• 10 Sentence (minimum) Response:

• Several contemporary issues will be covered in this course, but as you work through the readings for this week that look back on the history of education in the United States, including the importance of it and the difference in the way the U.S. educational system functions when compared to Europe, consider what might be the most pressing issue facing education in the United States. What will have to be addressed in the next five years? 

• Identify the issue you believe to be the most pressing and explain why you believe it to be the most pressing. Be sure to provide a rationale and support for your explanation with academic sources. Be sure to respond to at least one of your classmates’ posts. Do you agree that the pressing educational issue identified is an important and urgent one? Why or why not?

EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2014 EBSCO Information Services, Inc. • All Rights Reserved

RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

History of Public Education in the U.S.
History of Education > History of Public Education in the U.S.

Abstract

Public education in America in large part was the product of
historical movements that swept the nation, including national
incorporation, widespread urbanization, and modern industrial-
ization. Public education began during the 17th century when
the Massachusetts Bay Colony instituted compulsory education
laws. The 19th century saw the establishment of specialized
schools for the mentally and physically handicapped, the expan-
sion of compulsory education laws, and the establishment of
freemen’s schools. As the country became increasingly industri-
alized, child labor laws were coupled with further compulsory
education laws, and new educational theories were developed.
During the 20th century, a number of court cases and legisla-
tive initiatives brought about the end of segregation, prohibited
prayer in public schools, and improved educational opportunities
for disabled and disadvantaged students.

Overview

Public education in America has a history dating back nearly to
the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock in 1620. Although
the first public school appeared well before both the Constitu-
tion and the Declaration of Independence, the small, independent
public schools of centuries past bear little if any resemblance
to the system of universal public education now in place in the
United States. The factors which led to the inception, growth, and
development of public education in America are numerous, and
they include not only the pursuit of learning, but also, perhaps
more importantly, the development of the nation’s philosophy of
who should teach and who should be taught.

Public education in America in large part was the product of
historical movements that swept the nation, including national
incorporation, widespread urbanization, and modern industrial-
ization. In order to glean an accurate understanding of the history
of America’s educational system, each of these eras in our coun-
try’s history must be studied in turn.

While these factors constitute a timeline in American educational
history, they cannot be fully understood apart from a concurrent
examination of the development of educational philosophy, the
changing understanding of the purpose and aim of public educa-

Abstract
Overview

Further Insights

Colonial Era

Education in Puritan New England

Education in the Middle & Southern Colonies

Early National Legislation

Education in the New Nation

Specialized Schools

Compulsory Education Legislation & the
National Teacher Association

Segregation

Industrialization & Integration

Extended Compulsory Education Laws

Changing Educational Theories

Modern Legislation

The National Defense Education Act & the
Elementary & Secondary Education Act

Brown v. Board of Education & Engel v. Vitale

The Education of All Handicapped Children
Act

The U.S. Department of Education & the No
Child Left Behind Act

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Page 2EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2014 EBSCO Information Services, Inc. • All Rights Reserved

History of Public Education in the U.S.

tion, and both the impetus for and impact of legislative decisions
and judicial rulings affecting public education.

Therefore, a comprehensive portrayal of the myriad factors that
constitute the development of American education requires an
examination of 1) the philosophical roots of early-American
education, 2) the growth and development of 19th Century
public schooling within the newly-formed nation, 3) the impact
of urbanization and the industrial revolution on the evolution of
public school attendance in the latter half of the 19th Century
and early 20th Century, and 4) the increased involvement of gov-
ernment in public education.

Further Insights
Colonial Era
Education in Puritan New England
The first public school in America was established in 1635 in
Boston, Massachusetts, in the home of Philemon Pormont. Atten-
dance at the school was free and open to all children. Founded
by New England Puritans, the school, called the Boston Latin
School utilized religious instruction in the Bible as a launching
pad for the study of Latin and Greek classics. It is important
to note that, during the colonial era, religion formed the basis
for American life, and the local church or meetinghouse was the
focal point of each community. To many people, the primary
purpose of learning to read was to gain the ability to obtain reli-
gious instruction from the Bible.

