms and treatment protocols on a laptop in the patient’s room. The benefit of
the new system was that it significantly upgraded the hospital’s approach to patient record keep-
ing while providing the doctor with more immediate flexibility in treatment options.
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128 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
As chief of the medical staff, Dr. Simpson had some influence in Grace Hospital, but he
could not simply order the hospital to adopt the technology. Instead, over a period of six months,
he worked tirelessly to promote the system, setting up information seminars with the software
designers and question-and-answer sessions with the hospital’s administration and other impor-
tant stakeholders. Eventually, his persistence paid off. The hospital adopted the technology and
has been using it for the past two years. In spite of some start-up problems resulting from the need
to transfer old paper records to the system, Grace Hospital now brags that it is “paper-record” free,
and all because of Dr. Simpson’s efforts.
In this example, Dr. Simpson displayed all the qualities of a project champion. Champions,
sometimes referred to as project sponsors, are well known both in the organizational theory lit-
erature and within organizations themselves. A champion is an individual who “identifies with
a new development (whether or not he made it), using all the weapons at his command, against
the funded resistance of the organization. He functions as an entrepreneur within the organiza-
tion, and since he does not have official authority to take unnecessary risks . . . he puts his job in the
organization (and often his standing) on the line . . . . He (has) great energy and capacity to invite
and withstand disapproval.”17
Champions possess some remarkable characteristics. First, it is assumed (in fact, almost
expected) that champions will operate without the officially sanctioned approval of their organi-
zations. Often they set themselves directly at odds with the established order or popular way of
thinking. Standard operating procedures are anathema to champions, and they are usually unafraid
of official disapproval. Second, champions have a true entrepreneurial talent for recognizing value
in innovative ideas or products; they see things the typical organizational member does not. Third,
champions are risk takers in every sense of the word. Their single-minded pursuit of truth in what-
ever innovative form it may take often puts them at odds with entrenched bureaucrats and those
who do not share their enthusiasm for a new product or idea.
Capturing the enthusiasm and fervor that champions have for their ideas is difficult. Tom
Peters, best-selling author, describes champions as “fanatics” in their single-minded pursuit of
their pet ideas. He states, “The people who are tenacious, committed champions are often a royal
pain in the neck . . . . They must be fostered and nurtured—even when it hurts.”18 This statement
captures the essence of the personality and impact of the champion: one who is at the same time an
organizational gadfly and vitally important for project and organizational success.
champions—who are they?
Champions do not consistently occupy the same positions within organizations. Although
senior managers often serve as champions, many members of the organization can play the role
of implementation champion, with different systems or at different times with the same system
implementation project. Among the most common specific types of champions are creative origi-
nator, entrepreneur, godfather or sponsor, and project manager.19
creatiVe originator The creative originator is usually an engineer, scientist, or similar per-
son who is the source of and driving force behind the idea. The fact that the individual who was
behind the original development of the idea or technology can function as the project champion is
hardly surprising. No one in the organization has more expertise or sense of vision where the new
information system is concerned. Few others possess the technical or creative ability to develop
the implementation effort through to fruition. Consequently, many organizations allow, and even
actively encourage, the continued involvement of the scientist or engineer who originally devel-
oped the idea upon which the project is based.
entrePreneur An entrepreneur is the person who adopts the idea or technology and actively
works to sell the system throughout the organization, eventually pushing it to success. In many
organizations, it is not possible, for a variety of reasons, for the creative originator or original
project advocate to assume the role of champion. Often, scientists, technicians, and engineers are
limited by their need to perform the specifically demarcated duties of their positions, and thereby
precluded from becoming part of the project implementation team. In such situations, the indi-
vidual who steps forward as the implementation champion is referred to as an organizational entre-
preneur. The entrepreneur is an organizational member who recognizes the value of the original
idea or technology and makes it a personal goal to gain its acceptance throughout the relevant
4.4 Project Champions 129
organizational units that would be employing it. Entrepreneurial champions are usually middle-
to upper-level managers who may or may not have technical backgrounds. In addition to perform-
ing their own duties within the organization, they are constantly on the lookout for innovative and
useful ideas to develop.
“godFatHer” or sPonsor The project champion as godfather is a senior-level manager who
does everything possible to promote the project, including obtaining the needed resources, coach-
ing the project team when problems arise, calming the political waters, and protecting the project
when necessary. A sponsor has elected to actively support acquisition and implementation of the
new technology and to do everything in his power to facilitate this process. One of the most impor-
tant functions of godfathers is to make it known throughout the organization that this project is
under their personal guidance or protection. In addition to supplying this “protection,” the god-
father engages in a variety of activities of a more substantial nature in helping the implementation
effort succeed. Godfathers also use their influence to coach the team when problems arise in order
to decrease the likelihood of political problems derailing the project.
Project Manager Another member of the organization who may play the role of champion
is the project manager. At one time or another, almost every project manager has undertaken
the role of champion. When one considers the definition of a project champion and the wide
range of duties performed in that role, it becomes clear why the manager of the project is often
in the position to engage in championing behaviors. Certainly, project managers are strongly
identified with their projects, and to a degree their careers are directly tied to the successful
completion of their projects. Project managers, however, may have limited effectiveness as
champions if they do not possess a higher, organizationwide status that makes it possible for
them to serve as project advocates at upper management levels. For example, a project manager
may not have the authority to secure additional project resources or gain support throughout
the larger organization.
what do champions do?
What exactly do champions do to aid the implementation process? Table 4.4 lists two sets of
championing activities that were identified by one study through its survey of a sample of
project managers.
taBLe 4.4 traditional and Nontraditional roles of Project champions
traditional Duties
Technical understanding Knowledge of the technical aspects involved in developing the project
Leadership Ability to provide leadership for the project team
Coordination and control Managing and controlling the activities of the team
Obtaining resources Gaining access to the necessary resources to ensure a smooth
development process
Administrative Handling the important administrative side of the project
Nontraditional Duties
Cheerleader Providing the needed enthusiasm (spiritual driving force) for the team
Visionary Maintaining a clear sense of purpose and a firm idea of what is involved in
creating the project
Politician Employing the necessary political tactics and networking to ensure broad
acceptance and cooperation with the project
Risk taker Being willing to take calculated personal or career risks to support the
project
Ambassador Maintaining good relations with all project stakeholders
Source: J. K. Pinto and D. P. Slevin. (1988). “The project champion: Key to implementation success,” Project Management
Journal, 20(4): 15–20. Copyright © 1988 by Project Management Institute Publications. Copyright and all rights reserved.
Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
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130 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
The first set of activities is commonly thought of as the “traditional” duties of managers. The
champion can actively aid in the project development process by interpreting technical details,
providing strong leadership, helping with project coordination and control, as well as supply-
ing administrative help for the project team. It is important that the champion be familiar with
the technical aspects of the project. Another important traditional activity of the project cham-
pion is the procurement of necessary resources to enable team members to perform their tasks.
Champions are often in an excellent position to make available a continual supply of logistical
support for the project.
The second set of activities in which champions engage is referred to as the “nontraditional”
side of management, which implies that these activities are not part of the usual roles identified
in traditional management literature. That does not mean, however, that these activities are in
any way unnecessary or eccentric. In fact, several champions have reported that these duties are
just as important for project success as the more frequently identified, well-known requirements
for successful management. Performing functions such as cheerleader, visionary, politician, risk
taker, and ambassador is important for most project managers, and yet these roles tend to be
deemphasized in literature, job specifications, and training programs. As one champion put it,
“We can teach people those (traditional) skills easily enough, but experience is the best teacher
for the other (nontraditional) duties. No one prepares you for the irrational side of this job. You have to
pick it up as you go.”
In many organizations, the majority of a champion’s time is not engaged in performing
the traditional side of project management duties, but rather is involved in the “nontraditional”
activities. The champion is often the person with the vision, the cheerleader, or the driving force
behind the project. Additionally, the champion is expected to take on the key political roles in
attempting to play the right kinds of games, make the right contacts, and network with the neces-
sary people to ensure a steady supply of resources necessary for the project to succeed. Finally,
because champions, by definition, strongly identify with the project, much of their time is spent
in networking with other organizational units, top management, and prospective clients (users)
of the project. In this task, they take on an important ambassador/advocate role throughout the
organization. In many cases, champions put their careers on the line to support and gain accep-
tance of a new system and, as a result, become committed to aiding the project in every way pos-
sible, through both traditional and nontraditional activities.
One question often asked is whether this type of behavior really plays an important role in
successful project management. The answer is an emphatic “yes.” Aside from anecdotal and case
study information, some compelling research studies have helped us better understand not only
what champions do, but how important champions are for acquiring and gaining organizational
acceptance of new projects.20 One study, for example, examined a series of new product devel-
opments and start-ups at a variety of organizations.21 The relationship between the presence or
absence of an identifiable organizational champion and the success of the project was studied for
45 new product development efforts. Of the 17 successful new product developments, all but one,
or 94%, had a readily identifiable champion. These ventures were spearheaded by an individual
that the majority of those involved in the project could point to and identify as that project’s spon-
sor or champion. On the other hand, of the 28 projects that failed, only one was coupled with an
identifiable project champion. Clearly, the results of this study point to the enormously important
role that a champion can play in new product development.
How to Make a champion
All organizations differ in terms of the availability of individuals to take on the role of a project cham-
pion. Although some organizations have a supply of enthusiastic personnel at all levels willing to
serve as champions, the reality for most organizations is not nearly so upbeat. The fault, in this case,
is not that these organizations have inadequate or unskilled people. Very often, the problem is that
the organizations have failed to recognize the benefits to be derived from champions. Champions
and a climate within which they can exist must be developed and nurtured by the organization.
Some important principles and options for organizations to recognize in the development
and use of project champions include identify and encourage the emergence of champions, encour-
age and reward risk takers, remember that champions are connected emotionally to their projects,
and avoid tying champions too closely to traditional project management duties.22
4.5 The New Project Leadership 131
identiFy and encourage tHe eMergence oF cHaMPions In many companies, there are indi-
viduals who demonstrate the enthusiasm and drive to champion new project ideas. It is important
for these organizations to develop a culture that not only tolerates but actively promotes champi-
ons. In many organizations, a creative originator who continually badgered upper management
with a new project idea would likely offend some of the key top management team. However, for
a firm to realize the full potential of its internal champions, it must create a culture of support in
which champions feel they can work without excessive criticism or oversight.
encourage and reward risk takers Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric, made it a
personal crusade to actively encourage senior, middle, and even junior managers to take risks. His argu-
ment was that innovation does not come without risk; if one cannot bear to take risks, one cannot inno-
vate. The corollary to encouraging risk taking is to avoid the knee-jerk response of immediately seeking
culprits and punishing them for project failures. Innovations are, by definition, risky ventures. They
can result in tremendous payoffs, but they also have a very real possibility of failure. Organizations
have to become more aware of the positive effects of encouraging individuals to take risks and assume
championing roles in innovative projects. One project success will often pay for 10 project failures.
reMeMBer tHat cHaMPions are connected eMotionaLLy to tHeir Projects Champions
bring a great deal of energy and emotional commitment to their project ideas; however, a potential
downside of the use of powerful project champions is the fact that often they refuse to give up,
even in the face of a genuine project failure. As a result, many companies keep pursuing “dogs”
long after any hope for successful completion or commercial success is past. For example, Microsoft
introduced their “Kin” cellphone in 2010 and marketed it particularly to teens and fans of social
networking. The Kin was not a “smartphone,” it did not support apps or games, and it was expen-
sive to operate. In spite of Microsoft’s best efforts, it quickly failed in the marketplace and was
abandoned only two months after its introduction. Microsoft executive, Robbie Bach, mastermind
behind the Kin device, left the company soon afterward.
don’t tie cHaMPions too tigHtLy to traditionaL Project ManageMent duties Project
champions and project managers may be the same people, but often they are not. Many times classic
champions, as Table 4.4 demonstrated, are more comfortable supporting a project through nontra-
ditional activities. Because they tend to be visionaries, cheerleaders, and risk takers, they approach
their goal with a single-minded strength of purpose and a sense of the overall design and strategy
for the new technology. Rather than supporting the more routine aspects of project management,
such as planning and scheduling, allocating resources, and handling the administrative details, the
champions’ expertise and true value to the implementation process may be in their political connec-
tions and contributions, that is, in employing their nontraditional management skills.
4.5 tHe new Project LeadersHiP
Project management requires us to harness our abilities to lead others. These skills may or (more
likely) may not be innate; that is, for the majority of us, leadership is not something that we were born
with. However, we know enough about the leadership challenge to recognize that leaders are as lead-
ers do.23 The more we begin to recognize and practice appropriate leadership roles, the more naturally
these activities will come to us. An article by one of the top writers on organizational leadership,
Dr. Warren Bennis, summarizes four competencies that determine our success as project leaders:24
1. The new leader understands and practices the power of appreciation. These project leaders
are connoisseurs of talent, more curators than creators. Appreciation derives from our abil-
ity to recognize and reward the talent of others. Leaders may not be the best, most valuable,
or most intelligent members of project teams. Their role is not to outshine others but to allow
others to develop to their best potential.
2. The new leader keeps reminding people what’s important. This simple statement carries a
powerful message for project managers. We need to remember that in pursuing a project, a
host of problems, difficulties, annoyances, and technical and human challenges are likely to
arise. Often numerous problems are uncovered during projects that were not apparent until
after serious work began. Project managers must remember that one of their most important
contributions is reminding people to keep their eyes fixed on the ultimate prize—in effect,
continually reminding them what is important.
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132 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
3. The new leader generates and sustains trust. The research by Kouzes and Posner cited
earlier in this chapter contains a powerful message: The most important characteristic
looked for in leaders is honesty.25 Leaders who generate trust and behave with authentic-
ity, fairness, honesty, and caring will be successful in creating an environment in which
the project team members strive to do their best. Trust plays a critical role in developing
productive leader-member relationships.26 It is only by recognizing and applying trust-
worthiness that we demonstrate the loyalty and commitment to our team members as
individuals, that will bring out the best in them.
4. The new leader and the led are intimate allies. Earlier in this chapter we examined the con-
cept of a partnership existing between the leader and followers. This point is important and
should be emphasized in effective leadership behaviors. Project management leadership does
not arise in order to control and dominate the project team, but as a natural method for sup-
porting the team’s efforts. As we work to develop leadership abilities, it is important to first
recognize the reasons why leadership is necessary for project success and then take the concrete
steps needed to realize the vision of the project, something we can best do when we as leaders
work in close harmony with our teams.
Box 4.2
Project Managers in Practice
Bill Mowery, CSC
“Project management, as a discipline, provides limitless opportunities across almost infinite combinations
of industries, skills and alternatives and provides a career path that remains challenging and rewarding.”
This statement comes from Bill Mowery, until recently, a Delivery Assurance Senior Manager in the Financial
Services Group (FSG) of Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC).
Mowery’s job was a combination of project governance, working with the corporation’s Project
Management Office (PMO), and special projects in support of strategic objectives. Project governance duties
consist of monitoring and reporting on the status of the project portfolio of one of FSG’s divisions while pro-
viding guidance on best practices and methods in project management. An important part of Mowery’s was
as the “business architect” in support of FSG’s proprietary project tracking and reporting system. This system
was developed to provide advanced capabilities in the automated collection and dissemination of project per-
formance metrics. Mowery states, “Perhaps the most challenging part of my job pertained to ad hoc special
projects that support the goals of both FSG and the corporate objectives of CSC as a whole. The opportunity
to collaborate globally with my colleagues on a wide range of technology and business endeavors provided
both challenge and variety in my career.”
Mowery’s career path into project management work seems to have been somewhat unintentional. After
being trained in electronics and computer technology and earning an associate’s degree while serving in the
U.S. Army, he began his civilian career in software engineering while pursuing undergraduate degrees in com-
puter science and mathematics. As a contract programmer, he got his first taste of project management work,
simply because he was the software contractor with the most seniority. This serendipitous introduction to this
type of work led to a career that has kept him fascinated and engaged for the last 25 years. During this time,
Mowery has worked in a variety of industries, including electronic product development, nuclear fuel process-
ing, financial services, and material handling systems. One thing he has learned during his diverse career is that
sound project management principles are critical regardless of the setting. As he points out, “While the industry
and technology can change, the tenets of project management that lead to success remain a constant theme.”
Because of Mowery’s wealth of experience with running projects across so many settings over such an
extended period, he served as a mentor for junior project managers in his organization, a role that he relished.
“The aspect of my job I found most rewarding was the opportunity to collaborate and mentor within a large
project management staff. When a project manager was faced with a unique challenge in project manage-
ment and I could offer insight and advice that helped solve the problem, it provided a satisfying feeling that
someone else didn’t have to learn something ‘the hard way.’”
When asked what advice he could offer to those interested in pursuing a career in project management,
Mowery reflected, “The best advice that I can offer to anyone considering a career in project management is
to have the patience of a rock, an empathetic personality, and a love of learning. Project management can be
a complex field, and I often tell people that the more I learn, the less I know. This often confuses people, but
simply put, the more I learn, the more I understand just how much more there is to know and discover in a
fascinating and complex profession.”
4.5 The New Project Leadership 133
Figure 4.4 Bill Mowery, cSc
Source: Jeffrey Pinto/Pearson Education, Inc
Project Profile
the challenge of Managing internationally
As project management becomes an internationalized phenomenon, it is critical for successful leaders to recog-
nize their management style and make necessary accommodations when dealing with project team members
from other countries. The current generation of project managers is discovering that international work is not a
mysterious or infrequent event; in fact, it is the everyday reality for project managers in many project-based orga-
nizations. What are some of the important lessons that all project managers need to take to heart when working
overseas? One list is offered by a successful project manager, Giancarlo Duranti. A native of Italy, Duranti has expe-
rience leading teams in Brazil, Cuba, and Gambia. Among his suggestions for making the right leadership choices
in foreign settings are:
1. Develop a detailed understanding of the environment. Educate yourself on the setting in which you will be work-
ing by viewing documentaries and reading travel guides, tourist books, and even local newspapers. History is equally
important: The better you understand the past of a particular culture, the sooner you can begin to understand team
attitudes and perceptions.
2. Do not stereotype. It is easy to approach a foreign setting with preconceived notions about its people, culture,
weather, and food. Without allowing ourselves to experience a setting for the “first time,” it is difficult to avoid form-
ing easy and, ultimately, useless opinions.
3. Be genuinely interested in cultural differences. People are eager to share local and national traditions and, in turn,
have a curiosity about yours. Demonstrating a real interest in their culture and sharing your own helps both sides to
appreciate these differences rather than be separated by them.
4. Do not assume there is one way (yours) to communicate. Communication differences among cultures are profound.
Remember, for example, that use of humor and ways of giving feedback, including correction, differ greatly among
cultures. Learn to appreciate alternative means of exchanging information and to recognize what is “really” being
said in various exchanges.
5. Listen actively and empathetically. Suspend judgment when listening and try to view each situation with some
distance and perspective.27
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134 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
4.6 Project ManageMent ProFessionaLisM
At the beginning of 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) kicked off an internal initiative
to create a project management career path within its organization. The launch followed similar
moves by a variety of organizations, from firms as diverse as Ernst & Young (consulting) to NASA.
Bruce Carnes at the Department of Energy explained the reasoning for this move:
Much of our work is accomplished through projects. In fact, our project managers are currently
responsible for over 100 projects with a total value in excess of $20 billion, plus another $150
billion in environmental restoration work over the next several decades. It’s important for us to
make sure that our project managers have the best skills possible, and that each person is treated
as a critical DoE asset. Therefore, we need a cohesive career management plan to develop them,
match their skills with assignments, track their performance, and reward them as appropriate.28
Embedded in this explanation are several important points that illustrate the growing
professionalism of the project management discipline. Let’s consider them in turn.29
First, for more and more organizations, project work is becoming the standard. Projects are
no longer simply additional and nonroutine components of organizational life; in many organiza-
tions they are becoming the principal means by which the organizations accomplish their goals.
Along with the increased recognition of the importance of using project management techniques
comes the concomitant need to acquire, train, and maintain a cadre of project management profes-
sionals who are dedicated to these work assignments.
Second, there is a critical need to upgrade the skills of those doing project work. It would be
a mistake to continually apply organizational resources, particularly human resources, to projects
without ensuring that they are learning and developing their project skills, and approaching these
tasks with a solid foundation of knowledge. In short, one of the aspects of professionalism is to
recognize that project management professionals are not an ad hoc feature of the organization,
but a critical resource to be developed and maintained. Therefore, it is important to support these
individuals as a resource that requires continual training and skill development.
Third, project management professionalism recognizes the need to create a clear career path
for those who serve as project managers and support personnel. Historically, organizations “found”
their project managers from among their line management staff and assigned them the responsi-
bility to complete the project, always with the assumption that once the project was finished, the
managers would return to their normal functional duties. In short, project management was a
temporary assignment, and once it was completed, the manager was returned to “real” duties. In
the new professionalism model, project management personnel view project work as a permanent
career assignment, with managers moving from project to project, but always dedicated to this
career path. Increasingly companies are officially distinguishing between their functional staff and
their project management professionals, resisting the urge to move people back and forth between
project assignments and functional duties.
This new professionalism mentality is typified by the experiences of NASA, particularly in
the wake of the 1986 Challenger shuttle disaster. Following the lessons learned from that terrible
event, NASA determined that there was a permanent need for a dedicated and embedded profes-
sional project management group within the organization. Ed Hoffman, who serves as the director
of NASA’s Academy of Program and Project Leadership, makes this point: “The NASA mind-set
sees the project approach as the only way to do business. We are constantly charged with meeting
cost and timeline challenges that require the cooperation of a variety of disciplines. Frankly, our
folks would be confused by a functional approach.”30
What practical steps can organizations take to begin developing a core of project manage-
ment professionals? Some of the suggested strategies include the following:
• Begin to match personalities to project work. Research suggests that certain personality types
may be more accepting of project work than others.31 For example, outgoing, people-oriented
individuals are felt to have a better likelihood of performing well on projects than quieter, more
introverted people. Likewise, people with a greater capacity for working in an unstructured and
dynamic setting are more attuned to project work than those who require structure and formal
work rules. As a starting point, it may be useful to conduct some basic personality assessments
of potential project resources to assess their psychological receptiveness to the work.
Summary 135
• Formalize the organization’s commitment to project work with training programs. There
is little doubt that organizational members can recognize a firm’s commitment to projects
by the firm’s willingness to support the training and development of personnel in the skills
needed for them. For training to be effective, however, several elements are necessary. First,
a corporatewide audit should be conducted to determine what critical skills are necessary
for running projects. Second, the audit should determine the degree to which organizational
members possess those skills. Third, where there are clear differences between the skill
set needed and the skills available, project management training should first be targeted
to reduce those gaps—in effect, bringing project management training into alignment with
project management needs.
• Develop a reward system for project management that differentiates it from normal func-
tional reward schedules. The types of rewards, whether promotions, bonuses, or other forms
of recognition, available to project management personnel need to reflect the differences in
the types of jobs they do compared to the work done by regular members of the organization.
For example, in many project companies, performance bonuses are available for project team
members but not for functional personnel. Likewise, raises or promotions in project firms
are often based directly on the results of projects the team members have worked on. Thus,
within the same organization, functional members may be promoted due to the amount of
time they have been at one managerial level, while their project professional counterparts are
promoted solely due to their accumulated performance on multiple projects.
• Identify a distinct career path for project professionals. One rather cynical project manager
once noted to this author, “In our organization there are two career ladders. Unfortunately,
only one of them has rungs!” His point was that excellent performance on projects did not
earn individuals any rewards, particularly in terms of promotions. In his firm, projects were
“a place where mediocre managers go to die.” Contrast this example with that of Bechtel
Corporation, in which project management is viewed as a critical resource, project manage-
ment personnel are carefully evaluated, and superior performance is rewarded. Most partic-
ularly, Bechtel has a dual-track career path that allows successful project managers the same
opportunities as other functional managers to move upward in the company.
Project professionalism recognizes that the enhanced interest in project management as a
discipline has led to the need to create a resource pool of trained individuals for the organization
to use. In short, we are seeing an example of supply and demand at work. As more and more
organizations begin to apply project techniques in their operations, they will increase the need for
sufficient, trained individuals to perform these tasks. One of the best sources of expertise in project
management comes from inside these organizations, provided they take the necessary steps to
nurture and foster an attitude of professionalism among their project management staff.
This chapter began with the proposition that project management is a “leader-intensive”
undertaking; that is, few activities within organizations today depend more on the performance
and commitment of a strong leader than do projects. Through exploration of the types of duties
project managers must undertake, the characteristics of effective project leaders, the role of emo-
tional intelligence in managing projects well, the concepts of project championing behavior, and
the essence of the new project leadership, this chapter has painted a picture of the diverse and
challenging duties that project managers are expected to undertake as they pursue project success.
When we endeavor to develop our leadership skills to their highest potential, the challenge is sig-
nificant but the payoffs are enormous.
Summary
1. Understand how project management is a “leader-
intensive” profession. Project management is
leader-intensive because the project manager, as the
leader, plays a central role in the development of the
project. The project manager is the conduit for infor-
mation and communication flows, the principal
planner and goal setter, the team developer, motiva-
tor, and conflict resolver, and so forth. Without the
commitment of an energetic project leader, it is very
unlikely the project will be successfully completed.
2. distinguish between the role of a manager and the
characteristics of a leader. The manager’s role in
an organization is characterized as one of positional
authority. Managers receive titles that give them
the right to exercise control over the behavior of
others, they focus more on the administration and
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136 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
organization of the project, and they seek efficiency
and maintaining the status quo. Leaders focus on
interpersonal relationships, developing and inspir-
ing others with their vision of the project and the
future. They embrace change, motivate others, com-
municate by word and deed, and focus on the effec-
tiveness of outcomes and long-term risk taking.
3. Understand the concept of emotional intelligence
as it relates to how project managers lead. Five
dimensions of emotional intelligence relate to project
leadership: (1) self-awareness—one’s understanding
of strengths and weaknesses that provides perspec-
tive, (2) self-regulation—the ability to keep oneself
under control by thinking before acting and sus-
pending immediate judgment, (3) motivation—all
successful leaders demonstrate first their own degree
of motivation before they can inspire it in others,
(4) empathy—the ability to recognize the differences
in each subordinate and treat each team member in
a way that is designed to gain the maximum com-
mitment, and (5) social skill—friendliness with the
purpose of moving people in a direction thought
desirable.
4. recognize traits that are strongly linked to effec-
tive project leadership. A number of leader-
ship traits are strongly linked to effective project
leadership, including (1) credibility or honesty, (2)
problem-solving abilities, (3) tolerance for complex-
ity and ambiguity, (4) flexibility in managing sub-
ordinates, (5) communication skills, (6) creativity,
(7) decision-making abilities, (8) experience, (9) the
ability to work well through the project team, and
(10) strong influence skills.
5. identify the key roles project champions play in
project success. Champions are those individu-
als within an organization who identify with a new
project, using all the resources at their command to
support it, even in the face of organizational resis-
tance. Champions are risk takers because they are
willing to work persistently in the face of resistance
or hostility to their idea from other members of the
company. Research strongly supports the conten-
tion that projects with an identifiable champion
are more likely to be successful than those without.
Among the traditional roles that champions play
are those of technical understanding, leadership,
coordination and control, obtaining resources, and
administration. The nontraditional nature of the
champion’s behavior includes engaging in activities
such as being a cheerleader, project visionary, politi-
cian, risk taker, and ambassador, all in support of
the project.
6. recognize the principles that typify the new proj-
ect leadership. Warren Bennis’s idea of the new
project leadership is strongly based on relationship
management through creating and maintaining a
mutual commitment with each member of the proj-
ect team. The four principles of the new project man-
agement include (1) understanding and practicing
the power of appreciation regarding each member
of the project team, (2) continually reminding people
of what is important through keeping focused on
the “big picture,” (3) generating and sustaining trust
with each member of the project team, and (4) recog-
nizing that the leader and the led are natural allies,
not opponents.
7. Understand the development of project manage-
ment professionalism in the discipline. As proj-
ect management has become increasingly popular,
its success has led to the development of a core of
professional project managers within many organi-
zations. Recognizing the law of supply and demand,
we see that as the demand for project management
expertise continues to grow, the supply must keep
pace. Professionalism recognizes the “institutional-
ization” of projects and project management within
organizations, both public and private. The prolif-
eration of professional societies supporting project
management is another indicator of the interest in
the discipline.
Key Terms
Champion (p. 128)
Creative originator (p. 128)
Empathy (p. 124)
Entrepreneur (p. 128)
Godfather or sponsor (p. 129)
Leadership (p. 118)
Motivation (p. 120)
Professionalism (p. 134)
Self-regulation (p. 124)
Discussion Questions
4.1 The chapter stressed the idea that project management is a
“leader-intensive” undertaking. Discuss in what sense this
statement is true.
4.2 How do the duties of project managers reinforce the role
of leadership?
Case Study 4.2 137
4.3 What are some key differences between leaders and
managers?
4.4 Discuss the concept of emotional intelligence as it relates
to the duties of project managers. Why are the five ele-
ments of emotional intelligence so critical to successful
project management?
4.5 Consider the studies on trait theories in leadership. Of the
characteristics that emerge as critical to effective leader-
ship, which seem most critical for project managers? Why?
4.6 Consider the profile examples on project leaders Sir John
Armitt and Dr. Sreedharan from the chapter. If you were to
summarize the leadership keys to their success in running
projects, what actions or characteristics would you iden-
tify as being critical? Why? What are the implications for
you when you are given responsibility to run your own
projects?
4.7 Why are project champions said to be better equipped to
handle the “nontraditional” aspects of leadership?
4.8 Consider the discussion of the “new project leadership.” If
you were asked to formulate a principle that could be ap-
plied to project leadership, what would it be? Justify your
answer.
CaSe STuDy 4.2
Finding the Emotional Intelligence to Be a Real Leader
Recently, Kathy Smith, a project manager for a large
industrial construction organization, was assigned to
oversee a multimillion-dollar chemical plant construc-
tion project in Southeast Asia. Kathy had earned this
assignment after completing a number of smaller con-
struction assignments in North America over the past
three years. This was her first overseas assignment and
she was eager to make a good impression, particularly
given the size and scope of the project. Successfully
completing this project would increase her visibility
within the organization dramatically and earmark her
as a candidate for upper management. Kathy had good
project management skills; in particular, she was orga-
nized and highly self-motivated. Team members at her
last two project assignments used to joke that just try-
ing to keep up with her was a full-time job.
Kathy wasted no time settling in to oversee the
development of the chemical plant. Operating under
(continued)
CaSe STuDy 4.1
In Search of Effective Project Managers
Pureswing Golf, Inc., manufactures and sells a full line
of golf equipment, including clubs, golf balls, leisure-
wear, and ancillary equipment (bags, rain gear, towels,
etc.). The company competes in a highly competitive and
fast-paced industry against better-known competitors,
such as Nike, Taylor Made, Titleist, PING, Calloway, and
Cleveland. Among the keys to success in this industry are
the continuous introduction of new club models, innova-
tive engineering and design, and speed to market. As a
smaller company trying to stay abreast of stronger com-
petitors, Pureswing places great emphasis on the project
management process in order to remain profitable. At any
time, the company will have more than 35 project teams
developing new ideas across the entire product range.
Pureswing prefers to find promising engineers
from within the organization and promote them to
project manager. It feels that these individuals, hav-
ing learned the company’s philosophy of competitive
success, are best equipped to run new product intro-
duction projects. For years, Pureswing relied on vol-
unteers to move into project management, but lately it
has realized that this ad hoc method for finding and
encouraging project managers is not sufficient. The
failure rate for these project manager volunteers is
over 40%, too high for a company of Pureswing’s size.
With such steady turnover among the volunteers, suc-
cessful managers have to pick up the slack—they often
manage five or six projects simultaneously. Top man-
agement, worried about burnout among these high-
performing project managers, has decided that the firm
must develop a coordinated program for finding new
project managers, including creating a career path in
project management within the organization.
Questions
1. Imagine you are a human resources professional
at Pureswing who has been assigned to develop
a program for recruiting new project managers.
Design a job description for the position.
2. What qualities and personal characteristics support
a higher likelihood of success as a project manager?
3. What qualities and personal characteristics
would make it difficult to be a successful project
manager?
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138 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
her normal work approach, Kathy routinely required
her staff and the senior members of the project team to
work long hours, ignoring weekend breaks if impor-
tant milestones were coming up, and generally adopt-
ing a round the-clock work approach for the project.
Unfortunately, in expecting her team, made up of local
residents, to change their work habits to accommodate
her expectations, Kathy completely misread the indi-
viduals on her team. They bitterly resented her over-
bearing style, unwillingness to consult them on key
questions, and aloof nature. Rather than directly con-
front her, however, team members began a campaign
of passive resistance to her leadership. They would
purposely drag their feet on important assignments
or cite insurmountable problems when none, in fact,
existed. Kathy’s standard response was to push herself
and her project team harder, barraging subordinates
with increasingly urgent communications demanding
faster performance. To her bewilderment, nothing
seemed to work.
The project quickly became bogged down due
to poor team performance and ended up costing the
project organization large penalties for late delivery.
Although Kathy had many traits that worked in her
favor, she was seriously lacking in the ability to recog-
nize the feelings and expectations of others and take
them into consideration.
Questions
1. Discuss how Kathy lacked sufficient emotional
intelligence to be effective in her new project
manager assignment.
2. Of the various dimensions of emotional intelli-
gence, which dimension(s) did she appear to lack
most? What evidence can you cite to support this
contention?
CaSe STuDy 4.3
Problems with John
John James has worked at one of the world’s largest
aerospace firms for more than 15 years. He was hired
into the division during the “Clinton years” when
many people were being brought onto the payroll. John
had not completed his engineering degree, so he was
hired as a drafter. Most of the other people in his de-
partment who were hired at the time had completed
their degrees and therefore began careers as associate
engineers. Over the years, John has progressed through
the ranks to the classification of engineer. Many of the
employees hired at the same time as John have ad-
vanced more rapidly because the corporation recog-
nized their engineering degrees as prerequisites for
advancement. Years of service can be substituted, but
a substantial number of years is required to offset the
lack of a degree.
John began exhibiting signs of dissatisfaction with
the corporation in general several years ago. He would
openly vent his feelings against nearly everything the
corporation was doing or trying to do. However, he did
not complain about his specific situation. The complain-
ing became progressively worse. John started to exhibit
mood swings. He would be extremely productive at
times (though still complaining) and then swing into
periods of near zero productivity. During these times,
John would openly surf the Internet for supplies for a
new home repair project or for the most recent Dilbert
comics. His fellow employees were hesitant to point out
to management when these episodes occurred. Most of
the team members had been working together for the
entire 15 years and had become close friends. This is
why these nonproductive episodes of John’s were such
a problem; no one on the team felt comfortable point-
ing the problem out to higher management. As time
progressed and John’s friends evolved into his manag-
ers, while John remained at lower salary grades, John’s
mood swings grew more dramatic and lasted longer.
During the most recent performance appraisal
review process, John’s manager (a friend of his)
included a paragraph concerning his “lack of concen-
tration at times.” This was included because of numer-
ous comments made by John’s peers. The issue could no
longer be swept under the rug. John became irate at the
review feedback and refused to acknowledge receipt
of his performance appraisal. His attitude toward his
teammates became extremely negative. He demanded
to know who had spoken negatively about him, and his
work output diminished to virtually nothing.
analysis of the Problem
Clearly John has not been happy. To understand why,
the history of his employment at this company needs
to be looked at in greater detail. The group of cowork-
ers that started together 15 years earlier all had similar
backgrounds and capabilities. A group of eight people
Case Study 4.3 139
were all about 22 years old and had just left college;
John was the only exception to this pattern, as he still
needed two years of schooling to finish his engineer-
ing degree. All were single and making good money
at their jobs. The difference in salary levels between an
associate engineer and a draftsman was quite small.
Figure 4.5 shows the salary grade classifications at this
corporation.
This group played softball together every
Wednesday, fished together on the weekends, and
hunted elk for a week every winter. Lifelong bonds and
friendships were formed. One by one, the group started
to get married and begin families. They even took turns
standing up for each other at the weddings. The wives
and the children all became great friends, and the fish-
ing trips were replaced with family backyard barbecues.
Meanwhile, things at work were going great. All
of these friends and coworkers had very strong work
ethics and above-average abilities. They all liked their
work and did not mind working extra hours. This
combination of effort and ability meant rewards and
advancement for those involved. However, since John
had not yet completed his degree as he had planned,
his promotions were more difficult to achieve and did
not occur as rapidly as those of his friends. The differ-
ences in salary and responsibility started to expand at
a rapid rate. John started to become less satisfied.
