Materials
● Intact skull and Beauchene skull
● X-ray images of individuals with scoliosis,
lordosis, and kyphosis (if available)
● Articulated skeleton, articulated vertebral
column, removable intervertebral discs
● Isolated cervical, thoracic, and lumbar
vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx
● Isolated fetal skull
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will find:
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Lab
● PhysioEx
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● Practice quizzes,
Histology Atlas,
eText, Videos,
and more!
Pre-Lab Quiz
1. The axial skeleton can be divided into the skull, the vertebral column,
and the:
a. thoracic cage c. hip bones
b. femur d. humerus
2. Eight bones make up the , which encloses and protects the
brain.
a. cranium b. face c. skull
3. How many bones of the skull are considered facial bones?
4. Circle the correct underlined term. The lower jawbone, or maxilla /
mandible, articulates with the temporal bones in the only freely movable
joints in the skull.
5. Circle the correct underlined term. The body / spinous process of a typical
vertebra forms the rounded, central portion that faces anteriorly in the
human vertebral column.
6. The seven bones of the neck are called vertebrae.
a. cervical b. lumbar c. spinal d. thoracic
7. The vertebrae articulate with the corresponding ribs.
a. cervical b. lumbar c. spinal d. thoracic
8. The , commonly referred to as the breastbone, is a flat
bone formed by the fusion of three bones: the manubrium, the body, and
the xiphoid process.
a. coccyx b. sacrum c. sternum
9. Circle True or False. The first seven pairs of ribs are called floating ribs
because they have only indirect cartilage attachments to the sternum.
10. A fontanelle:
a. is found only in the fetal skull
b. is a fibrous membrane
c. allows for compression of the skull during birth
d. all of the above
Objectives
□ Name the three parts of the axial skeleton.
□ Identify the bones of the axial skeleton, either by examining isolated bones
or by pointing them out on an articulated skeleton or skull, and name
the important bone markings on each.
□ Name and describe the different types of vertebrae.
□ Discuss the importance of intervertebral discs and spinal curvatures.
□ Identify three abnormal spinal curvatures.
□ List the components of the thoracic cage.
□ Identify the bones of the fetal skull by examining an articulated skull or image.
□ Define fontanelle, and discuss the function and fate of fontanelles.
□ Discuss important differences between the fetal and adult skulls.
122 Exercise
9
9
The axial skeleton (the green portion of Figure 8.1 on p. 108) can be divided into three parts: the skull, the ver-tebral column, and the thoracic cage. This division of the skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body and protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs.
The Skull
The skull is composed of two sets of bones. Those of the cra-
nium (8 bones) enclose and protect the fragile brain tissue.
The facial bones (14 bones) support the eyes and position
them anteriorly. They also provide attachment sites for facial
muscles. All but one of the bones of the skull are joined by
interlocking fibrous joints called sutures. The mandible is
attached to the rest of the skull by a freely movable joint.
Activity 1
Identifying the Bones of the Skull
The bones of the skull (Figures 9.1–9.10, pp. 123–131)
are described in Tables 9.1 and 9.2 on p. 128. As you
read through this material, identify each bone on an in-
tact and/or Beauchene skull (see Figure 9.10).
Note: Important bone markings are listed in the tables for
the bones on which they appear, and each bone name is
colored to correspond to the bone color in the figures.
The Cranium
The cranium may be divided into two major areas for study—
the cranial vault, or calvaria, forming the superior, lateral,
and posterior walls of the skull; and the cranial base, forming
(Text continues on page 128.)
(Table continues on page 126.)
The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone MarkingsTable 9.1A
Cranial bone Important markings Description
Frontal (1)
Figures 9.1, 9.3, 9.7,
9.9, and 9.10
N/A Forms the forehead, superior part of the orbit, and the floor of the anterior
cranial fossa.
Supraorbital margin Thick margin of the eye socket that lies beneath the eyebrows.
Supraorbital foramen (notch) Opening above each orbit allowing blood vessels and nerves to pass.
Glabella Smooth area between the eyes.
Parietal (2)
Figures 9.1, 9.3, 9.6,
9.7, and 9.
10
N/A Form the superior and lateral aspects of the skull.