The year following the opening of the Boston Latin School
witnessed the establishment of America’s first college, Harvard
College, whose founding purpose was to train preachers. Hence,
for those fortunate to attend, the college would be an extension
of the religious instruction received in local schools.

In addition to local schools, during this period Dame Schools
were popular. These schools were for young children ranging in
age from 6-8, although often younger. Taught by women, often
widows, Dame Schools usually met in the instructors’ homes and
focused on teaching reading skills rather than on mathematics
and writing. Although titled a “school,” it was not uncommon
for Dame Schools also to function as early day care facilities for
colonial children.

Apprenticeship programs were also primary sources of spe-
cialized education in colonial America, particularly among the
poor. Through apprenticeships, young boys, and by the mid-17th
Century girls as well, were paired with a skilled tradesman. The
apprentice would spend several years working at his mentor’s
side, and upon completion of the apprenticeship, it was expected
that the student would possess the requisite knowledge and abil-
ity to begin working on his own. Beyond teaching only the trade,
however, mentors, or “Masters” were also expected to train their
apprentices in matters of good moral behavior (Barger, 2004).

In these early American schools, a very common method of
instruction was the hornbook. Dating as far back as fifteenth-
century Europe, the hornbook was a small wooden paddle on
which was mounted a sheet containing lessons. A piece of horn
from oxen or sheep and later from materials such as leather or
metal, covered the sheet to protect the lesson. Oftentimes, a
hole would be placed in the horn handle, and this enabled pupils
to fasten these early textbooks to their clothing or carry them
around their necks. Standard studies contained on hornbooks
included the alphabet, formations of vowels and consonants, and
the Lord’s Prayer.

In colonial America, education was deemed the responsibility
of the family. Parents were ultimately responsible for the rear-
ing and training of their children, and there was an absence of
reliance upon government institutions or entities to provide qual-
ity education for the young. Nevertheless, in this early colonial
world, one can identify the roots of today’s compulsory educa-
tion laws.

As early as 1642, Massachusetts passed a law that required that
children be instructed in religious education as well as in the
laws of the colony. Yet, the expressed onus for doing so fell
not to the state or local communities, but rather to parents and
apprenticeship masters. Negligence in either of these areas was
punishable by fine. Furthermore, the law stated that parents and
masters must “catechize” their children in the principles of reli-
gion, or if they were unable to do so themselves, that they must
provide for it. The 1642 legislation also stipulated that if par-
ents or masters failed to perform the duties outlined in the law,
local authorities could remove the children and place them with
masters who would properly instruct them. Although the Massa-
chusetts Law of 1642 stopped well short of establishing a formal
school system, its importance as the first piece of legislation to
require schooling cannot be underestimated.

Soon after, the Massachusetts Law of 1647 required that every
town comprised of 50 families or more hire a teacher for the
purpose of instructing the town’s children in reading and writ-
ing. Moreover, towns of 100 families or more were also required
to have a Latin instructor in order to prepare students for entry
into Harvard College. Although schooling was still considered
a local family responsibility, at times the colonial government
would fund payment for these teachers.

Education in the Middle & Southern Colonies
Education in the Middle Colonies differed slightly from that in
New England. While schools in New England were primarily
Puritan, schools in the Middle colonies were often developed
by Mennonites or Quakers. It was German immigrant, teacher,
and Mennonite Christopher Dock who, in 1710, penned the first
book on pedagogy printed in America. Dock’s work, Schul-Ord-
nung, or School Management, outlined a series of rewards and
punishments aimed not at teacher dominance but at gaining stu-
dent trust and affection (Sass & Ruth).

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History of Public Education in the U.S.