This large corporation was structured as a func-
tional organization. All mechanical engineers reported
to a functional department manager. This manager was
aware of the situation and convinced John to go back
for his degree during the evenings. Although John had
good intentions, he never stayed with it long enough to
complete his degree. As John’s friends advanced more
quickly through the corporation, their cars and houses
also became bigger and better. John’s wife pressured him
to keep up with the others, and they also bought a bigger
house. This move meant that John was living above his
means and his financial security was threatened.
Until this point, John had justified in his mind
that the corporation’s policies and his functional man-
ager were the source of all of his problems. John would
openly vent his anger about this manager. Then a dras-
tic change took place in the corporation. The corpora-
tion switched over to a project team environment and
eliminated the functional management. This meant
that John was now reporting directly to his friends.
Even though John now worked for his friends,
company policy was still restrictive and the promotions
did not come as fast as he hoped. The team leader gave
John frequent cash spot awards and recognition in an
attempt to motivate him. John’s ego would be soothed
for a short time, but this did not address the real prob-
lem. John wanted money, power, and respect, and he
was not satisfied because those around him had more.
Although he was good at what he did, he was not great
at it. He did not appear to have the innate capability to
develop into a leader through expert knowledge or per-
sonality traits. Additionally, due to the lack of an engi-
neering degree, he could not achieve power through
time in grade. By now, John’s attitude had deteriorated
to the point where it was disruptive to the team and
something had to be done. The team leader had to help
John, but he also had to look after the health of the team.
This detailed history is relevant because it helps
to explain how John’s attitude slowly deteriorated
over a period of time. At the start of his career, John
was able to feel on a par with his peers. When every-
one was young and basically equal, he knew that he
had the respect of his friends and coworkers. This
allowed John to enjoy a sense of self-esteem. As time
passed and he gave up in his attempt at the college
degree, he lost some of his self-esteem. As the gap
grew between his friends’ positions in the company
and his position in the company, he perceived that
he lost the esteem of others. Finally, when he became
overextended with the larger home, even his basic
security was threatened. It is difficult to maintain a
Vice President
Director
G 26 Engineering Manager
G 24 Senior Staff Engineer
G 22 Staff Engineer
G 20 Senior Engineer
G 18 Engineer
G 16 Associate Engineer
G 14 Senior Drafter
G 12 Drafter
G 10 Associate Drafter
Small Salary Gap
Large
Salary
Gap
Salaried
Employees
Hourly
Employees
Figure 4.5 Salary Grade classifications at this corporation
(continued)
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140 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
level of satisfaction in this situation. The problem was
now distracting the team and starting to diminish
their efforts and results. Because of the friendships,
undue pressure was being placed on the team as they
tried to protect John from the consequences of his
actions.
The team leader had to try to resolve this prob-
lem. The challenge was significant: The leader had to
attempt to satisfy the individual’s needs, the group’s
needs, and the task needs. When John’s individual
needs could not be met, the group atmosphere and task
completion suffered. It was time for the team leader to
act decisively and approach upper management with a
solution to the problem.
Possible Courses of action
The team leader put a lot of thought into his options.
Because of the friendships and personal connections,
he knew that he could not make this decision lightly.
He decided to talk individually to the team members
who were John’s close friends and then determine the
best solution to present to upper management.
After talking with the team members, the team
leader decided on the following list of potential
options:
1. Do nothing.
2. Bypass company policy and promote John.
3. Talk John into going back to college.
4. Relocate John to a different project team.
5. Terminate John’s employment.
The option to do nothing would be the easiest
way out for the team leader, but this would not solve
any problems. This decision would be the equivalent of
burying one’s head in the sand and hoping the prob-
lem would go away by itself. Surprisingly, this was a
common suggestion from the team members. There
appeared to be a hope that the problem could be over-
looked, as it had been in the past, and John would just
accept the situation. With this option, the only person
who would have to compromise was John.
The second option of bypassing company policy
and promoting John to a higher level would be a very
difficult sell to management. John was recently promoted
to a salary grade 18 (his friends were now 24s and 26s).
This promotion was achieved through the concerted
efforts of his friends and the team leader. The chances
of convincing management to approve another promo-
tion so quickly were extremely low. Furthermore, if the
team leader was successful at convincing management
to promote John, what would the long-term benefits be?
John would still not be at the same level as his friends
and might not be satisfied for long. Chances were good
that this would be only a temporary fix to the problem.
After the shine wore off the promotion, John would again
believe that his efforts exceeded his rewards. It would
be nice to believe that this solution would eliminate the
problem, but history seemed to indicate otherwise.
The third option of trying to talk John into going
back to college and finishing his engineering degree
would be the best solution to the problem, but prob-
ably the least likely to occur. If John could complete
his degree, there would be no company policies that
could obstruct his path. He would then be compet-
ing on an even playing field. This would allow him
to justifiably receive his advancement and recapture
his self-esteem. If he did not receive the rewards that
he felt he deserved, he would then have to look at his
performance and improve on his weaknesses, not just
fall back on the same old excuse. This solution would
appear to put John back on the path to job satisfaction,
but the problem with it was that it had been tried unsuc-
cessfully several times before. Why would it be differ-
ent this time? Should the corporation keep trying this
approach knowing that failure would again lead to dis-
satisfaction and produce a severe negative effect on the
team? Although this third solution could produce the
happy ending that everyone wants to see in a movie, it
did not have a very high probability of success.
The fourth option of relocating John to a different
team would be an attempt to break the ties of competi-
tion that John felt with his friends and teammates. If
this option were followed, John could start with a clean
slate with a completely different team, and he would
be allowed to save face with his friends. He could tell
them of his many accomplishments and the great job
that he is doing, while complaining that his “new” boss
is holding him back. Although this could be considered
“smoke and mirrors,” it might allow John the opportu-
nity to look at himself in a new light. If he performed at
his capabilities, he should be able to achieve the esteem
of others and eventually his self-esteem. The team
would consider this a victory because it would allow
everyone to maintain the social relationship while
washing their hands of the professional problems.
This option offered the opportunity to make the situ-
ation impersonal. It should be clear, however, that this
solution would do nothing to resolve the true problem.
Although it would allow John to focus his dissatisfac-
tion on someone other than his friends and give him a
fresh start to impress his new coworkers, who is to say
that the problem would not simply resurface?
The fifth option, termination of employment,
would be distasteful to all involved. Nothing to this
point had indicated that John would deserve an action
this severe. Also, since this option also would sever the
social relationships for all involved and cause guilt for
all of the remaining team members, resulting in team
output deteriorating even further, it would be exercised
Internet Exercises 141
Internet exercises
only if other options failed and the situation deterio-
rated to an unsafe condition for those involved.
Questions
1. As the team leader, you have weighed the pros
and cons of the five options and prepared a pre-
sentation to management on how to address this
problem. What do you suggest?
2. Consider each of the options, and develop an
argument to defend your position for each
option.
3. What specific leadership behaviors mentioned in
this chapter are most relevant to addressing and
resolving the problems with John?
4.1 Identify an individual you would call a business leader.
Search the Web for information on this individual. What
pieces of information cause you to consider this individual
a leader?
4.2 Go to the Web site www.debian.org/devel/leader and
evaluate the role of the project leader in the Debian Project.
What is it about the duties and background of the project
leader that lets us view him as this project’s leader?
4.3 Knut Yrvin functions as the team leader for an initiative to
replace proprietary operating systems with Linux-based
technology in schools in Norway (the project is named
“Skolelinux”). Read his interview at http://lwn.net/
Articles/47510/. What clues do you find in this interview
regarding his view of the job of project leader and how he
leads projects?
4.4 Project champions can dramatically improve the chances
of project success, but they can also have some negative ef-
fects. For example, projects championed by a well-known
organizational member are very difficult to kill, even when
they are failing badly. Read the article on blind faith posted at
www.computerworld.com/s/article/78274/Blind_Faith?
taxonomyId=073. What does the article suggest are some
of the pitfalls in excessive championing by highly placed
members of an organization?
PMP certificAtion sAMPle QUestions
1. The project manager spends a great deal of her time
communicating with project stakeholders. Which of the
following represent an example of a stakeholder group
for her project?
a. Top management
b. Customers
c. Project team members
d. Functional group heads
e. All are project stakeholders
2. Effective leadership involves all of the following, except:
a. Managing oneself through personal time manage-
ment, stress management, and other activities
b. Managing team members through motivation, del-
egation, supervision, and team building
c. Maintaining tight control of all project resources
and providing information to team members only
as needed
d. Employing and utilizing project champions where
they can benefit the project
3. A project manager is meeting with his team for the
first time and wants to create the right environment in
which relationships develop positively. Which of the
following guidelines should he consider employing to
create an effective partnership with his team?
a. The right to say no
b. Joint accountability
c. Exchange of purpose
d. Absolute honesty
e. All are necessary to create a partnership
4. Joan is very motivated to create a positive project ex-
perience for all her team members and is reflecting on
some of the approaches she can take to employ lead-
ership, as opposed to simply managing the process.
Which of the following is an example of a leadership
practice she can use?
a. Focus on plans and budgets
b. Seek to maintain the status quo and promote order
c. Energize people to overcome obstacles and show
personal initiative
d. Maintain a short-term time frame and avoid un-
necessary risks
5. Frank has been learning about the effect of emotional
intelligence on his ability to lead his project effectively.
Which of the following is not an example of the kind
of emotional intelligence that can help him perform
better?
a. Self-awareness and self-regulation
b. Motivation
c. Social skills
d. Results orientation (work to get the job done)
Answers: 1. e—Remember that stakeholders are defined
as any group, either internal or external, that can affect
the performance of the project; 2. c—Leadership requires
allowing workers to have flexibility, providing them with
all relevant information, and communicating project sta-
tus and other pertinent information; 3. e—All of the above
are necessary characteristics in promoting partnership be-
tween the project manager and the team; 4. c—Energizing
people to overcome obstacles is a critical component of
leadership, as opposed to a philosophy of management;
5. d—Although a results orientation can be a useful ele-
ment in a project leader ’s skill set, it is not an example of
emotional intelligence, which is often manifested through
relationship building with others.
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142 Chapter 4 • Leadership and the Project Manager
Notes
1. Hansford, M. (2014, February 18). “Daring to be dif-
ferent: Sir John Armitt,” New Civil Engineer; Reina, P.
(2013, January 28). “Sir John Armitt: Delivering the
London Olympics Complex on Time, Under Budget, and
Safely,” Engineering News-Record. http://enr.construc-
tion.com/people/awards/2013/0128-london-olympics-
delivered-on-time-under-budget-safely.asp; Osborne,
A. (2013, September 5). “Take warring politicians out
of infrastructure planning, says Olympics chief John
Armitt,” The Telegraph. www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/
economics/10287504/Take-warring-politicians-out-
of-infrastructure-planning-says-Olympics-chief-John-
Armitt.html; Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council. (2012, July 2). “EPSRC congratulates Sir John
Armitt on inaugural major projects award.” www.epsrc.
ac.uk/newsevents/news/2012/Pages/armittaward.
aspx; Bose, M. (2012, February 7). “ Sir John Armitt: We’ve
made a magical place in London for the next 100 years.”
www.mihirbose.com/index.php/sir-john-armitt-weve-
made-a-magical-place-in-london-for-the-next-100-years/
2. Kim, W. C., and Mauborgne, R. A. (1992, July–August).
“Parables of leadership,” Harvard Business Review, p. 123.
3. Posner, B. Z. (1987). “What it takes to be a good proj-
ect manager,” Project Management Journal, 18(1): 51–54;
Pinto, J. K., Thoms, P., Trailer, J., Palmer, T., and Govekar,
M. (1998). Project Leadership: From Theory to Practice.
Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute;
Slevin, D. P., and Pinto, J. K. (1988). “Leadership, motiva-
tion, and the project manager,” in Cleland, D. I., and King,
W. R. (Eds.), Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 739–70; Geoghegan, L.,
and Dulewicz, V. (2008). “Do project managers’ compe-
tencies contribute to project success?” Project Management
Journal, 39(4): 58–67.
4. Pinto, J. K., and Kharbanda, O. P. (1997). Successful Project
Managers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
5. Block, P. (1993). Stewardship: Choosing Service over Self-
Interest. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
6. Verma, V. K. (1996). Human Resource Skills for the Project
Manager. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management
Institute.
7. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in Organizations, 5th ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Daft, R. L. (1999).
Leadership Theory and Practice. Orlando, FL: Harcourt;
Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (1995). The Leadership
Challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
8. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in Organizations, 5th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
9. Slevin, D. P. (1989). The Whole Manager. New York:
AMACOM.
10. Zimmerer, T. W., and Yasin, M. M. (1998). “A leader-
ship profile of American project managers,” Project
Management Journal, 29(1): 31–38.
11. Goleman, D. (1998). “What makes a leader?” Harvard
Business Review, 76(6): 92–102; Clarke, N. (2010).
“Emotional intelligence and its relationship to transfor-
mational leadership and key project manager compe-
tences,” Project Management Journal, 41(2): 5–20.
12. Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (1995). The Leadership
Challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
13. Pettersen, N. (1991). “What do we know about the
effective project manager?” International Journal of
Project Management, 9: 99–104. See also Javidan, M., and
Dastmachian, A. (1993). “Assessing senior executives:
The impact of context on their roles,” Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 29, 328–42; DiMarco, N., Goodson, J.
R., and Houser, H. F. (1989). “Situational leadership in
the project/matrix environment,” Project Management
Journal, 20(1): 11–18; Müller, R., and Turner, J. R. (2007).
“Matching the project manager’s leadership style to proj-
ect type,” International Journal of Project Management, 25:
21–32; Turner, J. R., and Müller, R. (2005). “The project
manager’s leadership style as a success factor on projects:
A literature review,” Project Management Journal, 36(2):
49–61.
14. Einsiedel, A. A. (1987). “Profile of effective project manag-
ers,” Project Management Journal, 18(5): 51–56.
15. Medcof, J. W., Hauschildt, J., and Keim, G. (2000). “Realistic
criteria for project manager selection and development,”
Project Management Journal, 31(3): 23–32.
16. Hannon, E. (2010, September 27). “Problems fuel doubts
about Commonwealth Games.” www.npr.org/tem-
plates/story/story.php?storyId=13014949; Swanson,
S. (2008). “Worldview: New Delhi,” PMNetwork,
22(12): 58–64; Lakshman, N. (2007, March 14). “The
miracle-worker of the Delhi Metro.” www.rediff.com/
money/2007/mar/14bspec.htm; www.muraleedharan.
com/legends_sreedharan.html; Ramnath, N. S. (2012,
June 2). “E Sreedharan: More than the metro man,”
Forbes India. http://forbesindia.com/article/leader-
hip-award-2012/e-sreedharan-more-than-the-metro-
man/33847/1
17. Schon, D. A. (1967). Technology and Change. New
York: Delacorte; Maidique, M. A. (1980, Winter).
“Entrepreneurs, champions, and technological innova-
tion,” Sloan Management Review, 21: 59–76.
18. Peters, T. A. (1985, May 13). “A passion for excellence,”
Fortune, pp. 47–50.
19. Meredith, J. A. (1986). “Strategic planning for factory auto-
mation by the championing process,” IEEE Transactions
on Engineering Management, EM-33(4): 229–32; Pinto, J.
K., and Slevin, D. P. (1988). “The project champion: Key
to implementation success,” Project Management Journal,
20(4): 15–20; Bryde, D. (2008). “Perceptions of the impact
of project sponsorship practices on project success,”
International Journal of Project Management, 26: 800–809;
Wright, J. N. (1997). “Time and budget: The twin impera-
tives of a project sponsor,” International Journal of Project
Management, 15: 181–86.
20. Onsrud, H. J., and Pinto, J. K. (1993). “Evaluating cor-
relates of GIS adoption success and the decision pro-
cess of GIS acquisition,” Journal of the Urban and Regional
Information Systems Association, 5: 18–39.
21. Chakrabarti, A. K. (1974). “The role of champion in prod-
uct innovation,” California Management Review, XVII(2):
58–62.
Notes 143
22. Royer, I. (2003). “Why bad projects are so hard to kill,”
Harvard Business Review, 81(2): 48–56; Pinto, J. K., and
Slevin, D. P. (1988). “The project champion: Key to imple-
mentation success,” Project Management Journal, 20(4):
15–20.
23. Thamhain, H. J. (1991). “Developing project management
skills,” Project Management Journal, 22(3): 39–44; Pressman,
R. (1998, January–February). “Fear of trying: The plight of
rookie project managers,” IEEE Software, pp. 50–54.
24. Bennis, W. (2001). “The end of leadership: Exemplary lead-
ership is impossible without full inclusion, initiatives, and
cooperation of followers,” Organizational Dynamics, 28.
25. Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (1995). The Leadership
Challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
26. Hartman, F. (2000). Don’t Park Your Brain Outside.
Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.
27. Silver, D. (2009). “Abroad spectrum,” PMNetwork, 23(1):
62–68.
28. Ayas, K. (1996). “Professional project management: A
shift towards learning and a knowledge creating struc-
ture,” International Journal of Project Management, 14:
131–36; Statement of Bruce Carnes, Chief Financial
Officer, United States Department of Energy, Before the
Committee on Science—U.S. House of Representatives—
on the FY 2003 Budget Request for the U.S. Department
of Energy. (2002, February 13). See also www.nap.edu/
openbook/0309089093/html/82-91.htm
29. Ayas, K. (1996), ibid.
30. Hoffman, E. J., Kinlaw, C. S., and Kinlaw, D. C. (2002).
“Developing superior project teams: A study of the char-
acteristics of high performance in project teams,” in Slevin,
D. P., Cleland, D. I., and Pinto, J. K. (Eds.), The Frontiers of
Project Management Research. Newtown Square, PA: PMI,
pp. 237–47; Kezbom, D. (1994). “Self-directed team and
the changing role of the project manager.” Proceedings of
the Internet 12th World Congress on Project Management,
Oslo, pp. 589–93.
31. Wideman, R. M., and Shenhar, A. J. (2001). “Professional and
personal development management: A practical approach
to education and training,” in J. Knutson (Ed.), Project
Management for Business Professionals: A Comprehensive
Guide. New York: Wiley, pp. 353–83; Wideman, R. M. (1998).
“Project teamwork, personality profiles and the population
at large: Do we have enough of the right kind of people?”
Presentation at the Project Management Institute’s Annual
Seminar/Symposium, Long Beach, CA.
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144
5
■ ■ ■
Scope Management
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
“We look like fools.”—Oregon’s Failed Rollout
of Its Obamacare Web Site
introduction
5.1 concePtual develoPment
The Statement of Work
Project Profile
Statements of Work: Then and Now
The Project Charter
5.2 the ScoPe Statement
The Work Breakdown Structure
Purposes of the Work Breakdown Structure
The Organization Breakdown Structure
The Responsibility Assignment Matrix
5.3 Work authorization
Project Profile
Defining a Project Work Package
5.4 ScoPe rePorting
Project management reSearch in Brief
Information Technology (IT) Project “Death
Marches”: What Is Happening Here?
5.5 control SyStemS
Configuration Management
5.6 Project cloSeout
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Problems
Case Study 5.1 Boeing’s Virtual Fence
Case Study 5.2 California’s High-Speed
Rail Project
Case Study 5.3 Project Management
at Dotcom.com
Case Study 5.4 The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
MS Project Exercises
Appendix 5.1 Sample Project Charter
Integrated Project—Developing the Work
Breakdown Structure
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand the importance of scope management for project success.
2. Understand the significance of developing a scope statement.
3. Construct a Work Breakdown Structure for a project.
4. Develop a Responsibility Assignment Matrix for a project.
5. Describe the roles of changes and configuration management in assessing project scope.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core concePts covered
in this chAPter
1. Develop Project Charter (PMBoK sec. 4.1)
2. Plan Scope Management (PMBoK sec. 5.1)
Project Profile 145
3. Collect Requirements (PMBoK sec. 5.2)
4. Define Scope (PMBoK sec. 5.3)
5. Create WBS (PMBoK sec. 5.4)
6. Validate Scope (PMBoK sec. 5.5)
7. Control Scope (PMBoK sec. 5.6)
Project Profile
case—“We look like fools.”—oregon’s failed rollout of its obamacare Web Site
Controversy has surrounded the Affordable Care Act (ACA), ever since it was proposed and passed through Congress
without a single Republican vote. After two years of heated debate, the Act was signed into law by President Obama
in 2010. Since then, the ACA, more commonly referred to as “Obamacare,” has been held up as a symbol of looming
disaster and liberal overreach by its critics, while defenders argue that it represents a genuine effort to bring health
care options to millions of Americans who could not afford coverage. Following its authorization and having survived
numerous court challenges, parties on both sides of the debate waited for its effects to be felt as the federal and state
health care exchanges came online, with a scheduled starting date of October 1, 2013. However, prior to the rollout, nu-
merous warning signs were in evidence, from the late selection of prime contractors to develop the Web sites, to failed
dress rehearsals, when the website crashed or could not be accessed. On October 1, the Obamacare exchanges and
signup Web site (www.healthcare.gov) failed spectacularly, with thousands of those attempting to sign up unable to
access the system, frustratingly long waits to complete the registration, and innumerable crashes that required citizens
to start the process over and over again. Records show that nationwide, only six people were able to register for health
care coverage on day 1. So poorly did the system work in some states that, months after the rollout, a mere handful of
people were able to sign up online. The government had to create phone-in centers as an alternative method for regis-
tering for Obamacare. In fact, the initial history of Obamacare has given its critics plenty of ammunition with which to
assail the administration and its dreadful management of the Obamacare exchange rollout.
Nowhere has this process been a more abject failure than in the state of Oregon. Oregon had attempted to de-
velop its own Web site, Cover Oregon (as one of 14 states that opted to set up their own health care exchanges), since
2011. However, what started off as a popular and widely supported measure has turned into one of the worst examples
of IT system implementation failure. Journalistic investigations have uncovered a series of missteps that included the per-
fect storm of politics, poor planning, poor technological design, and contractors that were not up to the herculean task
of setting up a health exchange. In the end, not one Oregonian was able to sign up through the exchange. Customers
that ended up completing the task did so via paper enrollment. At the beginning of June 2014, Oregon announced that
the 80,000 people who signed up for private insurance will have to reenroll in November via the federal exchange. The
federal government will handle Oregon’s exchange as the state considers whether or not to overhaul its system, which it
hopes would be ready in 2015. The state estimates that it lost over $250 million on its Cover Oregon Web site.
At the start of the project, Oregon selected Oracle as its primary contractor and hired the consulting firm Maximus
to provide quality-control assessments. From its very first report, Maximus foretold nearly all of the major problems
that would eventually doom Cover Oregon’s Web site to a catastrophic launch.
A Brief timeline of failure:
November 2011: With the clock ticking toward a launch deadline in two years, the project was already raising a number
of red flags. Oracle had indicated its concern with the state’s decision to support an outdated software package and the
project’s budget was looking questionable. On top of that, the consulting auditors termed the delivery date “function-
ally impossible,” as it was established seemingly without any regard for technical estimates. At this point, the project
was already $3 million over budget, the majority of the tasks were well behind schedule, and 75% of the project’s staff
had not yet been hired.
july 2012: By this point, over half the original budget has been spent (over $7 million) but the consultants label
the Web site as technically poor. After several iterations of the software, the IT team has major concerns about
the network’s security. Worse, the project managers for different teams have developed their own schedules and
development roadmap, all without consulting each other or trying to integrate their efforts. The result is redun-
dancies in performing some tasks and completely ignoring others. The consultants have begun to criticize the
working relationships among the senior staff, warning that conflict and communication problems are only going
to get worse.
September 2012: With a little more than a year to the start-up, Cover Oregon is in trouble. The consultants offer a
number of suggestions for getting the project back on track, including narrowing the scope, and begin developing
contingency plans in case more problems emerge as the deadline nears. Because the project is not being tracked and
controlled like a normal undertaking, it is difficult to identify the most pressing problems in order to devote more
(continued)
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146 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
IntroductIon
The project scope is everything about a project—work content as well as expected outcomes.
Project scope consists of naming all activities to be performed, the resources consumed, and
the end products that result, including quality standards.2 Scope includes a project’s goals,
constraints, and limitations. scope management is the function of controlling a project in terms
of its goals and objectives through the processes of conceptual development, full definition,
execution, and termination. It provides the foundation upon which all project work is based
and is, therefore, the culmination of predevelopment planning. The process of scope manage-
ment consists of several distinct activities, all based on creating a systematic set of plans for the
upcoming project.
Emmitt Smith, former All-Pro running back for the Dallas Cowboys and member of the Pro
Football Hall of Fame, attributes his remarkable success to his commitment to developing and
working toward a series of personal goals. He likes to tell the story of his high school days and
resources and level of effort to fixing the serious gaps. Finally, the Web site is going through multiple changes, updates,
and modifications and they are being signed off on without a formal review of the overall system.
December 2012: Cover Oregon administrators brief a legislative oversight committee about their progress. So far, staff
members have identified a total of 108 risks to the project. Meanwhile, the state’s contract with Oracle comes under
review because the company is billing by the hour, rather than on the basis of completed work. Using this formulation,
there is not much incentive for Oracle to finish the work quickly.
May 2013: By this point, a critical milestone was to be met; that is, the handoff of the project Web site from the web
developer organization to the insurance group, Cover Oregon. The two groups had been working simultaneously on
parallel efforts for months now, so the handoff was expected to happen seamlessly. It didn’t; in fact, it was a disaster.
The technical pieces of the Web site did not work and the site proved to be nearly impenetrable for users. This was the
first clear evidence that the project was in serious problems from a technical perspective and coupled with ongoing cost
and schedule overruns, highlighted the clear threat the project was facing.
june 2013: June was supposed to be the point when systems testing showed that the project was fully operational. In
fact, Cover Oregon personnel have finally come to the conclusion that not only will the site not be ready on time, but
the only question left to answer is: just how bad will it be? More staff members are added to try and push as many fea-
tures into the system as possible in time for the October 1 deadline. Meanwhile, Cover Oregon’s director, Rocky King, is
already trying to protect his reputation by explaining the project’s problems in terms of its size and shortened timeframe
to completion.
September 2013: Seemingly out of nowhere, Rocky King delivered an upbeat project status presentation stating:
“Bottom Line: We Are on Track to Launch.” In spite of the positive tone, no one associated with the project had any
illusions about its real state. For example, Oracle’s efforts have been increasingly criticized to the point where Oregon
was forced to hire a second consultant, Deloitte, to help with the site. Over the course of one week in September, 780
software tests were supposed to be run. In fact, they only managed to run 74 tests during this critical period leading up
to the launch. Even worse, every single test failed. Even the relentlessly upbeat King recognizes the signs of imminent
disaster.
october 2013: The rollout has come and the site fails spectacularly. No one can access the system and in its inaugural
version, Cover Oregon does not sign up a single resident. The finger pointing has begun and the state is threatening
legal action against Oracle to recover some of its money.
january 2014: Citing medical reasons, Rocky King resigns from his position as Director of Cover Oregon. He had
been on medical leave since December and his resignation is the second for a high-profile individual associated with
the project, following the earlier resignation of Carolyn Lawson, Chief Information Officer for the Oregon Health
Authority.
After spending nearly a quarter of a billion dollars on its health care exchange site, Oregon was left with such a poorly
developed and technically flawed exchange that it was forced to spend additional millions hiring temporary workers
to sign up subscribers with a paper-based system. Left with the choice between hiring a new contractor and starting
from scratch or opting for the federal Web site, Cover Oregon announced its intention of letting the federal govern-
ment take over the system. This debacle is an example of poor project coordination and communication among key
stakeholders, coupled with the risks of overpromising a new system, trying to coordinate massive systems to a fixed
deadline, and failing to understand the complexities they were trying to address. While memory of specific elements
of the Cover Oregon disaster may fade over time, its lessons deserve to be brought up every time a project of this sort
is contemplated.1
Introduction 147
how they affected his future success. When Smith was a student at Escambia High in Pensacola,
Florida, his football coach used to say, “It’s a dream until you write it down. Then it’s a goal.”
For successful projects, comprehensive planning can make all the difference. Until a
detailed set of specifications is enumerated and recorded and a control plan is developed, a
project is just a dream. In the most general sense, project planning seeks to define what needs
to be done, by whom, and by what date, in order to fulfill assigned responsibility.3 Projects
evolve onto an operational level, where they can begin to be developed, only after systematic
planning—scope management—has occurred. The six main activities are (1) conceptual devel-
opment, (2) the scope statement, (3) work authorization, (4) scope reporting, (5) control systems,
and (6) project closeout.4 Each of these steps is key to comprehensive planning and project devel-
opment (see Table 5.1).
This chapter will detail the key components of project scope management. The goal of scope
management is maximum efficiency through the formation and execution of plans or systems that
leave as little as possible to chance.
table 5.1 elements in Project Scope Management
1. conceptual Development
Problem statement
Requirements gathering
Information gathering
Constraints
Alternative analysis
Project objectives
Business case
Statement of Work
Project charter
2. Scope Statement
Goal criteria
Management plan
Work Breakdown Structure
Scope baseline
Responsibility Assignment Matrix
3. Work Authorization
Contractual requirements
Valid consideration
Contracted terms
4. Scope reporting
Cost, schedule, technical performance status
S curves
Earned value
Variance or exception reports
5. control Systems
Configuration control
Design control
Trend monitoring
Document control
Acquisition control
Specification control
6. Project closeout
Historical records
Postproject analysis
Financial closeout
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148 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
5.1 conceptual development
conceptual development is the process that addresses project objectives by finding the best ways
to meet them.5 To create an accurate sense of conceptual development for a project, the project
management team must collect data and develop several pieces of information. Key steps in
information development are:
• Problem or need statement: Scope management for a project begins with a statement of
goals: why there is a need in search of a solution, what the underlying problem is, and what
the project intends to do. For example, consider the following need statement from a fictitious
county:
A 2014 report from the Maryland State Department of Health showed that the township of
Freefield ranked among the worst in the state over a five-year average for infant mortality,
low birth weight and premature births, late entry into prenatal care, unmarried parents, teen
pregnancies, and poverty. A Clarion County health care focus group report identified patterns
of poor communication between county families and doctors. There is a need for information
gathering and dissemination on childbirth education opportunities, support service availability,
preparation for new babies, and postpartum depression. The focus group indicated that the
Freefield Public Library could be an important center for collecting this information and direct-
ing new parents to resources and materials. To adequately meet this need, the library proposes
a grant program to fund expanding their collections and programs in addition to linking the
library with local primary care health providers and Freefield Memorial Hospital to serve expect-
ant and postpartum mothers and their children.
• Requirements gathering: Requirements are the demands, needs, and specifications for a
product (project outcome) as outlined by project stakeholders. It is the list of customer
needs. Once a problem has been articulated (where we are now), the next step is to
determine—in the words of the customer—where we wish to be. There can be many
different types of requirements that an organization collects from a potential customer,
including (1) product-related requirements—what features they desire the project to pos-
sess, (2) quality requirements—the absolute minimum expectations for overall project
quality, and (3) performance requirements—the expectations for how well the project
performs or the standards it maintains. For example, in gathering requirements for a new
automobile development project, Porsche might interview current and former owners of
its high- performance cars to determine the expected levels of quality, price, and perfor-
mance that customers expect.
It is critical that during requirements gathering the project team does not overtly or unin-
tentionally substitute their own interpretations for those of the customer. In other words,
many project organizations, such as the IT industry, consider themselves the experts on what
new software can do and the ways in which a customer would be expected to use it. In over-
estimating their own role in requirements gathering, these organizations run the very real
risk of creating systems that they imagine customers must have when, in reality, they are
either not useful or are so overdesigned that customers only use them to the most limited
degree. To guard against this situation, we discuss the critical nature of hearing the “voice of
the customer” in requirements gathering in Chapter 11.
• Information gathering: Research to gather all relevant data for the project is the next step.
A project can be effectively initiated only when the project manager has a clear understand-
ing of the current state of affairs—specific target dates, alternative supplier options, degree
of top management support for the project, and so forth. At any step along the way, project
managers should take care that they have not limited their information search. Continuing
the above example, suppose that as part of our information gathering, we identify five pro-
spective funding sources in the Maryland Department of Health that would be good sources
to access for grants. Further, our information search informs us that these grants are com-
petitive and must be submitted by the end of the current calendar year, we can count on
support from local political figures including our state representative and county commis-
sioner, and so forth. All this information must be factored into the program proposal and
used to shape it.
5.1 Conceptual Development 149
• Constraints: In light of the goal statement, project managers must understand any restric-
tions that may affect project development. Time constraints, budget shrinkages, and client
demands can all become serious constraints on project development. Referring back to the
health grant example, some important constraints that could affect our ability to develop
the grant application in time could be the need to find a medical professional to serve as
the grant’s principal author, concern with statewide budgets and a withdrawal of support
for community initiatives such as this one, and the need for a knowledgeable person within
the library willing to serve as the primary collector of the prenatal and postnatal health care
information.
• Alternative analysis: Problems usually offer alternative methods for solution. In project man-
agement, alternative analysis consists of first clearly understanding the nature of the problem
statement and then working to generate alternative solutions. This process serves two func-
tions: It provides the team with a clearer understanding of the project’s characteristics, and it
offers a choice of approaches for addressing how the project should be undertaken. It may be,
as a result of alternative analysis, that an innovative or novel project development alterna-
tive suggests itself. Alternative analysis prevents a firm from initiating a project without first
conducting sufficient screening for more efficient or effective options.
• Project objectives: Conceptual development concludes with a clear statement of the final
objectives for the project in terms of outputs, required resources, and timing. All steps in the
conceptual development process work together as a system to ultimately affect the outcome.
When each step is well done, the project objectives will logically follow from the analysis. In
our health care example above, final objectives might include specific expectations, such as
receiving a $100,000 grant to support collection services, printing costs, and holding informa-
tion sessions and seminars with health care providers. These seminars would begin within a
90-day window from the administration of the grant. Library collections and subscriptions
would be enhanced in this area by 25%. In this way, the problem or need statement is the
catalyst that triggers a series of cascading steps from motive for the project through to its
intended effects.
• Business case: The business case is the organization’s justification for committing to the proj-
ect. Whenever a company intends to commit capital or its resources to a project, it should be
clearly in support of a demonstrable business need. For example, it would make little sense
for an IT organization like Google to develop a residential construction project unless a clear
link could be made between the project and Google’s strategic goals and business activities.
The project business case should (1) demonstrate the business need for a given project, (2)
confirm the project is feasible before expending significant funding, (3) consider the strategic
internal and external forces affecting the project (refer to the TOWS matrix discussion from
Chapter 2), (4) assess and compare the costs (both monetary and nonmonetary) of choosing
the project over other courses of action, and (5) provide time estimates for when we expect to
be spending investment money on the project.
The business case is usually a carefully prepared document that highlights financial
commitments, justification for undertaking the project, costs of doing the project, and more
importantly, risks from not doing the project. For example, in the Maryland county example, we
could build a business case that argued that because of the systemic problems with infant
mortality in Fairfield Township, it is imperative not to delay action on this grant opportu-
nity because failure to act will continue to result in higher levels of infant health problems
in the county. A strong business case explores all feasible approaches to a given problem and
enables business owners to select the option that best serves the organization. In short, the
business case is the company’s (or project sponsor’s) best argument for undertaking a project.
Conceptual development begins with the process of reducing the project’s overall complexity to a
more basic level. Project managers must set the stage for their projects as completely as possible by
forming problem statements in which goals and objectives are clearly stated and easily understood
by all team members.
Many projects that are initiated with less than a clear understanding of the problem the proj-
ect seeks to address far exceed their initial budgets and schedules. At base level, this problem is
due to the vague understanding among team members as to exactly what the project is attempt-
ing to accomplish. For example, a recent information technology project was developed with the
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150 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
vague goal of “improving billing and record-keeping operations” in a large insurance firm. The IT
department interpreted that goal to develop a project that provided a complex solution requiring
multiple interactive screens, costly user retraining, and the generation of voluminous reports. In
fact, the organization simply wanted a streamlined link between the billing function and end-
of-month reporting. Because the problem was articulated vaguely, the IT department created an
expensive system that was unnecessarily complex. In reality, the optimal project solution begins
with creating a reasonable and complete problem statement to establish the nature of the project,
its purpose, and a set of concrete goals.
A complete understanding of the problem must be generated so that the projects themselves
will be successful in serving the purpose for which they were created. A key part of the problem
statement is the analysis of multiple alternatives. Locking in “one best” approach for solving a
problem too early in a project can lead to failure downstream.
