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Confucianism

HUM 2633

Jennifer McMahon

Confucianism
Confucianism originated in China during the Qin Period (2300-200 B.C.). It remains most influential there, but is also influential among communities of Chinese in other countries. Though it draws heavily from pre-existing Chinese religions prevalent during the Qin period, it is named for (and is most closely associated with) its founder, Confucius, or Kongzi (551-479 B.C.).
Jennifer McMahon
1

History and Range of Influence
While Confucianism is not as widely practiced as certain other religions, it is historically significant and remains a highly influential faith system, including it being a significant catalyst to the development of Taoism in China.
Jennifer McMahon
2

Population
As is the case with Buddhism and Taoism, it is difficult to get exact numbers on the number of individuals who adhere to Confucian principles. It is difficult because Confucianism does not demand exclusivity from its practitioners. Therefore, a high number of individuals who practice it also identify as Taoist or Buddhist. There are at least 6 million practitioners of Confucianism, but millions, indeed billions, are influenced by Confucian ideology and adhere to Confucian principles.
3
Jennifer McMahon

Philosophy OR Faith?
A False Dichotomy
Though some argue that Confucianism is better understood as a political philosophy as opposed to a religion, those familiar with the tradition recognize its ongoing and broader function as a faith system. While its political ideology was a dominant force in China for centuries, and it remains an influential force there despite governmental restrictions on religious activity, Confucian social and political philosophy (e.g., the understanding of the proper relations between individuals and corresponding standards for government) is predicated on Confucian metaphysics, namely, its understanding of the cosmos and humans place in it.
4
Jennifer McMahon

Confucian Cosmology
On the basis of its cosmology (which extends beyond Earth) and its conception of human nature, Confucianism prescribes standards for good conduct (ethics), and does so on the assumption that adherence to said standards will not only produce the ends of happiness for the individual and peace for society (eschatology), but other potential rewards (soteriology).
Jennifer McMahon
5

The Three Teachings
Confucianism was one of the most influential ideologies that shaped Chinese culture, and it remains one of the most influential religious ideologies in China. It is revered as one of the Three Teachings (sanjiao), namely, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. See illustration of LaoTzu, The Buddha, and Confucius. Image Credit: © Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institute.
Jennifer McMahon
6

Even though Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism are now seen as compatible teachings (aggregate), just as Buddhism was an ideological reaction to Hinduism, Taoism is in many respects an ideological reaction to Confucian philosophy. It emerged out of the desire for “reform” to the ritualism and strict enforcement of authoritarian norms that popular Confucianism encouraged.
Jennifer McMahon
7

The Analects
The primary text of Confucianism is the Analects, by Confucius. This text and other important works in the Confucian canon, articulate central tenets of Confucian thought. For our purposes, they will be outlined under the sub-domains in philosophy that we are studying.
8
Jennifer McMahon

CONFUCIAN METAPHYSICS:
While it has two levels, Confucianism is anchored in a holistic understanding of the cosmos, one that assumes large-scale connections between different elements in the system and often a tendency for elements at different levels in the system to mirror one another.
The most prominent concept in Confucian thought is the concept of Heaven.
9

The Mandate of Heaven
Whereas practitioners of western religions such as Christianity tend to identify heaven as sacred because it is the precinct where God resides (and to which they hope to gain entry), in the Confucian tradition the concept of Heaven stands in the place of the deity. Heaven represents the first cause, or originating force, within the cosmos as well as its sustaining and guiding principle. This explains the metaphysical basis for the claim made by Chinese emperors to rule by the Mandate of Heaven (similar to the notion of Divine Right claimed by European rulers).
Jennifer McMahon
10

In Confucian metaphysics, Earth not only resides below Heaven in a literal sense, Earth is also subordinate to Heaven. Confucian metaphysics endorses a hierarchical understanding of the cosmos with certain planes being higher (superior) to others. As entities who reside on the Earth, humans exist in a sort of interface between Heaven and Earth. We have the capacity to know the rule of Heaven and enact it on the Earth. This capacity is central to other Confucian ideals, particularly:
the concept of ren, or goodness,
the concept of li, or rites (codified rules and social norms) and ritual practices designed to foster ren
the ideal of the jungzi, or noble person who enacts li and embodies ren
Jennifer McMahon
11
禮
君子