Temporal (2)
Figures 9.1, 9.2, 9.3,
9.6, 9.7, and 9.10
N/A Form the inferolateral aspects of the skull and contribute to the middle cranial
fossa; each has squamous, tympanic, and petrous parts.
Squamous part Located inferior to the squamous suture. The next two markings are located
in this part.
Zygomatic process A bridgelike projection that articulates with the zygomatic bone to form the
zygomatic arch.
Mandibular fossa Located on the inferior surface of the zygomatic process; receives the
condylar process of the mandible to form the temporomandibular joint.
Tympanic part Surrounds the external ear opening. The next two markings are located in this part.
External acoustic meatus Canal leading to the middle ear and eardrum.
Styloid process Needlelike projection that serves as an attachment point for ligaments and
muscles of the neck. (This process is often missing from demonstration skulls
because it has broken off.)
Petrous part Forms a bony wedge between the sphenoid and occipital bones and contributes
to the cranial base. The remaining temporal markings are located in this part.
Jugular foramen Located where the petrous part of the temporal bone joins the occipital bone. Forms
an opening which the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI pass.
Carotid canal Opening through which the internal carotid artery passes into the cranial cavity.
Foramen lacerum Almost completely closed by cartilage in the living person but forms a jagged
opening in dried skulls.
Stylomastoid foramen Tiny opening between the mastoid and styloid processes through which
cranial nerve VII leaves the cranium.
Mastoid process Located posterior to the external acoustic meatus; serves as an attachment
point for neck muscles.
The Axial Skeleton 12
3
9
Coronal suture
Frontal
bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Lacrimal fossa
Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Alveolar processes
Mandible
Mental foramen
Parietal bone
Lambdoid
suture
Squamous
suture
Occipital
bone
Occipitomastoid
suture
External acoustic
meatus
Mastoid
process
Styloid process
Condylar process
Mandibular notch
Mandibular ramus
Mandibular angle
Coronoid process
Zygomatic
process
Temporal bone
(
a)
Condylar
process
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Lacrimal fossa
Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Alveolar
processes
Mandible
Mental foramen
Mandibular notch
Mandibular ramus
Coronoid process
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Lambdoid
suture
Squamous
suture
Occipital
bone
Occipitomastoid
suture
External acoustic
meatus
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Mandibular angle
Zygomatic
process
Temporal bone
(b)
Figure 9.1 External anatomy of the right lateral aspect of the
skull. (a) Diagram. (b) Photograph.
Watch videos of the Cranium and Temporal Bone
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
124 Exercise 9
9
Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
palate
Zygomatic bone
Incisive fossa
Median palatine suture
Intermaxillary suture
Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
External acoustic meatus
Stylomastoid
foramen
Jugular foramen
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyle
Inferior nuchal line
Superior nuchal line
Occipital bone
Temporal bone
(zygomatic process)
Mandibular
fossa
Vomer
Styloid process
External occipital crest
External occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Basilar part of the
occipital bone
Parietal bone
Palatine bone
(horizontal plate)
Foramen spinosum
(a)
Hard palate
Mandibular
fossa
Mastoid
process
Zygomatic
arch
Foramen ovale
Foramen lacerum
Carotid canal
Styloid process
Jugular foramen
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Superior nuchal
line
(b)
Foramen spinosum
Figure 9.2 Inferior view of the skull, mandible removed.
Watch a video of the Zygomatic Arch
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
The Axial Skeleton 12
5
9
Frontal bone
Cribriform foramina
Lesser wing
Sphenoid
Anterior cranial fossa
Hypophyseal fossa
of sella turcica
Middle cranial
fossa
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Posterior
cranial fossa
Jugular foramen
Internal acoustic
meatus
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Foramen magnum
Greater wing
Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
bone
Crista galli
Optic canal
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Hypoglossal canal
Foramen lacerum
(a)
Anterior cranial
fossa
Middle cranial
fossa
Posterior cranial
fossa
(b)
Frontal bone
Cribriform foramina
Lesser wing
Sphenoid
Anterior cranial fossa
Middle cranial
fossa
Temporal bone
(petrous part)
Posterior
cranial fossa
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Foramen magnum
Figure 9.3 Internal anatomy of the inferior portion of the skull.