Also, to be effective, problem statements should be kept simple and based on clearly under-
stood needs in search of solutions. For example, a clear project goal such as “improve the process-
ing speed of the computer by 20%” is much better than a goal that charges a project team to “signif-
icantly increase the performance of the computer.” A set of simple goals provides a reference point
that the team can revisit when the inevitable problems occur over the course of project develop-
ment. On the other hand, project goals that are vague or excessively optimistic—such as “improve
corporate profitability while maintaining quality and efficiency of resources”—may sound good,
but do not provide clear reference points for problem solving.
the Statement of Work
The impetus to begin a project is often the result of a statement of work. The statement of work
(sow) is a detailed narrative description of the work required for a project.6 Useful SOWs contain
information on the key objectives for the project, a brief and general description of the work to be
performed, expected project outcomes, and any funding or schedule constraints. Typically, in the
case of the latter, it is difficult to present schedule requirements past some “gross” level that may
only include starting and ending dates, as well as any major milestones.
An SOW can be highly descriptive, as in the case of a U.S. Department of Defense Request for
Proposal (RFP) for a new Army field communication device that is “no greater than 15 inches long by
15 inches wide by 9 inches deep, can weigh no more than 12 pounds, has a transmitting and receiv-
ing range of 60 miles, must remain functional after being fully immersed in water for 30 minutes, and
can sustain damage from being dropped at heights up to 25 feet.” On the other hand, an SOW can
be relatively general, merely specifying final performance requirements without detailed specifics.
The purpose of the SOW is to give the project organization and the project manager specific guidance
on both work requirements as well as the types of end results sought once the project is completed.
A Statement of Work is an important component of conceptual development, as it identifies a
need within the firm or an opportunity from an outside source, for example, the commercial mar-
ket. Some elements in an effective SOW include:
1. Introduction and background—a brief history of the organization or introduction to the root
needs that identified the need to initiate a project. Part of the introduction should be a prob-
lem statement.
2. Technical description of the project—an analysis, in clear terms, of the envisioned technical
capabilities of the project or technical challenges the project is intended to resolve.
3. Time line and milestones—a discussion of the anticipated time frame to completion and key
project deliverables (outcomes).
A useful Statement of Work should clearly detail the expectations of the project client, the prob-
lems the project is intended to correct or address, and the work required to complete the project.
For example, the U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee recently developed an SOW
for purchasing commercial services from government or private industry as an independent
contractor. The Statement of Work contained the following components:
1. Background—describes the project in very general terms; discusses why the project is being
pursued and how it relates to other projects. It includes, as necessary, a summary of statu-
tory authority or applicable regulations and copies of background materials in addenda or
references.
5.1 Conceptual Development 151
2. Objectives—provide a concise overview of the project and how the results or end products
will be used.
3. Scope—covers the general scope of work the contractor will be performing.
4. Tasks or requirements—describe detailed work and management requirements, and also
spell out more precisely what is expected of the contractor in the performance of the work.
5. Selection criteria—identify objective standards of acceptable performance to be provided by
the contractor.
6. Deliverables or delivery schedule—describes what the contractor shall provide; identifies the
contractor’s responsibilities; and identifies any specialized expertise and services, training,
and documentation that is needed. In addition, it clearly states the deliverables required,
the schedule for delivery, the quantities, and to whom they should be delivered. Finally, it
describes the delivery schedule in calendar days from the date of the award.
7. Security—states the appropriate security requirement, if necessary, for the work to be done.
8. Place of performance—specifies whether the work is to be performed at the government site
or the contractor’s site.
9. Period of performance—specifies the performance period for completion of the contracted
project.
Notice how the Statement of Work moves from the general to the specific, first articulating the
project’s background, including a brief history of the reasons the project is needed, and then iden-
tifying the component tasks before moving to a more detailed discussion of each task objective and
the approach necessary to accomplish it.7
A more detailed example of a generic statement of work is shown in Table 5.2. The SOW covers
the critical elements in a project proposal, including description, deliverables, resource requirements,
risks, expected outcomes, estimated time and cost constraints, and other pending issues. Table 5.2
can serve as a standard template for the construction of a reasonably detailed SOW for most projects.
The Statement of Work is important because it typically serves as the summary of the concep-
tual development phase of the project plan. Once armed with the SOW, the project manager can
begin moving from the general to the more specific, identifying the steps necessary to adequately
respond to the detailed SOW.
the project charter
After a comprehensive SOW has been developed, many organizations establish a project charter.
The project charter is defined as a document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally
sanctions the existence of the project and authorizes the project manager to begin applying orga-
nizational resources to project activities.8 In effect, a charter is created once the project supporters
have done the needed “homework” to verify that there is a business case for the project, that they
fully understand the elements of the project (as demonstrated through the SOW), and have applied
more company-specific information for the project as it begins. The project charter demonstrates
formal company approval of the project and that can only occur when all necessary information
during conceptual development has been satisfied. For some organizations, the formal signoff of
the SOW constitutes the project charter, while other organizations require that a separate document
be created. An example of a project charter is shown in Appendix 5.1 at the end of the chapter.
Project Profile
Statements of Work: then and Now
Modern weapon systems have traditionally contained many more specifications and greater detailed SOWs than those
of the past. Contrast the Army Signal Corps’ SOW for the Wright Brothers’ heavier-than-air flying machine in 1908 to
the Air Force’s SOW for the Joint Strike Fighter, originally approved in 2001. The requirements in the 1908 SOW—for
example, that the plane be easily taken apart for transport in Army wagons and be capable of being reassembled in an
hour—and other contract conditions were specified on one page. The requirements section in the 2001 SOW for the Air
Force Joint Strike Fighter is nearly 100 pages long with more than 300 paragraphs of requirements. Today’s SOWs are
much more complex and require greater attention to detail, perhaps because the products are so much more complex,
the equipment and materials are technically challenging, and legal requirements need much greater specification.9
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152 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
table 5.2 elements in a comprehensive Statement of Work
Date Submitted
Revision Number
Project Name
Project Identification Number
SOW Prepared by:
1. Description and Scope
a. Summary of work requested
b. Background
c. Description of major elements (deliverables) of the completed project
d. Expected benefits
e. Items not covered in scope
f. Priorities assigned to each element in the project
2. Approach
a. Major milestones/key events anticipated
Date Milestone/Event
b. Special standards or methodologies to be observed
c. Impact on existing systems or projects
d. Assumptions critical to the project
e. Plans for status report updates
f. Procedures for changes of scope or work effort
3. resource requirements
a. Detailed plan/rationale for resource needs and assignments
Person Role and Rationale
b. Other material resource needs (hardware, software, materials, money, etc.)
c. Expected commitments from other departments in support
d. Concerns or alternatives related to staffing plan
4. risks and concerns
a. Environmental risks
b. Client expectation risks
c. Competitive risks
d. Risks in project development (technical)
e. Project constraints
f. Overall risk assessment
g. Risk mitigation or abatement strategies
5.2 The Scope Statement 153
5.2 the Scope Statement
The scope statement, the heart of scope management, reflects a project team’s best efforts at creat-
ing the documentation and approval of all important project parameters prior to proceeding to the
development phase.10 Key steps in the scope statement process include:
• Establishing the project goal criteria. Goal criteria include cost, schedule, performance and
deliverables, and key review and approval “gates” with important project stakeholders (par-
ticularly the clients). deliverables are formally defined as “any measurable, tangible, verifi-
able outcome, result, or item that must be produced to complete a project or part of a project.”
The goal criteria serve as the key project constraints and targets around which the project
team must labor.
• Developing the management plan for the project. The management plan consists of the orga-
nizational structure for the project team, the policies and procedures under which team mem-
bers will be expected to operate, their appropriate job descriptions, and a well-understood
reporting structure for each member of the team. The management plan is essentially the
project’s bureaucratic step that creates control systems to ensure that all team members know
their roles, their responsibilities, and professional relationships.
• Establishing a Work Breakdown Structure. One of the most vital planning mechanisms, the
work Breakdown structure (wBs), divides the project into its component substeps in order
to begin establishing critical interrelationships among activities. Until a project has gone
through WBS, it is impossible to determine the relationships among the various activities
(which steps must precede others, which steps are independent of previous tasks, and so on).
As we will see, accurate scheduling can begin only with an accurate and meaningful Work
Breakdown Structure.
• Creating a scope baseline. The scope baseline is a document that provides a summary
description of each component of the project’s goal, including basic budget and schedule
information for each activity. Creation of the scope baseline is the final step in the process of
systematically laying out all pre-work information, in which each subroutine of the project
has been identified and given its control parameters of cost and schedule.
the Work breakdown Structure
When we are first given a project to complete, the task can seem very intimidating. How do we start?
Where should we first direct our efforts? One of the best ways to begin is to recognize that any proj-
ect is just a collection of a number of discrete steps, or activities, that together add up to the overall
deliverable. There is no magic formula; projects get completed one step at a time, activity by activity.
According to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK), a Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) is “a deliverable-oriented grouping of project elements which organizes and
defines the total scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed
definition of a project component. Project components may be products or services.” To rephrase
this PMBoK definition, the Work Breakdown Structure is a process that sets a project’s scope by
breaking down its overall mission into a cohesive set of synchronous, increasingly specific tasks.11
The result is a comprehensive document reflecting this careful work.
5. Acceptance criteria
a. Detailed acceptance process and criteria
b. Testing/qualification approach
c. Termination of project
6. estimated time and costs
a. Estimated time to complete project work
b. Estimated costs to complete project work
c. Anticipated ongoing costs
7. outstanding issues
table 5.2 continued
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154 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
The WBS delineates the individual building blocks that will construct the project. Visualize
the WBS by imagining it as a method for breaking a project up into “bite-sized” pieces, each repre-
senting a step necessary to complete the overall project plan. It can be challenging at the project’s
start to envision all the elements or component tasks needed to realize the project’s success, but the
effort to “drill down” into the various activities at the task level actually can reinforce the overall
picture of the project.
Consider the simple case of a student team working together on a term paper and final
presentation for a college seminar. One of the first steps in the process of completing the assign-
ment consists of breaking the project down into a series of tasks, each of which can be allocated to
a member or members of the student team. The overall project consisting of specific products—
a final paper and presentation—becomes easier to manage by reducing it to a series of simpler
levels, such as:
Task One: Refine topic
Task Two: Assign library research responsibilities
Task Three: Develop preliminary outline for paper and presentation
Task Four: Assign team member to begin putting presentation together
Task Five: Begin producing drafts of paper
Task Six: Proofread and correct drafts
Task Seven: Refine class presentation
Task Eight: Turn in paper and make classroom presentation
A WBS could go much further in defining a project’s steps; this example is intended only to give
you a sense of the logic employed to reduce an overall project to a series of meaningful action
steps. You will see, in subsequent chapters, that those same action steps are later evaluated in order
to estimate the amount of time necessary to complete them.
The logic of WBS is shown visually in Figure 5.1. Rather than giving a starting date and an
end goal, the diagram provides a string of checkpoints along the way. These checkpoints address
the specific steps in the project that naturally lead from the start to the logical conclusion. The WBS
allows you to see both the trees and the forest, so you can recognize on many levels what it will
take to create the completed project.
purposes of the Work breakdown Structure
The WBS serves six main purposes:12
1. It echoes project objectives. Given the mission of the project, a WBS identifies the main
work activities that will be necessary to accomplish this goal or set of goals. What gets men-
tioned in the WBS is what gets done on the project.
A. Goal Setting Using WBS
Project
Start
Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4
Project
Completion
CBA D
B. Goal Setting Without WBS
Project
Start
Project
Completion
?
FIgure 5.1 Goal Setting With and Without Work Breakdown Structures (WBS)
5.2 The Scope Statement 155
2. It is the organization chart for the project. Organization charts typically provide a way
to understand the structure of the firm (who reports to whom, how communication flows
evolve, who has responsibility for which department, and so forth). A WBS offers a similar
logical structure for a project, identifying the key elements (tasks) that need attention, the
various subtasks, and the logical flow from activity to activity.
3. It creates the logic for tracking costs, schedule, and performance specifications for each ele-
ment in the project. All project activities identified in the WBS can be assigned their own
budgets and performance expectations. This is the first step in establishing a comprehensive
method for project control.
4. It may be used to communicate project status. Once tasks have been identified and respon-
sibilities for achieving the task goals are set, you can determine which tasks are on track,
which are critical and pending, and who is responsible for their status.
5. It may be used to improve overall project communication. The WBS not only dictates how
to break the project into identifiable pieces, but it also shows how those pieces fit together in
the overall scheme of development. As a result, team members become aware of how their
component fits into the project, who is responsible for providing upstream work to them,
and how their activities will affect later work. This structure improves motivation for com-
munication within the project team, as members wish to make activity transitions as smooth
as possible.
6. It demonstrates how the project will be controlled. The general structure of the project
demonstrates the key focus that project control will take on. For example, is the project based
on creating a deliverable (new product) or improving a process or service (functional effi-
ciency) within the firm? Either way, the WBS gives logic to the control approach and the most
appropriate control methods.
Let’s illustrate the WBS with a simplified example. Consider the case of a large, urban hospital
that has made the decision to introduce an organizationwide information technology (IT) system
for billing, accounts receivable, patient record keeping, personnel supervision, and the medical
process control. The first step in launching this large installation project is to identify the important
elements in introducing the technology. Here is a basic approach to identifying the deliverables in
a project to install a new information system for an organization (see Figure 5.2).
Formal
proposal
Identify IT
location
Seek staff
support
Identify
user needs
Match IT
to problems
Seek and hire
consultant
Prepare
proposal
Solicit RFPs
from vendors
Pilot
project
Contract
for purchase
Adopt and
use IT
FIgure 5.2 it installation flowchart
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156 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
1. Match IT to organizational tasks and problems.
2. Identify IT user needs.
3. Prepare an informal proposal to top management (or other decision makers) for IT acquisition.
4. Seek and hire an IT consultant.
5. Seek staff and departmental support for the IT.
6. Identify the most appropriate location within the organization for the IT hardware to be
located.
7. Prepare a formal proposal for IT introduction.
8. Undertake a request for proposals (RFPs) from IT vendors.
9. Conduct a pilot project (or series of pilot projects using different IT options).
10. Enter a contract for purchase.
11. Adopt and use IT technology.
For simplicity’s sake, Figure 5.2 identifies only the first-level tasks involved in completing this
project. Clearly, each of the 11 steps in the flowchart in Figure 5.2 has various supporting subtasks
associated with it. For example, step 2, identifying IT user needs, might have three subtasks:
1. Interview potential users.
2. Develop presentation of IT benefits.
3. Gain user “buy-in” to the proposed system.
Figure 5.3 illustrates a partial WBS, showing a few of the tasks and subtasks. The logic across all
identified tasks that need to be accomplished for the project is similar.
We do not stop here but continue to flesh out the WBS with additional information. Figure 5.4
depicts a more complete WBS to demonstrate the logic of breaking the project up into its compo-
nent pieces. The 1.0 level shown in Figure 5.4 identifies the overall project. Underneath this level
are the major deliverables (e.g., 1.2, 1.3, etc.) that support the completion of the project. Underneath
these deliverables are the various “work packages” that must be completed to conclude the project
deliverables.
work packages are defined as WBS elements of the project that are isolated for assignment to
“work centers” for accomplishment.13 Just as atoms are the smallest, indivisible unit of matter in phys-
ics, work packages are the smallest, indivisible components of a WBS. That is, work packages are the
lowest level in the WBS, composed of short-duration tasks that have a defined beginning and end, are
assigned costs, and consume some resources. For example, in the 1.2 level of identifying IT user needs
(a deliverable), we need to perform three supporting activities: (1) interviewing potential users, (2)
developing a presentation of IT benefits, and (3) gaining user “buy-in” to the system. This next level
down (1.2.1, 1.2.2, etc.) represents the work packages that are necessary to complete the deliverable.
Sometimes confusion arises as to the distinction made between “work package” and “task,”
as they relate to projects and the development of the WBS. In truth, for many organizations, the
1.0
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
FIgure 5.3 Partial Work Breakdown Structure
5.2 The Scope Statement 157
difference between the terms and their meanings is actually quite small; often they are used inter-
changeably by the project management organization. The key is to be consistent in applying the
terminology, so that it means the same thing within different parts of the organization, in regard to
both technical and managerial resources.
Overall, for a generic project, the logic of hierarchy for WBS follows this form:
level WBS term Description
Level 1 (Highest) Project The overall project under development
Level 2 Deliverable The major project components
Level 3 Subdeliverable Supporting deliverables
Level 4 (Lowest) Work package Individual project activities
Breakdown Description WBS Code
IT Installation Project 1.0
Deliverable 1 Match IT to organizational tasks and problems 1.1
WP 1 Conduct problem analysis 1.1.1
WP 2 Develop information on IT technology 1.1.2
Deliverable 2 Identify IT user needs 1.2
WP 1 Interview potential users 1.2.1
WP 2 Develop presentation of IT benefits 1.2.2
WP 3 Gain user “buy-in” to system 1.2.3
Deliverable 3 Prepare informal proposal 1.3
WP 1 Develop cost/benefit information 1.3.1
WP 2 Gain top management support 1.3.2
Deliverable 4 Seek and hire IT consultant 1.4
WP 1 Delegate members as search committee 1.4.1
WP 2 Develop selection criteria 1.4.2
WP 3 Interview and select consultant 1.4.3
Deliverable 5 Seek staff and departmental support for IT 1.5
Deliverable 6 Identify the appropriate location for IT 1.6
WP 1 Consult with physical plant engineers 1.6.1
WP 2 Identify possible alternative sites 1.6.2
WP 3 Secure site approval 1.6.3
Deliverable 7 Prepare a formal proposal for IT introduction 1.7
Deliverable 8 Solicit RFPs from vendors 1.8
WP 1 Develop criteria for decision 1.8.1
WP 2 Contact appropriate vendors 1.8.2
WP 3 Select winner(s) and inform losers 1.8.3
Deliverable 9 Conduct a pilot project (or series of projects) 1.9
Deliverable 10 Enter a contract for purchase 1.10
Deliverable 11 Adopt and use IT technology 1.11
WP 1 Initiate employee training sessions 1.11.1
WP 2 Develop monitoring system for technical problems 1.11.2
FIgure 5.4 example of a Project WBS
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158 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
Figure 5.4 provides an example of how project activities are broken down and identified at
both the deliverable and the work package levels, as well as a brief description of each of these
activities. The WBS in that figure also shows a numeric code assigned to each activity. A com-
pany’s accounting function assigns wBs codes to each activity to allocate costs more precisely,
to track the activities that are over or under budget, and to maintain financial control of the
development process.
Sometimes it is necessary to differentiate between a subdeliverable, as identified in the
hierarchical breakdown above, and work packages that are used to support and complete the
subdeliverables. Typically, we think of subdeliverables as “rolled-up” summaries of the out-
comes of two or more work packages. Unlike work packages, subdeliverables do not have a
duration of their own, do not consume resources, and do not have direct assignable costs. Any
resources or costs attached to a subdeliverable are simply the summary of all the work packages
that support it.
Most organizations require that each deliverable (and usually each of the tasks or work
packages contained within) come with descriptive documentation that supports the goals of
the project and can be examined as a basis for allowing approval and scheduling resource com-
mitments. Figure 5.5 is a sample page from a task description document, intended to support
Project Task Description Form
Task Identification
Project Name: IT Installation Project Code: IS02 Project Manager: Williams
WP Name: Delegate members as search committee
WP Code: 1.4.1 WP Owner: Susan Wilson
Deliverables: Assignment of personnel to IT vendor search committee
Revision no.: 3 Date: 10/22/12 Previous revision: 2 (on file)
Resources Required
Labor Other Resources
Type Labor Days Type Quantity Cost
Systems manager 5 Software A 1 $15,000
Senior programmer 3 Facility N/A
Hardware technician 2 Equipment 1 $500
Procurement manager 3 Other N/A
Systems engineer 5
Required prerequisites: Deliverables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 (on file)
Acceptance tests: None required
Number of working days required to complete task: 5
Possible risk events, which may impair the successful completion of the task: __________________
TO BE COMPLETED AFTER SCHEDULING THE PROJECT:
Earliest start on the task: 1/15/13 Earliest finish on the task: 2/15/13
Review meeting according to milestones:
Name of milestone Deliverables Meeting date Participants
Identify IT user needs IT work requirements 8/31/12 Wilson, Boyd, Shaw
Design approval of the task:
Task Owner: Sue Wilson Signature: _________________________ Date: _______
Customer contact: Stu Barnes Signature: _________________________ Date: _______
Project Manager: Bob Williams Signature: _________________________ Date: _______
FIgure 5.5 Project task Description
5.2 The Scope Statement 159
the project WBS outlined in Figure 5.4. Using work package 1.4.1, “Delegate members as
search committee,” a comprehensive control document can be prepared. When a supporting
document functions as a project control device throughout the project’s development, it is not
prepared in advance and is no longer used once that project step has been completed; in other
words, it is a dynamic document. This document also specifies project review meetings for
the particular work package as the project moves forward; the task description document must
be completed, filed, and revisited as often as necessary to ensure that all relevant information
is available.
MS Project allows us to create a WBS for a project. As we input each project task, we can
assign a WBS code to it by using the WBS option under the Project heading. Figure 5.6 gives a
sample screen shot of some of the activities identified in the hospital IT project example. Note that
we have created a partial WBS for the IT project by using the MS Project WBS option, which also
allows us to distinguish between “Project Level” headings, “Deliverable” headings, and “Work
Package” headings.
the organization breakdown Structure
An additional benefit of creating a comprehensive WBS for a project is the ability to organize
the work needed to be performed into cost control accounts that are assignable to various units
engaged in performing project activities within the company. The outcome of organizing this
material is the organization Breakdown structure (oBs). In short, the OBS allows companies
to define the work to be accomplished and assign it to the owners of the work packages.14 The
budgets for these activities are then directly assigned to the departmental accounts responsible
for the project work.
Suppose, for example, that our IT project example required the committed resources of
three departments—information technology, procurement, and human resources. We want to
make certain that the various work packages and their costs are correctly assigned to the per-
son and department responsible for their completion in order to ensure that our cost control
for the project can remain accurate and up-to-date. Figure 5.7 shows a visual example of the
intersection of our partial WBS with an OBS for our IT installation project. The three depart-
ments within the organization are shown horizontally and the work packages underneath one
of the deliverables are shown vertically. Notice that only some of the boxes used to illustrate the
intersection are affected, suggesting that for some work packages multiple departments may
be involved, each with its own cost accounts, while for other work packages there may be only
one direct owner.
FIgure 5.6 Sample WBS Development Using MS Project 2013
Source: MS Project 2013 by Microsoft Corporation.
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160 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
The benefit of using an OBS is that it allows for better initial linking of project activities and
their budgets, either at a departmental level or, even more directly, on an individual-by-individual
basis, as shown in Figure 5.8. In this case, the direct cost for each work package is assigned to a
specific individual responsible for its completion. Figure 5.9 reconfigures the OBS to show the cost
account rollups that can be done for each department responsible for a specific work package or
project deliverable.
In managing projects, the main point to keep in mind about the scope statement is the need to
spend adequate up-front time preparing schedules and budgets based on accurate and reasonable
estimation. This estimation can be adequately performed only if project managers have worked
through the WBS and project goals statements thoroughly. There are fewer surefire ways to create
an atmosphere for project failure than to do a cursory and incomplete WBS. When steps are left
out, ignored, or underestimated during the WBS phase, they are then underbudgeted or under-
estimated in scheduling. The result is a project that will almost certainly have sliding schedules,
rapidly inflating budgets, and confusion during the development phase. Much of this chaos can be
avoided if the project manager spends enough time with her scope statement to ensure that there
are no missing elements.
the responsibility assignment matrix
To identify team personnel who will be directly responsible for each task in the project’s devel-
opment, a responsibility Assignment Matrix (rAM) is developed. (The RAM is sometimes
referred to as a linear responsibility chart.) Although it is considered a separate document, the
RAM is often developed in conjunction with the WBS for a project. Figure 5.10 illustrates a
Responsibility Assignment Matrix for this chapter ’s example project. Note that the matrix lists
IT
Installation
Project
Deliverables
1.3 1.4 1.5
1.0
1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3
Work
Packages
Prepare
proposal
Search
committee
Develop
criteria
Select
consultant
Seek and hire
IT consultant
Seek support
for IT
Human
Resources
Procurement
Information
Systems
Departments
Cost
Account
Cost
Account
Cost
Account
Cost
Account
Cost
Account
Cost
Account
FIgure 5.7 the intersection of the WBS and oBS
5.3 Work Authorization 161
WBS code Budget responsibility
1.0 $700,000 Bob Williams, IT Manager
1.1 5,000 Sharon Thomas
1.1.1 2,500 Sharon Thomas
1.1.2 2,500 Dave Barr
1.2 2,750 David LaCouture
1.2.1 1,000 David LaCouture
1.2.2 1,000 Kent Salfi
1.2.3 750 Ken Garrett
1.3 2,000 James Montgomery
1.3.1 2,000 James Montgomery
1.3.2 -0- Bob Williams
1.4 2,500 Susan Wilson
1.4.1 -0- Susan Wilson
1.4.2 1,500 Susan Wilson
1.4.3 1,000 Cynthia Thibodeau
1.5 -0- Ralph Spence
1.6 1,500 Terry Kaplan
1.6.1 -0- Kandra Ayotte
1.6.2 750 Terry Kaplan
1.6.3 750 Kandra Ayotte
1.7 2,000 Bob Williams
1.8 250 Beth Deppe
1.8.1 -0- Kent Salfi
1.8.2 250 James Montgomery
1.8.3 -0- Bob Williams
1.9 30,000 Debbie Morford
1.10 600,000 Bob Williams
1.11 54,000 David LaCouture
1.11.1 30,000 David LaCouture
1.11.2 24,000 Kandra Ayotte
FIgure 5.8 cost and Personnel Assignments
not only the member of the project team responsible for each activity, but also the other signifi-
cant members of the team at each stage, organized according to how that activity requires their
support. The RAM identifies where each person can go for task support, who should be notified
of the task completion status at each stage, and any sign-off requirements. This tool provides a
clear linkage among all project team members and combats the danger of a potential communi-
cation vacuum in which project team members perform their own tasks without updating others
on the project team.
5.3 Work authorIzatIon
This stage in scope management naturally follows the two previous steps. Once the scope
definition, planning documents, management plans, and other contractual documents have been
prepared and approved, the work authorization step gives the formal “go ahead” to commence
with the project. Many times work authorization consists of the formal sign-off on all project
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162 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
Lead Project Personnel
Bob
IT
David
IT
Susan
HR
Beth
Procurement
Terry
LegalTask
& Code
Deliverable
Match IT to
Org. Tasks—
1.1
Problem
Analysis
–1.1.1
Develop info
on IT
technology
–1.1.2
Identify IT
user needs—
1.2
Interview
potential users
–1.2.1
Develop
presentation
–1.2.2
Gain user
“buy-in”
–1.2.3
Prepare
proposal—
1.3
Develop cost/
benefit info
–1.3.1
Notification
Responsible Support
Approval
James
Engineering
FIgure 5.10 responsibility Assignment Matrix
IT
Installation
Project
Deliverables
1.3 1.4 1.5
1.0
1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3
Work
Packages
Prepare
proposal
Search
committee
Develop
criteria
Select
consultant
Seek and hire
IT consultant
Seek support
for IT
Human
Resources
Procurement
Information
Systems
Departments
Totals
$500
$500
$500
$1,500$0
$0
$1,000
$1,000
$0
FIgure 5.9 cost Account rollup Using oBS
5.3 Work Authorization 163
plans, including detailed specifications for project delivery. In cases of projects developed for
external clients, work authorization typically addresses contractual obligations; for internal cli-
ents, it means establishing an audit trail by linking all budget and resource requirements to the
formal cost accounting system of the organization. Numerous components of contractual obliga-
tions between project organizations and clients can exist, but most contractual documentation
possesses some key identifiable features:16
• Contractual requirements. All projects are promised in terms of the specific functionality, or
performance criteria, they will meet. This raises the questions: What is the definition accepted
by both parties of “specific performance”? Are the terms of performance clearly understood
and identified by both parties?
• Valid consideration. What items are voluntarily promised in exchange for a reciprocal com-
mitment by another party? Does the work authorization contract make clear the commit-
ments agreed to by both parties?
Project Profile
Defining a Project Work Package
Remember these seven important points about defining a project work package:15
1. The work package typically forms the lowest level in the WBS. Although some projects may employ the term subtask,
the majority leave work package–level activities as the most basic WBS step.
2. A work package has a deliverable result. Each work package should have its own outcome. One work package
does not summarize or modify another. Together, work packages identify all the work that must be contributed to
complete the project.
3. A work package has one owner assigned—a project team member who will be most responsible for that package’s
completion. Although other team members can provide support as needed, only one person should be directly
answerable for the work package.
4. A work package may be considered by its owner as a project in itself. If we adopt the notion that all work packages,
because they are of finite length and budget and have a specific deliverable, can be considered miniature projects,
each package owner can view his activities as a microproject.
5. A work package may include several milestones. A milestone is defined as a significant event in the project.
Depending on the size and complexity of a project work package, it may contain a number of significant checkpoints
or milestones that determine its progress toward completion.
6. A work package should fit organizational procedures and culture. Tasks undertaken to support project outcomes
should be in accord with the overall cultural norms of the project organization. Performing a work package should
never lead a team member to violate company policy (either codified or implicit); that is, assigned activities must
pass both relevant legal standards for ethical behavior and also adhere to the accepted behaviors and procedures
of the organization.
7. The optimal size of a work package may be expressed in terms of labor hours, calendar time, cost, report period,
and risks. All work packages should be capable of being tracked, meaning that they must be structured to allow the
project manager to monitor their progress. Progress is usually a measurable concept, delineated by metrics such as
time and cost.
In developing a project’s RAM, managers must consider the relationships between the project team and the rest of
the organization as well as those within the project team. Within an organization and without it, actions of department
heads and external functional managers can affect how members of a project team perform their jobs. Thus, a detailed
RAM can help project managers negotiate with functional managers for resources, particularly through detailing the
necessity of including various team members on the project.
Working through a RAM allows the project manager to determine how best to team people for maximum
efficiency. In developing the document, a project manager has a natural opportunity to assess team members’ strengths,
weaknesses, work commitments, and availability. Many firms spend a significant amount of money developing and
using software to accurately track project activities, but not nearly as many devote time to tracking the ongoing inter-
action among project team members. A RAM allows project managers to establish a method for coordinating the work
activities of team members, realizing the efficiencies that take place as all team members provide support, notification,
and approval for each other’s project responsibilities.
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164 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
• Contracted terms. What are excusable delays, allowable costs, and statements of liqui-
dated damages in the case of nonperformance? What are the criteria for inspection? Who
has responsibility for correction of defects? What steps are necessary to resolve disputes?
Contracted terms typically have clear legal meanings that encourage both parties to com-
municate efficiently.
A number of contractual arrangements can serve to codify the relationship between a
project organization and a customer. It is beyond the purview of this chapter to explore the
various forms of contracts and legal recourse in great detail, but some standard contractual
arrangements should be considered when managing the project scope. From the perspective
of the project organization, the most common contracts range from lump-sum or turnkey con-
tracts, in which the project organization assumes all responsibility for successful performance,
to cost-plus contracts, which fix the company’s profit for a project in advance. We will discuss
the latter first.
Sometimes it is nearly impossible to determine the likely cost for a project in advance.
For example, the sheer technical challenges involved in putting a man on the moon, drilling
a tunnel under the English Channel, or developing the Strategic Defense Initiative make the
process of estimating project costs extremely difficult. In these cases, it is common for project
companies to enter into a cost-plus contract that guarantees them a certain profit, regardless
of the cost overruns that may occur during the project development. Cost-plus contracts can
be abused; in fact, there have been notorious examples of huge overruns in governmental con-
tracts because the lack of oversight resulted in systematic abuses. However, cost-plus contracts
can minimize the risk that a company would incur if it were to undertake a highly technical
project with the potential for uncertain outcomes, provided that both parties understand the
terms of the agreement, the project organization acts with due diligence, and there is a final
audit of the project books.
At the opposite extreme are lump-sum (sometimes referred to as turnkey) contracts in
which the contractor is required to perform all work at an initially negotiated price. Lump-sum
contracting works best when the parameters of the project are clearly understood by both sides
(e.g., a residential construction project) and the attendant costs of the project can be estimated
with some level of sophistication. In lump-sum contracts, initial cost estimation is critical; if the
original estimate is too low and the contractor encounters unforeseen problems, the project’s
profit may be reduced or even disappear. The advantage of the lump-sum contract to the cus-
tomer is that the selected project contractor has accepted the majority of the risk in the project.
On the other hand, because cost estimation is so crucial, it is common for initial estimates in
lump-sum contracts to be quite high, requiring negotiation and rebidding between the contrac-
tors and the customer.
The key point about work authorization is grounded in the nature of stated terms for proj-
ect development. The manager must draw up contracts that clearly stipulate the work agreed
to, the nature of the project development process, steps to resolve disputes, and clearly identi-
fied criteria for successfully completing the project. This specificity can be especially important
when dealing with external stakeholders, including suppliers and clients. Precisely worded
work authorization terminology can provide important assistance for project development
downstream. On the other hand, ambiguously stated terms or incorrectly placed milestones
may actually provoke the opposite results: disagreements, negotiations, and potentially legal
action—all guaranteed to slow project development down to a crawl and add tremendous costs
to the back end of “completed” projects.
5.4 Scope reportIng
At the project’s kickoff, the project team and key clients should make decisions about the
need for project updates: How many will be required, and how frequently? scope reporting
fulfills this function by determining the types of information that will be regularly reported,
who will receive copies of this information, and how this information will be acquired and
disseminated.
What types of information are available and what may be appropriately reported? Clearly, a
wide variety of forms of project reports can be tracked and itemized. Although the concepts will be
5.4 Scope Reporting 165
developed in more detail in subsequent chapters, among the types of project parameter informa-
tion that are most commonly included in these reports are:17
• Cost status: updates on budget performance
- S curves: graphical displays of costs (including labor hours and other costs) against project
schedule
- Earned value: reporting project status in terms of both cost and time (the budgeted value
of work performed regardless of actual costs incurred)
- Variance or exception reports: documenting any slippages in time, performance, or cost
against planned measures
• Schedule status: updates on schedule adherence
• Technical performance status: updates on technical challenges and solutions
Solid communication between all concerned parties on a project is one of the most impor-
tant aspects of effective scope reporting. It is necessary to avoid the temptation to limit project
status information to only a handful of individuals. Often using the excuse of “need to know,”
many project teams keep the status of their project secretive, even past the point when it has
run into serious trouble (see “Project Management Research in Brief” box). Project manag-
ers should consider who would benefit from receiving regular project updates and plan their
reporting structure appropriately. Some stakeholders who could be included in regular project
status reporting are:
• Members of the project team
• Project clients
• Top management
• Other groups within the organization affected by the project
• Any external stakeholders who have an interest in project development,
such as suppliers and contractors
All of these groups have a stake in the development of the project or will be affected by the imple-
mentation process. Limiting information may seem to be efficient or save time in the short run,
but it can fuel possible misunderstandings, rumors, and organizational resistance to the project
in the long run.
Box 5.1
Project Management research in Brief
Information Technology (IT) Project “Death Marches”: What Is Happening Here?
Every year, billions of dollars are spent on thousands of information technology (IT) projects worldwide. With
the huge emphasis on IT products and advances in software and hardware systems, it is no surprise that inter-
est in this field is exploding. Under the circumstances, we would naturally expect that, given the importance
of IT projects in both our corporate and everyday lives, we are doing a reasonably good job of implementing
these critical projects, right? Unfortunately, the answer is a clear “no.” In fact, IT projects have a terrible track
record for delivery, as numerous studies show. How bad? The average IT project is likely to be 6 to 12 months
behind schedule and 50% to 100% over budget. Of course, the numbers vary with the size of the project,
but the results still suggest that companies should expect their IT projects to lead to wasted effort, enormous
delays, burnout, and many lost weekends while laboring for success with the cards stacked the other way.
What we are referring to here are “death march” projects. The death march project is typically one
in which the project is set up for failure through the demands or expectations that the company places on
it, leaving the expectation that project team will pull off a miracle. The term death march invokes images of
team members wearily trudging along mile after mile, with no end or possibility of successful conclusion in
sight. Death march projects are defined as projects “whose parameters exceed the norm by at least 50%.” In
practical terms, that can mean:
• The schedule has been compressed to less than half the amount estimated by a rational estimating
process (e.g., the schedule suggests it should take one year to complete the project, but top manage-
ment shrinks the schedule to six months).
(continued )
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166 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
• The project team staffing has been reduced to half the number that normally would be assigned to
a project of this size and scope (e.g., a project manager needing 10 resources assigned is instead
given only 5).