ORDER IN HIERARCHY
Confucian metaphysics assumes that just as Heaven and Earth exist in hierarchical relation, relations on Earth also should be hierarchical, such as the relation between a leader and their subjects, parents and their children, and teachers and their students.
Importantly, these relations are not presumed to be equal. Instead, there is a clear superior and subordinate in each case. Like the universe more broadly, society is understood to have levels, and not be egalitarian.
Confucian metaphysics assumes that order at all levels in the system is maintained by preserving hierarchies. It assumes that interrupting or challenging them tends to undermine the possibility of harmony and proper function (at all earthly levels – individual, familial, social).
Jennifer McMahon
12

Confucian Ethics
Flowing directly from its hierarchical metaphysics, Confucian ethics prescribe conduct that reinforces order by reinforcing what are understood to be natural hierarchies. Humans are to understand and willingly reproduce the order that Heaven imbues on the Earth. Those who may be too young to understand the rule of Heaven, or incapable of it, are expected follow the command of those who do.
Jennifer McMahon
13
Individuals have different duties to one another dependent on their role as superior or subordinate. Superiors have an obligation to guide and provide. Subordinates are obliged to obedience and loyalty. It is understood that widespread adherence to Confucian principles will maintain the social order and will create not only content individuals, but also peaceful and well-functioning societies.

FILIAL PIETY
Central to Confucian ethics are the previously cited principles of ren and li. Ren, or goodness, is the goal sought, and li is understood to be the means through which ren is attained.
Central to Chinese culture during the period in which Confucian philosophy predominated, and even to this day, is the practice of ancestor worship and the associated practice of honoring one’s ancestors by demonstrating filial piety.
Jennifer McMahon
14

Honoring one’s ancestors both in and through specific ritual practices, but also in one’s conduct and occupation, is known as filial piety. Filial piety is a primary duty, or moral obligation.
An individual’s character is assessed on the basis of their performance of this duty, and it is assumed that individuals who are incapable of honoring their family are unlikely to be able to other more abstract moral obligations (e.g., to community, to nation).
Shame is a consequence of failure to fulfill one’s duty. In Chinese and other Asian societies where the family is the primary unit of society, and less of an emphasis is placed on the individual, the pressure to fulfill social expectation is very strong (e.g., honor culture) and the failure to do so is serious.
Jennifer McMahon
15

Though the Confucian idea of Heaven might call that understanding of salvation to mind for individuals who already hold that kind of view, Confucianism instead understands salvation primarily as the state of peacefulness or contentedness (equanimity) that the individual, family, and community can achieve by following the codified rules and principles that preserve natural order.
Jennifer McMahon
16
Like most sects of Buddhism, Confucianism does not understand salvation principally as an otherworldly state attainable only through the transcendence of the material realm (Earth) and the associated transport of the individual soul to another realm of existence.
Confucian Soteriology

However, the animistic beliefs that pervade Chinese society and the longstanding practice of ancestor worship do support popular belief in spirits and ghosts, and related acceptance of the idea of an afterlife in some contexts.
Jennifer McMahon
17

Confucian
Eschatology
With Heaven understood as a circle, Confucianism bears similarity to other traditions that do not endorse belief in a cosmic end time or end of days. Instead, it seems to exhibit faith in the eternality of larger metaphysical structures (e.g., Heaven, Earth) even while admitting that different phases of existence may wax and wane. However, the tradition does endorse more localized “ends” to be sought by individuals and communities, ends achieved through alignment with the natural order of things, which in turn produces peace and harmony.
18
Jennifer McMahon