In the middle colonies, although the primary focus remained reli-
gious instruction for the formation of moral character, schools
also incorporated a level of practical instruction as well. Among
those involved in the development of middle-colony schools was
Benjamin Franklin who helped to establish the Academy of Phil-
adelphia in 1751. This Academy later grew into the University of
Pennsylvania (Penn in the eighteenth century).

In the southern colonies, too, public education was taking root.
Even before the establishment of Roxbury and Harvard, Virgin-
ian Benjamin Syms passed away and bequeathed in his will a
plot of 200 acres with clear instructions that it was to be used for
the establishment of a free school. Another Virginia school soon
followed, and by the close of the seventeenth century, public
schools could be found in northern, middle, and southern colo-
nies (Tyler, 1897).

Early National Legislation
As government took an increased interest in requiring and pro-
viding for the education of children, public schools continued to
multiply. As the pivotal events leading up to the unification of the
colonies into a nation occurred in the latter portion of the 18th
Century, America witnessed additional landmark educational
milestones. The two most significant of these were the Land Ordi-
nance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. Specifically
applicable to the Western Territories, the Land Ordinance of 1785
allotted land in each western township for the establishment of a
public school. Two years later, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787
provided that since religion, morality, and knowledge were pre-
requisite to good government, schools should be “encouraged.”

Thus, by the time the Constitution became the law of the land,
and before even the Bill of Rights had gained ratification, uni-
versal public education in America was well on the road to
establishment.

Education in the New Nation
Specialized Schools

While public schooling was becoming more widespread, the
implementation of government-mandated universal public
education still lay well in the future. Nevertheless, significant
developments in the 19th Century established a philosophical
foundation and showed a practical application for compulsory
education. Most significant of these was the establishment of
specialized schools for the blind and deaf. The early half of the
19th Century saw the establishment of three such schools:

• The Connecticut Asylum at Hartford for the instruction
of Deaf and Dumb Persons, founded in 1817 and the first
permanent school for the deaf in America;

• The New England Asylum for the Blind, which became the
nation’s first school of its type when it opened in 1829;

• The New York State Asylum for Idiots, founded in 1851
and authorized by the New York State Legislature.

Such institutions segregated certain members of society for their
schooling and led the way for the enactment of compulsory leg-
islation, and many colonies pursued such legislation as a means
of gaining statehood and, consequently, uniting with fellow-
states to form a nation (Baker, 2004, p. 33).

Compulsory Education Legislation & the National
Teacher Association
In 1852, Massachusetts enacted the first compulsory education
legislation in the nation. The act required that children ages 8
through 14 attend school for a minimum of three months out of
the year, and of those three months, six weeks were required to
be consecutive. Violation of this act was punishable by fine. Nev-
ertheless, exceptions were made for certain children, including
those who were deemed mentally or physically unable to attend.

Other states soon followed suit, and by 1885, sixteen states
had passed compulsory attendance legislation. It would not be
until 1918, however, that all states would have such educational
requirements as part of their state law.

In addition to compulsory attendance legislation, the 1850s
witnessed another educational milestone: the formation of the
National Teachers Association in 1857. Founded by a small
group of educators in Philadelphia, this group evolved into what
is today known as the National Educators Association, the larg-
est association of its kind in the world.

Segregation
Yet, while the popularity of public education continued to rise
during the 19th Century, the opportunity to attend was not equal
for all, particularly in the southern states.

Throughout the 18th Century, while there were instances of
integrated schools, most often in the Northern states, segrega-
tion between black and white was much more common. Yet,
many slaves viewed illiteracy as a perpetrating factor of slavery;
hence, many pursued education, often at great cost to them-
selves, as offenses such as the schooling of a slave could be met
with severe punishment of both teacher and pupil. Nevertheless,
African-Americans recognized the value of education to free-
dom, and in addition to learning individually, some established
secret schools for the purpose of education (Dodge, 2006).

