Discussion – minimum 400 words – 4 paragraphs – MLA format

  

Instructions: Write a response on the following topic: Describe a teacher, staff member, or administrator who have encouraged you to complete a course, finish school, or go to college; how did that encouragement help you reach your goal?

You are required to develop at least 400 words on this topic which should include four paragraphs- develop an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. 

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Elizabeth L. Angeli

Professor Patricia Sullivan

English 624

12 February 2012

Toward a Recovery of Nineteenth Century Farming Handbooks

While researching texts written about nineteenth century farming, I found a few

authors who published books about the literature of nineteenth century farming,

particularly agricultural journals, newspapers, pamphlets, and brochures. These authors

often placed the farming literature they were studying into an historical context by

discussing the important events in agriculture of the year in which the literature was

published (see Demaree, for example). However, while these authors discuss journals,

newspapers, pamphlets, and brochures, I could not find much discussion about another

important source of farming knowledge: farming handbooks. My goal in this paper is to

bring this source into the agricultural literature discussion by connecting three

agricultural handbooks from the nineteenth century with nineteenth century agricultural

history.

To achieve this goal, I have organized my paper into four main sections, two of

which have sub-sections. In the first section, I provide an account of three important

events in nineteenth century agricultural history: population and technological changes,

the distribution of scientific new knowledge, and farming’s influence on education. In the

second section, I discuss three nineteenth century farming handbooks in

connection with the important events described in the first section. I end my paper

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with a third section that offers research questions that could be answered in future

versions of this paper and conclude with a fourth section that discusses the importance of

expanding this particular project. I also include an appendix after the Works Cited that

contains images of the three handbooks I examined. Before I can begin the examination

of the three handbooks, however, I need to provide an historical context in which the

books were written, and it is to this that I now turn.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The nineteenth century saw many changes to daily American life with an increase in

population, improved methods of transportation, developments in technology, and the

rise in the importance of science. These events impacted all aspects of nineteenth century

American life, most significantly those involved in slavery and the Civil War, but a large

part of American life was affected, a part that is quite often taken for granted: the life of

the American farmer.

Population and Technological Changes. One of the biggest changes, as seen in

nineteenth century America’s census reports, is the dramatic increase in population. The

1820 census reported that over 10 million people were living in America; of those 10

million, over 2 million were engaged in agriculture. Ten years prior to that, the 1810

census reported over 7 million people were living in the states; there was no category for

people engaged in agriculture. In this ten-year time span, then, agriculture experienced

significant improvements and changes that enhanced its importance in American life.

One of these improvements was the developments of canals and steamboats,

which allowed farmers to “sell what has previously been unsalable [sic]” and resulted in a

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“substantial increase in [a farmer’s] ability to earn income” (Danhof 5). This

improvement allowed the relations between the rural and urban populations to strengthen,

resulting in an increase in trade. The urban population (defined as having over 2,500

inhabitants) in the northern states increased rapidly after 1820.1 This increase

accompanied the decrease in rural populations, as farmers who “preferred trade,

transportation, or ‘tinkering’” to the tasks of tending to crops and animals found great

opportunities in the city (Danhof 7). Trade and transportation thus began to influence

farming life significantly. Before 1820, the rural community accounted for eighty percent

of consumption of farmers’ goods (Hurt 127). With the improvements in transportation,

twenty-five percent of farmers’ products were sold for commercial gain, and by 1825,

farming “became a business rather than a way of life” (128). This business required

farmers to specialize their production and caused most farmers to give “less attention to

the production of surplus commodities like wheat, tobacco, pork, or beef” (128). The

increase in specialization encouraged some farmers to turn to technology to increase their

production and capitalize on commercial markets (172).

The technology farmers used around 1820 was developed from three main

sources: Europe, coastal Indian tribes in America, and domestic modifications made from

the first two sources’ technologies. Through time, technology improved, and while some

farmers clung to their time-tested technologies, others were eager to find alternatives to

these technologies. These farmers often turned to current developments in Great Britain

and received word of their technological improvements through firsthand knowledge by

talking with immigrants and travelers. Farmers also began planning and conducting

experiments, and although they lacked a truly scientific approach, these farmers engaged

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in experiments to obtain results and learn from the results.2 Agricultural organizations

were then formed to “encourage . . . experimentation, hear reports, observe results, and

exchange critical comments” (Danhof 53). Thus, new knowledge was transmitted orally

from farmer to farmer, immigrant to farmer, and traveler to farmer, which could result in

the miscommunication of this new scientific knowledge. Therefore, developments were

made for knowledge to be transmitted and recorded in a more permanent, credible way:

by print.