(a) Superior view of the base of the cranial cavity, calvaria removed.
(b) Diagram of the cranial base showing the extent of its major fossae.
(c) Photograph of superior view of the base of the cranial cavity,
calvaria removed.
Watch a video of the Occipital Bone
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
126 Exercise 9
9
Optic
canal
Greater
wing
Sella turcica
Lesser
wing
Foramen
rotundum
Foramen
ovale
Foramen
spinosum
Body of sphenoid
Superior
orbital
fissure
(a) Superior view
Body of sphenoid
Greater
wing
Superior
orbital
fissure
Lesser
wing
Pterygoid
process
(b) Posterior view
Figure 9.4 The sphenoid bone. Watch a video of the Sphenoid Bone
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
Cranial bone Important markings Description
Occipital (1)
Figures 9.1, 9.2, 9.3,
and 9.
6
N/A Forms the posterior aspect and most of the base of the skull.
Foramen magnum Large opening in the base of the bone, which allows the spinal cord to join
with the brain stem.
Occipital condyles Rounded projections lateral to the foramen magnum that articulate with the
first cervical vertebra (atlas).
Hypoglossal canal Opening medial and superior to the occipital condyle through which cranial
nerve XII (the hypoglossal nerve) passes.
External occipital protuberance Midline prominence posterior to the foramen magnum.
The number in parentheses ( ) following the bone name indicates the total number of such bones in the body.
The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone Markings (continued)Table 9.1A
The Axial Skeleton 12
7
9
Orbital
plate
Ethmoidal
air cells
Perpendicular
plate
Middle
nasal concha
Crista galli
Left
lateral
mass
Figure 9.5 The ethmoid bone. Anterior view. The superior nasal conchae
are located posteriorly and are therefore not visible in the anterior view.
The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone MarkingsTable 9.1C
Cranial bone Important markings Description
Ethmoid (1)
Figures 9.1, 9.3, 9.5,
9.7, and 9.10
N/A Contributes to the anterior cranial fossa; forms part of the nasal septum and the
nasal cavity; contributes to the medial wall of the orbit.
Crista galli “Rooster’s comb”; a superior projection that attaches to the dura mater, helping to
secure the brain within the skull.
Cribriform plates Located lateral to the crista galli; form a portion of the roof of the nasal cavity and
the floor of the anterior cranial fossa.
(Table continues on page 128.)
Watch a video of the Ethmoid Bone
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone MarkingsTable 9.1B
Cranial bone Important markings Description
Sphenoid bone (1)
Figures 9.1, 9.2, 9.3,
9.4, 9.7, and 9.10
N/A Bat-shaped bone that is described as the keystone bone of the cranium because it
articulates with all other cranial bones.
Greater wings Project laterally from the sphenoid body, forming parts of the middle cranial fossa and
the orbits.
Pterygoid processes Project inferiorly from the greater wings; attachment site for chewing muscles
(pterygoid muscles).
Superior orbital fissures Slits in the orbits providing passage of cranial nerves that control eye movements
(III, IV, VI, and the ophthalmic division of V).
Sella turcica “Turkish saddle” located on the superior surface of the body; the seat of the saddle,
called the hypophyseal fossa, holds the pituitary gland.
Lesser wings Form part of the floor of the anterior cranial fossa and part of the orbit.
Optic canals Openings in the base of the lesser wings; cranial nerve II (optic nerve) passes through
to serve the eye.
Foramen rotundum Openings located in the medial part of the greater wing; a branch of cranial nerve V
(maxillary division) passes through.
Foramen ovale Openings located posterolateral to the foramen rotundum; a branch of cranial nerve V
(mandibular division) passes through.
Foramen spinosum Openings located posterolateral to the foramen spinosum; provides passageway for the
middle meningeal artery.
9
the skull bottom. Internally, the cranial base has three distinct
depressions: the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fos-
sae (see Figure 9.3). The brain sits in these fossae, completely
enclosed by the cranial vault. Overall, the brain occupies the
cranial cavity.
Major Sutures
The four largest sutures are located where the parietal bones
articulate with each other and where the parietal bones articu-
late with other cranial bones:
Sagittal suture: Occurs where the left and right parietal
bones meet superiorly in the midline of the cranium (Figure 9.6).