• The budget and other necessary resources are cut in half (e.g., as a result of downsizing and other
cost-cutting exercises in the company, everyone is expected to “do more with less”; or competitive
bidding to win the contract was so intense that when the smoke cleared, the company that won the
project did so at such a cut-rate price it cannot possibly hire enough people to make it work).
The result of any or all of these starting conditions is a virtual guarantee that the project will fail. The preva-
lence of death march projects begs the question: Why are death march projects so common and why do they
continue to occur? According to the research, there are a number of reasons:
1. Politics—the project may be the result of a power struggle between two ambitious senior executives,
or it may have been set up to fail as a form of revenge upon some manager. In these cases, the project
manager just gets caught in the blast zone.
2. Naïve promises made by marketing executives or inexperienced project managers—inexperience can
result in all sorts of promises made, including those that are impossible to fulfill. In order to impress
the boss, a new project manager may promise more than he can deliver. Marketing managers who are
concerned with sales and how to improve them may think, “what’s a little exaggerated promise if it
closes the deal?”
3. Naïve optimism of youth—a technical hotshot who is ambitious and feeling particularly cocky one day
may make exaggerated promises that quickly result in the project team getting in over its head. Optimism
is no substitute for careful planning.
4. The “start-up” mentality of fledgling entrepreneurial companies—start-up firms come loaded with
energy, enthusiasm, and an aggressive, get-it-going attitude. When that mentality translates into
projects, however, problems can occur. Entrepreneurial approaches to managing projects may
ignore critical planning and detailed advance preparation that no experienced project manager would
sacrifice.
5. The “Marine Corps” mentality: Real programmers don’t need sleep—this attitude emphasizes bravado
as a substitute for evaluation. The hyperoptimistic schedule or budget is not an accident; it is a deliberate
manifestation of this aggressive attitude: If you can’t handle it, you don’t belong here.
6. Intense competition caused by globalization—the appearance of new, international competitors
often comes as a rude awakening when it is first experienced. Many firms respond with radical moves
that push for rapid technical advances or “catching up” behaviors, resulting in numerous new death
march projects.
7. Intense competition caused by the appearance of new technologies—as new opportunities emerge
through new technologies, some firms jump into them eagerly, without first understanding their capacities,
scalability for larger projects, and limitations. The result is an endless game of exploiting “opportunities”
without fully comprehending them or the learning curve for using new technologies.
8. Intense pressure caused by unexpected government regulations—government-mandated death
march projects occur through a failure of top management to anticipate new regulations or man-
dates or, worse, to recognize that they are coming but put off any efforts to comply with them until
deadlines have already been set. New pollution or carbon-energy controls laws, for example, may
lead to huge projects with looming deadlines because the company put off until the last minute any
efforts to self-regulate.
9. Unexpected and/or unplanned crises—any number of crises can be anticipated with sufficient advance
planning. Examples of crises that can severely affect project delivery are the loss of key project team
personnel midway through the project’s development or the bankruptcy of a key supplier. Some crises,
of course, are unpredictable by definition, but all too often the crisis that destroys all of the work to date
on a project is one that could have been anticipated with a little foresight. The long road back from these
disasters will lead to many death marches.
Death march projects are not limited to the IT industry. Indeed, as we consider the list of reasons why
death marches occur, we can see similar effects in numerous projects across different industries. The end
result is typically the same: massively wasted efforts spent on projects that have been set up to fail by the very
conditions under which they are expected to operate. The implications are clear: To avoid setting the stage
for future death march projects, we need to start with the end in mind and ask, are the goals and conditions
(budget, personnel assigned, and schedule) conducive to project success, or are we just sowing the seeds of
inevitable disaster?18
5.5 Control Systems 167
5.5 control SyStemS
A question we might ask is: “How does a project become one year late?” The answer is: “One day
at a time.” When we are not paying close attention to a project’s development, anything can (and
usually does) happen. Project control is a key element in scope management. control systems are
vital to ensure that any changes to the project baseline are conducted in a systematic and thorough
manner. Project managers can use a number of project control systems to track the status of their
projects, including:19
• Configuration control includes procedures that monitor emerging project scope against the
original baseline scope. Is the project following its initial goals, or are they being allowed to
drift as status changes or new circumstances alter the original project intent?
• Design control relates to systems for monitoring the project’s scope, schedule, and costs during
the design stage. Chrysler developed Platform Design Teams (PDTs), composed of members
from functional departments, to ensure that new automobile designs could be immediately
evaluated by experts in engineering, production, and marketing. It found that this instanta-
neous feedback eliminated the time that had been lost when designs were deemed unwork-
able by the engineering organization at some later point in the car’s development.
• Trend monitoring is the process of tracking the estimated costs, schedules, and resources
needed against those planned. Trend monitoring shows significant deviations from norms
for any of these important project metrics.
• Document control ensures that important documentation is compiled and disseminated in an
orderly and timely fashion. Document control is a way of making sure that anything contrac-
tual or legal is documented and distributed. For example, document control would ensure
that the minutes of a building committee’s deliberations concerning a new construction proj-
ect are reproduced and forwarded to appropriate oversight groups.
• Acquisition control monitors systems used to acquire necessary project equipment, materi-
als, or services needed for project development and implementation.
• Specification control ensures that project specifications are prepared clearly, communicated
to all concerned parties, and changed only with proper authorization.
One of the most important pieces of advice for project managers and teams is to establish
and maintain a reasonable level of control (including clear lines of authority) at the start of a project.
Perhaps surprisingly, reasonable here means avoiding the urge to overdevelop and overcontrol proj-
ects. Project managers’ ability to manage day-to-day activities can be hindered by having to handle
excessive control system reports—there can simply be too much paperwork. On the other hand, it
is equally important not to devalue control systems as taking up too much time. Knowing the right
project control systems to use and how often to employ them can eliminate much of the guesswork
when dealing with project delays or cost overruns. For example, a recent large office building proj-
ect brought together a project team composed of groups and contractors relating to the architectural
design; the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); the electrical and plumbing work;
concrete and steel construction; and facilities management. During meetings early in the project,
the combined construction project team agreed to a clear scope for the project and a streamlined
control and reporting process that had trend monitoring, configuration, and specification control as
the key elements in the project review cycle. Because several of the independent contractors had a
long history of working together and had built a level of mutual trust, they reasoned that the bar-
est minimum control processes would be preferable. In this example, the team sought a balance in
project control processes between the twin errors of excessive and nonexistent control.
configuration management
The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) defines configuration management as “a sys-
tem of procedures that monitors emerging project scope against the scope baseline. It requires
documentation and management approval on any change to the baseline.” A baseline is defined as
the project’s scope fixed at a specific point in time—for example, the project’s scheduled start date.
The baseline, therefore, is viewed as the project’s configuration. Remember that the scope baseline is
simply a summary description of the project’s original content and end product, including budget
and time constraint data. As a result, in simple terms, configuration management relates to the
fact that projects usually consist of component parts, all contributing to the project’s functionality.
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168 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
These parts must be individually developed and ultimately assembled, or configured, to produce
the final product or service. The role of designing, making, and assembling these components
belongs to configuration management. However, because this process often requires several
iterations, adjustments, and corrections to get the project right, in practical terms, configuration
management is the systematic management and control of project change.20
The management of project changes is most effectively accomplished at the beginning of the
project when plans and project scope are first articulated. Why would you want to begin managing
change at the point where you are carefully defining a project? The answer is that the need to make
significant project changes is usually an acknowledged part of the planning process. Some changes
are made as the result of carefully acknowledged need; others emerge almost by accident during
the project’s development. For example, we may discover at some point during the project’s execu-
tion that certain technical specifications we designed into the original prototype may not work
under specific conditions (e.g., high altitudes, humid conditions), requiring us to make midcourse
alterations to the project’s required functionality.
Configuration management works toward formalizing the change process as much as pos-
sible as early in the project’s life as possible, rather than leaving needed downstream changes to be
made in an uncoordinated manner. The need to make project changes or specification adjustments,
it has been suggested, comes about for one of several reasons:21
• Initial planning errors, either technological or human. Many projects involve technological
risks. It is often impossible to accurately account for all potential problems or technological
roadblocks. For example, the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps’ drive to create a vertical takeoff,
propeller-driven aircraft, the Osprey, resulted in a series of unexpected technical problems,
including some tragic accidents during prototype testing. Initial engineering did not pre-
dict (and perhaps could not have predicted) the problems that would emerge with this new
technology. Hence, many projects require midcourse changes to technical specifications as
they encounter problems that are not solvable with existing resources or other unexpected
difficulties. Planning errors also may be due to human mistake or lack of full knowledge
of the development process. In the case of nontechnical causes for change, reconfiguration
may be a simple adjustment to the original plans to accommodate new project realities.
• Additional knowledge of project or environmental conditions. The project team or a key
stakeholder, such as the client, may enter into a project only to discover that specific features
of the project or the business, economic, or natural environment require midcourse changes
to the scope. For example, the technical design of a deep-water oil-drilling rig may have to be
significantly modified upon discovery of the nature of water currents or storm characteris-
tics, underwater terrain formations, or other unanticipated environmental features.
• Uncontrollable mandates. In some circumstances, events occur outside the control of
the project team and must be factored into the project as it moves forward. For example,
a governmental mandate for passenger safety established by the European Union in 2001
forced Boeing Corporation to redesign exit features on its new 777 aircraft, temporarily
delaying the project’s introduction and sale to foreign airlines.
• Client requests. The situation in which a project’s clients, as the project evolves, attempt to
address new needs with significant alterations is a very common phenomenon. In software
development, for example, a client taking the role of potential user might list several com-
plaints, requests, new features, reworked features, and so on when first exposed to a planned
software upgrade. Often IT projects run excessively behind schedule as users continue to
bring forward lists of new requirements or change requests.
Configuration management can probably be traced to the change control techniques initiated
by the U.S. defense community in the 1950s. Defense contractors routinely changed the configu-
ration of various weapon systems at the request of governmental groups, especially the armed
forces. In making these changes, however, little of the process would be documented or traceable;
hence, when new weapon systems were introduced, the armed forces found them hard to service
and maintain. Poor record keeping led to poor channels of communication to relevant contrac-
tors when problems or modification requests arose. As a result, the Defense Department routinely
found it necessary to reissue general change request orders that delayed its ability to gain timely
performance corrections. In the middle of the decade after much frustration (and expense), the
5.6 Project Closeout 169
Step Action
1. Configuration identification 1. Develop a breakdown of the project to the necessary level
of definition.
2. Identify the specifications of the components of the
breakdown and of the total project.
2. Configuration reviews Meet with all the project stakeholders to agree to the current
project definition.
3. Configuration control 1. If agreement is achieved, repeat the first three steps,
developing the breakdown and specification further, until the
project is defined.
2. If agreement is not reached, either:
• Cycle back to the configuration as agreed at a previous
review and repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 until agreement is
achieved; or
• Change the specification last obtained by a process change
control to match what people think it should be.
4. Status accounting Memory of the current configurations, and all previous ones,
must be maintained so that if agreement is not reached at some
point, the team can cycle back to a previous configuration and
restart from there. Also, memory of the configuration of all
prototypes must be maintained.
FIgure 5.11 four Stages of configuration Management
Source: © Turner, R. (2000), “Managing scope-configuration and work methods,” in Turner, R. (Ed.), Gower
Handbook of Project Management, 3rd ed. Aldershot, UK: Gower.
Defense Department finally issued an order mandating that all organizations supplying systems to
the government demonstrate a comprehensive change control and documentation process.22
Figure 5.11 presents the four stages in configuration management, including the tasks to be
performed at each of the configuration management steps.23
5.6 project cloSeout
Effective scope management also includes appropriate planning for a project’s termination.
Although the process of effective project termination will be covered in great detail in Chapter 14,
it is useful to reflect on the fact that even when planning for a project, we should be planning for
the project’s conclusion. The project closeout step requires project managers to consider the types
of records and reports they and their clients will require at the completion of the project.24 The
earlier in the scope development process that these decisions are made, the more useful the infor-
mation collected over the project’s development can be. Closeout information can be important
(1) in the case of contractual disputes after the project has been completed, since the more thorough
the project records, the less likely it is that the organization will be held liable for alleged violations;
(2) as a useful training tool for postproject analysis of either successes or failures; and (3) to facilitate
project auditing tasks by showing the flow of expenses in and out of various project accounts.
Closeout documentation a project leader may decide to track includes the following:
• Historical records, or project documentation that can be used to predict trends, analyze feasi-
bility, and highlight problem areas for similar future projects
• Postproject analysis, which follows a formal reporting structure, including analysis and doc-
umentation of the project’s performance in terms of cost, schedule adherence, and technical
specification performance
• Financial closeout, or the accounting analysis of how funds were dispersed on the project
One of the most important lessons for successful project managers is to “start with the end in
mind.” Clear goals at the beginning of a project make clear what the project’s completion will
require. Project closeout requires managers to consider a priori the types and amounts of informa-
tion to continually collect during project development, relying on a sound project tracking and
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170 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
filing system. That way, when the project is in its closeout, time is not wasted scrambling for old
project records and other information that is needed but missing.
A project’s goals are just a dream until they are written down. Until the project’s plans are
laid out, its purposes specified, its constraints considered, and its results anticipated, a project is
nothing more than an organization’s hope for success. Scope management is the systematic process
of turning these dreams into reality by formally developing project goals. Like a lighthouse, a thor-
ough scope document illuminates the way toward project completion even while the team may be
tossed on the waves of numerous crises and concerns. As long as the light continues to shine, as
long as the project manager works to develop and maintain the various elements of project scope,
the likelihood of passage to successful project completion is strong.
Summary
1. Understand the importance of scope management
for project success. This chapter examined the role
of project scope management as an important plan-
ning technique. Project scope management is the
detailed development of the project plan to specify
the work content and outcomes of the project, the
activities that must be performed, the resources
consumed, and the quality standards to be main-
tained. The six steps in creating a project scope
management procedure are conceptual develop-
ment, the scope statement, work authorization, scope
reporting, control systems, and project closeout.
Conceptual development is the process of choos-
ing the best method for achieving the project’s goals.
The project’s conceptual development allows the
project manager to begin the process of transitioning
from the project as a dream to the project as a specific
goal or set of objectives. Problem statements, infor-
mation gathering, identified constraints, alternatives
analyses, and final project objectives are all created
during the conceptual development.
The scope statement is a comprehensive defini-
tion of all parameters necessary for the project to
succeed. A number of elements factor into effective
scope statement development, but perhaps most
key is the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The
work breakdown process gives the project team the
ability to create a hierarchy of activities-based pri-
orities, creating work packages, tasks, and subtasks
as building blocks for completing the overall proj-
ect. When this is coupled with a clear Responsibility
Assignment Matrix (RAM), the project manager and
team are able to begin moving beyond the project
as a concept and tackle the project as a set of identi-
fied activities, with responsible personnel assigned
to them.
Work authorization, the third element in project
scope management, refers to the process of sanc-
tioning all project work. This step may involve
formulating contractual obligations with vendors,
suppliers, and clients.
Project scope reporting refers to any control
systems and documentation that will be used to
assess the project’s overall status. Examples of scope
reporting include the creation of control documents
and budget and schedule tracking.
Control systems, including configuration man-
agement, refer to the processes put in place to track
the ongoing status of the project, compare actual with
baseline projections, and offer corrective measures
for bringing the project back on track.
Finally, the project closeout phase represents
the project team’s best determination as to the
information and transition materials necessary
to ensure a smooth transfer of the project to its
intended clients.
2. Understand the significance of developing a
scope statement. The project scope statement
reflects the project team’s best efforts to create the
documentation and approval for all important
project para meters prior to beginning the devel-
opment phase. This statement is an opportunity
to clearly “nail down” the elements of the project
and what it is intended to accomplish, as well as
to identify the project’s critical features. The ele-
ments in the scope statement include (1) establish-
ing the goal criteria—defining what will demon-
strate project success and what the decision gates
are for evaluating deliverables; (2) developing the
management plan for the project— determining the
structure for the project team, key rules and pro-
cedures that will be maintained, and the control
systems to monitor effort; (3) establishing the Work
Breakdown Structure (WBS)—dividing the proj-
ect into component substeps in order to establish
the critical interrelationships among project activi-
ties; and (4) creating a scope baseline—provid-
ing a summary description of each component of
the project’s goal, including budget and schedule
information for each activity.
3. construct a work Breakdown structure for a
project. The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
is a process that sets a project’s scope by break-
ing down its overall mission into a cohesive
set of synchronous, increasingly specific tasks.
Defined as a “deliverable-oriented grouping of
Discussion Questions 171
project elements which organizes and defines the
total scope of the project,” the WBS is the most
important organizing tool project teams have in
preparing their tasks.
The WBS serves six main purposes: (1) it echoes
project objectives; (2) it is the organization chart for
the project; (3) it creates the logic for tracking costs,
schedule, and performance specifications for each
element in the project; (4) it may be used to commu-
nicate project status; (5) it may be used to improve
overall project communication; and (6) it demon-
strates how the project will be controlled. The logic
of the WBS is to subdivide project deliverables into
increasingly more specific sublevels to identify all
significant activities. The common terminology is
to first identify the overall project, then the major
deliverables for that project, and finally the work
packages that must be accomplished to complete
each deliverable.
Closely related to the WBS is the Organization
Breakdown Structure (OBS), which allows com-
panies to define the work to be accomplished and
assign it to the owners of the work packages. The
budgets for these activities are then directly as-
signed to the departmental accounts responsible
for the project work.
4. develop a responsibility Assignment Matrix for
a project. The Responsibility Assignment Matrix
(RAM), sometimes referred to as a linear responsi-
bility chart, identifies project team personnel who
are directly responsible for each task in the project’s
development. The RAM identifies where respon-
sible team members can go for task support, who
should next be notified of the task completion sta-
tus, and any sign-off requirements. The goal of the
RAM is to facilitate communication between proj-
ect team personnel to minimize transition disrup-
tions as the project moves toward completion. An
additional benefit of the RAM is to make the coor-
dination between project managers and functional
department heads easier as they work to make best
use of personnel who may be assigned to the project
for only temporary periods.
5. describe the roles of changes and configuration
management in assessing project scope. Significant
project changes occur for a number of reasons, includ-
ing (1) initial planning errors, either technological or
human; (2) additional knowledge of project or envi-
ronmental conditions; (3) uncontrollable mandates;
and (4) client requests.
The four stages of configuration management are
(1) configuration identification—breaking down
the project and identifying the specifications of its
components; (2) configuration reviews—meeting
with stakeholders to agree to project definition;
(3) configuration control—following agreement
with stakeholders, developing the breakdown and
specifications further; and (4) status accounting—
maintaining memory of all current and previous
configurations for reference.
Key Terms
Baseline (p. 167)
Business case (p. 149)
Conceptual development
(p. 148)
Configuration management
(p. 167)
Control systems (p. 167)
Cost control accounts (p. 159)
Cost-plus contracts (p. 164)
Deliverables (p. 153)
Milestone (p. 163)
Organization Breakdown
Structure (OBS) (p. 159)
Project charter (p. 151)
Project closeout (p. 169)
Project scope (p. 146)
Requirements gathering
(p. 148)
Responsibility Assignment
Matrix (RAM) (p. 160)
Scope baseline (p. 153)
Scope management (p. 146)
Scope reporting (p. 164)
Scope statement (p. 153)
Statement of Work (SOW)
(p. 150)
Turnkey contracts (p. 164)
WBS codes (p. 158)
Work authorization (p. 161)
Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) (p. 153)
Work packages (p. 156)
Discussion Questions
5.1 What are the principal benefits of developing a compre-
hensive project scope analysis?
5.2 What are the key characteristics of a work package?
5.3 Create a Work Breakdown Structure for a term paper
project or another school-related project you are working
on. What are the steps in the WBS? Can you identify any
substeps for each step?
5.4 What are the benefits of developing a Responsibility
Assignment Matrix (RAM) for a project?
5.5 Develop an argument for scope reporting mechanisms.
At a minimum, what types of reports do you consider
necessary for document control of a project? Why?
5.6 What is the chief purpose of configuration management?
In your opinion, why has it become increasingly popu-
lar in recent years as a part of the project management
process?
5.7 What is the logic behind developing a plan for project
closeout prior to even beginning the project?
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172 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
Problems
5.1 Prepare a group project for the classroom. Use as your
model one of the following:
a. Construction project
b. Software development project
c. Events management project (e.g., an awards
banquet)
d. New product development project
Develop a Statement of Work (SOW) for the project,
using the format of (1) background, (2) task, (3) objec-
tives, (4) approach, and (5) input source. Next, create a
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) for the project. What
are the key steps, including work packages, tasks, and
any related subtasks for the project?
5.2 Using the project you identified in Problem 1, create a
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) for it, identi-
fying at least six fictitious project team members.
5.3 Research a real project through library resources or the
Internet and develop a brief scope statement for the
project, a general WBS, and any other information per-
taining to the scope management for that project.
CaSe STuDy 5.1
Boeing’s Virtual Fence
On January 14, 2011, Secretary of Homeland Security
Janet Napolitano made it official: The Virtual Fence
Project was to be officially canceled. In her statement
explaining the decision, Napolitano cited the diffi-
culty in creating a unified, fully integrated security
system and promised to “pursue a new path forward.”
What was left unsaid were the reasons that led to
the final decision—principally, struggling with a too-
complicated technical system that did not work but was
leading to ballooning costs.
Illegal crossing into the United States along the
Mexican border has reached epidemic proportions in
recent years. Fear of drug smuggling, illegal aliens,
and possible terrorist incursions have made the issue
of homeland security one of the major “hot buttons” in
the political arena, both in Washington, DC, and within
states located along the southern border as well as those
in proximity to Canada. The problem is compounded by
the sheer sizes of the borders involved. The Mexican/
U.S. border runs for nearly 2,000 miles, much of it across
desert wastelands and inhospitable and remote areas.
Establishing any sort of border security, in the wake of
the 9/11 attacks, is a national necessity but a daunting
and difficult task.
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS),
organized following the attacks on the World Trade
Center towers, is charged with the responsibility of
securing all borders and points of illegal entry into
the United States, in cooperation with Customs and
Border Protection. As part of its mandate, it has devel-
oped plans for creating a more secure and stable border
with Mexico to prevent the continuous flow of undocu-
mented immigrants, drugs, and potential terrorists. For
the first stage in this process, DHS proposed a project
to physically and electronically seal the stretch of the
desert between the United States and Mexico under a
multibillion-dollar contract named the Secure Border
Initiative Net (SBInet). President Bush in May 2006
called SBInet “the most technologically advanced bor-
der security initiative in American history.” A 28-mile
stretch of desert, centered on Nogales, Texas, was to
be the pilot stage in a project that eventually would be
used to monitor and control some 6,000 miles of border
with both Mexico and Canada.
In late 2006, Boeing was selected as the major con-
tractor for the SBInet project. Although better known
for their military weapon systems, Boeing’s Integrated
Defense Systems Unit was made responsible for overall
coordination of a massive system of towers as well as
listening devices, motion sensors, cameras, and radar to
be used to detect and help apprehend illegals crossing
the border. In fact, the U.S. government chose to out-
source the entire project to private firms; that is, they
expected that contractors would design the program’s
elements, build them, and then handle full oversight of
their own work.
In a nutshell, the system used a chain of 100-foot-
tall towers that each scanned a 360-degree radius
for a distance of 10 miles. Ground radar sensors also
attempted to detect footsteps, bicycles, and vehicles.
The first $20 million pilot phase, named Project 28 after
the length of the part of the desert that it was supposed
to cover, was to be completed by mid-June 2007. Boeing
selected more than 100 subcontractors to build various
components of the system, with its project managers
maintaining overall control of the development process.
Unfortunately, their structure was unwieldy, and the
project was further compromised by the sheer number
of distinct elements and technical systems Boeing was
attempting to integrate. The technical challenge of inte-
grating systems including watch towers, sensors, radar,
and specialized cameras was beyond anything Boeing
had attempted before. The problem was particularly
noteworthy when we consider that integration, in many
Case Study 5.2 173
CaSe STuDy 5.2
California’s High-Speed Rail Project
With the announcement that California would be com-
mitting $4.3 billion to the construction of a 29-mile rail
link between the towns of Fresno and Madera in the
state’s Central Valley, California’s 20-year-old quest
for a high-speed rail line was finally coming true. The
California High-Speed Rail Authority (CHSRA), first es-
tablished in the mid-1990s, had long pursued the goal of
linking the San Francisco Bay metropolitan area in the
north to the cities of Los Angeles and San Diego in the
south. Under the administration of President Obama,
ways, was the project. The various technical elements
were difficult but attainable. The challenge for SBInet
lay in the ability of Boeing to find a means to bring all
these new and unproven technologies together under
one umbrella. So complicated was the challenge, in fact,
that the virtual fence failed a series of initial tests, sig-
nificantly delaying the full deployment of Project 28.
Unfortunately, these technical and coordination
problems were never resolved. In the nearly three years
after original testing was done on one section of the
fence, SBInet had cost the government $672 million dol-
lars, with the end nowhere in sight. Although the total
project cost was anticipated at $1.1 billion, congressio-
nal watchdog groups argued that the final cost of the
project could soar to over $30 billion. Costs, in fact, were
a sore point with the project from the time it was bid.
Originally promising to complete SBInet for $1.1 billion,
Boeing’s revised estimates went to $2.5 billion and
then, just a few months later, to $8 billion. This rapid
escalation of projected costs finally prompted a congres-
sional oversight committee hearing, in which Boeing
endured withering criticism from Representatives who
questioned their motives in asking for more money and
time to complete the project. In the meantime, beset by
continuing problems, Boeing had also revised its esti-
mates for the completion date to 2016, more than seven
years after the date in the original plan.
A major concern was Boeing’s pyramid-like
management structure that critics said caused confu-
sion and a lack of clear responsibility. Worse, it made
it easier for hidden costs to be charged to the project.
Because Boeing embedded multiple subcontracting
layers in the Virtual Fence development, they were
able to add charges at each level. The larger prob-
lem was the clear conflict of interest that emerged by
placing Boeing in charge of project oversight, while
allowing them to manage sub-contractors, and moni-
tor the progress of the project. Not surprisingly, with
this configuration, little information came to light
about cost overruns or schedule slippages until qual-
ity and overrun problems were simply too large to
ignore . . . or hide. Critics compared this attitude of easy
oversight and loose control to the huge problems that
had plagued Boston’s “Big Dig” construction project
(see Case Study 8.2 in text).
Admittedly, the problems that sank the SBInet
project were complicated and came from multiple
sources. Besides the technical challenges of manag-
ing 100 subcontractors, all required to provide criti-
cal components that Boeing would integrate, the
project had effectively shut out most federal agencies
and oversight groups. It was difficult to get accurate
project status information given the government’s
decision to “farm out” border security to private
contractors. As a result, congressional investigators
found that Homeland Security officials were simply
standing by while Boeing provided information that
was “replete with unexplained anomalies, thus ren-
dering the data unfit for effective contractor man-
agement and oversight.” Furthermore, many critics
questioned the feasibility of the original intent of the
project itself, wondering about the likelihood of ever
effectively sealing a border that runs through some
of the most inhospitable terrain in North America.
Whether through a combination of poor oversight,
over- optimistic scope expectations, or simple inabil-
ity to make this cutting-edge technology work, SBInet
remains an example of a significant program failure at
the taxpayer ’s expense.25
Questions
1. What problems do you see emerging from a
project such as SBInet where the government
allows the contractor to determine scope, man-
age all contractor relations, and decide how to
share project status information with oversight
bodies?
2. Consider the following two arguments: “The fail-
ure of SBInet was due to poor scope management”
versus “SBInet failed because of poor oversight
and project controls.” Take one side or the other in
this argument, and justify your response.
(continued)
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174 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
the federal government set aside money from a stimu-
lus package to fund high-speed rail initiatives in sev-
eral states, including Wisconsin, Florida, Ohio, Illinois,
and California. The election of Republican governors in
Ohio and Wisconsin led to a rethinking of the projects in
those states, which ultimately refused the seed money
grants from Washington, suspicious that the rail proj-
ects were both unnecessary and likely to be subject to
huge cost overruns, for which state taxpayers eventually
would be held responsible. As a result, Transportation
Secretary Ray LaHood reclaimed $1.2 billion from those
states to be presented to 13 other states.
One of the states that stood to benefit most from
this redistribution of federal money was California,
with its ambitious, and many argue, ultimately fool-
hardy decision to support a massive transportation
project to link its cities with high-speed rail. The history
of CHSRA’s drive to create high-speed rail is a fascinat-
ing one, with supporters and critics in equal measure.
As part of its initial pitch for the project, CHSRA argued
that the system would lead to multiple benefits. For a
one-way $55 ticket, passengers in Los Angeles would be
able to travel to the Bay Area in less than 3 hours or reach
San Diego in 80 minutes. Estimating that 94 million pas-
sengers would use the rail system each year and that its
development would generate hundreds of thousands of
permanent jobs, CHSRA used these projections to help
convince state voters to approve a nearly $10 billion
bond issue and support the project in a 2008 referendum.
Other advantages the organization cited included the
reduction of pollution and fossil-fuel use by diverting
millions of people to the rail line who otherwise would
use automobile or air travel between cities.
With revised estimated cost of at least $69 billion,
the overall project would first operate trains up to 220
mph along a 520-mile route between Anaheim and San
Francisco. Extensions to San Diego and Sacramento
would be built later. A total of $3.18 billion in federal
funding has been approved for the state’s bullet train
proposal so far, the largest amount for any pending rail
project in the nation. With matching state funds, the
amount available for construction is about $5.5 billion,
according to CHSRA.
Since its approval, a number of events have led
insiders to reconsider the wisdom of pursuing the rail
project. First, based on other high-speed rail projects,
CHSRA has revised its projections for ridership down-
ward, suggesting that the project will serve 39 mil-
lion passengers by its tenth year of operation, which
is about 40% of its original estimate prior to getting
funding approval. Second, another change in the origi-
nal business model is that projected ticket prices have
been raised to $105 for a one-way trip, although critics
suggest that actual prices, based on comparable cost-
per-mile data from Europe and Japan, are likely to be
closer to $190. A third concern relates to the decision
to start the project with a 65-mile link between two
small Central Valley communities; that is, though the
high-speed rail project is specifically designed to join
major metropolitan areas, the first pilot stage is to be
constructed along the route that is the least populated
segment of the line. This decision sits poorly not only
with rail critics, but also with rail supporters, who rec-
ognize the need to make a more significant statement
in order to answer other objections of critics. “It defies
logic and common sense to have the train start and stop
in remote areas that have no hope of attaining the rid-
ership needed to justify the cost of the project,” U.S.
Representative Dennis Cardoza (D., Calif.) wrote in a
letter to Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood.
A fourth closely questioned element in the project
is the projected final price. Though CHSRA and state
officials hold to the latest $69 billion price tag (a figure
that has doubled since the original $33 billion estimate
approved by voters in 2008), others, including the trans-
portation consultants at Infrastructure Management
Group, have suggested that this figure, based on his-
torical data, grossly underestimates the final cost, while
inflating the likely number of passengers. Economists
suggest that a more likely range for the final cost of the
project would be anywhere from $100 to $250 billion,
and a more reasonable estimate of annual passenger
traffic is in the range of 5 million. If these numbers are
close to accurate (and they are disputed by CHSRA),
they point to a project that cannot ever hope to pay for
itself, will require long-term annual subsidies, and will
place the already cash-strapped state even deeper into
a financial hole. The state, which recently averted a
budget crisis when it agreed to cut $15 billion in public
spending, says it will match federal spending dollar for
dollar and also hopes to secure private-sector invest-
ment. However, with unemployment in California
remaining steady at nearly 8%, these claims are being
called into question.
A recent study by three economists found the
CHSRA business model to be deeply flawed, con-
cluding that it relies too heavily on federal grants and
does not adequately address risks posed by fluctuat-
ing ticket prices. “When an investor looks at an asser-
tion by the CHSRA that says you’re going to earn an
operating surplus of $370 million in the first year of
operations and $1.5 billion profit by the third year, they
shake their heads and smile,” said William Grindley,
former World Bank analyst. “It doesn’t pass the smell
test.” This new study calls CHSRA’s revenue esti-
mates “unreasonably optimistic” and is confirmed by
a 2013 study by the Reason Foundation suggesting that
CHSRA could require over $350 million in annual sub-
sidies to stay in business. One key linchpin to attaining
sustainability, for example, is CHRSA’s ability to secure
Case Study 5.3 175
billions of dollars in additional funding from the fed-
eral government. For its part, CHSRA acknowledges
that the project hinges on additional funding coming
from the federal government but believes that making
a good faith effort to produce a workable rail network
is critical for securing additional money.
Recent court decisions have put the brakes on the
project as well. The California 3rd District Court ruled
that the state could not continue to sell bonds support-
ing the project as the CHSRA had failed to comply with
its own guidelines regarding funding. Voters were
originally told that state financial exposure would be
l imited and that the federal government and private
investors would put up most of the money— promises
that so far have failed to materialize. However,
Washington has committed only a few billion dollars
and there is absolutely nothing else the state can expect
from the federal government to support the project. The
court ruled that the state’s attempt to sell $6.8 billion in
bonds to fund the project violated the original provi-
sions of the 2008 referendum. Jerry Brown, California’s
governor, has vowed to continue the court battle as
long as it takes to get the bonds approved. However, in
the meantime, the project is stalled for lack of funding
to continue building the phase one, 29-mile stretch of
track. The project also faces a ticking clock: If the fed-
eral grant money is not used by a specific date, it will
be reclaimed by Washington.
As of now, one could argue that the project’s
future is simply a debate between “dueling econo-
mists”; however, there is no question that the future of
California’s high-speed rail is uncertain. Will the out-
come be a case of the best intentions meeting economic
realities? Only time will tell.26
Questions
1. Assess the benefits and drawbacks of the high-
speed rail project. In your opinion, do benefits
outweigh drawbacks, or vice versa? Why? Justify
your answer.
2. What are the implications of starting a project
based on tenuous projections that may or may not
come true 10 years from now?
3. Could you justify the California high-speed rail
project from the perspective of a massive public
works initiative? In other words, what other fac-
tors enter into the decision of whether to pursue a
high-speed rail project? Why are they important?
CaSe STuDy 5.3
Project Management at Dotcom.com
Dotcom.com, a software engineering and systems de-
velopment consulting firm, sells a wide assortment of
Internet and computer-based solutions for resource
planning, administrative, and accounting networks
to organizations in health care delivery, financial
services, and hotel management. Typically, a service
provider approaches Dotcom.com with a list of prob-
lems it has and some targets for organizational im-
provement. Because most of Dotcom’s clients are not
themselves computer savvy, they tend to rely heavily
on Dotcom to correctly diagnose their difficulties, pro-
pose solutions to correct these problems, and imple-
ment the new technologies. The industry in which
Dotcom operates is extremely competitive, forcing
successful organizations to make low bids to win con-
sulting contracts. In this environment, project man-
agement is vital for Dotcom’s success because poorly
managed projects quickly “eat up” the profit margin
for any job.
Unfortunately, Dotcom’s senior management
team has noticed a recent upsurge in project operating
costs and a related drop-off in profitability. In par-
ticular, Dotcom’s executives are concerned because
the last seven consulting contracts have resulted in
almost no profit margin because the software systems
were delivered late and required several rounds of
rework to fix bugs or correct significant shortcomings
in the software. The firm decided to hold a weekend
off-site retreat with the project managers responsible
for these most recently completed projects in order
to learn why project management was being done
so poorly.
To a person, the project managers fixed the blame
for their problems on the clients. A typical response
was made by Susan Kiley, a project manager with
more than five years’ experience, who stated, “We are
put in a very tough position here. Most of the custom-
ers don’t know what they really want so we have to
spend hours working with them to get a reasonable
Statement of Work that we can develop the project
scope around. This takes time. In fact, the more time
I spend with the customer up front, the less I have to
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176 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
get my team to actually develop the system for them.
It’s a Catch-22—If I want to get things right, I have to
pry information out of them. The better I do getting a
sense of their problems, the less time I have to develop
and run the project!”
Jim Crenshaw, another project manager, spoke
up. “It doesn’t stop there, unfortunately. My biggest
problems are always on the back end of the project. We
work like dogs to get a system up that corresponds to
the client’s demands, only to have them look it over,
push a few buttons, and start telling us that this was
not anything like what they had in mind! How am I
supposed to develop a system to solve their problems
when they don’t know what their problems are? Better
yet, what do we do when they ‘think’ they know what
they want and then when we create it, they turn around
and reject our solutions out of hand?”