The Distribution of New Knowledge. Before 1820 and prior to the new knowledge

farmers were creating, farmers who wanted print information about agriculture had their

choice of agricultural almanacs and even local newspapers to receive information

(Danhof 54). After 1820, however, agricultural writing took more forms than almanacs

and newspapers. From 1820 to 1870, agricultural periodicals were responsible for

spreading new knowledge among farmers. In his published dissertation The American

Agricultural Press 1819-1860, Albert Lowther Demaree presents a “description of the

general content of [agricultural journals]” (xi). These journals began in 1819 and were

written for farmers, with topics devoted to “farming, stock raising, [and] horticulture”

(12). The suggested “birthdate” of American agricultural journalism is April 2, 1819

when John S. Skinner published his periodical American Farmer in Baltimore. Demaree

writes that Skinner’s periodical was the “first continuous, successful agricultural

periodical in the United States” and “served as a model for hundreds of journals that

succeeded it” (19). In the midst of the development of the journal, farmers began writing

handbooks. Not much has been written on the handbooks’ history, aside from the fact that

C.M. Saxton & Co. in New York was the major handbook publisher. Despite the lack of

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information about handbooks, and as can be seen in my discussion below, these

handbooks played a significant role in distributing knowledge among farmers and in

educating young farmers, as I now discuss.

Farming’s Influence on Education. One result of the newly circulating print information

was the “need for acquiring scientific information upon which could be based a rational

technology” that could “be substituted for the current diverse, empirical practices”

(Danhof 69). In his 1825 book Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of

Husbandry, John Lorain begins his first chapter by stating that “[v]ery erroneous theories

have been propagated” resulting in faulty farming methods (1). His words here create a

framework for the rest of his book, as he offers his readers narratives of his own trials and

errors and even dismisses foreign, time-tested techniques farmers had held on to: “The

knowledge we have of that very ancient and numerous nation the Chinese, as well as the

very located habits and costumes of this very singular people, is in itself insufficient to

teach us . . .” (75). His book captures the call and need for scientific experiments to

develop new knowledge meant to be used in/on/with American soil, which reflects some

farmers’ thinking of the day.

By the 1860s, the need for this knowledge was strong enough to affect education.

John Nicholson anticipated this effect in 1820 in the “Experiments” section of his book

The Farmer’s Assistant; Being a Digest of All That Relates to Agriculture and the

Conducting of Rural Affairs; Alphabetically Arranged and Adapted for the United States:

Perhaps it would be well, if some institution were devised, and supported

at the expense of the State, which would be so organized as would tend

most effectually to produce a due degree of emulation among Farmers, by

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rewards and honorary distinctions conferred by those who, by their

successful experimental efforts and improvements, should render

themselves duly entitled to them.3 (92)

Part of Nicholson’s hope was realized in 1837 when Michigan established their state

university, specifying that “agriculture was to be an integral part of the curriculum”

(Danhof 71). Not much was accomplished, however, much to the dissatisfaction of

farmers, and in 1855, the state authorized a new college to be “devoted to agriculture and

to be independent of the university” (Danhof 71). The government became more involved

in the creation of agricultural universities in 1862 when President Lincoln passed the

Morrill Land Grant College Act, which begins with this phrase: “AN ACT Donating

Public Lands to the several States and Territories which may provide Colleges for the

Benefit of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts [sic].” The first agricultural colleges formed

under the act suffered from a lack of trained teachers and “an insufficient base of

knowledge,” and critics claimed that the new colleges did not meet the needs of farmers

(Hurt 193).