Coronal suture: Running in the frontal plane, occurs
anteriorly where the parietal bones meet the frontal bone
(Figure 9.1).
Squamous suture: Occurs where each parietal bone
meets the temporal bone, on each lateral aspect of the skull
(Figure 9.1).
Lambdoid suture: Occurs where the parietal bones meet
the occipital bone posteriorly (Figure 9.6).
Facial Bones
Of the 14 bones composing the face, 12 are paired. Only the
mandible and vomer are single bones. An additional bone,
The Axial Skeleton: Cranial Bones and Important Bone Markings (continued)Table 9.1C
Cranial bone Important markings Description
Ethmoid (1)
(continued)
Cribriform foramina Tiny holes in the cribriform plates that allow for the passage of filaments of cranial
nerve I (olfactory nerve).
Perpendicular plate Inferior projection that forms the superior portion of the nasal septum.
Lateral masses Flank the perpendicular plate on each side and are filled with sinuses called
ethmoidal air cells.
Orbital plates Lateral surface of the lateral masses that contribute to the medial wall of the orbits.
Superior and middle nasal
conchae
Extend medially from the lateral masses; act as turbinates to improve airflow
through the nasal cavity.
The Axial Skeleton: Facial Bones and Important Bone Markings (Figures 9.1, 9.7, 9.9, and 9.10,
with additional figures listed for specific bones)
Table 9.
2
Facial bone Important markings Description
Nasal (2) N/A Small rectangular bones forming the bridge of the nose.
Lacrimal (2)
N/A Each forms part of the medial orbit in between the maxilla and ethmoid bone.
Lacrimal fossa Houses the lacrimal sac, which helps to drain tears from the nasal cavity.
Zygomatic (2)
(also Figure 9.2)
N/A Commonly called the cheekbones; each forms part of the lateral orbit
Inferior nasal concha (2) N/A Inferior turbinate; each forms part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavities;
improves the airflow through the nasal cavity
Palatine (2)
(also Figure 9.2)
N/A Forms the posterior hard palate, a small part of the nasal cavity, and part of the
orbit.
Horizontal plate Forms the posterior portion of the hard palate.
Median palatine suture Median fusion point of the horizontal plates of the palatine bones.
Vomer (1) N/A Thin, blade-shaped bone that forms the inferior nasal septum.
Maxilla (2)
(also Figures 9.2 and 9.8)
N/A Keystone facial bones because they articulate with all other facial bones except the
mandible; form the upper jaw and parts of the hard palate, orbits, and nasal cavity.
Frontal process Forms part of the lateral aspect of the bridge of the nose.
Infraorbital foramen Opening under the orbit that forms a passageway for the infraorbital artery and nerve.
Lambdoid
suture
Occipital
bone
Superior
nuchal
line
External
occipital
protuberance
Sutural
bone
Occipitomastoid
suture Occipital
condyle
External
occipital
crest
Inferior
nuchal
line
Temporal
bone
(mastoid
process)
Parietal bone
Sagittal suture Figure 9.6 Posterior
view of the skull.
the hyoid bone, although not a facial bone, is considered here
because of its location.
The Axial Skeleton 129
9
Parietal bone
Squamous part
of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Infraorbital foramen
Mental
foramen
Mandibular
symphysis
Frontal bone
Glabella
Frontonasal suture
Supraorbital foramen
(notch)
Supraorbital margin
Superior orbital
fissure
Inferior orbital
fissure
Middle nasal concha
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Optic canal
Perpendicular plate
Ethmoid
bone
Figure 9.7 Anterior view of the skull.
Watch a video of the Facial Bones
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
(continued)Table 9.2
Facial bone Important markings Description
Maxilla (2) (continued)
Palatine process Forms the anterior hard palate; meet anteriorly in the intermaxillary suture
(Note: Seen in inferior view).
Zygomatic process Articulation process for zygomatic bone.
Alveolar process Inferior margin of the maxilla; contains sockets in which the teeth lie
Mandible (1)
(also Figures 9.2 and 9.8)
N/A The lower jawbone, which articulates with the temporal bone to form the only
freely movable joints in the skull (the temporomandibular joint).