Conclusion
Here one can see the alignment between central tenets of the Three Teachings. As we will see as we enter the next module, Taoism emerged not primarily as a challenge to the metaphysical assumptions of Confucianism, but instead as a critique of the entrenchment and corruption of the ideology as it was increasingly used to enable the achievement of political ends. Similar to the way in which proponents of the Reformation argued that the Catholic Church had lost sight of the original teachings and replaced a focus on them with a focus on merely the performance of rites and rituals (often with political implications), Taoists argued that Confucianism had devolved into a strict but ultimately superficial preoccupation with adherence to social norms that no longer fostered ren, or goodness, but instead was merely a tool for certain individuals to hold and maintain power.
19

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Unless otherwise indicated, the images contained in this lesson are public domain material and do not require attribution.
20
Jennifer McMahon

1

HUM 2633: Confucianism Notes (McMahon)

Confucianism originated in China during the Qin Period (2300-200 B.C.). It remains most
influential there, but is also influential among communities of Chinese in other countries.
Though it draws heavily from pre-existing Chinese religions
prevalent during the Qin period, it is named for (and is most
closely associated with) its founder, Confucius, or Kongzi (551-
479 B.C.). While Confucianism is not as widely practiced as
certain other religions, it is historically significant and remains a
highly influential faith system, including it being a significant
catalyst to the development of Taoism in China.

As is the case with Buddhism and Taoism, it is difficult to get
exact numbers on the number of individuals who adhere to
Confucian principles. It is difficult because Confucianism does
not demand exclusivity from its practitioners. Therefore, a high
number of individuals who practice it also identify as Taoist or
Buddhist. There are at least 6 million practitioners of
Confucianism, but millions, indeed billions, are influenced by
Confucian ideology and adhere to Confucian principles.

Though some argue that Confucianism is better understood as a political philosophy as opposed
to a religion, those familiar with the tradition recognize its ongoing and broader function as a
faith system. While its political ideology was a dominant force in China for centuries, and it
remains an influential force there despite governmental restrictions on religious activity,
Confucian social and political philosophy (e.g., the understanding of the proper relations
between individuals and corresponding standards for government) is predicated on Confucian
metaphysics, namely, its understanding of the cosmos and humans place in it. Moreover, on the
basis of its cosmology (which extends beyond Earth) and its conception of human nature,
Confucianism prescribes standards for good conduct (ethics), and does so on the assumption that
adherence to said standards will not only produce the ends of happiness for the individual and
peace for society (eschatology), but other potential rewards (soteriology).

Confucianism was one of the most influential ideologies
that shaped Chinese culture, and it remains one of the most
influential religious ideologies in China. It is revered as
one of the Three Teachings (sanjiao), namely,
Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Interestingly, even
though Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism are now seen
as compatible teachings (aggregate), just as Buddhism was
an ideological reaction to Hinduism, Taoism is in many
respects an ideological reaction to Confucian philosophy. It
emerged out of the desire for “reform” to the ritualism and
strict enforcement of authoritarian norms that
Confucianism encouraged. See (left) illustration of
LaoTzu, The Buddha, and Confucius. Image Credit: ©

Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institute.

2

The primary text of Confucianism is the Analects, by Confucius. This text and other important
works in the Confucian canon, articulate central tenets of Confucian thought. For our purposes,
they will be outlined under the sub-domains in philosophy that we are studying.

METAPHYSICS: Confucianism is anchored
in a holistic understanding of the cosmos,
one that assumes large-scale connections
between different elements in the system and
often a tendency for elements at different
levels in the system to mirror one another.
The most prominent concept in Confucian
thought is the concept of Heaven. Whereas
practitioners of western religions such as
Christianity tend to identify heaven as sacred
because it is the precinct where God resides
(and to which they hope to gain entry), in the
Confucian tradition the concept of Heaven stands in the place of the deity. Heaven represents
the first cause, or originating force, within the cosmos as well as its sustaining and guiding
principle. This explains the metaphysical basis for the claim made by Chinese emperors to rule
by the Mandate of Heaven (similar to the notion of Divine Right claimed by European rulers).