After two hours of hearing similar messages from
the other project managers, it became clear to the senior
management team that the project management prob-
lems were not isolated but were becoming embedded
in the firm’s operations. Clearly, something had to be
done about their processes.
Questions
1. How would you begin redesigning Dotcom.
com’s project management processes to minimize
the problems it is experiencing with poor scope
management?
2. How do the company’s consulting clients contrib-
ute to the problems with expanding or changing
scope? If you were to hold a meeting with a po-
tential customer, what message would you want
the customer to clearly understand?
3. How do you balance the need to involve clients
with the equally important need to freeze project
scope in order to complete the project in a timely
fashion?
4. Why are configuration management and project
change control so difficult to perform in the midst
of a complex software development project such
as those undertaken by Dotcom.com?
CaSe STuDy 5.4
The Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle
One of the most complex and difficult congressional
budget decisions in years finally came due: the deter-
mination of the fate of the Marine Corps’ Expeditionary
Fighting Vehicle (EFV). Given the numerous delays,
tests, conditional approvals, and retests, the EFV had
been no stranger to controversy. Although the EFV was
loudly defended by senior officers in the Pentagon, a
growing army of critics cited the vehicle’s poor test
performance, and costs continued to balloon. As one
reporter noted, “After 10 years and $1.7 billion, this is
what the Marine Corps got for its investment in a new
amphibious vehicle: A craft that breaks down about
an average of once every 4½ hours, leaks, and some-
times veers off course.” The biggest question is: How
did things get to that point with what was viewed, for
many years, as one of the Marine’s highest priority ac-
quisition programs?
The EFV program began more than 20 years ago
when this armored amphibious vehicle was designed
to replace the 1970s-era Amphibious Assault Vehicle.
The purpose of vehicles such as the EFV is to provide
armored support for the early stages of amphibious
assault onto enemy shores. The EFV was designed to
roll off a Navy assault ship, move under its own power
at 20 mph on the water’s surface for distances up to 25
miles while transporting a Marine rifle squad (up to 17
Marines), cross hostile beaches, and operate on shore.
The EVF was moderately armored and carried a 30-mm
cannon in a turret for offensive firepower. The EVF
often was described as a Marine Corps variant of the
Bradley Fighting Vehicle.
The EFV began as a state-of-the-art acquisi-
tion program for the Department of Defense (DoD).
Following a concept exploration phase to determine
the viability of the project that began in 1988, the
project entered a program definition and risk reduc-
tion phase during which it was considered “a model
defense acquisition program,” winning two DoD
awards for successful cost and technology manage-
ment. The original contract was awarded to General
Dynamics Corporation in June 1996 for full engi-
neering and design work, and that corporation was
awarded a subsequent contract for the system devel-
opment and demonstration (SDD) phase of the pro-
gram in July 2001. It is during this critical stage that
all the complex engineering, systems development,
and functionality of the program must be successfully
demonstrated. Perhaps unwisely, General Dynamics
budgeted only 27 months for total testing and system
verification.
Case Study 5.4 177
This far-too-ambitious schedule soon became a
problem for General Dynamics and the EFV as a series
of technical problems began to surface. Two addi-
tional years were added to the SDD phase as it became
apparent that the EFV concept was beset with numer-
ous unforeseen problems. In December 2004, tests of
EFV prototypes demonstrated further problems. The
tests showed severe failure in the vehicle’s main com-
puter system, causing the vehicle’s steering to freeze.
The hydraulic systems powering the vehicle’s bow-
flap, installed to make the EFV more seaworthy, began
leaking and failing. The EFV was originally intended to
operate for an average of 70 hours between mission fail-
ure breakdowns, but because of the numerous reliability
problems, the Marines reduced this figure to 43.5 hours.
Following these prototype tests, an additional two years
were added to the program development schedule.
The year 2006 was not a good one for the
Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle. The EFV was put
through a critical operational assessment, which is
a series of tests to demonstrate that it could meet
performance requirements and was ready for produc-
tion. The EFV performed abysmally, experiencing
numerous system failures, breakdowns, and failure in
its reliability assessment. During the tests, the vehicles
were able to operate on average for only 4.5 hours
between breakdowns, and it took nearly 3.5 hours of
corrective maintenance for every hour of operation.
Poor reliability resulted in 117 mission failures and 645
acts of unscheduled maintenance during the tests. The
EFV’s reliability was so poor that it successfully com-
pleted only 2 of 11 attempted amphibious tests, 1 of 10
gunnery tests, and none of the 3 land mobility tests.
Other problems included the fact that the prototypes
were nearly one ton overweight, suffered from limited
visibility, and were so noisy that the driver was advised
to wear ear plugs while in the driver’s chair, despite
the fact that doing so would make it nearly impossible
to communicate with the EFV’s commander. In fact, so
poorly did the EFV fare during the operational assess-
ment that the Marines announced they were going
back to the drawing board with the design, aiming to
complete a new SDD phase by 2011, eight years behind
the original schedule.
Meanwhile, the program’s costs just kept rising.
When the EFV was first conceived, the Marines planned
to purchase 1,025 of them at a total cost of $8.5 billion.
Subsequently, a DoD estimate put the program’s cost
at upwards of $14 billion dollars, while the Marines
had trimmed their order to 573 vehicles. In effect, even
assuming those final figures were to hold, the cost
of the EFV had risen from $8.3 million per vehicle to
slightly more than $23 million. Overall, the Pentagon
estimated it had spent $2.9 billion on the program in
R&D and testing costs before buying a single vehicle.
wrong weapon for the wrong war?
The ongoing litany of failures associated with the EFV’s
development gave rise to some more fundamental ques-
tions about the purpose behind developing the vehicle.
Critics argued that the EFV simply did not serve a
meaningful role in the modern Marine Corps’ mission.
Among their concerns were the following points:
• Modern warfare does not offer options for “storm-
ing the beaches,” as the old Marine Corps model
envisions. Low-level, regional, or urban conflicts
make the need for amphibious assault an anach-
ronism in the modern day. As Laura Peterson,
a defense analyst with Taxpayers for Common
Sense, suggested, “This thing isn’t just fighting the
last war, it’s fighting last century’s wars.”
• The advance in cruise missile technology makes
the “25 mile offshore” model obsolete. When the
EFV was envisioned, it was believed that the
Navy could protect its ships by remaining just
over the horizon, disembarking EFVs from that
distance to assault enemy shores. Critics con-
tended that new cruise missiles have a range of
over 100 miles, making the EFVs or the Navy’s
ships vulnerable to attack if they were to follow
the original model.
• The flat bottom of the EFV, necessary for ship-to-
shore transportation, makes them extremely vul-
nerable to the shaped charges from improvised
explosive devices (IEDs), used so effectively in
Iraq and Afghanistan. General Dynamics argued
that redesigning the bottom of the vehicle would
alter its amphibious characteristics.
A number of senior Pentagon officials, including
the Commandant of the Marine Corps, stood by the
EFV, arguing that the Marine’s “expeditionary” mis-
sion will remain alive and in effect into the foreseeable
future. The EFV, they believed, was a critical element in
the deployment and striking capability of the Marines.
However, other high-ranking government officials,
including the Secretary of Defense, gave only tepid and
qualified support for the continued development and
deployment of the EFV.
Final rounds of funding began to limit additional
money for the EFV and to tie continued support to
the ability of General Dynamics and the Marines to
demonstrate much improved reliability and overall
system effectiveness. For example, in 2010 the Senate
Appropriations Committee authorized $38 million for
one more round of tests and set aside $184 million to
shut the program down in the event the vehicle failed
the tests again. The axe finally fell at the start of 2011,
when Secretary Gates sent his preliminary budget to
Congress. Among the casualties of the cost-cutting
knife was the EFV program. The program had long
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178 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
been teetering on the brink, so in a world of smaller
Pentagon budgets and more aggressive program over-
sight, perhaps it was inevitable that the EFV would
finally slip over the edge.27
Questions
1. What does the story of the EFV suggest about the
importance of considering what a project’s key
mission is supposed to be prior to authorizing it?
2. The EFV has been labeled, “The wrong weapon
for the wrong war at the wrong time.” Do you
agree or disagree with this characterization? Why?
3. Why does the EFV failure illustrate the dangers
of long lead-times for weapon systems? In other
words, when a project’s development cycle takes
20 years from start to finish, what dangers do the
project developers face when the project is finally
operational?
Internet exercises
5.1 Go to http://4pm.com/category/project‐plan/wbs/ and
view a short tutorial on developing an effective Work
Breakdown Structure. Why does this site specifically warn
against creating a laundry list of project activities? What
are some of the dangers in creating poor work breakdown
structures and the advantages of doing them effectively?
5.2 Go to http://www stoc.com/docs/85831907/Proposal-
for-Professional-Services-or-Sow to see a process for describ-
ing and creating a Statement of Work for the Minnesota Job
Bank Upgrade project. In your opinion, what are some of the
critical elements in this Statement of Work? Why? The site
also contains an “IT Professional Services Master Contract
Work Order.” Why is this work order so detailed?
5.3 Access https://www.mtholyoke.edu/sites/default/files/
datawarehouse/docs/dwprojectprocessanddocumentation
. Analyzing the comprehensive Scope Statement for
the data warehousing project, what problem is this project
seeking to address? What is the proposed solution?
PMP certificAtion sAMPle QUestions
1. What is the lowest level of decomposition in the Work
Breakdown Structure called?
a. Work package
b. Deliverable
c. Subdeliverable
d. Project
2. All of the following define a work package EXCEPT:
a. A work package has a deliverable result
b. It may be considered by its owner as a project in
itself
c. A work package may include several milestones
d. A work package can be created and addressed re-
gardless of other organizational procedures of cul-
tural considerations
3. George has been assigned to be the new project man-
ager for our project. He is eager to get off to a good start
and wants to identify what activities he should first
engage in. How would you advise him to start?
a. Begin with the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
b. Begin with a clear scope statement
c. Begin with a problem statement and Statement
of Work (SOW)
d. Begin with clear work authorization
4. The project manager wants to make sure that he is
proceeding in the right order as he moves to develop
a clear scope for his project. During scope definition,
what should he be doing?
a. Involving stakeholders and verifying that they
have all provided their input to the process
b. Developing his WBS and OBS
c. Moving as quickly as possible to the determination
of scope reporting methods
d. Identifying all necessary vendors for any outsourc-
ing that must be done
5. A hospital expansion is being planned for a com-
munity. As part of the scope of this project, it will be
necessary to close down the access routes into the
emergency room for major remodeling; however, be-
cause this is the only hospital for trauma cases within
50 miles, it is not possible to completely shut down
the emergency room. The project team will have to
find a means to remodel the emergency room while
allowing for continuous operations of the unit. This is
an example of what?
a. Negotiation points with the owner
b. Constraints
c. Initial assumptions
d. Milestone development
Answers: 1. a—The work package is the lowest level
in the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS); 2. d—A work
package should fit organizational procedures and culture;
3. c—The project should initiate with a clear problem state-
ment and understood SOW supporting it; 4. a—It is criti-
cal that all stakeholders have the opportunity to contribute
their input to the project during the scope definition phase;
5. b—The need to keep the emergency room open during
the remodeling is an example of working around existing
project constraints.
MS Project Exercises 179
MS Project exercises
Using the information provided below, construct a simple WBS
table for the project example.
Project Outline—Remodeling an Appliance
i. Research Phase
A. Prepare product development proposal
1. Conduct competitive analysis
2. Review field sales reports
3. Conduct technological capabilities assessment
B. Develop focus group data
c. Conduct telephone surveys
d. Identify relevant specification improvements
ii. Design and Engineering Phase
A. Interface with marketing staff
B. and so on
iii. Testing Phase
iv. Manufacturing Phase
v. Sales Phase
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180 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
appendIx 5.1
Sample Project charter
Project chArter
version history
Version # implemented By revision Date Approved By Approval Date reason
0.1 Sarah Hughes 9/1/15 Initial charter draft
0.2 Sarah Hughes 10/1/15 George
Blankenship
10/4/15 Updates per sponsor
0.3 Sarah Hughes 10/15/15 Updates per
executive committee
Project title: Project Management Resource Training and Deployment
scope and objectives: The XYZ Corporation has determined that they are understaffed in relation
to fully-trained and appropriately deployed project managers. There is an urgent need to identify
potential candidates internally and create training programs to develop their project management
skills. Further, project managers within the corporation must perceive a career path through the
project management function as a means to promotion to higher corporate levels.
overview: Since 2010, business-related commercial projects have increased 55%, resulting in average
resource commitment of 31 hours per week on project-related activities. Average project performance
since 2010 has been significantly degraded: average cost overrun = 28%, average schedule overrun =
34%, quality failure mitigation costs have increased 24%. Project manager resources have decreased in
real numbers from 112 in 2010 to 87 in 2015 (a loss of 22%). Human Resource projections expect that we
will see an additional 41 project managers retire within the next three years. XYZ Corporation cannot
continue to sustain the losses from project ventures, coupled with the loss of senior project personnel.
This project was initiated to begin identifying and training a replacement cohort of project managers.
general objectives:
1. Identify potential project managers from within Engineering, Commercial,
and Supply Chain functions.
2. Determine the critical skill set that successful project managers need at XYZ.
3. Develop training programs to promote the critical project management skill set.
specific objectives:
1. Identify potential project managers.
a. Determine strong candidates through mentoring and past experience on projects.
b. Enlist their willingness to commit to project management as a career path.
c. Develop “candidate ready” list and “potential future candidate” list.
2. Determine critical project management skills.
a. Survey leaders and team members of past successful projects.
b. Work with local university faculty to create database of critical skills.
3. Initiate project manager training program.
a. Secure top management support and funding.
b. Identify appropriate HR staff and university faculty for training.
defining conditions and constraints: Project management resource training and deployment
program must be operational within six months of approval. The program will occur in three phas-
es: (1) project management skill survey, (2) candidate identification, and (3) program development.
All elements of the survey and candidate identification must be completed before formal approval
of the training initiatives. Final phase will be collaboration with industry experts and university
faculty on formal training.
Appendix 5.1 Sample Project Charter 181
Project organization: Key members of the project team are:
1. Sponsor: George Blankenship, VP of Human Resources
2. Project Manager: Sarah Hughes, Senior Engineer
3. Disciplinary Representatives: Teresa Connelly, Supply Chain
a. Teresa Connelly, Supply Chain and Procurement
b. Vince Walters, Commercial
c. Evan Telemann, Engineering
4. Team members: No more than two additional team members from the disciplinary functions
will be appointed, based on recommendations from the disciplinary representatives. All team
members will be 100% dedicated to the project for a period of not less than 90 business days.
Project Manager responsibilities:
1. Staffing – The project manager is ultimately responsible for the performance of all members
of the team and will be granted authority, in collaboration with each person’s current disci-
plinary manager, to complete a performance appraisal for the calendar year. The project man-
ager is authorized to use one member of the clerical staff on a half-time (20 hours) basis per
week for the duration of the project. Additional staff support may be available upon request.
2. Budget – The estimated budget for this project, including fully loaded personnel charges, is
$240,000, to be charged against the Human Resources budget in three equal monthly install-
ments. Additional budget money may be available upon formal request submitted jointly by
the project manager and sponsor to the executive committee.
3. Status Updates – All communications on project status must be made to the chief executive
officer. Additionally, monthly updates on the project status will be made at executive com-
mittee meetings.
4. Planning/Tracking – The project will use standard corporate tracking software (MS Project)
and will report on schedule, exception reports, slippages, and cost performance. Additionally,
earned value metrics (SPI and CPI) will be employed throughout the project duration.
5. Change Control and Configuration – The project manager will have authority to make
changes to the project provided they do not exceed $2,500 and have no negative impact on
the project schedule. Otherwise, changes to the project scope or development must receive
sponsor approval.
6. Project Plan – A formal project plan, including statement of work (SOW), risk assessment and
mitigation, work breakdown structure (WBS), schedule, and budget must be submitted to the
sponsor not later than June 15.
Authority: The project manager will have full authority to identify necessary tasks and resources
needed to help complete these assignments. Where resource conflicts occur, the sponsor and other
disciplinary VPs will resolve them.
Approvals:
Vice President Engineering ________________________________________
Vice President Supply Chain and Procurement ________________________________________
Vice President Commercial ________________________________________
Vice President Human Resources ________________________________________
President and CEO ________________________________________
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182 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
iNteGrAteD Project
Developing the Work Breakdown Structure
Develop a Work Breakdown Structure for your project based on the identified goals from the first assign-
ment. Provide a detailed assessment of the various components of the project, going down through the work
package stage to tasks and subtasks (if appropriate). Next, assess the personnel needs for the project. How
many core team members will be necessary to achieve the project’s goals? What are their positions within the
organization? Remember to use the project scope as the basis for determining all the elements of the project,
the personnel responsible for each component, and the associated budget for each task.
In addition to identifying the tasks and key personnel requirements for the project, construct a Respon-
sibility Assignment Matrix (RAM) that demonstrates the interrelationship among project team members.
SAMPle Work BreAkDoWN StrUctUre—ABcUPS, iNc.
Personnel table
Name Department title
Carol Johnson Safety Safety Engineer
Bob Hoskins Engineering Industrial Engineer
Sheila Thomas Management Project Manager
Randy Egan Management Plant Manager
Stu Hall Industrial Maintenance Supervisor
Susan Berg Accounting Cost Accountant
Marty Green Industrial Shop Supervisor
John Pittman Quality Quality Engineer
Sally Reid Quality Jr. Quality Engineer
Lanny Adams Sales Marketing Manager
Kristin Abele Purchasing Purchasing Agent
Work BreAkDoWN StrUctUre—ABcUPS’ ProceSS MoDificAtioN
Process Modification Project 1000
Deliverable 1 feasibility Study 1010
Work Package 1 Conduct feasibility study 1011
Work Package 2 Receive technical approval 1012
Work Package 3 Get administrative sign-off 1013
Deliverable 2 Vendor Selection 1020
Work Package 1 Research equipment 1021
Work Package 2 Qualify suppliers 1022
Work Package 3 Solicit quotes from suppliers 1023
Work Package 4 Negotiate price and terms 1024
Work Package 5 Approval and contracts 1025
Deliverable 3 Design 1030
Work Package 1 Factory floor redesign 1031
Work Package 2 Drawings 1032
Work Package 3 Process redesign approval 1033
Deliverable 4 engineering 1040
Work Package 1 Conduct process flow evaluation 1041
Work Package 2 Determine site for equipment 1042
Responsibility Assignment Matrix
Sheila Susan Bob Lanny
Del 1010
Del 1020
Del 1030
Del 1040
Del 1050
Del 1060
Del 1070
Del 1080
Responsible
Notification
Support
Approval
Work Package 3 Retooling 1043
Work Package 4 Final layout approval 1044
Deliverable 5 Prototype testing 1050
Work Package 1 Build inventory bank 1051
Work Package 2 Set up trial run 1052
Work Package 3 Trial run 1053
Work Package 4 Quality assessment 1054
Work Package 5 Process documentation 1055
Deliverable 6 Packaging 1060
Work Package 1 Design new packaging 1061
Work Package 2 Coordinate with marketing 1062
Work Package 3 Part assembly 1063
Work Package 4 Packaging approval 1064
Deliverable 7 Sales and Service 1070
Work Package 1 Beta-test products 1071
Work Package 2 Sales approval 1072
Work Package 3 Customer approval 1073
Deliverable 8 initiate changeover 1080
Work Package 1 Assemble inventory 1081
Work Package 2 Cancel vendor contracts 1082
Work Package 3 Close out project 1083
Work Package 4 Develop lessons learned 1084
Integrated Project 183
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184 Chapter 5 • Scope Management
1. Thorp, F. (2013, October 31). “Only 6 able to sign up on
healthcare.gov’s first day, documents show,” NBC News.
www.nbcnews.com/news/other/only-6-able-sign-
healthcare-govs-first-day-documents-show-f8C11509571;
Reinen, J. (2013, September 9). “Obamacare is the worst
new-product rollout in memory,” Minnpost. www.
minnpost.com/health/2013/09/obamacare-worst-
new-product-rollout-memory; Jones, W. (2013, October
7). “Obamacare exchange sign-ups hobbled by IT sys-
tems not ready for prime time,” IEEE Spectrum. http://
spectrum.ieee.org/riskfactor/computing/it/obamacare-
exchange-signups-not-so-much; Lane, D. (2014, January
15). “Cover Oregon head: State might scrap all or part
of failing website,” KATU.com. www.katu.com/news/
investigators/Cover-Oregon-head-State-might-scrap-all-
or-part-of-failed-website-240348071.html; Lane, D. (2014,
January 30). “‘We look like fools:’ A history of Cover
Oregon’s failure,” KATU.com; www.katu.com/news/
investigators/We-look-like-fools-A-history-of-Cover-
Oregons-failure-239699521.html; Shepheard, C. (2014,
June 4). “Oregon’s health exchange failed so terribly,
there’s now a federal investigation,” Care2. www.care2.
com/causes/oregons-health-exchange-failed-so-terribly-
theres-now-a-federal-investigation.html
2. Project Management Institute. (2013). “Scope
Management,” Project Management Body of Knowledge
(PMBoK). Upper Darby, PA: Project Management
Institute; Westney, R. E. (1993). “Paradigms for planning
productive projects,” in Dinsmore, P. C. (Ed.), The AMA
Handbook of Project Management. New York: AMACOM.
3. Kerzner, H. (2001). Project Management: A Systems
Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling, 7th
ed. New York: Wiley; Mepyans-Robinson, R. (2010).
“Project scope management in practice,” in Dinsmore,
P. C., and Cabanis-Brewin, J. (Eds.), The AMA Handbook
of Project Management, 3rd ed. New York: AMACOM,
pp. 79–87; Cleland, D. I., and Kimball, R. K. (1987).
“The strategic context of projects,” Project Management
Journal, 18(3): 11–30.
4. Project Management Institute (2000), as cited in note 2.
5. Stuckenbruck, L. C. (1981). The Implementation of Project
Management: The Professional’s Handbook. Boston, MA:
Addison-Wesley; Laufer, A. (1991). “Project planning:
Timing issues and path of progress,” Project Management
Journal, 22(2): 39–45.
6. Martin, M. G. (1998). “Statement of work: The foundation
for delivering successful service projects,” PMNetwork,
12(10): 54–57.
7. www.fgdc.gov/geospatial-lob/smartbuy/understanding-
statement-of-work /
8. Project Management Institute (2013), as cited in note 2.
9. Department of Defence, Handbook For Preparation of
Statement of Work, USA. MILHDBK-245D. (1996, April 3)
Superseding MIL-HDBK-245C (1991, Sep 10). https://
www.acquisition.gov/comp/seven_steps/library/
DODhandbook
10. Duncan, W. R. (1994). “Scoping out a scope statement,”
PMNetwork, 8(12): 24–27; Wideman, R. M. (1983). “Scope
management,” Project Management Quarterly, 14: 31–32;
Pinto, J. K. (1999). “Project scope management,” in Pinto,
J. K. (Ed.), The Project Management Institute’s Project
Management Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,
pp. 109–18.
11. Lavold, G. D. (1988). “Developing and using the work
breakdown structure,” in Cleland, D. I., and King, W. R.
(Eds.), Project Management Handbook, 2nd ed. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 302–23.
12. Obradovitch, M. M., and Stephanou, S. E. (1990). Project
Management: Risks & Productivity. Bend, OR: Daniel
Spencer.
13. Project Management Body of Knowledge. (2008). Project
Management Institute: Newton Square, PA.
14. Meredith, J. R., and Mantel, Jr., S. J. (2003). Project
Management, 5th ed. New York: Wiley.
15. Globerson, S. (2001). “Scope management: Do all that you
need and just what you need,” in Knutson, J. (Ed.), Project
Management for Business Professionals. New York: Wiley,
pp. 49–62.
16. Obradovitch, M. M., and Stephanou, S. E. (1990). Project
Management: Risks & Productivity. Bend, OR: Daniel Spencer.
17. Project Management Institute (2010), as cited in note 2.
18. Yourdon, E. (2004). Death March, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
19. Kidd, C., and Burgess, T. F. (2004). “Managing configu-
rations and data for effective project management,” in
Morris, P. W. G., and Pinto, J. K. (Eds.), The Wiley Guide to
Managing Projects. New York: Wiley, pp. 498–513.
20. Meredith, J. R., and Mantel, Jr., S. J. (2003), as cited in note
14.
21. Frame, J. D. (2001). “Requirements management:
Addressing customer needs and avoiding scope creep,”
in Knutson, J. (Ed.), Project Management for Business
Professionals. New York: Wiley, pp. 63–80.
22. Kidd, C., and Burgess, T. F. (2004), as cited in note 19.
23. Turner, R. (2000). “Managing scope—Configuration and
work methods,” in Turner, R. (Ed.), Gower Handbook of
Project Management, 3rd ed. Aldershot, UK: Gower.
24. Antonioni, D. (1997). “Post-project review prevents poor
project performance,” PMNetwork, 11(10).
25. Kouri, J. (2010, November 11). “Border ‘virtual fence’
project a costly failure.” http://island-adv.com/2010/11/
border-% E2%80%9Cvirtual-fence%E2%80%9D-project-a-
costly-failure/; Krigsman, M. (2007, August 23). “Boeing
virtual fence: $30 billion failure.” www.zdnet.com/
blog/project failures/boeing-virtual-fence-30-billion-
failure/36; Krigsman, M. (2007, September 24). “Update:
Boeing’s virtual fence ‘unusable.’” www.zdnet.com/
blog/projectfailures/update-boeing-virtual-fence-unus-
able/403; Lipowicz, A. (2010, April 21). “Senate committee
chairman suggests killing Boeing’s virtual fence.” http://
washingtontechnology.com/ articles/2010/04/21/lieber-
man-calls-sbinet-virtual-fence-a-failure.aspx; Richey, J.
(2007, July 7). “Fencing the border: Boeing’s high-tech plan
falters.” www.theinvestigativefund.org/investigations/
immigrationandlabor/1243/fencing_the_ border%3A
_boeing%27s_high-tech_plan_falters
26. California High-Speed Rail Authority Web site, www.
cahighspeedrail.ca.gov/home.aspx; Castaneda, V., and
Notes
Notes 185
Severston, A. (2010, October 11). “Economists say high-
speed rail system won’t make money.” http://menlopark.
patch.com/articles/economists-say-high-speed-rail- sys-
tem-will-never-achieve-positive-cash-flow; Enthoven, A.,
Grindley, W., and Warren, W. (2010). “The financial risks
of California’s proposed high-speed rail.” www.cc-hsr.
org/assets/pdf/CHSR-Financial_Risks-101210-D ;
Garrahan, M. (2009, October 6). “California keen to set the
pace.” Financial Times, www.ft.com/cms/s/0/1c0b3676-
b28a-11de-b7d2-00144feab49a.html#axzz18CGc6USH;
Mitchell, J. (2010, December 13). “At start of rail project,
a tussle over where to begin.” Wall Street Journal, http://
online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527487037278045760
11871825514428.html; “Subsidy trains to nowhere.” (2010,
December 11–12). Wall Street Journal, p. A14; Weikel, D. (2010,
December 10). “U.S. shifts $624 million to California bullet
train.” Los Angeles Times, http://articles.latimes.com/2010/
dec/10/local/la-me-high-speed-money-20101210;
Rosenberg, M. (2013, April 3). “California high-speed rail
costs soar again—this time just for planning.” San Jose
Mercury News. www.mercurynews.com/ci_22929875/
california-high-speed-rail-costs-soar-again-this; Reason
Foundation (2013, April 11). “Study: California high-speed
rail system would lost $124 to 373 million a year.” http://
reason.org/news/show/study-california-high-speed-rail.
27. Feickert, A. (2008). “The Marines’ Expeditionary Fighting
Vehicle (EFV): Background and issues for Congress.”
Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. www.
dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTR
Doc &AD=ADA486513; Hodge, N. (2010, August 27).
“Marines question craft needed to hit the beach,” Wall Street
Journal, p. B8; www.wired.com/dangerroom/2008/08/
marines-swimmin/; Merle, R. (2007). “Problems stall
Pentagon’s new fighting vehicle.” www.washing-
tonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/06/
AR2007020601997.html; Ackerman, S. (2010). “Senate may
finally sink Marines’ swimming tank.” www.wired.com/
dangerroom/ 2010/09/senate-may-finally-sink-marines-
swimming- tank/; www.aviationweek.com/aw/jsp_in-
cludes/articlePrint. jsp?storyID=news/asd/2010/11/08/01.
xml&headLine=null; www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/
story.jsp?id=news/asd/2010/10/12/08.xml&channel=misc.
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6
■ ■ ■
Project Team Building, Conflict,
and Negotiation
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
Engineers Without Borders: Project Teams
Impacting Lives
introduction
6.1 Building the Project team
Identify Necessary Skill Sets
Identify People Who Match the Skills
Talk to Potential Team Members and Negotiate
with Functional Heads
Build in Fallback Positions
Assemble the Team
6.2 characteristics of effective
Project teams
A Clear Sense of Mission
A Productive Interdependency
Cohesiveness
Trust
Enthusiasm
Results Orientation
6.3 reasons Why teams fail
Poorly Developed or Unclear Goals
Poorly Defined Project Team Roles and
Interdependencies
Lack of Project Team Motivation
Poor Communication
Poor Leadership
Turnover Among Project Team Members
Dysfunctional Behavior
6.4 stages in grouP develoPment
Stage One: Forming
Stage Two: Storming
Stage Three: Norming
Stage Four: Performing
Stage Five: Adjourning
Punctuated Equilibrium
6.5 achieving cross-functional
cooPeration
Superordinate Goals
Rules and Procedures
Physical Proximity
Accessibility
Outcomes of Cooperation: Task and
Psychosocial Results
6.6 virtual Project teams
Project Profile
Tele-Immersion Technology Eases the Use of
Virtual Teams
6.7 conflict management
What Is Conflict?
Sources of Conflict
Methods for Resolving Conflict
6.8 negotiation
Questions to Ask Prior to the Negotiation
Principled Negotiation
Invent Options for Mutual Gain
Insist on Using Objective Criteria
Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
Case Study 6.1 Columbus Instruments
Case Study 6.2 The Bean Counter and the Cowboy
Case Study 6.3 Johnson & Rogers Software
Engineering, Inc.
Exercise in Negotiation
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Understand the steps involved in project team building.
2. Know the characteristics of effective project teams and why teams fail.
3. Know the stages in the development of groups.
4. Describe how to achieve cross-functional cooperation in teams.
5. See the advantages and challenges of virtual project teams.
6. Understand the nature of conflict and evaluate response methods.
7. Understand the importance of negotiation skills in project management.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core
concePts covered in this chAPter
1. Plan Human Resource Management (PMBoK sec. 9.1)
2. Acquire Project Team (PMBoK sec. 9.2)
3. Develop Project Team (PMBoK sec. 9.3)
4. Manage Project Team (PMBoK sec. 9.4)
Project Profile
engineers Without Borders: Project teams impacting lives
In 2000, Bernard Amadei, a civil engineering professor at the University of Colorado at Boulder, visited San Pablo,
Belize, where the sight of little girls hauling water instead of attending school broke his heart. Upon his return to
Boulder, he recruited eight civil and environmental engineering students to design and install a clean water system
powered by a local waterfall. The total cost, including airfare for him and his students, came to US$14,000.
It was just the beginning for Amadei, who went on to found Engineers Without Borders–USA in 2002. The orga-
nization now inspires nearly 14,000 members in over 250 chapters around the country. The more than 350 programs
currently underway lean heavily toward civil engineering—a farm irrigation system in Bolivia, a geothermal heating
system for a Native American tribe in South Dakota—but some, such as small hydroelectric systems and rooftop solar
panel installations, require the skills of electrical engineers. By the latest reckoning, EWB-USA has impacted for the bet-
ter the lives of over 2.5 million people worldwide.
The U.S. organization follows in the footsteps of a movement that began in France in the 1980s and then spread
to Spain, Italy, Canada, and many other countries. The organizations were quite independent, though, sharing only
a name and a mission, so in 2004 Amadei created an informal network, EWB-International. Today it has 45 member
groups, including ones in Kosovo, Rwanda, and Iran.
“Amadei tapped into a previously unexploited humanitarian passion within the U.S. engineering community,”
says Peter Coats, a civil engineer and cofounder of EWB-USA’s San Francisco chapter, the first to consist of profession-
als instead of students. That higher purpose is particularly attractive to women, who make up more than 40 percent
of student volunteers, twice the proportion of female engineering graduates. “They identify more with people and
humanity,” says Cathy Leslie, a civil engineer who serves as the executive director of EWB-USA. “Women don’t thrive on
creating technology for technology’s sake.”
Communities or local non-government organizations (NGOs) provide EWB-USA with a wish list of needs, and
the organization plays matchmaker, helping pair chapters with specific projects. Clean water tops the list—establishing
sewage systems, sanitation systems for collecting and disposing of waste, and irrigation canals. Cheap, renewable
sources of electricity are also a common need.
These projects can’t be built in a day, and like almost all engineering work, they need to be maintained and
upgraded, so there is an emphasis on imparting knowledge to local community members and NGOs. For this, project
teams include trainers and business folks in addition to engineers. “You establish a sort of trust, which is really power-
ful,” says Eyleen Chou, the president of the University of Wisconsin–Madison’s student chapter. “There’s no reason why
you shouldn’t stay 10 years or longer.”
Leslie says that successful chapters such as Chou’s can build and maintain many projects despite a constant rota-
tion of entering freshmen and departing seniors. They establish training programs and mentorships, devise ways for
(continued)
Project Profile 187
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188 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
IntroductIon
The difficulties involved in building and coordinating an effective team can be daunting and
highly complex. Becoming technically proficient at scheduling, budgeting, and project evaluation
is essential in developing the necessary project management skills; however, it is equally impor-
tant to develop an appreciation for and willingness to undertake the human challenges of the job.
team building and conflict management are two of the most important people skills that project
managers can cultivate, but they are also two of the most difficult undertakings. We must use our
leadership skills to negotiate with department managers for access to skilled personnel for team
staffing; we must recognize that no project team comes “fully assembled” and ready to go. Simply
grouping a collection of diverse individuals together is not the same thing as building a team.
This chapter offers an overview of some of the key behavioral tasks facing project managers:
staffing a project team, building a sense of common purpose and shared commitment, encouraging
cross-functional cooperation among team members, and recognizing the causes of and resolving
conflicts among all project stakeholders. The bad news is that this is not an easy process; it does not
involve formulas or calculations in the same way that task duration estimation does. The “rules” of
FIgure 6.1 eWB Project team laying Water Pipes with local Workers
Source: Dieter Heinemann/Westend61/Corbis
new students to contribute, and find sustainable funding. Chapters are expected to raise the majority of project money
themselves, but they work under basic guidelines. At a project’s onset, they consult with an EWB-USA technical advisory
committee to tweak and finalize plans. Teams must commit five years to a project.
In addition to the student chapters at universities, EWB-USA maintains a number of professional chapters around
the country. However, maintaining effective, temporary teams is a challenge; especially for a volunteer organization.
Professional chapters have problems of bringing new volunteers up to speed while experienced ones drop out—and
their members face the additional challenge of juggling their project work with full-time jobs. For example, the San
Francisco chapter’s members typically spend at least five hours per week, but this can spike during special events or an
actual field visit. Members have on occasion spent over 30 hours a week on EWB activities in addition to working their
regular jobs.
In the process of improving others’ lives, EWB is also creating a better brand of engineer, says Leslie. “The work
we do has educational value for the student,” she says, and taking a professional out of the office “makes for a more
well-rounded engineer.”1
6.1 Building the Project Team 189
human behavior often consist of broad generalizations, at best, which should be used only to sug-
gest appropriate managerial actions. The good news is that when carefully evaluated and applied,
managing the people side of project management can be just as effective, rewarding, and important
for project success as any of the technical duties.
Project staffing, team building, cross-functional cooperation, and conflict management are
not supplementary topics in project management; the study of these skills is central to our ability
to become proficient in a highly complex and challenging profession. This chapter will not only
analyze the team building and conflict processes, but it will also offer some prescriptive advice to
readers on how to improve these processes and skills in managing human behavior. One point is
clear: If we undertake projects with a project team as our principal resource for getting work done
and the project completed, it is vital that we learn everything possible about how to mold people
into a high-performing team and how to control the inevitable conflicts that are likely to emerge
along the way.
6.1 BuIldIng the Project team
Effective project teams do not happen by accident. A great deal of careful work and preparation
goes into the steps necessary to first staff and then develop project team members to the point
where they begin to function jointly and the project reaps positive dividends from their collec-
tive performance. The best-case scenario for project managers is to take over a project with a uni-
fied team composed of individuals who lobbied for and were awarded with membership on the
team. Unfortunately, in many organizations, project teams are put together based on other criteria,
most notably whoever is available. Regardless of the circumstances, the project manager is faced
with the challenge of creating from a set of diverse individuals a high-performing, cohesive proj-
ect team. The preferred process, however, should be as structured as possible; staffing is ideally
aligned with the project manager’s judgment of what is best for the project.