Condylar processes Articulate with the mandibular fossae of the temporal bones.
Coronoid processes “Crown-shaped” portion of the ramus for muscle attachment.
Mandibular notches Separate the condylar process and the coronoid process.
Body Horizontal portion that forms the chin.
Ramus Vertical extension of the body.
Mandibular angles Posterior points where the ramus meets the body.
Mental foramina Paired openings on the body (lateral to the midline); transmit blood vessels and
nerves to the lower lip and skin of the chin.
Alveolar process Superior margin of the mandible; contains sockets in which the teeth lie.
Mandibular foramina Located on the medial surface of each ramus; passageway for the nerve
involved in tooth sensation. (Dentists inject anesthetic into this foramen before
working on the lower teeth.)
130 Exercise 9
9
Coronoid
process
Mandibular foramen
Mental
foramen
Mandibular
angle
Ramus
of
mandible
Condylar
process
Mandibular notch
Mandibular fossa
of temporal bone
Body of mandible
Alveolar
process
(b) Mandible, right lateral view
Temporomandibular
joint
Frontal
process
Articulates
with frontal
bone
Anterior
nasal
spine
Infraorbital
foramen
Alveolar
process
(a) Maxilla, right lateral view
Orbital surface
Zygomatic
process
(cut)
Figure 9.8 Detailed anatomy of the maxilla and mandible.
Roof of orbit
Medial wall
Orbital plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoid body
Supraorbital notch Optic canal
Floor of orbit
Orbital process of
palatine bone
Orbital surface of
maxillary bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Frontal process
of maxilla
Lateral wall of orbit
Zygomatic process
of frontal bone
Greater wing of
sphenoid bone
Orbital surface of
zygomatic bone
Zygomatic bone
Zygomatic bone
Inferior orbital fissure
Infraorbital groove
Infraorbital
foramen
Superior
orbital fissure
Lesser wing of
sphenoid bone
Orbital plate of
frontal bone
Figure 9.9 Bones that form the orbit. Seven skull bones form the orbit, the bony
cavity that surrounds the eye. They are frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, lacrimal, maxilla,
palatine, and zygomatic.
Watch videos of the Maxilla and Mandible
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The Axial Skeleton 131
9
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Temporal bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Nasal bones
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Figure 9.10 Frontal view
of the Beauchene skull.
Group Challenge
Odd Bone Out
Each of the following sets contains four bones. One of the
listed bones does not share a characteristic that the other
three do. Work in groups of three, and discuss the charac-
teristics of the bones in each group. On a separate piece
of paper, one student will record the characteristics of each
bone. For each set of bones, discuss the possible candidates
for the “odd bone out” and which characteristic it lacks, based
on your notes. Once your group has come to a consensus,
circle the bone that doesn’t belong with the others, and ex-
plain why it is singled out. What characteristic is it missing?
Include as many characteristics as you can think of, but make
sure your choice does not have the key characteristic. Use an
articulated skull, disarticulated skull bones, and the pictures
in your lab manual to help you select and justify your answer.
Paranasal Sinuses
Four skull bones—maxillary, sphenoid, ethmoid, and frontal—
contain sinuses (mucosa-lined air cavities) that lead into the
nasal passages (see Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.11). These
paranasal sinuses lighten the skull and may act as resonance
chambers for speech. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the
sinuses found in the skull.
Sinusitis, or inflammation of the sinuses, some-
times occurs as a result of an allergy or bacterial
invasion of the sinus cavities. In such cases, some of the
Greater horn
Lesser horn
Body
Figure 9.12 Hyoid bone.
connecting passageways between the sinuses and nasal
passages may become blocked with thick mucus or infectious
material. Then, as the air in the sinus cavities is absorbed, a
partial vacuum forms. The result is a sinus headache localized
over the inflamed sinus area. Severe sinus infections may
require surgical drainage to relieve this painful condition. ✚
Hyoid Bone
Not really considered or counted as a skull bone, the hyoid
bone is located in the throat above the larynx. It serves as a
point of attachment for many tongue and neck muscles. It
does not articulate with any other bone and is thus unique. It
is horseshoe shaped with a body and two pairs of horns, or
cornua (Figure 9.12).