Congress addressed these problems with the then newly formed United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA). The USDA and Morrill Act worked together to form

“. . . State experiment stations and extension services . . . [that] added [to]

. . . localized research and education . . .” (Baker et al. 415). The USDA added to the

scientific and educational areas of the agricultural field in other ways by including

research as one of the organization’s “foundation stone” (367) and by including these

seven objectives:

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(1) [C]ollecting, arranging, and publishing statistical and other useful

agricultural information; (2) introducing valuable plants and animals; (3)

answering inquiries of farmers regarding agriculture; (4) testing

agricultural implements; (5) conducting chemical analyses of soils, grains,

fruits, plants, vegetables, and manures; (6) establishing a professorship of

botany and entomology; and (7) establishing an agricultural library and

museum. (Baker et al. 14)

These objectives were a response to farmers’ needs at the time, mainly to the need for

experiments, printed distribution of new farming knowledge, and education. Isaac

Newton, the first Commissioner of Agriculture, ensured these objectives would be

realized by stressing research and education with the ultimate goal of helping farmers

improve their operations (Hurt 190).

Before the USDA assisted in the circulation of knowledge, however, farmers

wrote about their own farming methods. This brings me to my next section in which I

examine three handbooks written by farmers and connect my observations of the texts

with the discussion of agricultural history I have presented above.

Note: Sections of this paper have been deleted to shorten the length of the paper

CONCLUSION

From examining Drown’s, Allen’s, and Crozier and Henderson’s handbooks in light of

nineteenth century agricultural history, I can say that science and education seem to have

had a strong influence on how and why these handbooks were written. The authors’ ethos

is created by how they align themselves as farmers with science and education either by

supporting or by criticizing them. Regardless of their stance, the authors needed to create

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Angeli 8

an ethos to gain an audience, and they did this by including tables of information,

illustrations of animals and buildings, reasons for educational reform, and pieces of

advice to young farmers in their texts. It would be interesting to see if other farming

handbooks of the same century also convey a similar ethos concerning science and

education in agriculture. Recovering more handbooks in this way could lead to a better,

more complete understanding of farming education, science’s role in farming and

education, and perhaps even an understanding of the rhetoric of farming handbooks in the

nineteenth century.

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Notes

1. Danhof includes “Delaware, Maryland, all states north of the Potomac and

Ohio rivers, Missouri, and states to its north” when referring to the northern states (11).

2. For the purposes of this paper, “science” is defined as it was in nineteenth

century agriculture: conducting experiments and engaging in research.

3. Please note that any direct quotes from the nineteenth century texts are written

in their original form, which may contain grammar mistakes according to twenty-first

century grammar rules.

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Works Cited

Allen, R.L. The American Farm Book; or Compend of American Agriculture; Being a

Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain,

Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and Every Staple Product of

the United States with the Best Methods of Planting, Cultivating, and Preparation

for Market. Saxton, 1849.

Baker, Gladys L., et al. Century of Service: The First 100 Years of the United States

Department of Agriculture. [Federal Government], 1996.

Danhof, Clarence H. Change in Agriculture: The Northern United States, 1820-1870.

Harvard UP, 1969.

Demaree, Albert Lowther. The American Agricultural Press 1819-1860. Columbia UP,

1941.

Drown, William and Solomon Drown. Compendium of Agriculture or the Farmer’s

Guide, in the Most Essential Parts of Husbandry and Gardening; Compiled from

the Best American and European Publications, and the Unwritten Opinions of

Experienced Cultivators. Field, 1824.

“Historical Census Browser.” University of Virginia Library, 2007,

http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2008.

Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History. Iowa State UP, 1994.

Lorain, John. Nature and Reason Harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry. Carey,1825.

“Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862.” Prairie View A&M, 2003. https://www.pvamu.edu/

library/about-the-library/history-of-the-library-at-prairie-view/1890-land-grant-

history/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2008.

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Angeli 11

Nicholson, John. The Farmer’s Assistant; Being a Digest of All That Relates to

Agriculture and the Conducting of Rural Affairs; Alphabetically Arranged and

Adapted for the United States. Warner, 1820.

Point of view is the perspective from which an essay is written. The following chart lists

both the personal pronouns and their possessive forms used with these points of view:

Singular Plural
First Person I, me (my, mine) we, us (our, ours)
Second Person you (your, yours) you (your, yours)
Third Person she, her (her, hers)

he, him (his)
it (its)
one (one’s)

them, they (their, theirs)

When choosing appropriate point of view for academic or formal writing,
consider the type and purpose of the assignment.