In Confucian metaphysics, which is was inherited to a great extent from antecedent traditions,
Earth not only resides below Heaven in a literal sense, Earth is also subordinate to Heaven.
Confucian metaphysics endorses a hierarchical understanding of the cosmos with certain
planes being higher (superior) to others. As entities who reside on the Earth, humans exist in a
sort of interface between Heaven and Earth. We have the capacity to know the rule of Heaven
and enact it on the Earth. This capacity is central to other Confucian ideals, particularly:

• the concept of ren, or goodness,
• the concept of li, or rites (codified rules and social norms) and ritual practices designed to

foster ren
• the ideal of the jungzi, or noble person who enacts li and embodies ren

Confucian metaphysics assumes that just as Heaven and Earth exist in hierarchical relation,
relations on Earth also should be hierarchical, such as the relation between a leader and their
subjects, parents and their children, and teachers and their students. Importantly, these relations
are not presumed to be equal. Instead, there is a clear superior and subordinate in each case.
Like the universe more broadly, society is understood to have levels, and not be egalitarian.
Confucian metaphysics assumes that order at all levels in the system is maintained by
preserving hierarchies. It assumes that interrupting or challenging them tends to undermine the
possibility of harmony and proper function (at all earthly levels – individual, familial, social).

ETHICS:

Flowing directly from its hierarchical metaphysics, Confucian ethics prescribe conduct that
reinforces order by reinforcing what are understood to be natural hierarchies. Humans are to

3

understand and willingly reproduce the order that Heaven imbues on the Earth. Those who may
be too young to understand the rule of Heaven, or incapable of it, are expected follow the
command of those who do. Individuals have different duties to one another dependent on
their role as superior or subordinate. Superiors have an obligation to guide and provide.
Subordinates are obliged to obedience and loyalty. It is understood that widespread adherence
to Confucian principles will maintain the social order and will create not only content
individuals, but also peaceful and well-functioning societies.

Needless to say, central to Confucian ethics are the previously cited principles of ren and li. Ren,
or goodness, is the goal sought, and li is understood to be the means through which ren is
attained.

Central to Chinese culture during the
period in which Confucian philosophy
predominated, and even to this day, is the
practice of ancestor worship and the
associated practice of filial piety.
Honoring one’s ancestors both in and
through specific ritual practices, but also
in one’s conduct and occupation, is
known as filial piety, and filial piety is
seen as a primary duty, or moral
obligation. An individual’s character is
assessed on the basis of their performance
of this duty, and it is assumed that
individuals who are incapable of honoring
their family are unlikely to be able to

other more abstract moral obligations (e.g., to community, to nation). Shame is a consequence of
failure to fulfill one’s duty. In Chinese and other Asian societies where the family is the primary
unit of society, and less of an emphasis is placed on the individual, the pressure to fulfill social
expectation is very strong (e.g., honor culture) and the failure to do so is serious.

SOTERIOLOGY: Like most sects of Buddhism, Confucianism does not understand salvation
principally as an otherworldly state attainable only through the transcendence of the material
realm (Earth) and the associated transport of the individual soul to another realm of existence.
Though the Confucian idea of Heaven might call that understanding of salvation to mind for
individuals who already hold that kind of view,
Confucianism instead understands salvation primarily as
the state of peacefulness or contentedness (equanimity)
that the individual, family, and community can achieve
by following the codified rules and principles that
preserve natural order. However, the animistic beliefs
that pervade Chinese society and the longstanding
practice of ancestor worship do support popular belief in
spirits and ghosts, and related acceptance of the idea of
an afterlife in some contexts.

4

ESCHATOLOGY: With Heaven understood as a circle, Confucianism bears similarity to other
traditions that do not endorse belief in a cosmic end time or end of days. Instead, it seems to
exhibit faith in the eternality of larger metaphysical structures (e.g., Heaven, Earth) even
while admitting that different phases of existence may wax and wane. However, the tradition
does endorse more localized “ends” to be sought by individuals and communities, ends achieved
through alignment with the natural order of things, which in turn produces peace and
harmony.