The Axial Skeleton 133
9
The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column, extending from the skull to the pelvis,
forms the body’s major axial support. Additionally, it sur-
rounds and protects the delicate spinal cord while allowing the
spinal nerves to emerge from the cord via openings between
adjacent vertebrae. The term vertebral column might suggest
a rigid supporting rod, but this is far from the truth. The verte-
bral column consists of 24 single bones called vertebrae and
two composite, or fused, bones (the sacrum and coccyx) that
are connected in such a way as to provide a flexible curved
Activity 2
Palpating Skull Markings
Palpate the following areas on yourself. Place a check
mark in the boxes as you locate the skull markings. Ask
your instructor for help with any markings that you are
unable to locate.
□ Zygomatic bone and arch. (The most prominent
part of your cheek is your zygomatic bone. Follow the
posterior course of the zygomatic arch to its junction
with your temporal bone.)
□ Mastoid process (the rough area behind your ear).
□ Temporomandibular joints. (Open and close your
jaws to locate these.)
□ Greater wing of sphenoid. (Find the indentation pos-
terior to the orbit and superior to the zygomatic arch on
your lateral skull.)
□ Supraorbital foramen. (Apply firm pressure along the
superior orbital margin to find the indentation resulting
from this foramen.)
□ Infraorbital foramen. (Apply firm pressure just infe-
rior to the inferomedial border of the orbit to locate this
large foramen.)
□ Mandibular angle (most inferior and posterior aspect
of the mandible).
□ Mandibular symphysis (midline of chin).
□ Nasal bones. (Run your index finger and thumb along
opposite sides of the bridge of your nose until they
“slip” medially at the inferior end of the nasal bones.)
□ External occipital protuberance. (This midline projec-
tion is easily felt by running your fingers up the furrow
at the back of your neck to the skull.)
□ Hyoid bone. (Place a thumb and index finger beneath
the chin just anterior to the mandibular angles, and
squeeze gently. Exert pressure with the thumb, and feel
the horn of the hyoid with the index finger.)
Figure 9.13 The vertebral column. Notice the curvatures
in the lateral view. (The terms convex and concave refer to
the curvature of the posterior aspect of the vertebral column.)
Watch a video of the Thoracic Vertebra
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Video
structure (Figure 9.13). Of the 24 single vertebrae, the seven
bones of the neck are called cervical vertebrae; the next 12
are thoracic vertebrae; and the 5 supporting the lower back
are lumbar vertebrae. Remembering common mealtimes for
breakfast, lunch, and dinner (7 a.m., 12 noon, and 5 p.m.) may
help you to remember the number of bones in each region.
The vertebrae are separated by pads of fibrocartilage,
intervertebral discs, that cushion the vertebrae and absorb
shocks. Each disc has two major regions, a central gelatinous
134 Exercise 9
9
When the fibrous disc is properly positioned, are the
spinal cord or peripheral nerves impaired in any way?
Remove the disc, and put the two vertebrae back to-
gether. What happens to the nerve?
What would happen to the spinal nerves in areas of mal-
positioned or “slipped” discs?
Posterior
Anterior
Lamina
Superior
articular
process
and
facet
Transverse
process
Pedicle
Spinous
process
Vertebral
arch
Vertebral
foramen
Body
Figure 9.15 A typical vertebra, superior view. Inferior
articulating surfaces not shown.
Watch a video of the Typical Vertebra
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
nucleus pulposus that behaves like a rubber ball, and an outer
ring of encircling collagen fibers called the anulus fibrosus
that stabilizes the disc and contains the nucleus pulposus.
As a person ages, the water content of the discs de-
creases (as it does in other tissues throughout the
body), and the discs become thinner and less compressible. This
situation, along with other degenerative changes such as weak-
ening of the ligaments and tendons of the vertebral column,
predisposes older people to a ruptured disc, called a herniated
disc. In a herniated disc, the anulus fibrosus commonly ruptures
and the nucleus pulposus protrudes (herniates) through it. This
event typically compresses adjacent nerves, causing pain. ✚
The thoracic and sacral curvatures of the spine are re-
ferred to as primary curvatures because they are present and
well developed at birth. Later the secondary curvatures are
formed. The cervical curvature becomes prominent when the
baby begins to hold its head up independently, and the lumbar
curvature develops when the baby begins to walk.