Following the Civil War, some freedmen sought to gain from
the government a right to education. Even in many freedmen’s
schools, however, conditions were difficult, with lack of proper
materials, crowded school rooms, and students who often them-
selves were under-clothed and under-fed. Nevertheless, the
speed with which many African-Americans understood and
mastered materials often came as a surprise to their instructors
(Dodge, 2006).

Despite their new free standing, however, African Americans
faced many obstacles in the road to gaining equal access to
public education, and the end of the 19th Century witnessed the

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History of Public Education in the U.S.

issuance of the famous United States Supreme Court decision in
Plessy v. Ferguson. In this 1892 case, the Supreme Court upheld
the constitutionality of Louisiana’s “separate but equal” law.
This ruling served as a basis for implementing and continuing
the practice of segregated education.

Industrialization & Integration
Extended Compulsory Education Laws
While segregation between black and white remained intact for
the next 58 years, national industrialization provided the impetus
for integration of immigrant children into their new nation.

The turn of the 20th Century and the Industrial Revolution
brought a marked increase in immigration. As parents went to
work in cities and factories, children went to school in order to
learn English and assimilate into their new culture. Despite the
age of children, many families saw employment as more benefi-
cial than education and preferred that their children work rather
than study. This reality, coupled with the recognition of the nega-
tive effects of child labor and an uneducated populace, led to
child labor laws and additional compulsory education laws. By
1918, compulsory education legislation existed in every state.
By the following year, legislation providing funds for transport-
ing students to school existed in every state as well.

Changing Educational Theories
The early decades of the 20th Century also witnessed signifi-
cant development in philosophical thoughts related to education.
American psychologist and educator G. Stanley Hall produced
works investigating the relationship between adolescent devel-
opment and education, and in 1916, American psychologist
Lewis Terman announced what is today known as the Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Test. This test helped lay the groundwork for
standardized testing that it still used today.

In this same year, John Dewey published Democracy and Edu-
cation: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Dewey
popularized the philosophy of experiential education, which
encourages focusing more on a child’s learning experience and
less on the teacher’s espousing a rigid formula for instruction.

Modern Legislation
The National Defense Education Act & the Elementary
& Secondary Education Act
As new philosophies of education slowly overtook traditional
ones, the role of the government in providing education also
grew. In 1958, Congress passed the first comprehensive fed-
eral legislation regarding education. A reaction to the Cold War,
the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was born out of a
necessity that the United States continue to have highly special-
ized technicians and engineers in order to compete with Soviet
technology. In addition to funding loans for college, the NDEA
provided support for improved mathematics and scientific
instruction in elementary and secondary schools.

The following decade, Congress followed the NDEA with the
ESAA, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. While the
NDEA focused on subject matter, the ESAA focused on social
factors and sought to provide quality education to lower-income
children. Despite increases in funding, however, the measure
has fallen short of complete fulfillment of its mission as many
students from lower-income families continue to struggle edu-
cationally.

Brown v. Board of Education & Engel v. Vitale
The 1950s also saw the end of 58 years of legal segregation.
On May 17, 1954, in the case of Brown v. Board of Education,
the Supreme Court overturned its 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson deci-
sion, stating that separate educational facilities are by definition
unequal. While discrimination in public schooling often con-
tinued, it no longer had the legal backing of the United States
government, and Brown v. Board of Education paved the way
for full educational equality for black and white Americans.

Perhaps the most significant 20th Century legal occurrence
affecting education, however, came in 1962 with the Supreme
Court ruling in Engel v. Vitale. In its decision, the Court held that
prayer in public schools violated the Constitution. The following
year, in Abington v. Schempp, the Court further ruled that official
use of the Bible in public education was unconstitutional.

The Education of All Handicapped Children Act
By the latter half of the 20th Century, education was both univer-
sal and integrated, yet there remained individuals who still could
not benefit from the public education system, namely, those who
were physically handicapped or otherwise disabled. In 1975,
Congress sought to change this with the passage of Public Law
94-142, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act. Not
only did the act require that appropriate education be extended to
handicapped children, but it also implemented a system of Indi-
vidualized Education Plans (IEPs) whereby disabled students’
educational needs are evaluated and, based on the evaluation,
students receive individualized educational and other services
aimed at helping them achieve specified goals.

