please do a reference to the sample report attached below.

the outline of the report is also attached below as the dissertation sample. 

Effects of nutrient timing on adaptative responses after exercise

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Effects of nutrient timing on adaptative responses after exercise

Introduction

The concept of nutrient timing encompasses eating a combination of specific foods at strategic times with the aim to achieve certain outcomes. There are various research findings indicating that optimal nutrients timing can help in fat loss, improved performance in sports, and muscle growth among many other claimed benefits. However, despite being there for over half a century, nutrient timing’s benefits are still far from convincing. In this dissertation, the effects of nutrient timings on adaptive response to exercise, especially after resistance training, are explored.

Nutrient Timing

Many professional athletes and bodybuilders have been utilizing the principle of nutrient timing in their training in the past 50 years, and many aspects of the latter have also been subjected to several studies. The first studies on nutrient timing were conceptualized over 40 years ago, beginning with the early 1970s. Initial work assessed the effects of increased carbohydrate intake on glycogen stores in the body and exercise performance (Sherman, Costill, Fink, & Miller, 1981; Karlsson & Saltin, 1971).

Thereafter, Ivy et al. (1988) conducted a research to demonstrate that timing of carbohydrate intake has an impact on the rate of glycogen resynthesis after exercise. Later researchers have also studied the impact of amino acids and other forms of protein intake, either alone or alongside carbohydrates, as a nutrient timing strategy. The majority of contemporary researches have primarily focused on nutrient timing considerations for carbohydrates and proteins (Aragon & Schoenfeld, 2013; Kraemer, et al., 2007).

The post-exercise period, also known as the ‘golden hour’ or ‘anabolic window’, has received greater considerations in nutrient timing research. It is based on the theoretical assumption that timely consumption of nutrients after exercise helps in the rebuilding of damaged muscle tissues and energy reserve restoration in a supercompensated manner, hence improving body composition, recovery rate and even subsequent exercise performance. Although the ‘golden hour’ is widely acknowledged as the hour immediately post-exercise, this ‘window of opportunity’ has been determined to vary depending on an amalgam of different factors (Aragon & Schoenfeld, 2013).

The primary goal for nutrient timing has been to facilitate damaged tissue repair and maximize exercise-induced muscular adaptations. On the other hand, according to Ivy & Portman (2004), nutrient timing is critical because it can lead to dramatic enhancements in the composition of the body, especially in relation to fat loss. Similarly, Candow & Chilibeck (2008) concluded in their paper that optimal timing of nutritional consumption could be more valuable in ensuring the overall health of the body, compared to the absolute daily nutrient intake. The data by all these researchers, in addition to the findings by Kukuljan, Nowson, Sanders & Dally (2009) corroborate the widespread claim that the post-exercise period, especially during what is traditionally referred to as the ‘anabolic window’, is the most critical section of nutrient timing because it aides the body in energy reserves restoration, damaged tissue rebuilding, and the optimization of muscular adaptation as a result of training.

The findings from these studies were that highly intense resistance training exercises cause a significant depletion of amino acids and glycogen in the body, as well as muscle tissue damage. According to Philips & Van Loom (2011), the timing of protein intake has become a popular dietary strategy for the optimization of adaptive muscle response to exercise, especially in terms of hypertrophy and muscle strength. Ivy & Portman (2004), who were amongst the pioneering researchers in this study area, posited that the consumption of protein before, during and after exercise significantly increases the repair and remodeling of muscles, hence leading to the improvements in hypertrophy-related muscular adaptations and post-exercise strength enhancement. These findings corroborate that by Kersick et al. (2008); and Candow & Chilibeck (2008) that the timing of protein intake just before and after exercise helps the body take maximal advantage of the limited anabolic window.

Consequently, Shoefield et al. (2013) conducted a primary research to determine the impact of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy. According to the researchers, although there has been a significant agreeableness amongst biologists concerning the strategy’s plausibility, the effective of the program, especially within chronic training studies, have never been decidedly consistent. They then decided conduct a multi-level meta-regression analysis on findings from randomized controlled trials to assess whether the timing of protein intakes is an effective strategy for the enhancement of post-exercise muscular adaptations. The study incorporated the strength analysis of 478 subjects and 96 effect sizes. The results were nested within 41 treatment or control groups and 20 studies. On the other hand, the hypertrophy analysis consisted of 525 subjects and 132 effect sizes, nested with 47 treatment or control groups and 23 studies (Shoenfeld, Aragon, & Krieger, 2013).

Their findings after conducting a simple pooled analysis of protein timing strategy without covariate’s control suggested a small to moderate impact on muscle hypertrophy but no significant effect on muscle strength. On the other hand, the full meta-regression design which entailed controlling for the covariates suggested a lack of significant differences between the treatment and control groups for strength or hypertrophy (Shoenfeld, Aragon, & Krieger, 2013). There were no significant differences between the full and reduced model for either the strength or hypertrophy test.