Figure 6.2 illustrates how project team personnel may be assigned. Within many organiza-
tions, this process emerges as the result of protracted negotiations with functional or departmental
supervisors, as we discussed in Chapter 2. The flowchart in Figure 6.2 illustrates several key deci-
sion points or critical interfaces in developing a project team.2
Identify necessary Skill Sets
The first stage in project team development is to conduct a realistic assessment of the types of skills
the team members will need in order to complement each other and perform their project duties
as effectively as possible. For example, in projects with a high technical complexity, it is imperative
to ascertain the availability of skilled human resources and their capability of adding value to the
project development. No one would seriously embark on a software development project without
first ensuring that the technical steps in the project are clearly understood.
Identify People Who match the Skills
Once a reasonable assessment of the required project skills has been completed, a complemen-
tary assessment of the availability of personnel with the requisite skills is necessary. We have
two options: (1) hire new personnel for the project (e.g., in many cases, companies will hire con-
tractors on a fixed-term basis for the life of a project), or (2) train current personnel to become
proficient in the skills they will need to perform the tasks. The final decision often comes down to a
cost/benefit assessment: Who can do the work? Is the cost of hiring or training the person to do
the job prohibitively expensive? Once the person has been trained/hired, will these skills be of
continuing benefit to the company?
talk to Potential team members and negotiate with Functional heads
The third step in the process of building the project team involves opening communication with
likely candidates for the team and assessing their level of interest in joining the project. In some
cases, personnel have a great deal of authority in assigning their own time to projects. However,
in most cases (particularly within functional organizations), all functional specialists are under
the authority of departmental heads. Consequently, at some point the project manager must begin
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190 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
to enter into negotiations with these functional heads for the services of prospective project team
members. These negotiations can be complex and lengthy.
Departmental managers generally are not opposed to the use of their personnel on proj-
ects. They are, however, primarily concerned with the smooth operations of their organizations.
Depriving a functional manager of key personnel to serve on a project team can be seen as threat-
ening a smoothly operating department. Hence, negotiations are required. Among the issues to be
decided are:
1. How long are the team members services required? Project team members can be assigned on
a full-time basis (40 hours per week) or a part-time basis (less than 40 hours per week). Further,
the team member may be assigned for a fixed period (e.g., six months) or for the duration of
the project.
Identify skills
required (from WBS)
Identify personnel to
match the skills
Talk to potential
team members
Negotiate with the
functional supervisor
Renegotiate with
top management
Notify top management
of consequences
Try to get partial
assistance
Adjust project schedule,
budget, and/or priorities
Success?
Success?
Assemble
the team
• Develop skills
inventory matrix
• Develop
responsibility matrix
• Clarify roles
• Clarify methods
and procedures
NO
YES
NO
YES
• From permanently assigned
staff or functional groups
• Explain nature of project
and gauge their interest
FIgure 6.2 Basic Steps in Assembling a Project team
Source: V. K. Verma. (1997). Managing the Project Team, p. 127. Upper Darby, PA: Project
Management Institute. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has been
reproduced with the permission of PMI.
6.1 Building the Project Team 191
2. Who should choose the person to be assigned to the project? Another point of negotiation
is the question of who should select the individual to serve on the project team. The func-
tional manager may have her own ideas as to the best choice, while the project manager may
employ different criteria and come up with other possible candidates.
3. What happens when special circumstances arise? In the event of some emergency or spe-
cial circumstance, the functional department head may wish to retain control of the team
member or have the option of suddenly recalling that individual back to work on departmen-
tal activities. How will “emergencies” be defined? If the team member is recalled, how will
the department provide a replacement? What is the maximum amount of time a team mem-
ber can be removed from his project duties? All these questions are important and should be
resolved prior to the appointment of project team members.
Most project resources are negotiated with department managers. This point is critical: For
the majority of project managers, their outright control over project team members may be limited,
particularly early in the process when project team assignments are being made. The best strategy
a project manager can engage in at this point is to have thought carefully about the types of exper-
tise and skills that will be required for successful completion of the project and begin bargaining
with these clear goals in mind. Treat functional managers as allies, not opponents. The organiza-
tion supports the project; functional departments will support it as well, but their level of support
must be carefully planned in advance.
Build in Fallback Positions
What are your options as the project manager when resources are not available? Suppose, for
example, that you need three highly trained design engineers for the project and the head of engi-
neering is unwilling to part with them or negotiate a compromise. As Figure 6.2 demonstrates, in
the event that negotiations with functional managers and top managers are not fruitful, the project
manager is faced with three basic alternatives.
try to negotIate For PartIal aSSIStance The best alternative to an outright refusal is to seek
some limited assistance. One reason for this approach is that it gets your foot in the door. Once the
personnel are assigned to the project, even on limited terms, it forms the basis for your returning
to the department head at a later point to ask for them again, while only slowing down the project
marginally. This principle argues, in effect, that it is better to have half a loaf than none.
adjuSt Project ScheduleS and PrIorItIeS accordIngly When critical resources are not
available, the project schedule must be adjusted to reflect this fact. As we will note in Chapter 12,
“Resource Management,” there is no point in developing a sophisticated project schedule if it is
not supported by resources. Or, to put it another way, until we can match people to project tasks,
we cannot make progress. With a failure to convince functional managers that their resources are
needed to support the project, serious and honest adjustments must be made to all project plans,
including scope documents, schedules, risk assessment, and so forth.
notIFy toP management oF the conSequenceS Failing to gain necessary resources must be
reported to top management, the ultimate sponsors of the project. They may, in the end, become
the final arbiters of the resource and staffing question. In the face of persistent resistance from
a functional manager, the only recourse may be to present to top management, as candidly as
possible, the implications for project success without sufficient support. The final decision then
comes down to top management: They will either support the project and require that staffing be
completed as requested, suggest a compromise, or support the functional manager. In the first two
cases, the project will proceed; in the third, top management is effectively ending the project before
it has begun.
assemble the team
When the project has been staffed and approved, the final step is assembling the project team.
This involves developing a skills inventory matrix that identifies the skills needed for the project
against the skills we have acquired and a responsibility matrix using the Responsibility Activity
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192 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Matrix (RAM) methodology (discussed in Chapter 5). Also, all project team roles and responsibili-
ties must be clarified, along with all project team methods, expectations, and standard operating
procedures. Where any of these do not exist, it will be necessary to begin establishing them.
6.2 characterIStIcS oF eFFectIve Project teamS
A great deal of research has investigated the qualities that effective teams possess and how those
same qualities are missing from less effective groups. Successful teams share common underlying
features, including a clear sense of mission, an understanding of team interdependencies, cohe-
siveness, a high level of trust, a shared sense of enthusiasm, and a results orientation.
a clear Sense of mission
A key determinant of project success is a clear project mission.3 Further, that sense of mission must
be mutually understood and accepted by all team members. Research has demonstrated that a
clearly understood project mission is the number one predictor of success as the project is being
developed.4 Two important issues are clear: First, project teams perform well when there is a clear
sense of purpose or objectives for their project; and second, the more widely shared and under-
stood those goals, the better the project performance. The alternative is to allow the project man-
ager to function as the hub of a wheel, with each team member as a separate spoke, interacting
only through the project manager. This arrangement is not nearly as useful or successful as one in
which all project team members understand the overall project objectives and how their perfor-
mance contributes to achieving those objectives.
A mistake sometimes made by project managers is to segment the team in terms of their
duties, giving each member a small, well-specified task but no sense of how that activity contrib-
utes to the overall project development effort. This approach is a serious mistake for several impor-
tant reasons. First, the project team is the manager’s best source for troubleshooting problems,
both potential and actual. If the team is kept in the dark, members who could potentially help
with the smooth development of the project through participating in other aspects of the installa-
tion are not able to contribute in helpful ways. Second, team members know and resent it when
they are being kept in the dark about various features of the project on which they are working.
Consciously or not, when project managers keep their team isolated and involved in fragmented
tasks, they are sending out the signal that they either do not trust their team or do not feel that their
team has the competence to address issues related to the overall implementation effort. Finally,
from a “firefighting” perspective, it simply makes good sense for team leaders to keep their people
abreast of the status of the project. The more time spent defining goals and clarifying roles in the
initial stages of the team’s development, the less time will be needed to resolve problems and adju-
dicate disputes down the road.
a Productive Interdependency
Interdependency refers to the degree of joint activity among team members that is required in order
to complete a project. If, for example, a project could be completed through the work of a small
number of people or one department in an organization, the interdependence needed would be
considered low. In most situations, however, a project manager must form a team out of members
from various functional areas within the organization. For example, an IT project introduction at a
large corporation could conceivably require the input or efforts of a team that included members
from the Information Systems department, engineering, accounting, marketing, and administra-
tion. As the concept of differentiation suggests, these individuals each bring to the team their pre-
conceived notions of the roles that they should play, the importance of their various contributions,
and other parochial attitudes.
interdependencies refer to the degree of knowledge that team members have and the impor-
tance they attach to the interrelatedness of their efforts. Developing an understanding of mutual
interdependencies implies developing a mutual level of appreciation for the strengths and contri-
butions that each team member brings to the table and is a precondition for team success. Team
members must become aware not only of their own contributions but also of how their work fits
into the overall scheme of the project and, further, of how it relates to the work of team members
from other departments.
6.2 Characteristics of Effective Project Teams 193
cohesiveness
cohesiveness, at its most basic level, simply refers to the degree of mutual attraction that team
members hold for one another and their task. It is the strength of desire all members have to remain a
team. It is safe to assume that most members of the project team need a reason or reasons to contribute
their skills and time to the successful completion of a project. Although they have been assigned to the
project, for many individuals, this project may compete with other duties or responsibilities pulling
them in other directions. Project managers work to build a team that is cohesive as a starting point
for performing their tasks. Since cohesiveness is predicated on the attraction that the group holds
for each individual member, managers need to make use of all resources at their disposal, including
reward systems, recognition, performance appraisals, and any other sources of organizational reward,
to induce team members to devote time and energy in furthering the team’s goals.
trust
Trust means different things to different people.5 For a project team, trust can best be understood
as the team’s comfort level with each individual member. Given that comfort level, trust is mani-
fested in the team’s ability and willingness to squarely address differences of opinion, values, and
attitudes and deal with them accordingly. Trust is the common denominator without which ideas of
group cohesion and appreciation become moot. The interesting point about trust is that it can actu-
ally encourage disagreement and conflict among team members. When members of a project team
have developed a comfort level where they are willing to trust the opinions of others, no matter how
much those opinions diverge from their own, it is possible to air opposing views, to discuss issues,
and even to argue. Because we trust one another, the disagreements are never treated as personal
attacks; we recognize that views different from our own are valuable and can contribute to the proj-
ect. Of course, before positive results can come from disagreement, we have to develop trust.
There are a number of ways in which project team members begin to trust one another. First,
it is important for the project manager to create a “What happens here, stays here” mentality in
which team members are not worried that their views will be divulged or confidences betrayed.
Trust must first be demonstrated by the professionalism of the project manager and the manner
in which she treats all team members. Second, trust develops over time. There is no way to jump-
start trust among people. We are tested continuously to ensure that we are trustworthy. Third,
trust is an “all-or-nothing” issue. Either we are trustworthy or we are not. There is no such thing
as being slightly trustworthy. Finally, trust occurs on several levels:6 (1) trust as it relates to profes-
sional interaction and the expectation of another person’s competence (“I trust you to be able to
accomplish the task”), (2) trust that occurs on an integrity level (“I trust you to honor your commit-
ments”), and (3) trust that exists on an emotional level based on intuition (“It feels right to allow
you to make this decision”). Hence, it is important to recognize that trust among team members is
complex, takes time to develop, is dependent on past history, and can occur on several levels, each
of which is important to developing a high-performing team.
enthusiasm
Enthusiasm is the key to creating the energy and spirit that drive effective project efforts. One
method for generating team enthusiasm is to promote the idea of efficacy, the belief that if we work
toward certain goals, they are attainable. Enthusiasm is the catalyst for directing positive, high
energy toward the project while committing to its goals. Project managers, therefore, are best able
to promote a sense of enthusiasm within the project team when they create an environment that is:
• Challenging—Each member of the project perceives his role to offer the opportunity for
professional or personal growth, new learning, and the ability to stretch professionally.
• Supportive—Project team members gain a sense of team spirit and group identity that creates
the feeling of uniqueness with regard to the project. All team members work collaboratively,
communicate often, and treat difficulties as opportunities for sharing and joint problem
solving.
• Personally rewarding—Project team members become more enthusiastic as they perceive
personal benefits arising from successful completion of the project. Linking the opportunity
for personal advancement to project team performance gives all team members a sense of
ownership of the project and a vested interest in its successful completion.
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194 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
The importance of enthusiasm among project team members is best illustrated by a recently
witnessed example. A team leader had been charged with reengineering a manufacturing process at
a large production plant in New England. Despite his initial enthusiasm and energy, he was getting
increasingly frustrated with his project team, most of them having been assigned to him without any
of his input on the assignments. His chief concern became how to deal with the constant litany of
“We can’t do that here” that he heard every time he offered a suggestion for changing a procedure or
trying anything new. One Monday morning, his team members walked into the office to the vision of
the words “YES WE CAN!” painted in letters three feet high across one wall of the office. (Over the
weekend, the project manager had come in and done a little redecorating.) From that point on, the
motto YES WE CAN! became the theme of the team and had a powerful impact on project success.
results orientation
Results orientation suggests that each member of the project team is committed to achieving
the project’s goals. The project manager can influence team performance in many ways, but it is
through constantly emphasizing the importance of task performance and project outcomes that all
team members are united toward the same orientation. Some have referred to this phenomenon as
the “eyes on the prize” attitude, a commonly held characteristic among successful project teams.
The benefit of a results orientation is that it serves to continually rally team members toward the
important or significant issues, allowing them to avoid squandering time and resources on prob-
lems that may be only peripheral to the major project goals.
6.3 reaSonS Why teamS FaIl
Because the challenges involved in creating high-performing project teams are so profound, it is not
surprising that project teams fail to perform to their potential in many circumstances. Teams operate
at less than optimum performance for a number of reasons, including poorly developed or unclear
goals, poorly defined project team roles and interdependencies, lack of project team motivation,
poor communication or leadership, turnover among team members, and dysfunctional behavior.7
Poorly developed or unclear goals
One of the most common causes of project team failure is the absence of clear and commonly
understood project goals. When the project goals are fragmented, constantly changing, or poorly
communicated, the result is a high degree of ambiguity. This ambiguity is highly frustrating for
project team members for a number of reasons.
unclear goalS PermIt multIPle InterPretatIonS The most common problem with poorly
developed goals is that they allow each team member to make separate and often differing inter-
pretations of project objectives. As a result, rather than helping the team to focus on the project
at hand, these goals actually serve to increase disagreements as each team member interprets the
project’s goals in different ways.
unclear goalS ImPede the WIllIngneSS oF team memBerS to Work together When team
members are faced with ambiguous goals, it is common for each person to interpret the goals in the
most advantageous way. When goals are used to support individuals rather than team objectives,
it often leads to situations in which one person’s desire to satisfy the project goals as he interprets
them actually conflicts with another team member’s desire to satisfy her goals.
unclear goalS IncreaSe conFlIct Project team conflict is heightened by vague goals that allow
for multiple, self-centered interpretations. Rather than working on completing the project, team
members expend energy and time in conflict with one another sifting through project objectives.
Poorly defined Project team roles and Interdependencies
Team interdependencies is a state where team members’ activities coordinate with and comple-
ment other team members’ work. To some degree, all team members depend on each other and
must work in collaboration in order to accomplish project goals. High-performing teams are well
6.3 Reasons Why Teams Fail 195
structured in ways that leave little ambiguity about individual roles and responsibilities. When
team member assignments or responsibilities are not made clear, it is natural for disagreements
to occur or for time to be wasted in clarifying assignments. Another serious problem with poorly
defined roles is that it allows for significant time to be lost between project activities. When team
members are unaware of their roles and interdependencies in relation to other team members, it is
common to lose time on the project through poor transitions, as tasks are completed and succes-
sors are expected to begin.
lack of Project team motivation
A common problem with poorly performing project teams is a lack of motivation among team
members. Motivation is typically a highly individualistic phenomenon, suggesting that the
factors that motivate one member of the project (e.g., technical challenge, opportunities for
advancement) may not be motivating for another member. When overall project team motiva-
tion is low, however, the project’s performance will naturally suffer as team members work
at below-optimal performance. Some of the reasons why project team motivation may be low
include the following.
the Project IS PerceIved aS unneceSSary When projects are viewed by team members as less
than critical, their motivation to perform well will naturally be affected. Whether the project team
members’ perception of a project as “unnecessary” is correct or not, if the organization and the
project manager allow this interpretation to become fixed, it is extremely difficult to achieve high
motivation from the team. Consequently, project managers need to communicate to the project
team, as honestly as possible, the benefits of the project, its goals, and why they are important for
the organization.
the Project may have loW PrIorIty Team members within organizations are often aware of
which project initiatives are considered high priority and which are not. Internal company com-
munications, including newsletters, e-mails, and other methods for highlighting activities, clearly
identify the projects that top management views as critical. When project team members perceive
that they are working on a project of low priority, they adopt a low level of commitment to the
project and have low motivation to perform well.
Poor communication
Poor communication comes about for a variety of reasons. For example, project team members may
be uncertain about the structure of the project and the interdependencies among team members so
they do not know with whom they are expected to share information. Another reason communi-
cation within the project team can break down is that some team members are unwilling to share
information, viewing it as a source of power over other members of the team. Communication
also may be impeded within the project team due to the different functional or professional
orientations of project team members. Technical personnel, such as engineers, are comfortable
employing scientific or technical jargon that is hard for nontechnical personnel to understand.
Likewise, professionals with financial backgrounds may use business-related terminology that is
not clear to technical team members.
The key to resolving many communication problems lies in the project manager ’s willing-
ness to establish and enforce standards for information sharing among team members, creating
an atmosphere within the project team that encourages frank and open exchanges. Other mecha-
nisms for encouraging cross-functional cooperation are examined in greater detail later in this
chapter.
Poor leadership
Chapter 4 discussed the importance of the project manager ’s approach to leadership in great
detail. Because this individual is often the linchpin holding the team together, the leadership
style chosen by the project manager is a key promoter or inhibitor of project team effectiveness.
Project managers who adopt a “one-style-fits-all” approach to leadership fail to recognize that
different leadership styles are required in order to get the best performance out of each team
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196 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
member. Further, some project managers adopt a leadership approach that may be completely
antithetical to the project team, browbeating, bullying, or threatening team members in the
belief that the key to high project team performance is to create an atmosphere of fear and
anxiety. Successful project leaders understand that leadership styles depend upon a number
of relevant criteria within the project team—including makeup of the team, motivation
levels, and experience and skill levels of team members—and modify their leadership style
accordingly.
turnover among Project team members
A common problem in many organizations is that team members are assigned to a project and
then unexpectedly pulled off the project for reassignment. The higher the turnover among proj-
ect team members, the more it disrupts the project manager ’s ability to create project team
cohesion. Further, the act of continually adding to and removing personnel from project teams
causes problems with team learning and functioning. Research has found that because of learn-
ing curve effects, the act of adding team members to an ongoing project often has the effect of
delaying the project. New team members need time to get caught up with the project, they are
not clear on structure or team interrelationships, and they do not understand internal team
dynamics.
Although the best-case scenario for project managers is to run projects in which team mem-
bers do not turn over, the practical reality is that we must anticipate the potential for turnover and
consider strategies that allow for minimal disruption to the project schedule when turnover does
occur. One method of minimizing disruption is for the project manager to require that everyone on
the team understands, as clearly as possible, not only her own role but also the roles of other team
members to allow the members to support activities that could be delayed due to staff “pullaways.”
Another option is for the project manager to work closely with functional department heads in
order to anticipate the possibility of project team members leaving the team prematurely and to
begin prepping possible replacements.
dysfunctional Behavior
Dysfunctional behavior refers to the disruptive acts of some project team members due to per-
sonality issues, hidden agendas, or interpersonal problems. Sometimes the solution simply calls
for recognizing which members are engaging in these behaviors and taking steps to correct the
problem. Other times, serious cases of dysfunctional behavior may require that a team member be
removed from the project team.
6.4 StageS In grouP develoPment
The process of group development is a dynamic one.8 Groups go through several maturation
stages that are often readily identifiable, are generally found across a variety of organizations, and
involve groups formed for a variety of different purposes. These stages are illustrated in Table 6.1
and Figure 6.3.9
taBle 6.1 Stages of Group Development
Stage Defining characteristics
Forming Members get to know one another and lay the basis for project and team ground rules.
Storming Conflict begins as team members begin to resist authority and demonstrate hidden
agendas and prejudices.
Norming Members agree on operating procedures and seek to work together, develop closer
relationships, and commit to the project development process.
Performing Group members work together to accomplish their tasks.
Adjourning Groups may disband either following the completion of the project or through significant
reassignment of team personnel.
6.4 Stages in Group Development 197
Stage one: Forming
forming consists of the process or approaches used to mold a collection of individuals into a
coherent project team. This stage has sometimes been referred to as the “floundering” stage,
because team members are unsure about the project’s goals, may not know other team mem-
bers, and are confused about their own assignments.10 Team members begin to get acquainted
with one another and talk about the purposes of the project, how they perceive their roles, what
types of communication patterns will be used, and what will be acceptable behaviors within
the group. During the forming stage, some preliminary standards of behavior are established,
including rules for interaction (who is really in charge and how members are expected to inter-
act) and activity (how productive members are expected to be). The earlier this stage is com-
pleted, the better, so that ambiguities further along are avoided. In these early meetings, the
role of the team leader is to create structure and set the tone for future cooperation and positive
member attitudes.
Stage two: Storming
storming refers to the natural reactions members have to the initial ground rules. Members
begin to test the limits and constraints placed on their behavior. Storming is a conflict-laden
stage in which the preliminary leadership patterns, reporting relationships, and norms of work
and interpersonal behavior are challenged and, perhaps, reestablished. During this stage, it is
likely that the team leader will begin to see a number of the group members demonstrating per-
sonal agendas, attempting to defy or rewrite team rules, and exhibiting prejudices toward team-
mates from other functional backgrounds. For example, a team member may unilaterally decide
that it is not necessary for her to attend all team meetings, proposing instead to get involved
later in the project when she is “really needed.” Other behaviors may involve not-so-subtle digs
at members from other departments (“Gee, what are you marketing people doing here on a tech-
nical project?”) or old animosities between individuals that resurface. Storming is a very natural
phase through which all groups go. The second half of this chapter addresses ways to handle all
types of conflict.
1. Forming
2. Storming3. Norming
4. Performing
Testing
InfightingOrganized
Productive
ConveneAdjourn
Inclusion
C
on
tr
ol
C
ooperation
Pr
od
uc
tiv
ity
• Quiet
• Polite
• Guarded
• Impersonal
• Businesslike
• High morale
• Conflict over control
• Confrontational
• Alienation
• Personal agendas
• Low morale
• Establish procedures
• Develop team skills
• Confront issues
• Rebuild morale
• Trust
• Flexible
• Supportive
• Confident
• Efficient
• High morale
FIgure 6.3 Stages of team Development
Source: V. K. Verma. (1997). Managing the Project Team, p. 71. Upper Darby, PA: Project
Management Institute. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has
been reproduced with the permission of PMI.
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198 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Stage three: norming
A norm is an unwritten rule of behavior. norming behavior in a group implies that the team
members are establishing mutually agreed-upon practices and attitudes. Norms help the team
determine how it should make decisions, how often it should meet, what level of openness and
trust members will have, and how conflicts will be resolved. Research has shown that it is during
the norming stage that the cohesiveness of the group grows to its highest level. Close relationships
develop, a sense of mutual concern and appreciation emerges, and feelings of camaraderie and
shared responsibility become evident. The norming stage establishes the healthy basis upon which
the actual work of the team will commence.
Stage Four: Performing
The actual work of the project team is done during the performing stage. It is only when the first
three phases have been properly dealt with that the team will have reached the level of maturity
and confidence needed to effectively perform their duties. During the performing stage, team rela-
tionships are characterized by high levels of trust, a mutual appreciation for one another’s perfor-
mance and contributions, and a willingness to actively seek to collaborate. Morale has continued
to improve over the project team’s development cycle to this point, at which all team members
are working confidently and efficiently. As long as strong task-oriented group norms were estab-
lished early in the team development and conflict was resolved, the performing stage is one of
high morale and strong performance.
Stage Five: adjourning
Adjourning recognizes the fact that projects and their teams do not last forever. At some point,
the project has been completed and the team is disbanded to return to their other functional duties
within the organization. In some cases, the group may downsize slowly and deliberately. For
example, in the case of developing a systems engineering project, as various components of the
system come online, the services of the team’s design engineer may no longer be needed and he
will be reassigned. In other circumstances, the team will complete its tasks and be disbanded all at
once. In either case, it is important to remember that during the final stages of the implementation
process, group members are likely to exhibit some concern about their future assignments and/or
new duties. Project managers need to be sensitive to the real concerns felt by these team members
and, where possible, help smooth the transition from the old team to the new assignments.
Punctuated equilibrium
In the late 1980s, UCLA researcher Connie Gersick challenged the validity of the standard model
of project team development.11 Through a series of studies, she observed a dramatically different
process by which project teams evolve. She referred to her model as punctuated equilibrium, based
on a similar scientific model proposed by Stephen J. Gould to explain macroevolutionary change
in the natural world. Punctuated equilibrium proposes that rather than evolution occurring as a
steady state of gradual change, real natural change comes about through long periods of stasis,
interrupted by some cataclysmic event that propels upward, evolutionary adjustment.
This phenomenon of punctuated equilibrium frequently occurs in the field of group dynamics.
Gersick’s work suggests that the timing of group process changes is quite consistent across teams
and situations. Most teams, she discovered, develop a set of operating norms very quickly, at the
time of the first team meeting and on the basis of limited interaction and knowledge of one another
or the project mission. These norms, which are often less than optimal, tend to guide group
behavior and performance for a substantial period of the project’s life. The group will continue to
operate as a result of these norms until some trigger event occurs, almost precisely at the halfway
point between the initial meeting and the project deadline (see Figure 6.4). The trigger event may
be general dissatisfaction with the project’s progress to date, a boiling over of interpersonal antag-
onisms, or some other external force. Nevertheless, once this eruption has occurred, it serves as
the motivation to revise group norms, develop better intragroup procedures, and promote better
task performance. It is typically during this second phase of the group’s life that the majority of
effective work gets done and the group begins to function more as a team and less as a collection
of individuals.
6.5 Achieving Cross-Functional Cooperation 199
Punctuated equilibrium has some very important implications for project team leaders. First,
it suggests that initial impressions are often lasting, as early behaviors and norms quickly solidify
and become the controlling force behind the team’s behavior. Project team leaders, therefore, need
to take a hard look at how they run kickoff meetings and the messages they send (intentional
or otherwise) regarding appropriate task and interpersonal behavior. Second, the model suggests
that groups collectively experience a form of “midlife crisis” in running their project, because a
lack of concrete results, coupled with escalating interpersonal tensions, tends to build to a state of
dissatisfaction that finally overflows midway through the development process. Leaders need to
plan for these behaviors, recognize the warning signs of their approach, and proactively chart the
steps needed for more positive outcomes from the transition. Finally, Gersick’s research found that
group members tended to feel increased frustration because they lacked a real sense of where the
project stood at any point in time. Hence, project managers who wish to avoid the more damaging
effects of midlife project transitions need to recognize that the more they plan for interim mile-
stones and other indications of progress, the more they can mitigate the adverse effects of project
team blowups.
6.5 achIevIng croSS-FunctIonal cooPeratIon
What are some tactics that managers can use for effective team development? One research project
on project teams uncovered a set of critical factors that contribute to cross-functional cooperation.12
Figure 6.5 shows a two-stage model: The first set of factors influences cooperation, and the second
set influences outcomes. Critical factors that influence cooperation and behavior are superordinate
goals, rules and procedures, physical proximity, and accessibility. Through cross-functional coopera-
tion, these influence both high task outcomes (making sure the project is done right) and psycho-
social outcomes (the emotional and psychological effects that strong performance will have on the
project team).
Superordinate goals
A superordinate goal refers to an overall goal or purpose that is important to all functional groups
involved, but whose attainment requires the resources and efforts of more than one group.13 When
Apple developed its iPad tablet, that venture included a number of subprojects, including the
creation of a user-friendly operating system, graphical-user interface, a number of unique fea-
tures and applications for running multiple programs, 4G and wireless capabilities, and so forth.
Project Time Line
Start Midpoint Deadline
Team
Performance
High
Low
Completion
First
Meeting
Eruption
FIgure 6.4 Model of Punctuated equilibrium
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200 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Each of these subprojects was supported by dozens of electronics engineers, IT professionals, pro-
grammers and coding specialists, graphics designers, marketing research personnel, and opera-
tions specialists, all working together collaboratively. The iPad could not have been successful if
only some of the projects succeeded—they all had to be successful, requiring that their developers
maintain strong, collaborative working relationships with one another.
The superordinate goal is an addition to, not a replacement for, other goals the functional
groups may have set. The premise is that when project team members from different functional
areas share an overall goal or common purpose, they tend to cooperate toward this end. To illus-
trate, let us consider an example of creating a new software project for the commercial marketplace.
A superordinate goal for this project team may be “to develop a high-quality, user-friendly, and
generally useful system that will enhance the operations of various departments and functions.”
This overall goal attempts to enhance or pull together some of the diverse function-specific goals
for cost-effectiveness, schedule adherence, quality, and innovation. It provides a central objective
or an overriding goal toward which the entire project team can strive.
rules and Procedures
Rules and procedures are central to any discussion of cross-functional cooperation because they
offer a means for coordinating or integrating activities that involve several functional units.14
Organizational rules and procedures are defined as formalized processes established by the orga-
nization that mandate or control the activities of the project team in terms of team membership,
task assignment, and performance evaluation. For years, organizations have relied on rules and
procedures to link together the activities of organizational members. Rules and procedures have
been used to assign duties, evaluate performance, solve conflicts, and so on. Rules and procedures
can be used to address formalized rules and procedures established by the organization for the
performance of the implementation process, as well as project-specific rules and procedures devel-
oped by the project team to facilitate its operations.
The value of rules and procedures suggests that in the absence of cooperation among team
members, the company can simply mandate that it occur. In cases where project teams cannot
rely on established, organizationwide rules and procedures to assist members with their tasks,
they often must create their own rules and procedures to facilitate the progress of the project. For
example, one such rule could be that all project team members will make themselves available to
one another regarding project business.
Cross–Functional
Cooperation
Superordinate Goals
Rules and Procedures
Physical Proximity
Accessibility
Feedback Loop
Task
Outcomes
Psychosocial
Outcomes
FIgure 6.5 Project team cross-functional cooperation
Source: M. B. Pinto, J. K. Pinto, and J. E. Prescott. (1993). “Antecedents and consequences
of project team cross-functional cooperation.” Management Science, 39: 1281–97, p. 1283.
Copyright 1993, the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, 7240
Parkway Drive, Suite 300, Hanover, MD 21076 USA. Reprinted by permission, Project Team
Cross-Functional Cooperation.
6.5 Achieving Cross-Functional Cooperation 201
Physical Proximity
Physical proximity refers to project team members’ perceptions that they are located within physi-
cal or spatial distances that make it convenient for them to interact. Individuals are more likely
to interact and communicate with others when the physical characteristics of buildings or set-
tings encourage them to do so.15 For example, the sheer size and spatial layout of a building can
affect working relationships. In a small building or when a work group is clustered on the same
floor, relationships tend to be more intimate, since people are in close physical proximity to one
another. As people spread out along corridors or in different buildings, interactions may become
less frequent and/or less spontaneous. In these situations, it is harder for employees to interact
with members of either their own department or other departments.
Many companies seriously consider the potential effects of physical proximity on project
team cooperation. In fact, some project organizations relocate personnel who are working together
on a project to the same office or floor. The term “war room” is sometimes used to illustrate this
deliberate regrouping of project team members into a central location. When project team mem-
bers work near one another, they are more likely to communicate and, ultimately, cooperate.
accessibility
While physical proximity is important for encouraging cross-functional cooperation, another
factor, accessibility, appears to be an equally important predictor of the phenomenon.
Accessibility is the perception by others that a person is approachable for communicating and
interacting with on problems or concerns related to the success of a project. Separate from the
issue of physical proximity, accessibility refers to additional factors that can inhibit the amount
of interaction that occurs between organizational members (e.g., an individual’s schedule,
position in an organization, or out-of-office commitments). These factors often affect the acces-
sibility among organizational members. For example, consider a public-sector organization in
which a member of the engineering department is physically located near a member of the
city census department. Although these individuals are in proximity to each other, they may
rarely interact because of different work schedules, varied duties and priorities, and commit-
ment to their own agendas. Such factors often create a perception of inaccessibility among the
individuals involved.
outcomes of cooperation: task and Psychosocial results
As Figure 6.5 suggests, the goal of promoting cross-functional cooperation among members of a
project team is not an end unto itself; it reflects a means toward better project team performance and
ultimately better project outcomes. Two types of project outcomes are important to consider: task
outcomes and psychosocial outcomes. task outcomes refer to the factors involved in the actual
implementation of the project (time, schedule, and project functionality). Psychosocial outcomes,
on the other hand, represent the team member’s assessment that the project experience was worth-
while, satisfying, and productive. It is possible, for example, to have a project “succeed” in terms
of completing its task outcomes while all team members are so disheartened due to conflict and
bad experiences that they have nothing but bad memories of the project. Psychosocial outcomes
are important because they represent the attitudes that project team members will carry with them
to subsequent projects (as shown in the feedback loop in Figure 6.5). Was the project experience
satisfying and rewarding? If so, we are much more likely to start new projects with a positive atti-
tude than in circumstances where we had bad experiences on previous projects. Regardless of how
carefully we plan and execute our project team selection and development process, our efforts may
take time to bear fruit.
Finally, what are some general conclusions we can draw about methods for building high-
performing teams? Based on research, project managers can take three practical steps to set the
stage for teamwork to emerge:16
1. Make the project team as tangible as possible. Effective teams routinely develop their own
unique identity. Through publicity, promoting interaction, encouraging unique terminology
and language, and emphasizing the importance of project outcomes, project managers can
create a tangible sense of team identity.
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202 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
2. Reward good behavior. There are many nonmonetary methods for rewarding good per-
formance. The keys are (1) flexibility—recognizing that everyone views rewards differently,
(2) creativity—providing alternative means to get the message across, and (3) pragmatism—
recognizing what can be rewarded and being authentic with the team about how superior
performance will be recognized.
3. Develop a personal touch. Project managers need to build one-on-one relationships with
project team members. If they lead by example, provide positive feedback to team members,
publicly acknowledge good performance, show interest in the team’s work, and are acces-
sible and consistent in applying work rules, project team members will come to value both
the manager’s efforts and his work on the project.
These suggestions are a good starting point for applying the concept of team building in the
difficult setting of project management. Given the temporary nature of projects, the dynamic move-
ment of team members on and off the team, and the fact that in many organizations team members
are working on several projects simultaneously, building a cohesive project team that can work in
harmony and effectively to achieve project goals is extremely valuable.17 Using these guidelines
for team building should allow project managers to more rapidly achieve a high-performing team.
6.6 vIrtual Project teamS
The globalization of business has had some important effects on how projects are being run today.
Imagine a multimillion-dollar project to design, construct, and install an oil-drilling platform in the
North Atlantic. The project calls on the expertise of partner organizations from Russia, Finland, the
United States, France, Norway, and Great Britain. Each of the partners must be fully represented
on the project team, all decisions should be as consensual as possible, and the project’s success will
require continuous, ongoing communication between all members of the project team. Does this
sound difficult? In fact, such projects are undertaken frequently. Until recently, the biggest chal-
lenge was finding a way for managers to meet and stay in close contact. Constant travel was the
only option. However, now more organizations are forming virtual project teams.
virtual teams, sometimes referred to as geographically dispersed teams, involve the use of elec-
tronic media, including e-mail, the Internet, and teleconferencing, to link together members of a
project team that are not collocated to the same physical place. Virtual teams start with the assump-
tion that physical barriers or spatial separation make it impractical for team members to meet in a
regular, face-to-face manner. Hence, the virtual team involves establishing alternative communi-
cations media that enable all team members to stay in contact, make contributions to the ongoing
project, and communicate all necessary project-related information with all other members of the
project team. Virtual teams are using technology to solve the thorny problem of productively link-
ing geographically dispersed project partners.