The U.S. Department of Education & the No Child Left
Behind Act
In 1980, Congress officially established the U.S. Department
of Education as a Cabinet agency. Although the Department
of Education acknowledges that education remains primarily a
responsibility of state and local government, increases in federal
mandates on education have been met with resistance by some
states even as they have been concurrently welcomed by many
parents.

In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) became the law
of the land. The NCLB was a reauthorization of the ESAA and
instituted requirements for both schools and teachers. Among
these requirements are annual testing, statewide standards for

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History of Public Education in the U.S.

measuring educational progress, publicized school report cards
to inform parents of both school and teacher performances,
penalties for schools who fail to achieve set standards in cer-
tain areas, and school choice options for parents whose children
attend failing schools. While many parents welcomed the NCLB
Act, many teachers viewed it as an under-funded mandate, set-
ting requirements but providing no funding to achieve them. The
National Education Association (NEA), the country’s largest
professional employee association, called for changes in the act
to lessen penalties on schools and increase federal funding for
initiatives.

The recession and global financial crisis that began in 2007
resulted in sustained and repeated budget cuts to public educa-
tion, while NCLB mandated increased spending on programs
and assessments. Federal funding decreased, but the primary
source of school funding – property taxes – was greatly effected
by the crash of real estate values nationwide. More than half
the states instituted policy changes to allow greater flexibility
for school districts to spend what monies they did receive, but
year over year cuts required drastic reductions in staffing and
programs (especially non-core subjects such as arts and music)
and increased class sizes (Cavanagh, 2011). Meanwhile, schools
struggled to raise standardized test scores and prevent flight
to private schools or higher achieving public schools. Charter
schools were met with parental enthusiasm, though performance
of these alternative models was mixed, and per-student funding
was lost to public schools with the exit of students attending char-
ters. Advocates of charters, however, argued that the challenge
of alternative models would force improvements at traditional
schools (Maloney, Batdorff, May, & Terrell, 2013).

From the humble school in Philemon Pormont’s Boston home
to the present-day structure consisting of public school systems
nationwide, education in American history boasts a long and
vibrant heritage. As the effort continues to ensure that all children
have equal access to quality education, public schooling in Amer-
ica will continue to play an integral part in our nation’s future.

Terms & Concepts

Apprenticeship: The process of pairing a youth with a mentor or
“Master” who is expert at a trade for the purpose of training the
youth in the study of that trade as a lifetime career.

Compulsory Education: Education which is required by law.

Dame School: Type of school for young children popular in
colonial and early America, usually taught by a woman, often a
widow, and stressed reading over other subjects.

Hornbook: A small wooden paddle on which was mounted
parchment containing lessons. The parchment was covered with
horn. Colonial children utilized hornbooks to study materials
such as the alphabet, letter formations, and the Lord’s Prayer.

Public Education: Education required by the government and
open to the public, funded by tax revenue.

Public Schools: Schools supported by funding from the public,
usually via tax revenue, and providing free education for chil-
dren.

Segregation: The act of separation based on race, class, or ethnic-
ity; often used in reference to educational segregation between
black and white students in the nineteenth and twentieth centu-
ries.

Bibliography

Baker, B. (2004). The functional liminality of the not-dead-
yet-students, or, how public schooling became com-
pulsory: a glancing history. Rethinking History, 8 (1),
5-49. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12583895
&site=ehost-live

Barger, R. (Ed.). (2004). History of American education web
project. Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.
nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/.