Secondly, their findings suggested total protein intake to be the strongest effect size magnitude predictor in relation to hypertrophy. This study challenged the long-held traditional perception of timed protein intake, consisting of before, within and after the training session to be critical to muscular adaptations. It suggested that only adequate protein consumption together with resistance exercise is critical for the maximization of muscle protein accretion, leading to hypertrophy. Similar findings were also suggested in other studies. Morton et al. (2018) suggested that in individuals with prior experience in resistance training, the additional supplementation of proteins during the post-resistance training period led to more pronounced strength and hypertrophy gains.

The authors conducted a series of systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression analysis to determine the impact of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in the mass and strengths of muscle in healthy adults. Furthermore, the study suggested that the effect’s magnitude significantly reduced with aging. A prior study by Thomson, Brinkworth, Noakes, Buckley (2016) also concluded that healthier older adults require far more need in greater total daily protein quantity of up to 0.61 g/kg FFM compared to the younger people who only require 0.25 g/kg FFM. These findings entirely corroborate a prior research conclusion by Volpi et al. (2013) whose research findings suggested that healthy, older adults must increase the total percentage contributions of daily energy intake from the protein components as a result of (1) decreases in protein uptake by the body and (2) the ability of proteins to attenuate sarcorpenia by enhancing muscle hypertrophy, and maintaining or even increasing the strength and power of the muscles.

The timing of carbohydrate intake and their impact on adaptive response to exercise after resistance training have been at the center of research for a considerably long time. Pioneering research on timing of fat intake is also underway (e.g. Marquet et al. 2016), as well as other minerals such as the study of calcium intake timing in relation to exercise (Sherk et al. 2013). Furthermore, the researches by Matsuo, Kang, Suzuki, & Suzuki (2002); & Fujii, Matsuo, & Okamura (2012) have also sought to explore the potential function played by controlled and timed intake of iron on health related outcomes, e.g. blood hemoglobin concentration and iron status, respectively, using animal models.

However, these studies are still evolving, and future researches in these health-critical areas should consider a wider array of other ergogenic aids, such as those expanding on the work on bicarbonate [Siegler, Marshal, & Towlson, 2012; creatine [Cribb & Hayes, 2006; Antonio & Ciccone, 2013]; and, caffeine [Ryan et al., 2013], amongst others, which have all indicated that timing of intake of these nutrients may significantly improve acute and chronic exercise response. Unfortunately, however, there are considerably limited numbers of researches which employ resistance exercise and assess the timing of carbohydrates intake.

The only constant suggestion from multiple research findings, such as those by pioneering scholars in the field, including Robergs et al., (1991); MacDougall et al., (1999); & Pascoe et al., (1993), have been that resistance exercise can significantly decrease the concentration of glycogen in the muscles (Kerksick, et al., 2017). However, the reductions are lower compared to those found in endurance training. Glycogen store replenishment has been the core goal of traditional post-exercise nutrient timings because glycogen is perceived of as highly essential to optimal performance in resistance training, with up to 80% of ATP production during such exercises provided by glycolysis (Aragon & Schoenfeld, 2013).

Secondly, glycogen is critical for intracellular signaling mediation. Unfortunately, pre-exercise intake of carbohydrate to individuals, in a moderate glycogen depleted state, involved in resistance training have been determined as having no ergogenic effects. In yet another research, however, Yaspelkis, Patterson, Anderla, Ding, & Ivy (1993) demonstrated that post-endurance exercise ingestion of carbohydrate helps in sparing glycogen, maintaining blood glucose, and improve performance. However, the same effects were not noted post-resistance exercise. Only limited researches have indicated that timed ingestion of carbohydrates cause improvement in performance in resistance training (Kujuljan, Touchberry, Kawamori, Blumert, Crum, & Haff, 2008). Several reviews, however, recommends the aggressive consumption of carbohydrates after exercises, especially when there is limited time for recovery.

There are other evidences, especially through high-intensity activities, indicating that the timing of carbohydrate intake in resistance exercises may support metabolic outcomes, but not necessarily the exercise performance. Other studies by Kraemer et al. (2007); Batty et al. (2007); Fujita et al. (2009); White et al. (2008), etc. have sought to determine whether timing of intake of both carbohydrates and proteins have a significant impact on adaptive response to exercise, during resistance training. Their findings have demonstrated an affirmative tendency towards the question.

Discussion and Conclusion

The most detailed and concerted researches concerning the topic began to crop from 2004, after the publishing of the book Nutrient Timing: The Future of Sports Nutrition (2004) by John Ivy & Robert Portman. Since then, there have been several books, journal articles, and nutritional programs that promote nutrient timing as a means for performance improvement, muscle gain, and fat lose. However, the only challenges with these publications are that they have been far from conclusive. First, most of these researches only base their conclusions on the measurements of short-term blood markers, which are often short of meaningful correlation with long-term benefits (Mitchell, et al., 2014).