Virtual teams present two main challenges: building trust and establishing the best modes of
communication.18 Trust, as we have discussed, is a key ingredient needed to turn a disparate group
of individuals into an integrated project team. Physical separation and disconnection can make trust
slower to emerge. Communications media may create formal and impersonal settings, and the level
of comfort that permits casual banter takes time to develop. This can slow down the process of creat-
ing trust among team members.
What are some suggestions for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of virtual team
meetings? Following are some options available to project teams as they set out to use virtual
technology.19
• When possible, find ways to augment virtual communication with face-to-face opportuni-
ties. Try not to rely exclusively on virtual technology. Even if it occurs only at the begin-
ning of a project and after key milestones, create opportunities to get the team together to
exchange information, socialize, and begin developing personal relationships.
• Don’t let team members disappear. One of the problems with virtual teams is that it becomes
easy for members to “sign off” for extended periods of time, particularly if regular com-
munication schedules are not established. The best solution to this problem is to ensure that
communications include both regular meetings and ad hoc get-togethers, either through
videoconferencing or through e-mail and Internet connections.
6.6 Virtual Project Teams 203
• Establish a code of conduct among team members. While it can be relatively easy to get agree-
ment on the types of information that need to be shared among team members, it is equally
important to establish rules for when contact should be made and the length of acceptable
and unacceptable delays in responding to messages.
• Keep all team members in the communication loop. Virtual teams require a hyperawareness
by the project manager of the need to keep communication channels open. When team mem-
bers understand how they fit into the big picture, they are more willing to stay in touch.
• Create a clear process for addressing conflict, disagreement, and group norms. When projects
are conducted in a virtual setting, the actual ability of the project manager to gauge team
members’ reactions and feelings about the project and one another may be minimal. It is help-
ful to create a set of guidelines for allowing the free expression of misgivings or disagreements
among team members. For example, one virtual team composed of members of several large
organizations established a Friday-afternoon complaint session, which allowed a two-hour
block each week for team members to vent their feelings or disagreements. The only rule of
the session was that everything said must remain within the project—no one could carry these
messages outside the project team. Within two months of instituting the sessions, project team
members felt that the sessions were the most productive part of project communication and
looked forward to them more than to formal project meetings.
Beyond the challenges of creating trust and establishing communication methods for dispersed
teams, there are other considerations that should be addressed.20 For example, selecting the appropri-
ate technology tools is an important process. There is no “one best” means for communicating with
all team members on all occasions. Communications options include synchronous (occurring in real
time) and asynchronous (occurring outside of real time). An example of synchronous communication
would be a direct conversation with another party. Asynchronous communication may include e-mail
or posting to someone’s Facebook wall. The underlying intent behind the communication may be
either social or informational. We can use these communication tools to establish relationships with
team members in the same way they are useful for passing along important project information.
Other suggestions for effectively using technology to manage a dispersed team include:21
• No one technology works for everything; use the technology that fits the task at hand.
• Vary how your team meets; always using teleconferences becomes routine and boring.
• Make sure to intermix meeting types and purposes to keep the team experience fresh.
Overemphasizing just one type of meeting (social or informational) can lead to assumptions
about the only types of meetings worth having.
• Communication technologies can be combined in various ways; for example, virtual
whiteboards work well with videoconferencing.
• Asynchronous technologies tend to become the dominant forms as time-zone differences
grow. Find methods for adding a synchronous element whenever possible.
• Training in the proper use of technology is critical to its effectiveness. Whoever facilitates the
meetings must be an expert on the technologies employed.
Project Profile
tele-immersion technology eases the Use of Virtual teams
For many users of videoconferencing technology, the benefits and drawbacks may sometimes seem about equal.
Although there is no doubt that teleconferencing puts people into immediate contact with each other from great
geographical distances, the current limitations on how far the technology can be applied lead to some important quali-
fications. As one writer noted:
I am a frequent but reluctant user of videoconferencing. Human interaction has both verbal and nonverbal
elements, and videoconferencing seems precisely configured to confound the nonverbal ones. It is impossible
to make eye contact properly, for instance, in today’s videoconferencing systems, because the camera and the
display screen cannot be in the same spot. This usually leads to a deadened and formal affect in interactions,
eye contact being a nearly ubiquitous subconscious method of affirming trust. Furthermore, participants aren’t
able to establish a sense of position relative to one another and therefore have no clear way to direct attention,
approval or disapproval.22
(continued)
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204 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
It was to address these problems with teleconferencing that tele-immersion technology was created. Tele-
immersion, a new medium for human interaction enabled by digital technologies, creates the illusion that a user is in
the same physical space as other people, even though the other participants might in fact be thousands of miles away.
It combines the display and interaction techniques of virtual reality with new vision technologies that transcend the
traditional limitations of a camera. The result is that all the participants, however distant, can share and explore a life-
sized space.
This fascinating new technology, which has emerged very recently, offers the potential to completely change the
nature of how virtual project teams communicate with each other. Pioneered by Advanced Network & Services as part
of the National Tele-Immersion Initiative (NTII), tele-immersion enables users at geographically distributed sites to col-
laborate in real time in a shared, simulated environment as if they were in the same physical room. Tele-immersion is
the long-distance transmission of life-sized, three-dimensional synthesized scenes, accurately sampled and rendered
in real time using advanced computer graphics and vision techniques. The use of this sophisticated representation of
three-dimensional modeling has allowed teleconferencing to take on a whole new look; all members of the project
literally appear in a real-time, natural setting, almost as if they were sitting across a conference table from one another.
With enhanced bandwidth and the appropriate technology, tele-immersion video conferencing offers an enor-
mous leap forward compared to the current two-dimensional industry standards in use. In its current form, the tele-immersion
technology requires the videoconference member to wear polarizing glasses and a silvery head-tracking device that can
move around and see a computer-generated 3D stereoscopic image of the other teleconferencers, whereby the visual
content of a block of space surrounding each participant’s upper body and some adjoining workspace is essentially
reproduced with computer graphics. This results in a more fully dimensional and compressible depiction of such real-
world environments than is possible with existing video technology. Just how far this technology is likely to go in the
years ahead is impossible to predict, but no one is betting against it becoming the basis for an entirely new manner of
conducting virtual team meetings.23
As Figure 6.6 demonstrates, recent advances in technology have allowed tele-immersion conferencing to some-
times dispense with extra equipment link goggles or tracking devices. The ability to translate and communicate sophis-
ticated images of people, blueprints, or fully rendered three-dimensional models makes this technology unique and
highly appealing as an alternative to standard telephone conferencing.
Virtual teams, though not without their limitations and challenges, offer an excellent method for applying the
technical advances in the field of telecommunications to the problems encountered with global, dispersed project
teams. The key to using them effectively lies in a clear recognition of what virtual technologies can and cannot do.
For example, while the Internet can link team members, it cannot convey nonverbals or feelings that team members
may have about the project or other members of the project. Likewise, although current videoconferencing allows for
real-time, face-to-face interactions, it is not a perfect substitute for genuine “face time” among project team members.
Nevertheless, the development of virtual technologies has been a huge benefit for project organizations, coming as it
has at the same time that teams have become more global in their makeup and that partnering project organizations
are becoming the norm for many project challenges.
6.7 conFlIct management
One study has estimated that the average manager spends over 20% of his time dealing with
conflict.24 Because so much of a project manager ’s time is taken up with active conflict and its
residual aftermath, we need to understand this natural process within the project management
FIgure 6.6 tele-immersion technology
HO Marketwire Photos/Newscom
6.7 Conflict Management 205
context. This section of the chapter is intended to more formally explore the process of con-
flict, examine the nature of conflict for project teams and managers, develop a model of conflict
behavior, and foster an understanding of some of the most common methods for de-escalating
conflict.
What Is conflict?
conflict is a process that begins when you perceive that someone has frustrated or is about to
frustrate a major concern of yours.25 There are two important elements in this definition. First, it
suggests that conflict is not a state, but a process. As such, it contains a dynamic aspect that is very
important. Conflicts evolve.26 Further, the one-time causes of a conflict may change over time; that
is, the reasons why two individuals or groups developed a conflict initially may no longer have
any validity. However, because the conflict process is dynamic and evolving, once a conflict has
occurred, the reasons behind it may no longer matter. The process of conflict has important ramifi-
cations that we will explore in greater detail.
The second important element in the definition is that conflict is perceptual in nature. In
other words, it does not ultimately matter whether or not one party has truly wronged another
party. The important thing is that one party perceives that state or event to have occurred. That
perception is enough because for that party, perception of frustration defines reality.
In general, most types of conflict fit within one of three categories,27 although it is also com-
mon for some conflicts to involve aspects of more than one category.
goal-oriented conflict is associated with disagreements regarding results, project scope out-
comes, performance specifications and criteria, and project priorities and objectives. Goal-oriented
conflicts often result from multiple perceptions of the project and are fueled by vague or incom-
plete goals that allow project team members to make their own interpretations.
Administrative conflict arises through management hierarchy, organizational structure,
or company philosophy. These conflicts are often centered on disagreements about reporting
relationships, who has authority and administrative control for functions, project tasks, and
decisions. A good example of administrative conflict arises in matrix organization structures,
in which each project team member is responsible to two bosses, the project manager and
the functional supervisor. In effect, this structure promotes the continuance of administrative
conflict.
interpersonal conflict occurs with personality differences between project team members
and important project stakeholders. Interpersonal conflict sources include different work ethics,
behavioral styles, egos, and personalities of project team members.
At least three schools of thought exist about how conflicts should be perceived and addressed.
These vary dramatically, depending upon the prevailing view that a person or an organization
holds.28
The first view of conflict is the traditional view, which sees conflict as having a negative effect
on organizations. Traditionalists, because they assume that conflict is bad, believe that conflict
should be avoided and resolved as quickly and painlessly as possible when it does occur. The
emphasis with traditionalists is conflict suppression and elimination.
The second view of conflict is the behavioral or contemporary school of thought. Behavioral
theorists view conflict as a natural and inevitable part of organizational life. Differentiation
across functional departments and different goals, attitudes, and beliefs are natural and perma-
nent states among members of a company, so it is natural that conflict will result. The solution to
conflict for behavioral theorists is to manage conflict effectively rather than attempt to eliminate
or suppress it.
The third view of conflict, the interactionist view, takes behavioral attitudes toward conflict
one step further. Where a behavioral view of conflict accepts it when it occurs, interactionists
encourage conflict to develop. Conflict, to an interactionist, prevents an organization from becom-
ing too stagnant and apathetic. Conflict actually introduces an element of tension that produces
innovation, creativity, and higher productivity. The interactionists do not intend that conflict
should continue without some controls, however; they argue that there is an optimal level of con-
flict that improves the organization. Beyond that point, conflict becomes too intense and severe
and begins hurting the company. The trick, to an interactionist, is to find the optimal level of con-
flict—too little leads to inertia and too much leads to chaos.
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206 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Sources of conflict
Potential sources of conflict in projects are numerous. Some of the most common sources include
the competition for scarce resources, violations of group or organizational norms, disagreements
over goals or the means to achieve those goals, personal slights and threats to job security, long-
held biases and prejudices, and so forth. Many of the sources of conflict arise out of the project
management situation itself. That is, the very characteristics of projects that make them unique
contribute some important triggers for conflict to erupt among project stakeholders.
organIzatIonal cauSeS oF conFlIct Some of the most common causes of organizational
conflict are reward systems, scarce resources, uncertainty, and differentiation. Reward systems are
competitive processes some organizations have set up that pit one group or functional depart-
ment against another. For example, when functional managers are evaluated on the performance
of their subordinates within the department, they are loath to allow their best workers to become
involved in project work for any length of time. The organization has unintentionally created a
state in which managers perceive that either the project teams or the departments will be rewarded
for superior performance. In such cases, they will naturally retain their best people for functional
duties and offer their less-desirable subordinates for project teamwork. The project managers, on
the other hand, will also perceive a competition between their projects and the functional depart-
ments and develop a strong sense of animosity toward functional managers whom they perceive,
with some justification, are putting their own interests above the organization.
Scarce resources are a natural cause of conflict as individuals and departments compete for
the resources they believe are necessary to do their jobs well. Because organizations are character-
ized by scarce resources sought by many different groups, the struggle to gain these resources is
a prime source of organizational conflict. As long as scarce resources are the natural state within
organizations, groups will be in conflict as they seek to bargain and negotiate to gain an advantage
in their distribution.
Uncertainty over lines of authority essentially asks the tongue-in-cheek question, “Who’s in
charge around here?” In the project environment, it is easy to see how this problem can be badly
exacerbated due to the ambiguity that often exists with regard to formal channels of authority.
Project managers and their teams sit “outside” the formal organizational hierarchy in many orga-
nizations, particularly in functional structures. As a result, they find themselves in a uniquely frag-
ile position of having a great deal of autonomy but also responsibility to the functional department
heads who provide the personnel for the team. For example, when a project team member from
R&D is given orders by her functional manager that directly contradict directives from the project
manager, she is placed in the dilemma of having to find (if possible) a middle ground between
two nominal authority figures. In many cases, project managers do not have the authority to con-
duct performance evaluations of their team members—that control is kept within the functional
department. In such situations, the team member from R&D, facing role conflict brought on by this
uncertainty over lines of authority, will most likely do the expedient thing and obey her functional
manager because of his “power of the performance appraisal.”
Differentiation reflects the fact that different functional departments develop their own mind-
sets, attitudes, time frames, and value systems, which can conflict with those of other departments.
Briefly, differentiation suggests that as individuals join an organization within some functional
specialty, they begin to adopt the attitudes and outlook of that functional group. For example, a
member of the finance department, when asked her opinion of marketing, might reply, “All they
ever do is travel around and spend money. They’re a bunch of cowboys who would give away the
store if they had to.” A marketing member’s opinion of finance department personnel might be
similarly unflattering: “Finance people are just a group of bean counters who don’t understand that
the company is only as successful as it can be at selling its products. They’re so hung up on their
margins that they don’t know what goes on in the real world.” The interesting point about these
views is that, within their narrow frames of reference, they both are essentially correct: Marketing is
interested primarily in making sales, and finance is devoted to maintaining high margins. However,
these opinions are by no means completely true; they simply reflect the underlying attitudes and
prejudices of members of the respective functional departments. The more profound the differentia-
tion within an organization, the greater the likelihood that individuals and groups will divide into
“us” versus “them” encampments, which will continue to promote and provoke conflict.
6.7 Conflict Management 207
InterPerSonal cauSeS oF conFlIct Faulty attributions refer to our misconceptions of the rea-
sons behind another’s behavior. When people perceive that their interests have been thwarted
by another individual or group, they typically try to determine why the other party has acted as
it did. In making attributions about another’s actions, we wish to determine if their motives are
based on personal malevolence, hidden agendas, and so forth. Often groups and individuals will
attribute motives to another’s actions that are personally most convenient. For example, when one
member of a project team has his wishes frustrated, it is common to perceive the motives behind
the other party’s actions in terms of the most convenient causes. Rather than acknowledge the fact
that reasonable people may differ in their opinions, it may be more convenient for the frustrated
person to assume that the other is provoking a conflict for personal reasons: “He just doesn’t like
me.” This attribution is convenient for an obvious and psychologically “safe” reason; if we assume
that the other person disagrees with us for valid reasons, it implies a flaw in our position. Many
individuals do not have the ego strength to acknowledge and accept objective disagreement, pre-
ferring to couch their frustration in personal terms.
Faulty communication is a second and very common interpersonal cause of conflict. Faulty commu-
nication implies the potential for two mistakes: communicating in ways that are ambiguous and lead to
different interpretations, thus causing a resulting conflict, and unintentionally communicating in ways
that annoy or anger other parties. Lack of clarity can send out mixed signals: the message the sender
intended to communicate and that which was received and interpreted by the receiver. Consequently,
the project manager may be surprised and annoyed by the work done by a subordinate who genuinely
thought she was adhering to the project manager’s desires. Likewise, project managers often engage in
criticism in the hopes of correcting and improving project team member performance. Unfortunately,
what the project manager may consider to be harmless, constructive criticism may come across as a
destructive, unfair critique if the information is not communicated accurately and effectively.
Personal grudges and prejudices are another main cause of interpersonal conflict. Each of us
brings attitudes into any work situation. These attitudes arise as the result of long-term experi-
ences or lessons taught at some point in the past. Often these attitudes are unconsciously held; we
may be unaware that we nurture them and can feel a genuine sense of affront when we are chal-
lenged or accused of holding biases. Nevertheless, these grudges or prejudices, whether they are
held against another race, sex, or functional department, have a seriously debilitating effect on our
ability to work with others in a purposeful team and can ruin any chance at project team cohesion
and subsequent project performance.
Table 6.2 illustrates some of the findings from two studies that investigated the major sources
of conflict in project teams.29 Although the studies were conducted more than a decade apart, the
findings are remarkably consistent across several dimensions. Conflicts over schedules and project
priorities tend to be the most common and intense sources of disagreement. Interestingly, Posner’s
research found that cost and budget issues played a much larger role in triggering conflict than
did the earlier work of Thamhain and Wilemon. The significant changes in the rank ordering of
sources of conflict and their intensity may be due to shifts in priorities or practices of project man-
agement over time, making issues of cost of greater concern and conflict.30 Nevertheless, Table 6.2
gives some clear indications about the chief causes of conflict within project teams and the inten-
sity level (1 being the highest and 7 being the lowest) of these conflicts.
taBle 6.2 Sources of conflict in Projects and their ranking by intensity level
conflict intensity ranking
Sources of conflict thamhain & Wilemon Posner
Conflict over project priorities 2 3
Conflict over administrative procedures 5 7
Conflict over technical opinions and
performance trade-offs
4 5
Conflict over human resources 3 4
Conflict over cost and budget 7 2
Conflict over schedules 1 1
Personality conflicts 6 6
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208 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
methods for resolving conflict
A number of methods for resolving group conflict are at the project manager ’s disposal. Before
making a decision about which approach to follow, the project manager needs to consider
several issues.31 For example, will the project manager ’s siding with one party to the dispute
alienate the other person? Is the conflict professional or personal in nature? Does any sort of
intervention have to occur or can team members resolve the issue on their own? Does the proj-
ect manager have the time and inclination to mediate the dispute? All of these questions play
an important role in determining how to approach a conflict situation. Project managers must
learn to develop flexibility in dealing with conflict, knowing when to intervene versus when to
remain neutral. We can choose to manage conflict in terms of five alternatives.32
medIate the conFlIct In this approach, the project manager takes a direct interest in the conflict
between the parties and seeks to find a solution. The project manager may employ either defu-
sion or confrontation tactics in negotiating a solution. Defusion implies that the project manager
is less concerned with the source of the conflict than with a mutually acceptable solution. She may
use phrases such as “We are all on the same team here” to demonstrate her desire to defuse the
conflict without plumbing its underlying source. Confrontation, which typically involves working
with both parties to get at the root causes of the conflict, is more emotional, time-intensive, and, in
the short term, may actually exacerbate the conflict as both sides air their differences. In the long
run, however, confrontation can be more effective as a mediating mechanism because it seeks to
determine underlying causes of the conflict so they can be corrected. Project managers mediate
solutions when they are not comfortable imposing a judgment but would rather work with both
parties to come to some common agreement.
arBItrate the conFlIct In choosing to arbitrate a conflict, the project manager must be willing
to impose a judgment on the warring parties. After listening to both positions, the project manager
renders his decision. Much as a judge would do, it is best to minimize personalities in the decision
and focus instead on the judgment itself. For example, saying, “You were wrong here, Phil, and
Susan was right,” is bound to lead to a negative emotional response from Phil. By imposing an
impersonal judgment, however, the project manager can stick with the specifics of the case at hand
rather than getting into personalities. “Company policy states that all customers must receive cop-
ies of project revision orders within three working days” is an example of an impersonal judgment
that does not point the finger of guilt at either party.
control the conFlIct Not all conflicts can be (nor should be) quickly resolved. In some cases,
a pragmatic response to a conflict might be to wait a couple of days for the two parties to cool
down. This is not a cowardly response; instead it recognizes that project managers must be selec-
tive about how they intervene and the optimal manner in which they can intervene. Another way
to control conflict is through limiting the interaction between two parties. For example, if it is
common knowledge that one member of the project team and the customer have a long history
of animosity, good sense dictates that they should not be allowed to communicate directly except
under the most controlled of circumstances.
accePt the conFlIct Not all conflicts are manageable. Sometimes the personalities of two proj-
ect team members are simply not compatible. They disliked each other before the project and will
continue to dislike each other long after the project has been completed.
elImInate the conFlIct We need to critically evaluate the nature and severity of conflicts
that occur continually within a project. In some situations, it is necessary, for the good of the
project, to transfer a team member or make other changes. If there is a clearly guilty party,
a common response is to sanction that person, remove him from the project, or otherwise pun-
ish him. If two or more people share a collective guilt for the ongoing conflict, it is often use-
ful to transfer them all—sending a signal that you intend to run the project as impartially as
possible.
6.8 Negotiation 209
The important point to bear in mind is that different approaches may be appropriate in differ-
ent situations. Do not assume that a problem-solving session is always beneficial or warranted, nor
is ignoring conflict always “lazy” management. Project managers have to learn to understand their
own preferences when it comes to handling conflict. Once we have achieved a greater sense of self-
awareness, we will be in a better position first to resolve our own conflicts constructively and then
to deal more effectively with subordinate conflicts. The key is flexibility. It is important not to lock
into any particular conflict style nor favor one resolution tactic to the exclusion of all others. Each
has its strengths and drawbacks and can be an important part of the project manager’s tool chest.
Conflict often is evidence of project team progress. As we begin to assemble a group of dis-
parate individuals with various functional backgrounds into a project team, a variety of conflicts
are bound to be sparked. Team conflict is natural. Remember, however, that the approaches we
choose to employ to deal with conflict say a great deal about us: Are we intolerant, authoritarian,
and intransigent, or do we really want to find mutually beneficial solutions? We can send many
messages—intentional and unintentional, clear and mixed—to the rest of the project team by the
manner in which we approach team building and conflict management.
6.8 negotIatIon
One of the central points that this chapter has made is to suggest that much of our future success
will rest with our ability to appreciate and manage the variety of “people” issues that are central to
life in projects. negotiation is a process that is predicated on a manager’s ability to use his influ-
ence productively.
Negotiation skills are so important because much of a project manager’s life is taken up in
bargaining sessions of one type or another. Indeed, stakeholder management can be viewed as the
effective and constant mutual negotiation across multiple parties. Project managers negotiate for
additional time and money, to prevent excessive interference and specification changes from cli-
ents, the loan or assignment to the team of important project team personnel with functional man-
agers, and so forth. Negotiation represents the art of influence taken to its highest level. Because
effective negotiation is an imperative for successful project management, it is vital that project
managers understand the role negotiation plays in their projects, how to become better negotia-
tors, and some of the important elements in negotiation.
questions to ask Prior to the negotiation
Anyone entering a negotiation needs to consider three questions: How much power do I have?
What sort of time pressures are there? Do I trust my opponent?33
A realistic self-assessment concerning power and any limiting constraints is absolutely vital
prior to sitting down to negotiate. One important reason is that it can show the negotiators where
they are strong and, most importantly, what their weaknesses are. A project manager once related
this story:
It was early in June and we were involved in the second week of pretty intense negotiations
with a vendor for site considerations before starting a construction project. Unfortunately, the
vendor discovered that we do our accounting books on a fiscal basis, ending June 30th, and
he figured, correctly, that we were desperate to record the deal prior to the end of the month.
He just sat on his hands for the next 10 days. Now it’s June 21st and my boss is having a heart
attack about locking in the vendor. Finally, we practically crawled back to the table in late
June and gave him everything he was asking for in order to record the contract.
This project manager lost out in the power and time departments!
How much power do you have going into the negotiation? You are not necessarily looking
for a dominant position but a defensive one, that is, one from which the other party cannot domi-
nate you. How much time do you have? The calendar can be difficult to overcome. So, too, can a
domineering boss who is constantly telling you to “solve the problem with R&D, marketing, or
whomever.” Once word gets out that you have a time constraint, just watch your opponent slow
down the pace, reasoning correctly that you will have to agree sooner rather than later, and on her
terms, not yours.
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210 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Is it possible to trust the other party? Will the firm abide by its word, or does it have a reputa-
tion for changing agreements after the fact? Is it forthcoming with accurate information? Does it
play negotiation hardball? Note that not all of these questions indicate someone who is untrust-
worthy. Indeed, it is appropriate to play hardball on occasion. On the other hand, the essential
question is whether you can sit across a table from your opponent and believe that you both have
a professional, vested interest in solving a mutual problem. If the answer is no, it is highly unlikely
that you will negotiate with the same degree of enthusiasm or openness toward the other party.
Principled negotiation
One of the most influential books on negotiation in recent years is Getting to Yes, by Roger Fisher
and William Ury.34 They offer excellent advice on principled negotiation, the art of getting agree-
ment with the other party while maintaining a principled, win-win attitude. Among the sugges-
tions they offer for developing an effective negotiating strategy are the following.
SeParate the PeoPle From the ProBlem One of the most important ideas of negotiation is to
remember that negotiators are people first. What this dictum means is that negotiators are no dif-
ferent from anyone else in terms of ego, attitudes, biases, education, experiences, and so forth. We
all react negatively to direct attacks, we all become defensive at unwarranted charges and accusa-
tions, and we tend to personalize opposing viewpoints, assuming that their objections are aimed at
us, rather than at the position we represent. Consequently, in observing the saliency of the notion
that negotiators are people first, we must seek ways in which we can keep people (along with their
personalities, defensiveness, egos, etc.) out of the problem itself. The more we can focus on the
issues that separate us and pay less attention to the people behind the issues, the greater the likeli-
hood of achieving a positive negotiated outcome.
Put yourself in their shoes. An excellent starting point in negotiations is to discuss not only
our own position but also our understanding of the other party’s position early in the negotia-
tion process. When the other party hears a reasoned discussion of both positions, two important
events occur: (1) It establishes a basis of trust because our opponent discovers that we are willing
to openly discuss perceptions in the beginning, and (2) it reconstructs the negotiation as a win-win,
rather than a winner-take-all, exercise.
Don’t deduce their intentions from your fears. A common side effect of almost all negotiations,
particularly early in the process, is to construct supporting stereotypes of the other side. For exam-
ple, in meeting with the accountant to negotiate additional funding for our project, we may adopt
a mind-set in which all accountants are penny-pinching bean counters who are only waiting for
the opportunity to cancel the project. Notice that even before the negotiation takes place, we have
created an image of the accounting department’s members and their mind-set based on our own
misperception and fears, rather than on any objective reality. When we assume that they will act
in certain ways, we subconsciously begin negotiating with them as though money is their sole
concern, and before we know it, we have created an opponent based on our worst fears.
Don’t blame them for your problems. In negotiations, it is almost always counterproductive
to initiate a finger-pointing episode as we seek to attach blame for difficulties our project has
encountered. It is far more effective to move beyond the desire to assign blame and search for
win-win solutions. For example, suppose that a company has just developed a software program
for internal reporting and control that continually crashes in mid-operation. One approach would
be for the exasperated accounting manager to call in the head of the software development project
and verbally abuse him: “Your program really stinks. Every time you claim to have fixed it, it
dumps on us again. If you don’t get the bugs out of it within two weeks we’re going to go back to
the old system and make sure that everyone knows the reason why.”
Although it may be satisfying for the accounting manager to react in this manner, it is
unlikely to solve the problem, particularly in terms of relations with the software development
project team. A far better approach would be less confrontational, seeking to frame the problem
as a mutual issue that needs correction. For example, “The reporting program crashed again in
midstride. Every time it goes down, my people have to reenter data and use up time that could
be spent in other ways. I need your advice on how to fix the problem with the software. Is it just
not ready for beta testing, are we using it incorrectly, or what?” Note that in this case, the head of
the accounting department is careful not to point fingers. He refrains from taking the easy way
6.8 Negotiation 211
out through simply setting blame and demanding correction, and instead treats the problem as a
problem that will require cooperation if it is to be resolved.
Recognize and understand emotion: theirs and yours. Although it is often easy to get emotional
during the course of a negotiation, the impulse must be resisted as much as possible.35 It is com-
mon in a difficult, protracted negotiation to see emotions begin to come to the surface, often due
to anger or frustration with the tactics or attitudes of the other party. Nevertheless, it is usually
not a good idea to respond in an emotional way, even when the other party becomes emotional.
They may be using emotion as a tactic to get your team to respond in an equally emotional way
and allow your heart to begin guiding your head—always a dangerous course. Although emotions
are a natural side effect of lengthy negotiations, we need to understand precisely what is making
us unhappy, stressed, tense, or angry. Further, are we astute enough to take note of the emotions
emanating from our opponent? We need to be aware of what we are doing that is making the other
person upset or irritable.
Listen actively. Active listening means our direct involvement in the conversation with our
opponent, even when the other party is actually speaking. Most of us know from experience when
people are really listening to us and when they are simply going through the motions. In the latter
case, our frustration at their seeming indifference to our position can be a tremendous source of
negative emotion. For example, suppose a client is negotiating with the project manager for a per-
formance enhancement on a soon-to-be-released piece of manufacturing equipment. The project
manager is equally desirous to leave the project alone because any reconfigurations at this time
will simply delay the release of the final product and cost a great deal of extra money. Every time
the client voices her issues, the project manager speaks up and says, “I hear what you’re saying,
but . . . .” In this case, the project manager clearly is not hearing a word the client is saying but is
simply paying lip service to the client’s concerns.
Active listening means working hard to understand not simply the words but the underly-
ing motivations of the other party. One effective technique involves interrupting occasionally to
ask a pointed question: “As I understand it, then, you are saying . . . .” Tactics such as this con-
vince your opponent that you are trying to hear what is being said rather than simply adhering to
your company’s party line no matter what arguments or issues the other side raises. Remember
that demonstrating that you clearly understand the other party’s position is not the same thing as
agreeing with it. There may be many points with which you take issue. Nevertheless, a construc-
tive negotiation can only proceed from the point of complete and objective information, not from
preconceived notions or entrenched and intransigent positions.
Build a working relationship. The idea of negotiating as though you are dealing with a party
with whom you would like to maintain a long-term relationship is key to effective negotiations.
We think of long-term relationships as those with individuals or organizations that we value and,
hence, are inclined to work hard to maintain. The stronger the working relationship, the greater
the level of trust that is likely to permeate its character.
FocuS on IntereStS, not PoSItIonS There is an important difference between the positions
each party adopts and the interests that underscore and mold those positions. When we refer to
“interests,” we mean the fundamental motivations that frame each party’s positions. As Fisher and
Ury note, “Interests define the problem.”36 It is not the positions taken by each party that shape
the negotiation nearly as much as it is the interests that are the source of the parties’ fears, needs,
and desires.
Why look for underlying interests as opposed to simply focusing on the positions that are
placed on the table? Certainly, it is far easier to negotiate with another party from the point of
our position versus theirs. However, there are some compelling reasons why focusing on interests
rather than positions can offer us an important “leg up” in successful negotiations. First, unlike
positions, for every interest there are usually several alternatives that can satisfy it. For example,
if my major interest is to ensure that my company will be in business over the years to come, I can
look for solutions other than simply squeezing every drop of profit from the contractor in this nego-
tiation. For example, I could enter into a long-term relationship with the contractor in which I am
willing to forgo some profit on this job while locking the contractor into a sole-source agreement for
the next three years. The contractor would then receive the additional profit from the job by paying
me less than I desire (my position) while supplying me with long-term work (my interest).
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212 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Another reason for focusing on interests argues that negotiating from positions often leads to
roadblocks as each party tries to discover their opponent’s position while concealing their own. We
consume valuable time and resources in making visible our various positions while hiding as long
as possible our true intentions. In focusing on interests, on the other hand, we adopt a partnering
mentality that acknowledges the legitimacy of both sides’ interests and seeks to find solutions that
will be mutually satisfying.
Invent options for mutual gain
Managers sometimes put up roadblocks for themselves, making it difficult to consider win-win
options when negotiating.
Managers can have premature judgment. We quickly arrive at conclusions about the other side
and anything they say usually serves to solidify our impressions. Further, rather than seek to
broaden our various options early in the negotiation, we typically go the other direction and put
limits on how much we are willing to give up, how far we are willing to go, and so forth. Every
premature judgment we make limits our freedom of action and puts us deeper into an adversarial,
winners-losers exchange.
Some managers search only for the best answer. A common error made is to assume that bur-
ied underneath all the negotiating ploys and positions is one “best” answer that will eventu-
ally emerge. In reality, most negotiations, particularly if they are to result in win-win outcomes,
require us to broaden our search, not limit and focus it. For example, we may erroneously define
the “best” answer to typically mean the best for our side, not the other party. It is important
to acknowledge that all problems lend themselves to multiple solutions. Indeed, it is through
consideration of those multiple solutions that we are most likely to attain one that is mutually
satisfying.
Managers assume that there’s only a “fixed pie.” Is there really only a fixed set of alternatives
available? Maybe not. It is common to lock into a “I win, you lose” scenario that virtually guaran-
tees hardball negotiating with little or no effort made to seek creative solutions that are mutually
satisfying.
Thinking that “solving their problem is their problem” is another roadblock. Negotiation breeds
egocentrism. The greater our belief that negotiation consists of simply taking care of ourselves, the
greater the likelihood that we will be unwilling to engage in any win-win solutions. Our position
quickly becomes one of pure self-interest.
If these are some common problems that prevent win-win outcomes, what can be done
to improve the negotiation process? There are some important guidelines that we can use to
strengthen the relationship between the two parties and improve the likelihood of positive out-
comes. Briefly, some options to consider when searching for win-win alternatives include positive
and inclusive brainstorming, broadening options, and identification of shared interests.
The use of positive and inclusive brainstorming implies that once a negotiation process begins,
during its earliest phase we seek to include the other party in a problem-solving session to identify
alternative outcomes. This approach is a far cry from the typical tactic of huddling to plot nego-
tiation strategies to use against the other team. In involving the other party in a brainstorming
session, we seek to convince them that we perceive the problem as a mutually solvable one that
requires input and creativity from both parties. Inviting the other party to a brainstorming session
of this type has a powerfully disarming effect on their initial defensiveness. It demonstrates that
we are interested not in beating the other side, but in solving the problem. Further, it reinforces the
earlier point about the necessity of separating the people from the problem. In this way, both par-
ties work in cooperation to find a mutually satisfactory solution that also serves to strengthen their
relationship bonds.
The concept of broadening options is also a direct offshoot of the notion of brainstorming.
Broadening our options requires us to be open to alternative positions and can be a natural
result of focusing on interests rather than positions. The more I know about the other party’s
interests and am willing to dissect my own, the greater the probability that together we can
work to create a range of options far broader than those we may initially be tempted to lock
ourselves into.
Finally, a third technique for improving chances for win-win outcomes is to identify shared
interests. A common negotiating approach employed by experienced bargainers is to sometimes
6.8 Negotiation 213
table the larger items to a later point in the negotiation, focusing instead on minor or peripheral
issues that offer a greater likelihood of reaching agreement. Once the two parties begin to work
together to identify their shared interests and gain some confidence from working in a collabora-
tive way, it is possible to reintroduce the larger sticking points. By this time both sides have begun
to develop a working rhythm and a level of harmony that makes it easier to look for shared inter-
ests within these larger issues.
Insist on using objective criteria
One of the best methods for ensuring that a negotiation proceeds along substantive lines is
to frame the discussion around objective criteria.37 Do not get bogged down in arguing per-
ceptions or subjective evaluations. For example, a project manager recently almost had his
new product development (NPD) project canceled because of protracted negotiations with
a client over delivering an “acceptable” working prototype. Obviously, the project man-
ager had a far different interpretation of the word acceptable than did the client. The project
manager assumed that acceptable included normal bugs and preliminary technical problems
whereas the client had used the word to imply error-free. In their desire to pin the onus of
responsibility on the other, neither was willing to back away from her interpretation of the
nebulous “acceptable.”
Objective data and other measurable criteria often form the best basis for accurate negotia-
tions. When firms or individuals argue costs, prices, work hours, and so on, they are using estab-
lished standards and concepts that both parties can understand with a minimum of interpretation
error. On the other hand, the more vague the terms employed or the more subjective the language,
the greater the potential to be arguing at cross-purposes, even if both parties assume that the other
is using the same interpretations of these terms.
Develop fair standards and procedures. Whatever standards are used as the basis of the negotia-
tion need to be clearly spelled out and put in terms that are equally meaningful to both parties.