Activity 3
Examining Spinal Curvatures
1. Observe the normal curvature of the vertebral column
in the articulated vertebral column or laboratory skel-
eton and compare it to Figure 9.13. Note the differences
between normal curvature and three abnormal spinal
curvatures seen in the figure—scoliosis, kyphosis, and
lordosis (Figure 9.14). These abnormalities may result
from disease or poor posture. Also examine X-ray
images, if they are available, showing these same condi-
tions in a living patient.
2. Then, using the articulated vertebral column (or an
articulated skeleton), examine the freedom of movement
between two lumbar vertebrae separated by an interver-
tebral disc.
Kyphosis LordosisScoliosis
Figure 9.14 Abnormal spinal curvatures.
Structure of a Typical Vertebra
Although they differ in size and specific features, all verte-
brae have some features in common (Figure 9.15).
Body (or centrum): Rounded central portion of the verte-
bra, which faces anteriorly in the human vertebral column.
Vertebral arch: Composed of pedicles, laminae, and a
spinous process, it represents the junction of all posterior
extensions from the vertebral body.
Vertebral (spinal) foramen: Opening enclosed by the
body and vertebral arch; a passageway for the spinal cord.
Transverse processes: Two lateral projections from the
vertebral arch.
Spinous process: Single medial and posterior projection
from the vertebral arch.
The Axial Skeleton 135
9
Superior and inferior articular processes: Paired projec-
tions lateral to the vertebral foramen that enable articulation
with adjacent vertebrae. The superior articular processes typi-
cally face toward the spinous process (posteriorly), whereas
the inferior articular processes face (anteriorly) away from
the spinous process.
Intervertebral foramina: The right and left pedicles have
notches (see Figure 9.17) on their inferior and superior sur-
faces that create openings, the intervertebral foramina, for spi-
nal nerves to leave the spinal cord between adjacent vertebrae.
Figures 9.16–9.18 and Table 9.3 on p. 137 show how
specific vertebrae differ; refer to them as you read the follow-
ing sections.
Cervical Vertebrae
The seven cervical vertebrae (referred to as C1 through C7)
form the neck portion of the vertebral column. The first two
cervical vertebrae (atlas and axis) are highly modified to
perform special functions (Figure 9.16). The atlas (C1)
lacks a body, and its lateral processes contain large concave
depressions on their superior surfaces that receive the occipital
condyles of the skull. This joint enables you to nod “yes.” The
axis (C2) acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and skull)
above. It bears a large vertical process, the dens, that serves as
the pivot point. The articulation between C1 and C2 allows you
to rotate your head from side to side to indicate “no.”
The more typical cervical vertebrae (C3 through C7) are
distinguished from the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae by sev-
eral features (see Table 9.3 and Figure 9.17 on p. 136). They
are the smallest, lightest vertebrae, and the vertebral foramen
is triangular. The spinous process is short and often bifurcated
(divided into two branches). The spinous process of C7 is not
branched, however, and is substantially longer than that of the
other cervical vertebrae. Because the spinous process of C7 is
visible through the skin at the base of the neck, it is called the
vertebra prominens (Figure 9.13) and is used as a landmark
for counting the vertebrae. Transverse processes of the cervi-
cal vertebrae are wide, and they contain foramina through
which the vertebral arteries pass superiorly on their way to
the brain. Any time you see these foramina in a vertebra, you
can be sure that it is a cervical vertebra.
□ Palpate your vertebra prominens. Place a check mark in
the box when you locate the structure.
Thoracic Vertebrae
The 12 thoracic vertebrae (referred to as T1 through T12)
may be recognized by the following structural characteristics.
They have a larger body than the cervical vertebrae (see Fig-
ure 9.17). The body is somewhat heart shaped, with two small
articulating surfaces, or costal facets, on each side (one supe-
rior, the other inferior) close to the origin of the vertebral arch.