Cavanagh, S. (2011). Educators regroup in recession’s after-
math. Education Week, 30(16), 6-10. Retrieved December
15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education
Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp
x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=57468158&site=ehost-live

ESEA: It’s time for a change! NEA’s positive agenda for the
ESEA reauthorization. (2006). Retrieved January 7, 2007,
from http://www.nea.org/esea/posagendaexecsum.html

Lauderdale, W. (1975). Moral intentions in the history of
American education. Theory Into Practice, 14 (4),
264. Retrieved January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5204111&
site=ehost-live

Maloney, L., Batdorff, M., May, J., & Terrell, M. (2013).
Education’s fiscal cliff, real or perceived? public education
funding during the economic downturn and the impact
on public charter schools. Journal of School Choice, 7(3),
292-311. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO
Online Database Education Research Complete. http://
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A
N=90134821&site=ehost-live

Massachusetts Bay School Law. (1642). Retrieved January
28, 2007, from http://personal.pitnet.net/primarysources/
schoollaw1642.html

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History of Public Education in the U.S.

Mirel, J. (2011). Bridging the “widest street in the world”
reflections on the history of teacher education. American
Educator, 35(2), 6-12. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from
EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e
hh&AN=62252523&site=ehost-live

Penn in the eighteenth century: Academy of Philadelphia cur-
riculum. Retrieved January, 27, 2007, from University of
Pennsylvania Archives http://www.archives.upenn.edu/
histy/features/1700s/acad_curric.html

Pulliam, J.D., and Van Patten, J.J. (2013). The history and
social foundations of American education. Tenth edition,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Sass, E. (Ed.) (2005). American educational history: A hyper-
text timeline. Retrieved January 27, 2006, from http://
www.cloudnet.com/~edrbsass/educationhistorytimeline.
html

Schooling, education, and literacy in colonial America.
(n.d.) Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://alumni.
cc.gettysburg.edu/~s330558/schooling.html

T.E.C. (1973). Description of a dame or primary school in
Boston about 1825. Pediatrics, 51 (3), 475. Retrieved
January 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6718623&site=eh
ost-live

Tyler, L. (1897). Education in colonial Virginia. Part III: Free
schools. William and Mary College Quarterly Historical
Magazine, 6, 70-85. Retrieved November 27, 2007, from
http://www.dinsdoc.com/tyler-3.htm

United States Department of Education. Accessed January, 27,
2007, from http://www.ed.gov

Walsh, K. (2013). 21st-century teacher education. Education
Next, 13(3), 18-24. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from
EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e
hh&AN=87934932&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cox, W. Jr. (2000). The original meaning of the establishment
clause and its application to education. Regent University
Law Review, 13 (1), 111-143. Retrieved January 28, 2007,
from www.regent.edu/education/pdfs/publications/cox/
Original_Meaning

Derrick, M. G. (2001). Reflections on the history of gender
bias and inequality in education. Essays in Education, 1.

De Young, A. (1987). The Status of American rural education
research: An integrated review and commentary. Review
of Educational Research, 57 (2), 123- 148. Retrieved
January 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database
Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.
com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19734469&sit
e=ehost-live

Henderson, C., Corner, J. P., Lagemann, E. C., Paige, R.,
Barber, B. R., Doyle, D. P., et al. (2004). Brown 50
years later. American School Board Journal, 191 (4),
56-64. Retrieved January 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online
Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-
host.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12597933
&site=ehost-live

Larson, E. (1998). Summer for the gods: The Scopes trial and
America’s continuing debate over science and religion.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Pulliam, J., & Van Patten, J. (2007). History of education in
America (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Essay by Gina L. Diorio, MA;
Edited by Karen A. Kallio, M.Ed.
Ms. Kallio earned her B.A. in English from Clark University and her Master’s in Education from the University of Massachusetts at
Amherst. She lives and works in the Boston area.

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Copyright of History of Public Education in the U.S. — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Copyright of History of Public Education in the U.S. — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Copyright of History of Public Education in the U.S. — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Copyright of History of Public Education in the U.S. — Research Starters Education is the
property of Great Neck Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple
sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.