This point is particularly relevant in cross-cultural negotiations in that different countries and cul-
tures often attach different meaning to terms or concepts. For example, several American heavy
construction firms, including Bechtel Corporation, lodged a protest against a number of Japanese
construction firms for their collusion in dividing up biddable contracts (bid rigging) prior to a
major airport project in Tokyo Bay. The Japanese companies argued in turn that they were fulfill-
ing the terms of recent free-competition agreements by simply allowing Bechtel to submit a bid.
Further, in Japanese society, there is nothing inherently illegal or unethical about engaging in this
form of bid rigging. Clearly, both parties had very different interpretations of the idea of fair and
clear bidding practices.
Fair standards and procedures require that both parties come together and negotiate from
the same basic understanding of the terms and liabilities. In project management, this concept
is particularly relevant because construction contracting requires a universally understood set of
terms and standards. When the two parties are engaged in negotiating from the point of appro-
priate standards, it effectively eliminates the source of many potential misunderstandings or
misinterpretations.
In visualizing the need to become adept at team building, conflict management, and nego-
tiation, it is important to remember that the greatest challenges project managers typically face in
running their projects are the myriad “people” challenges that result from the process of forming a
diverse set of project members into a unified and collaborative team, whose goal is to pursue proj-
ect success. Creating a team and initiating the project development process sows the seeds for a
wide variety of conflicts among all project stakeholders. These conflicts are inevitable. They should
be treated not as a liability, however, but as an opportunity. Conflict can lead to positive outcomes
by solidifying team member commitment and motivation, and generating the energy to complete
project activities.
Nevertheless, channeling conflict in appropriate ways requires a sure touch on the part of
the project manager. Our ability to sustain influence and use negotiation in skillful ways is a great
advantage in ensuring that team development and conflict serve not to derail the project but to
renew it. Conflict is inevitable; it is not disastrous. Indeed, the degree to which a conflict disrupts
a project’s development depends upon the project manager’s willingness to learn enough about
conflict to deal with it effectively.
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214 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
Summary
1. Understand the steps involved in project team
building. The first step in project team building is
the selection of personnel to staff the project team.
This process can be complicated, particularly due to
the high potential for conflict and negotiation with
functional managers who may retain effective con-
trol over project team members. Following an anal-
ysis of skill requirements and staff availability, the
team-building process typically involves matching
the best people to the identified project tasks, while
at the same time understanding the need to make
these staffing decisions in collaboration with other
top managers or departmental heads.
2. Know the characteristics of effective project teams
and why teams fail. High-performing teams are
typically characterized by (1) a clear sense of mis-
sion, (2) an understanding of interdependencies,
(3) cohesiveness, (4) trust, (5) enthusiasm, and
(6) a results orientation. On the other hand, teams
that fail often do so due to poorly developed goals,
poorly defined team roles, lack of motivation, poor
communication, poor leadership, high project team
turnover, and dysfunctional behavior.
3. Know the stages in the development of groups.
Project teams do not begin their assignments as a
unified, cohesive, and motivated body. Rather, their
development is a challenge that must be effectively
managed if we are to get maximum performance
from the team. Teams go through some identifi-
able stages in their development process, and proj-
ect managers need to recognize and seek to manage
these developmental stages as efficiently as they can.
One model of team development posits a five-stage
approach—forming, storming, norming, performing,
and adjourning—each with its unique challenges and
group behaviors. An alternative model that has been
validated through research argues that groups adopt
a process of “punctuated equilibrium” as they evolve.
4. describe how to achieve cross-functional coopera-
tion in teams. Superordinate goals, rules and pro-
cedures, physical proximity, and accessibility are all
important factors in motivating people to collabo-
rate. The effects of this cross-functional cooperation
are twofold: They can positively impact both proj-
ect task outcomes and psychosocial project team
results. Task outcomes positively affect the project
at hand, while psychosocial outcomes mean that
team members retain high positive attitudes toward
the project experience and will enter new projects
with strong motivation to succeed again.
5. see the advantages and challenges of virtual project
teams. Virtual project teams are defined as the use
of electronic media, including e-mail, the Internet,
and teleconferencing, to link together members of
a geographically dispersed project team, largely
because of the globalization of project management.
As multinational firms attempt to manage proj-
ects from geographically dispersed units, they need
sophisticated technical media that support their com-
munications and networking. The sheer physical
barriers caused by globalization, coupled with the
increase in multiorganizational project teams, have
led to the increased use of virtual technologies to link
team members. Two of the biggest challenges in effec-
tively creating and managing virtual teams are estab-
lishing and reinforcing trust among team members
and establishing effective communication patterns.
6. Understand the nature of conflict and evaluate
response methods. Conflict is an inevitable result
when team members with diverse functional back-
grounds, personalities, experiences, and attitudes
are brought together and expected to work collab-
oratively. Among the organizational causes of con-
flict are scarce resources, uncertainty over lines of
authority, and differentiation. Interpersonal causes
of conflict include faulty attributions, faulty com-
munication, and personal grudges and prejudice.
Conflict can be addressed through mediation, arbi-
tration, control, acceptance, or elimination.
7. Understand the importance of negotiation skills in
project management. Project managers routinely
negotiate with a wide variety of organizational stake-
holders for resources, contractual considerations,
terms and conditions, and so forth. Effective project
managers are often those individuals who approach
negotiations in a systematic manner, taking the time
to carefully analyze the nature of the negotiation,
what they hope to achieve, and how much they are
willing to offer to achieve their important goal. In
principled negotiation, the primary objective is to
seek win-win alternatives that allow both parties to
negotiate to gain their goals.
Key Terms
Accessibility (p. 201)
Adjourning (p. 198)
Administrative
conflict (p. 205)
Cohesiveness (p. 193)
Conflict (p. 205)
Cross-functional
cooperation (p. 199)
Differentiation (p. 192)
Forming stage (p. 197)
Frustration (p. 207)
Goal-oriented conflict (p. 205)
Interaction (p. 193)
Interdependencies (p. 192)
Interpersonal conflict
(p. 205)
Negotiation (p. 209)
Norming stage (p. 198)
Orientation (p. 194)
Outcomes (p. 194)
Performing stage (p. 198)
Physical proximity (p. 201)
Principled negotiation
(p. 210)
Case Study 6.1 215
Psychosocial outcomes
(p. 201)
Punctuated equilibrium
(p. 198)
Storming stage (p. 197)
Superordinate goal (p. 199)
Task outcomes (p. 201)
Team building (p. 188)
Trust (p. 193)
Virtual teams (p. 202)
Discussion Questions
6.1 This chapter discussed the characteristics of high-
performing project teams. List the factors that characterize
these teams and give examples of each one.
6.2 “Trust can actually encourage disagreement and conflict
among team members.” Explain why this could be the
case.
6.3 Identify the stages of group development. Why is it nec-
essary for project teams to move through these stages in
order to be productive?
6.4 Gersick’s model of punctuated equilibrium offers an al-
ternative view of group development. Why does she sug-
gest that some defining moment (such as an explosion of
emotion) often occurs about midpoint in the project? What
does this defining event accomplish for the team?
6.5 Explain the concepts of “task” and “psychosocial” out-
comes for a project. Why are psychosocial outcomes so
important for project team members?
6.6 Distinguish between the traditional, behavioral, and inter-
actionist views of team conflict. How might each explain
and treat a project team conflict episode?
6.7 Identify the five major methods for resolving conflict. Give
an example of how each might be applied in a hypotheti-
cal project team conflict episode.
6.8 What are some of the guidelines for adopting a strategy of
“principled negotiation”?
6.9 Explain the idea that we should “focus on interests, not po-
sitions.” Can you think of an example in which you suc-
cessfully negotiated with someone else using this principle?
CaSe STuDy 6.1
Columbus Instruments
(continued)
Problems have been building at Columbus Instruments,
Inc. (CIC) (not its real name) for several years now with
the new product development process. The last six
high-visibility projects were either scrapped outright
after excessive cost and schedule overruns or, once re-
leased to the marketplace, were commercial disasters.
The company estimates that in the past two years, it
has squandered more than $15 million on poorly de-
veloped or failed projects. Every time a new project
venture failed, the company conducted extensive post-
project review meetings, documentation analysis, and
market research to try to determine the underlying
cause. To date, all CIC has been able to determine is
that the problems appear to lie with the project man-
agement and development process. Something some-
where is going very wrong.
You have been called into the organization as a
consultant to try to understand the source of the prob-
lems that are leading to widespread demoralization
across the firm. After spending hours interviewing the
senior project management staff and technical person-
nel, you are convinced that the problem does not lie
with their processes, which are up-to-date and logi-
cal. On the other hand, you have some questions about
project team productivity. It seems that every project
has run late, has been over budget, and has had subop-
timal functionality, regardless of the skills of the project
manager in charge. This information suggests to you
that there may be some problems in how the project
teams are operating.
As you analyze CIC’s project development pro-
cess, you note several items of interest. First, the
company is organized along strictly functional lines.
Projects are staffed from the departments following
negotiations between the project manager and the
department heads. Second, the culture of CIC seems to
place little status or authority on the project managers.
As evidence of this fact, you note that they are not even
permitted to write a performance evaluation on proj-
ect team members: That right applies only to the func-
tional department heads. Third, many projects require
that team members be assigned to them on an exclusive
basis; that is, once personnel have been assigned to a
project, they typically remain with the project team on
a full-time basis for the term of the project. The average
project lasts about 14 months.
One morning, as you are walking the hallways,
you notice a project team “war room” set up for the
latest new product development initiative within the
company. The war room concept requires that proj-
ect team members be grouped together at a central
location, away from their functional departments, for
the life of the project. What intrigues you is a hand-
lettered sign you see taped to the door of the project
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216 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
war room: “Leper Colony.” When you ask around
about the sign, some members of the firm say with
a chuckle, “Oh, we like to play jokes on the folks
assigned to new projects.”
Further investigation of project team members
suggests they are not amused by the sign. One engineer
shrugs and says, “That’s just their way of making sure
we understand what we have been assigned to. Last
week they put up another one that said ‘Purgatory.’”
When you ask the project manager about the signs later
in the day, he confirms this story and adds some inter-
esting information: “Around here, we use detached
[meaning centralized] project teams. I get no say as to
who will be assigned to the project, and lately the func-
tional heads have been using our projects as a dumping
ground for their poor performers.”
When you question him further, the project man-
ager observes, “Think about it. I have no say in who
gets assigned to the team. I can’t even fill out a per-
formance review on them. Now, if you were a depart-
ment head who was trying to offload a troublemaker
or someone who was incompetent, what could be bet-
ter than shipping them off to a project team for a year
or so? Of course, you can imagine how they feel when
they hear that they have been assigned to one of our
project teams. It’s as if you just signed their death war-
rant. Talk about low motivation!”
When you question various department heads
about the project manager’s assertions, to a person
they deny that this is an adopted policy. As the head
of finance puts it, “We give the project teams our best
available people when they ask.” However, they also
admit that they have the final say in personnel assign-
ment and project managers cannot appeal their choices
for the teams.
After these discussions, you suggest to the CEO
that the method of staffing projects may be a reason for
the poor performance of CIC’s new product develop-
ment projects. He ponders the implications of how the
projects have been staffed in his organization, and then
says, “Okay, what do you suggest we do about it?”
Questions
1. What are the implications of CIC’s approach
to staffing project teams? Is the company using
project teams as training grounds for talented
fast-trackers or as dumping grounds for poor
performers?
2. How would you advise the CEO to correct the
problem? Where would you start?
3. Discuss how issues of organizational structure and
power played a role in the manner in which project
management declined in effectiveness at CIC.
CaSe STuDy 6.2
The Bean Counter and the Cowboy
The morning project team meeting promised to be
an interesting one. Tensions between the representa-
tive from marketing, Susan Scott, and finance, Neil
Schein, have been building for several weeks now—in
fact, since the project team was formed. As the project
manager, you have been aware that Susan and Neil do
not see eye to eye, but you figured that over time they
would begin to appreciate each other’s perspective
and start cooperating. So far, unfortunately, that has
not happened. In fact, it seems that hardly a day goes
by when you do not receive a complaint from one or
the other regarding the other team member’s behavior,
lack of commitment or cooperation, or general shoddy
performance.
As the team gathers for the regular project status
meeting, you start with an update on the project tasks,
any problems the team members are having, and their
assessment of the project’s performance to date. Before
you get too far into the meeting, Susan interrupts,
saying, “John, I’m going to be out of town for the next
10 days visiting clients, so I can’t make the status meet-
ings either of the next two Fridays.”
“That figures,” Neil mutters loud enough for all
to hear.
Susan whirls around. “I have another job around
here, you know, and it involves selling. It may be con-
venient for you to drop everything and come to these
meetings, but some of us have other responsibilities.”
Neil shoots back, “That’s been your excuse for
missing half of the meetings so far. Just out of curios-
ity,” he continues sarcastically, “how many more do
you figure on blowing off while hanging out poolside
on your little out-of-towners?”
Susan turns bright red. “I don’t need to put up
with that from you. You bean counters have no clue
how this business works or who delivers value. You’re
so busy analyzing every penny that you have perma-
nent eyestrain!”
Case Study 6.3 217
“Maybe I could pay attention if I didn’t have to
constantly stay on the backs of you cowboys in sales,”
counters Neil. “I swear you would give our products
away if it would let you make your quarterly numbers,
even if it does drive us into the ground!”
You sit back, amazed, as the argument between
Neil and Susan flares into full-scale hostility and
threatens to spin out of control. The other team mem-
bers are looking at you for your response. George, from
engineering, has a funny expression on his face, as if to
say, “Okay, you got us to this point. Now what are you
going to do about it?”
“People,” you rap on the table, “that’s enough.
We are done for today. I want to meet with Susan and
Neil in my office in a half hour.”
As everyone files out, you lean back in your seat
and consider how you are going to handle this problem.
Questions
1. Was the argument today between Neil and Susan
the true conflict or a symptom? What evidence do
you have to suggest it is merely a symptom of a
larger problem?
2. Explain how differentiation plays a large role in
the problems that exist between Susan and Neil.
3. Develop a conflict management procedure for
your meeting in 30 minutes. Create a simple
script to help you anticipate the comments you
are likely to hear from both parties.
4. Which conflict resolution style is warranted in
this case? Why? How might some of the other
resolution approaches be inadequate in this
situation?
CaSe STuDy 6.3
Johnson & Rogers Software Engineering, Inc.
(continued)
Kate Thomas, a project manager with Johnson & Rogers
Software Engineering, was looking forward to her first
project team “meeting.” She applied quotes to the term
“meeting” because she would not actually be sitting
down at a table with any of the other members of the
project team. She had been assigned responsibility for a
large software development project that would be using
team members from both inside and outside the organi-
zation, none of whom were currently employed at the
same Redlands, California, office where she worked. In
fact, as she ticked off the names on the legal pad in front
of her, she did not know whether to be impressed or ap-
prehensive with the project she was about to kick off.
Vignish Ramanujam (senior programmer)—New
Delhi, India
Anders Blomquist (systems designer)—Uppsala,
Sweden
Sally Dowd (systems engineer)—Atlanta, Georgia
Penny Jones (junior programmer)—Bristol,
England
Patrick Flynn (junior programmer)—San Antonio,
Texas
Erik Westerveldt (subcontractor)—Pretoria,
South Africa
Toshiro Akame (customer representative)—Kyoto,
Japan
The challenge with this team, Kate quickly real-
ized, was going to involve figuring out how to create
an integrated project team with these people, most
of whom she had never dealt with before. Although
Sally and Patrick worked for Johnson & Rogers at
other plant locations, the rest of the “team” were
strangers. Erik, from South Africa, was critical for the
project because his company had developed some of
the specialized processes the project required and was
to be treated as an industrial partner. The other mem-
bers of the team had been assembled either by Erik
or through contacts with senior members of her own
firm. She did not know, but would soon discover, how
they felt about the project and their level of commit-
ment to it.
The first virtual project meeting was scheduled
to start promptly at 9 am Pacific Standard Time. That
led to the first problem. As Kate stared at the camera
mounted above the video monitor, she kept glanc-
ing down at the screen for signs that other members
of the team had logged on. Finally, at 9:15, she was
joined by Sally, with Toshiro logging in shortly after-
ward. As they chatted and continued to wait for other
members to log on, time continued to pass. When, at
9:30, no one else had signed on, Kate asked the sec-
retary to start making phone calls to verify that other
members of the team were trying to access the system.
Eventually, by 10:25, the team consisted of five mem-
bers: Anders, Sally, Penny, Patrick, and Toshiro. It was
decided that for the sake of getting something accom-
plished, those who were logged on would get started.
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218 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
The agenda that Kate had prepared and e-mailed out
the day before was produced and the meeting began.
Within 10 minutes, the video link to Penny was sud-
denly lost. The other team members waited for five
minutes, shuffling in various states of impatience for
Penny to rejoin the meeting. There was still no sign of
Vignish or Erik.
The meeting quickly bogged down on techni-
cal details as those in attendance realized that several
technical issues could not be resolved without input
from the missing team members. Though he tried his
best to hide it, it became apparent that Toshiro, in
particular, was frustrated with the lack of progress in
this meeting. Kate suggested that they adjourn until
11, while she made another attempt to contact the
missing members, but Toshiro objected, saying, “That
is 3 am in my country. It is now past midnight here.
I have been here today for 15 hours and I would like to
get home.” It was finally agreed to reconvene tomor-
row at the same time. Toshiro agreed, but with bad
grace: “Can we not find a time that is more accommo-
dating to my schedule?” Kate promised to look into
the matter.
The next day’s meeting was a mixed success.
Although everyone managed to log on to the system
within a reasonable period, Penny’s connection kept
going down, to the exasperation of Vignish, the senior
programmer. Although the meeting was conducted
with great politeness by all parties, it was equally
clear that no one was willing to offer their candid
opinions of the project, the goals, and how the team
was expected to execute their assignments. After
asking members of the team for honest feedback and
getting little response, Kate eventually dropped the
point. In addition, she had a nagging feeling that
there was some unspoken animosity in the manner
in which Patrick and Sally interacted with each other.
After some general goal setting and a discussion of
team responsibilities, Kate asked if there was a time when
they could next meet. In the general silence that followed,
Anders spoke up, asking, “Well, how often do you hope
to meet like this? To be honest, it is inconvenient for me to
attend these sessions regularly, as our telecom equipment
is in Stockholm and I have to drive an hour each way.”
Toshiro then spoke up as well. “I am sorry to
repeat this point,” he said, “but these meeting times
are extremely inconvenient for me. Could we not find a
time that is more generally acceptable?”
Kate replied, “Well, how about 5 pm my time.
That’s . . .,” Kate paused and quickly consulted her per-
sonal planner, “9 in the morning for you.”
This suggestion was met by a wave of objections,
with the first from Penny who stated, “Uh, Kate, that
would be 1 am here in England.”
No sooner had she spoken than Anders, Erik, and
Vignish chimed in, “Kate, that’s 2 am in Stockholm and
Pretoria,” and “Kate, are you aware that that is 6 am
here in New Delhi?”
Back and forth the team members argued, trying
to find a reasonable time they could all meet. Finally,
after going around the group several times to work
out a mutually agreeable time for these teleconfer-
ences, Erik spoke up: “Maybe we don’t all need to
meet at the same time, anyway. Kate, why don’t you
just schedule meetings with each of us as you need to
talk?”
Kate objected by saying, “Erik, the whole point of
these teleconferences is to get the team together, not to
hold one-on-one meetings with each of you.”
Erik responded, “Well, all I know is that this is
only the first videoconference and already it is becom-
ing a burden.”
Penny spoke up, “You’re lucky. At least your sys-
tem works. Mine keeps going up and down at this end.”
“Okay, how about just using e-mails?” suggested
Erik. “That way it does not matter what the time is at
our location.”
The other team members agreed that this idea
made sense and seemed on the verge of endorsing the
use of e-mails for communications. At this point, Kate
stepped back into the discussion and stated firmly,
“Look, that won’t do. We need the opportunity to talk
together. E-mails won’t do that.”
More arguing ensued. Eventually, the team mem-
bers signed off, agreeing that they needed to “talk fur-
ther” about these issues. Kate’s reaction was one of
disappointment and frustration. She sensed reluctance
among the other members of the team to talk about
these issues and to use the videoconferencing system
in the manner she had envisioned. As Kate sat down to
lunch that noon, she pondered how she should proceed
from here.
Questions
1. How would you advise Kate to proceed? Analyze
the conversation she had this morning. What
went right? What went wrong?
2. What should Kate’s next steps be?
3. How can she use the technology of the Internet
and teleconferencing to enhance team develop-
ment and performance?
The following is a negotiation scenario between two
firms: SteelFabrik, Inc. (SFI) and Building Contractors of
Toledo (BCT). You are asked to take either SFI’s or BCT’s
side of the negotiation. How would you prepare for this
negotiation? How would you attempt to create a win-win
outcome for both parties?
SteelFabrik’s Perspective
You are the project manager for a new steel fabrication
plant construction project being built by Building Con-
tractors of Toledo (BCT). Your client is SteelFabrik, Inc.
(SFI), a multinational steel products manufacturer. Your
timetable calls for completion of the project in 18 months
and you have a budget of $6 million. During the last few
weeks, it has been increasingly difficult to deal with on-
site demands from your client. SFI has insisted on a list of
change orders to suit their immediate needs for the plant
layout and design. Your counterpart says that because SFI
is paying millions for the plant, they are entitled to make
appropriate changes to the project for as long as is neces-
sary to “get it right.” You are concerned that every day
spent in processing change orders adds further delay to
your targeted completion date because engineering must
approve the changes, design must alter the plans, and
fabrication must change the plant’s structure.
BCT is already in trouble on this project. In order
to win the work, they significantly underbid their local
competitors, leaving very little profit margin in the best-
case scenario. Unfortunately, now with the list of change
requests, both the budget and the schedule are being
stretched to the limit. You are under increasing pressure
from upper management to complete the job with the
expected profit margin. You have $50,000 to work with
and still meet your profitability goals. You are personally
under pressure within your organization because your
track record for the past three years has not been good—
several projects that came in over budget and behind
schedule have given top management reason to watch
your performance on this project very closely. Although
no one has said it out loud, you are fully aware that an-
other significant overrun or delay could likely cost you
your job with BCT.
Because you view SFI as a potential long-term cus-
tomer, you are reluctant to simply refuse their demands.
You know that a win-win outcome will likely bring fu-
ture SFI business to your firm and could be the source of
a profitable backlog of business for at least the next five
years. Your own sales department is aware that this proj-
ect with SFI could lead to future business and has added
to your pressure by constantly stressing the importance
of keeping the customer happy. As a result, you have im-
portant elements within your own organization, as well
as with the customer, all expecting you to successfully
complete the project to everyone’s satisfaction.
While reading your e-mails over the weekend,
you have come upon the latest set of change orders
from SFI for adjustments to the plant layout to accom-
modate enhanced rail traffic into and out of the plant.
These changes will require that the current construction
work be halted, your own engineers and government
regulators meet to discuss these requests, and new as-
sembly and shipping areas be designed. Based on your
experience, you estimate that the changes as requested
will add $150,000 to the cost of the project and push the
completion date back a minimum of six weeks. Worse,
as you examine the change requests, you are convinced
that these alterations are unnecessarily complicated and
add no value to the plant’s design. The final line of the
e-mail is the most troubling: SFI expects these changes
to be made immediately and will not allow any sched-
ule slippage to accommodate them; in fact, they men-
tion that it is imperative that the steel plant become op-
erational on schedule. The only good news is that your
sales department has found out that SFI may be willing
to spend some additional money for the changes, but
they aren’t sure how much.
You have just typed out a short note scheduling a
meeting for this Wednesday to negotiate an agreement on
the requested changes. You are under strong pressure to
reach a settlement that preserves BCT’s profit margin, but
at the same time you must keep SFI happy. As you sit at
your home computer this Sunday afternoon, you are al-
ready dreading a return to work tomorrow morning. What
approach should you take for the upcoming negotiations?
SFI’s Perspective
You are a manager with SteelFabrik, Inc. (SFI) and are
responsible for overseeing the construction of their fabri-
cation plant in the northwest Ohio region. Recently your
management informed you that because of new oppor-
tunities, this plant could be extremely valuable to their
company, provided the rail spur connecting it with the
freight rail system could be modified and upgraded to
handle high-volume traffic into and out of the facility.
This facility represents a significant investment by your
company in the Midwest United States, following sev-
eral years of contacts with local government officials try-
ing to bring new jobs to the region. As a result, you feel
you are entitled to make any necessary adjustments to
the project to get the most use out of it. These change
requests are, in your opinion, reasonable, necessary,
and not prohibitively expensive. However, for the past
several weeks, you have been experiencing increasing
“push-back” from the BCT project manager to a series of
relatively minor change requests. Her approach has been
to ridicule the need for the changes, try to use low-cost
“quick fixes,” or simply talk you out of them. As a result,
you are convinced that these latest change requests will
exercise in Negotiation
Exercise in Negotiation 219
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220 Chapter 6 • Project Team Building, Conflict, and Negotiation
also be resisted, and your overall relationship with the
BCT project manager has become increasingly strained.
You have casually informed the BCT sales represen-
tative that this is the first in what your firm anticipates
will be a series of similar plants to be constructed in the
Great Lakes region over the next ten years. Although you
made no commitments to doing future business with
BCT, you have made it clear that successful performance
on this project will make them the preferred choice for
future work. After all, they understand your needs and
have a demonstrated history of project success behind
them.
You have been getting pressure from your top man-
agement, headquartered in Brussels, to complete the proj-
ect on time; in fact, finishing on schedule is your greatest
concern. SFI has already been bidding construction proj-
ects in the Great Lakes region and has several contracts
pending, many of substantial size. Further, local politi-
cians are anxious to show the project as an example of
a successful public/private partnership and, with local
elections coming up, are asking when they can announce
its completion. Failure to have the plant ready on time
puts you at risk of having to void a series of important
construction contracts and slow down hiring, plus it
would embarrass you and the region’s government. Be-
cause the company’s construction contract bids are still
being reviewed, you are anxious to keep this information
confidential to avoid attracting the attention of your com-
petitors.
There is $250,000 in your budget to spend on ad-
ditional change order costs if necessary, though you are
keen to make the best possible impression with your top
management by keeping costs as low as possible. You
absolutely cannot agree to schedule extensions, howev-
er, because of all the pending bids and other pressures
to finish the plant on time. Sources in the industry have
strongly implied that BCT is in some financial difficulty
and needs as much future work as they can get.
Your plant engineers have revised the transportation
capacity requirements for the new plant and recommend-
ed significant changes to the shipping area to accommo-
date extra rail traffic. These changes are deemed critical
because of the business model projections your firm has
developed for getting maximum use and profit from the
new fabrication plant. You have sent an e-mail with a de-
tailed set of needed design and construction changes to
the BCT project manager late Saturday night and just got
back a note requesting a formal meeting on Wednesday
morning to discuss these changes and find a way to “re-
solve our differences.” You know that means that she is
already trying to decide how to respond to your requests,
and you are now planning for the negotiation. As you sit
and reflect on the pressures you are feeling from Brussels,
you wonder what approach you should use.
6.1 Click on the Web page for project teams at www.
projectsmart.co.uk/five-steps-to-a-winning-project-team.
php. Which of these five steps seem to be easier for a proj-
ect manager to perform and which seem to be more dif-
ficult? Why? How do the ideas in this chapter compare to
the advice given in a related link on “five essentials to proj-
ect team success” at www.projectsmart.co.uk/5-essentials-
to-project-team-success.php? What does this suggest
about the importance of setting the stage for project suc-
cess through team development?
6.2 Go to the Web site of a professional sports team and ex-
plore the site. What clues do you get regarding the impor-
tance of “teams” and “teamwork” from this site? Give two
or three specific examples.
6.3 Go to the Web site for a pharmaceutical company. Explore
the site, particularly information on new research. What
kinds of project teams are used within pharmaceutical
companies? Can you identify at least five functional areas
within these organizations that should work together in a
project team in order to develop a new drug?
6.4 Go to www.ebxml.org/project_teams/project_teams.htm
and explore the projects and project teams listed. Notice
the size and diversity of some of these project teams. What
challenges would you find in attempting to bring these
individuals together into a project team? How does the
fact that some of the teams are made up of personnel from
different organizations affect our best attempts to mold a
project team?
6.5 Go to http://tele-immersion.citris-uc.org/ and explore the
nature of the project working to develop tele-immersion
technology. Connect to the link marked “Projects” and
observe the different fields and uses for tele- immersion
technology. What are projected advances and uses for this
science into the future?
PMP certificAtion sAMPle QUestions
1. The project manager is experiencing serious, deep-
rooted conflict between two key project team members.
It is apparent that these differences are based on differ-
ent interpretations of the project’s scope. Which conflict
resolution approach would be the most useful for the
project manager to employ?
a. Compromising
b. Withdrawal
c. Punishment
d. Problem solving
2. Which of the following is not an example of a team de-
velopment strategy?
a. Creating a WBS for the project
b. Performance reviews
c. Project team outing to a sporting event
d. Team lunches
3. Two programmers are involved in a conflict that is threat-
ening to disrupt the development of the project. The proj-
ect manager calls the two programmers into her office and
Internet exercises
reminds them that they are both “on the same side” in
working to develop the software application for the com-
pany. Her conflict resolution style would best be seen as:
a. Arbitration
b. Defusion
c. Controlling the conflict
d. Eliminating the conflict
4. Carrie is from the marketing department and she has
become increasingly upset with the attitude of the pro-
duction member of the project team, Andrew. He seems
to either ignore her opinions or make disparaging
comments every time she speaks, usually referring to
marketing in an unpleasant way. Which stage of group
development is the project team addressing, as evi-
denced by the interactions of Carrie and Andrew?
a. Norming
b. Performing
c. Storming
d. Adjourning
5. Among the useful means to develop a sense of team-
work in personnel from different functional depart-
ments are all of the following EXCEPT:
a. Colocation (physical proximity)
b. Common goals
c. Organizational rules governing their interaction
d. Flexible working hours
Answers: 1. d—Problem solving would be the best alternative
when the issues are not so much personal as they are perceptu-
al (based on interpretation of the project’s scope). Compromis-
ing would be a problem because it could lead to watering down
the deliverables; 2. a—The other activities can all result in team
development; 3. b—Because the project manager emphasizes
commonalties and working together, this would be considered
a method of conflict resolution through defusion; 4. c—They
are clearly exhibiting behaviors that are associated with storm-
ing; 5. d—Flexible working hours have no impact on the will-
ingness of personnel to work cooperatively with members of
other departments.
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Notes
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Table. New York: Warner Books; Delisle, C. (2001). Success
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CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, pp. 889–935; Pondy,
L. (1968). “Organizational conflict: Concepts and mod-
els,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 12: 296–320.
27. Thamhain, H. J., and Wilemon, D. L. (1975), as cited in
note 24.
28. Verma, V. K. (1998). “Conflict management,” in Pinto,
J. K. (Ed.), The Project Management Institute’s Project
Management Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
29. Verma, V. K. (1996), as cited in note 2; Robbins, S. P.
(1974). Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional
Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
30. Thamhain, H. J., and Wilemon, D. L. (1975), as cited in
note 24; Posner, B. Z. (1986), as cited in note 24.
31. Verma, V. K. (1998), as cited in note 28.
32. Ware, J. (1983). “Some aspect of problem-solving and con-
flict resolution in management groups,” in Schlesinger,
L. A., Eccles, R. G., and Gabarro, J. L. (Eds.), Managing
Behavior in Organization: Text, Cases, Readings. New York:
McGraw-Hill, pp. 101–15.
33. Slevin, D. P. (1989). The Whole Manager. New York:
AMACOM.
34. Fisher, R., and Ury, W. (1981). Getting to Yes: Negotiating
Agreement Without Giving In. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
35. Fisher, R., and Ury, W. (1981), ibid.
36. Fisher, R., and Ury, W. (1981), ibid.
37. Fisher, R., and Ury, W. (1981), ibid.
223
7
■ ■ ■
Risk Management
Chapter Outline
Project Profile
The Building that Melted Cars
introduction
Project Managers in Practice
Mathew Paul, General Electric Company
7.1 risk ManageMent: a four-stage
Process
Risk Identification
Project Profile
Bank of America Completely Misjudges
Its Customers
Risk Breakdown Structures
Analysis of Probability and Consequences
Risk Mitigation Strategies
Use of Contingency Reserves
Other Mitigation Strategies
Control and Documentation
Project Profile
Collapse of Shanghai Apartment Building
7.2 Project risk ManageMent:
an integrated aPProach
Summary
Key Terms
Solved Problem
Discussion Questions
Problems
Case Study 7.1 Classic Case: de Havilland’s
Falling Comet
Case Study 7.2 The Spanish Navy Pays Nearly $3
Billion for a Submarine That Will Sink Like a Stone
Case Study 7.3 Classic Case: Tacoma Narrows
Suspension Bridge
Internet Exercises
PMP Certification Sample Questions
Integrated Project—Project Risk Assessment
Notes
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Define project risk.
2. Recognize four key stages in project risk management and the steps necessary to manage risk.
3. Understand five primary causes of project risk and four major approaches to risk identification.
4. Recognize four primary risk mitigation strategies.
5. Explain the Project Risk Analysis and Management (PRAM) process.
Project MAnAgeMent Body of Knowledge core concePts covered
in this chAPter
1. Plan Risk Management (PMBoK sec. 11.1)
2. Identify Risks (PMBoK sec. 11.2)
3. Perform Qualitative Risk Analysis (PMBoK sec. 11.3)
4. Perform Quantitative Risk Analysis (PMBoK sec. 11.4)
5. Plan Risk Responses (PMBoK sec. 11.5)
6. Control Risks (PMBoK sec. 11.6)
www.ebook3000.com
224 Chapter 7 • Risk Management
Project Profile
the Building that Melted cars
Driving a car in London just got a lot more dangerous. A soon-to-be-completed skyscraper in the downtown area is
having an impact that no one could have imagined: It is starting fires and melting cars. The building—designed by in-
ternationally renowned architect Rafael Viñoly—is a dramatic edifice with curved exterior walls. Built at 20 Fenchurch
Street in London’s financial center, the 38-story skyscraper is known locally as “the Walkie-Talkie” for its unusual shape.
But that curvilinear shape is exactly what’s causing the problem: The south-facing exterior wall is covered in re-
flective glass, and because it’s concave, it focuses the sun’s rays onto a small area, not unlike the way a magnifying glass
directs sunbeams onto a superhot pinpoint of light.
“Fundamentally it’s reflection. If a building creates enough of a curve with a series of flat windows, which act like
mirrors, the reflections all converge at one point, focusing and concentrating the light,” says Chris Shepherd, from the
UK’s Institute of Physics. “It’s like starting a fire with a parabolic mirror.”
The beam caused by the curved skyscraper concentrating the sun’s rays was measured at more than 110 degrees
Celsius (230 degrees Fahrenheit) in September. So far, the building has been responsible for partially destroying a
parked Jaguar XJ luxury car, catching carpets on fire in nearby shops, and shattering slate tiles at local restaurants. This
situation is likely to be a recurring problem for any structure built within range of the powerful reflected light coming
from the building.
Because the effect is caused by the sun’s elevation in the sky at certain times of the day and during a specific time
of the year, experts expect the intense light and dangerous heating effect will last about two hours a day over a period
of three weeks. To help in the short term, the building’s owners have contracted with local authorities to block off a
limited number of parking spaces that are right in the reflected beam’s path. Longer term solutions are more problem-
atic; the design of the building will not change and of course, the sun’s path is not likely to alter in the near future!
This isn’t the first time Viñoly’s architecture has been the subject of similar controversy: His Vdara Hotel in Las
Vegas has been criticized for directing sunbeams onto the swimming pool deck that are hot enough to melt plastic and
singe people’s hair. The technical term for the phenomenon is a solar convergence, but the hotspot more popularly
became known as the “Vdara death ray.” The Vdara resolved the “death ray” effect with larger sun umbrellas, but
fixing the problem in London might take a lot more work. “There are examples in the past where an architect has had
to rebuild the façade,” said Philip Oldfield, an expert in tall buildings at the University of Nottingham’s Department of
Architecture. “If this is serious, then I dread to think how expensive it will be.”
Architectural critic Jonathan Glancey says the story is not unprecedented. In 2003, the opening of the Walt Disney
Concert Hall in Los Angeles, designed by architect Frank Gehry, had a similar problem. “The building was clad from
head to toe, right down to the pavement, in stainless steel panels, and they would send the sun dazzling across the
Figure 7.1 london’s Walkie-talkie Building
Source: Lionel Derimais/Corbis
Introduction 225
introduction
Projects operate in an envi