Consistency is Key!

When using any of the three points of view, maintaining consistency is vital. Switching
between points of view can be confusing for the reader. Choose a suitable perspective
and then stay with it.

Unclear: The accident happened right in front of us so you could see who was at fault.
Revised: The accident happened right in front of us so we could see who was at fault.

FIRST PERSON

First-person point of view is used to write stories/narratives or examples about
personal experiences from your own life. Note the following paragraph:

Several people have made a lasting impression on me. I remember one person
in particular who was significant to me. Mr. Smith, my high school English teacher,
helped my family and me through a difficult time during my junior year. We
appreciated his care, kindness, and financial help after the loss of our home in a
devastating fire.

Note: Academic writing often requires us to avoid first-person point of view in favor
of third-person point of view, which can be more objective and convincing. Often,
students will say, “I think the author is very convincing.” Taking out I makes a stronger
statement or claim: “The author is very convincing.”

POINT OF VIEW IN

ACADEMIC WRITING

SECOND PERSON

Second-person point of view, which directly addresses the reader, works well for
giving advice or explaining how to do something. A process analysis paper would be a
good choice for using the second-person point of view, as shown in this paragraph:

In order to prepare microwave popcorn, you will need a microwave and a box
of microwave popcorn which you’ve purchased at a grocery store. First of all, you
need to remove the popcorn package from the box and take off the plastic wrap. Next,
open your microwave and place the package in the center with the proper side up.
Then set your microwave for the suggested number of minutes as stated on the box.
Finally, when the popcorn is popped, you’re ready for a great treat.

Note: Academic writing generally avoids second-person point of view in favor of third-
person point of view. Second person can be too casual for formal writing, and it can also
alienate the reader if the reader does not identify with the idea.

Replacing You

In academic writing, sometimes you needs to be replaced with nouns or proper nouns to
create more formality or to clarify the idea. Here are some examples:

Inappropriate Use of “You” Revised to Replace “You”
Uprisings in prison often occur when you
allow overcrowded conditions.
(Are you, the reader, allowing the
conditions?)

Uprisings in prison often occur when the
authorities allow overcrowded
conditions.
(Identifies who is doing what.)

In Russia you usually have to stand in
long lines to buy groceries.
(Are you, the reader, shopping in Russia?)

Russian customers usually have to stand
in long lines to buy groceries.
(Identifies who is doing what.)

In many states, you have prisons with few
rehabilitation programs.
(Do you, the reader, have prisons?)

In many states, prisons have few
rehabilitation programs.
(Identifies the actual subject of the
sentence.)

This document was developed by the

College Writing Center
STLCC-Meramec

Revised 10-25-13 HSC/KM

THIRD PERSON

Third-person point of view identifies people by proper noun (a given name such as
Ella Clark) or noun (such as teachers, students, doctors, or players) and uses the
pronouns he, she, and they. Third person also includes the use of one, everyone, and
anyone. Most formal, academic writing uses the third person. Note the use of various
third-person nouns and pronouns in the following:

The bosses at the factory have decided that employees need a day of in-house
training. Times have been scheduled for everyone. Several senior employees will
be required to make five-minute presentations. One is not eager to speak in front of
others since she’s very shy. Another one, however, is anxious to relate her
expertise. The variation in routine should provide an interesting day for all people
concerned.

Third Person Pronouns: Gender-Fair Use of Language

In the past, if you wanted to refer to one unnamed person, you used the masculine
pronoun: If a person is strong, he will stand up for himself. Today, you should avoid
the automatic use of the masculine pronoun because it is considered sexist language.

Also avoid perpetuating gender stereotypes by assigning a particular gendered pronoun:
A doctor should listen to his patients. A nurse should listen to her patients. These
examples make assumptions that doctors are men and nurses are women, which is a
sexist stereotype.

Using he or she is a possible solution, but not if the phrase comes several times in a row.
The sentence becomes clunky and awkward: If a person is strong, he or she will stand
up for himself or herself when he or she believes in something.

Another strategy is to use they or them. Remember, however, that they or them must
refer to a plural, such as people, doctors, or students: If people are strong, they will
stand up for themselves when they believe in something.