Secondly, most of these researches are based on ultra-endurance athletes. In other words, most of studies’ participants are extreme endurance athletes that do not necessarily represent those athletes who are average in endurance or ‘weekend warriors’ in the general public. Consequently, it has become very hard to generalize the findings supporting nutrient timing because they are never representative of everyone. Thus, although nutrient timing has been around for close to decades and that many believe it is vitally important on our body’s health, its supporting researches has several shortcomings (Aragon & Schoenfeld, 2013).

Furthermore, there have been several researches concerning the direct exploration of questions related to nutrients timing, hence refining the available information concerning evidence-based nutritional recommendations even further. In particular, the current premise of nutrient timing encompasses the deliberate use of methodical planning and ingestion of all nutrient types throughout the day; with the aim of causing the nutrients to favorably affect the adaptive response to both acute and chronic exercise (Aragon & Schoenfeld, 2013).

These groups of foods may involve dietary supplements, fortified foods, and whole foods. It is based on the philosophy that energy intake’s timing and the ratio certain ingested macronutrients may improve the muscle recovery, tissue repair, mood states, augmented muscle protein synthesis (MPS), physical performance, substrate utilization, body composition, muscle strength power, etc (Morton, et al., 2018).

According to Kerksick et al., (2017), although much of the available research and interests in the area majorly relies on findings based on people who regularly compete in both anaerobic and aerobic exercises, nutrient timing frameworks may also provide better outcomes for both the clinical populations and non-athletics. Future studies need to be conducted in the area of timing of carbohydrates intake within and around resistance training to determine its effects on adaptive responses. This is especially because of limited researches that have been conducted within the area.

References
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Objective: To understand how to research and write a scientific dissertation.

You will research and present a dissertation on a topic of your choice using two sources of information:

1. Peer reviewed scientific journals containing the most recent (last 10-15 years) primary literature. Primary literature must form at least 80% of your total number of references

2. Books and secondary journals (i.e. review articles) – these should be used sparingly and you should have no more 20% of your total number of references from secondary sources

Learning outcomes

You will:

· Search, compare and evaluate primary literature and scientific publications for critical review.

· Examine scientific argument, formulate and present a balanced argument and summation

· Identify, synthesise and evaluate ethical issues pertinent in the topic area

· Critically evaluate these issues and formulate potential solutions as applied to the topic area

It is particularly important that you learn how to use primary literature, and the skills that you learn in this exercise will be particularly useful if you carry out a research project in year 4 or when you prepare reports and proposals in future employment.

At least 80% of your references must come from primary literature, other sources such as books, secondary journals such as Sports Medicine etc. can only be used sparingly. Internet sources are not generally acceptable, exceptions to this may be made in the case of dissertations that reference government agency publications, such as SEPA or DEFRA or international agencies such as FAO or WHO.

What is a dissertation?

In relation to what you are required to produce it is a detailed review of the primary literature relating to a topic. It differs from an essay in that it follows a more rigid structure requiring substantiation of facts by the use of references that are cited in the text and listed at the end of the dissertation. On completion, the dissertation should resemble a review paper, as would be published in a scientific journal. A good way to get an understanding of what it is you are trying to produce is to find a review article for your chosen topic and have a look at how that is written.

What is primary literature?

Primary literature is the first published outcome of original research. This is usually presented in articles and conference proceedings. These may be in traditional paper journals or peer reviewed journals you will find online. These articles contain original data and have been “peer-reviewed” i.e., refereed by at least two reputable scientists familiar with the area being researched.

Secondary Literature

Secondary literature is published information that an author selects from primary sources. It is at least one step removed from primary literature. This type of literature is usually that found in books and review papers. You are producing secondary literature in that you are preparing a review of primary sources.

Choice of Topic

It is crucial that you choose your topic early as it takes a considerable time to track down information, locate journals, obtain Inter Library loans etc. Evidence from previous years is that students underestimate the time required to carry out this exercise; some fail to submit on time and have to redo the exercise over the summer. You have until Week 10 to complete the dissertation (10 working weeks), so there is no excuse for late submission.

Your choice of topic needs to be well defined. If it is too wide you will be swamped with information, if it is too narrow it may be difficult to find sufficient information, if it is too vague you will have great difficulty in using the various online journal search engines to locate the information you want. You will be required to submit a working title and define your topic at the tutorial in Week 3 or 4 — your topic must be related to your choice of course (i.e. Sport and Exercise Science) and must be agreed with your tutor. You may be asked to modify your topic if it is thought not to be suitable.

Length

Your dissertation should be 2000 ± 10% words in length. Dissertations that deviate from this by more than 10% will be penalised. You should aim to include information from around 20-35 journal articles. This is a figure for guidance and if you feel that you are likely to deviate significantly from this you must discuss it with your tutor. You will have the opportunity during tutorials and practicals, and during staff office hours, to raise any problems regarding the appropriate number of references used.

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