Here one can see the alignment between central tenets of the Three Teachings. As we will see as
we enter the next module, Taoism emerged not primarily as a challenge to the metaphysical
assumptions of Confucianism, but instead as a critique of the entrenchment and corruption of the
ideology as it was increasingly used to enable the achievement of political ends. Similar to the
way in which proponents of the Reformation argued that the Catholic Church had lost sight of
the original teachings and replaced a focus on them with a focus on merely the performance of
rites and rituals (often with political implications), Taoists argued that Confucianism had
devolved into a strict but ultimately superficial preoccupation with adherence to social norms
that no longer fostered ren, or goodness, but instead was merely a tool for certain individuals to
hold and maintain power.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical
methods, without the prior written permission of the author, except in the case of brief quotations
embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
Unless otherwise indicated, the images contained in this lesson are public domain material and

do not require attribution.

HUM

2633: Analects Reading Assignment:

Source is located at: http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/analects.1.1.html

These questions will help direct students to the most salient elements in the assignment. Because the
text is lengthy, for ease of operations I am only assigning reading questions for Section 1 of the Analects.
Students are encouraged to read the remaining three sections of the text (see
http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/analects.html). Summaries of these sections can be completed for
extra credit and students are welcome to reference the text in its entirety in their papers.

Students should review the questions carefully before they attempt the reading and keep them out
while completing the reading. The questions proceed in order with the text.

Students should complete question sets using this document. Use the SAVE AS command and rename to
mark the file as yours (LASTNAMEHUM2633AnalectsQuestions) before submission. Insert answers in
spaces after questions.

Students should try to answer each question in their own words.

They should also locate and include a passage from the text that substantiates their answer.

Primary texts are hard reading, and one only gets better at it with practice. It is important to push
yourself and work at it. You DO NOT need to understand all of it, even half of it!!!!! I don’t expect that.
If you get 10% initially that’s normal. You are not alone. Stick with it! We are just trying to see how the
main theories and concepts we discussed are expressed in the original texts of the tradition.

Nothing improves your reading comprehension like reading difficult material and as you acclimate to the
different style and vocabulary, you will find it gets easier. ☺

Reading #7: Confucius, Analects (Section 1)

Part I:

1. What does the text suggest is the root of benevolence?

2. What things are identified as two first principles?

3. What is filial piety (and give a passage that reflects the text’s concern with it)?

4. Should following the standards of filial piety appear forced?

5. What things can bring shame upon a person?

Part 2:

6. Why is a good leader likened to the North Star?

7. It is asserted that the teachings of the Book of Poetry can be summed up in one phrase. What
is it?

8. Does the text suggest it is adequate to simply have individuals conform to laws because they
want to avoid punishment?

9. At what age does the text seem to suggest it is easier to embody goodness (ren)?

10. When it comes from filial piety what distinguishes the obedience of a good horse from a
good child?

11. What shows our goodness and obedience to principles, what we say or what we do?

12. What is true of the superior person?

13. What is true of learning without thought and thought without learning?

14. What does admitting ignorance have to do with knowledge?

15. What does the following passage mean and how might we relate it to contemporary issues?
“Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the
crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit.”

16. What are the traits of a good leader?

17. What does it mean to liken truth to a harness in a carriage?

18. What does one lack if one knows what is right but doesn’t do it?

Part 3:

19. What is it in the comments that Confucius offers about what is best in grieving at a funeral
ceremony that makes it clear he is not merely concerned with the performance of particular
rites or rituals?

20. Why does Confucius say we should sacrifice to the dead as if they were present? What
impact does this have?

21. Does the text suggest everyone has to do the same thing to achieve the same level of
propriety and be good?

22. What recommendation does the text offer with regards to things that are done or past?

Part 4:

23. What is true of those without virtue and those with it?

24. What does this passage suggest about the nature of what is right and the person who
knows it? “The superior [person] does not set his or [her] mind either for anything, or against
anything; what is right he will follow.”

25. What is true about people who always seek their own advantage?

26. What is the difference between the superior man (person) and the mean man (person)?

Part 5:

27. Can a superior person still ask assistance from and learn from subordinates?

Part 6:

28. Is the practice of the Constant Mean rare or common among people? What do you think
the mean means?