These facets articulate with the heads of the corresponding
ribs. The vertebral foramen is oval or round, and the spinous
process is long, with a sharp downward hook. The closer the
thoracic vertebra is to the lumbar region, the less sharp and
shorter the spinous process. Articular facets on the transverse
processes articulate with the tubercles of the ribs. Besides
forming the thoracic part of the spine, these vertebrae form
Figure 9.16 The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Watch a video of the Atlas and Axis
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
Anterior arch
Superior
articular
facet
Transverse
foramen
Posterior
arch
Posterior
tubercle
Anterior tubercle
Posterior
Lateral
masses
(a) Superior view of atlas (C
1
)
C
1
C
2
Facet for dens
Transverse
process
Lateral
masses
Transverse foramen
Posterior arch
Posterior tubercle
Posterior
Anterior tubercle
Anterior arch
(b) Inferior view of atlas (C
1
)
Inferior
articular
facet
Posterior
Dens
(c) Superior view of axis (C
2
)
Inferior
articular
process
Body
Superior
articular
facet
Transverse
process
Pedicle
Lamina
Spinous
process
the posterior aspect of the thoracic cage. Indeed, they are the
only vertebrae that articulate with the ribs.
Lumbar Vertebrae
The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 through L5) have massive
blocklike bodies and short, thick, hatchet-shaped spinous
processes extending directly backward (see Table 9.3 and
136 Exercise 9
9
Inferior
articular
process
Superior articular
process and facet Spinous
process
Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process
Transverse
foramen Body
Superior View Right Lateral View
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
process
and facet
Vertebral
foramen
Body
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Superior
costal facet
(for head of rib)
Spinous
process
Body
Inferior
articular
process
and facet
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
process
Body
Superior articular
process and facet
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Superior costal
facet (for head
of rib)
Inferior
notch
Inferior costal
facet (for head
of rib)
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Spinous process
Spinous process
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
process
and facet
Vertebral
foramen
Body
Superior
articular
process
Inferior articular
process and
facet
Inferior vertebral
notch
Transverse
process
Body
Spinous
process
C1
C2
(c) Lumbar
(b) Thoracic
(a) Cervical
Figure 9.17 Superior and right lateral views of typical vertebrae.
Figure 9.17). The superior articular facets face posterome-
dially; the inferior ones are directed anterolaterally. These
structural features reduce the mobility of the lumbar region of
the spine. Since most stress on the vertebral column occurs in
the lumbar region, these are also the sturdiest of the vertebrae.
The spinal cord ends at the superior edge of L2, but the
outer covering of the cord, filled with cerebrospinal fluid,
extends an appreciable distance beyond. Thus a lumbar punc-
ture (for examination of the cerebrospinal fluid) or the ad-
ministration of “saddle block” anesthesia for childbirth is
normally done between L3 and L4 or L4 and L5, where there is
little or no chance of injuring the delicate spinal cord.
Watch a video of the Lumbar Vertebra
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
The Axial Skeleton 137
9
The Sacrum
The sacrum (Figure 9.18) is a composite bone formed from
the fusion of five vertebrae. Superiorly it articulates with
L5, and inferiorly it connects with the coccyx. The median
sacral crest is a remnant of the spinous processes of the fused
vertebrae. The winglike alae, formed by fusion of the trans-
verse processes, articulate laterally with the hip bones. The
sacrum is concave anteriorly and forms the posterior border
of the pelvis. Four ridges (lines of fusion) cross the anterior
part of the sacrum, and sacral foramina are located at ei-
ther end of these ridges. These foramina allow blood vessels
and nerves to pass. The vertebral canal continues inside the
sacrum as the sacral canal and terminates near the coccyx
via an enlarged opening called the sacral hiatus. The sacral
promontory (anterior border of the body of S1) is an impor-
tant anatomical landmark for obstetricians.
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra
Transverse ridges
(sites of vertebral
fusion)
Coccyx Coccyx
Anterior
sacral
foramina
Apex
Posterior
sacral
foramina
Median
sacral
crest
Sacral promontory
Sacral
canal
Sacral
hiatus
Body
Facet of
superior articular
process
Lateral
sacral
crest
Auricular
surface
Ala
(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view
Figure 9.18 Sacrum and coccyx. Watch a video of the Sacrum and Coccyx
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar VertebraeTable 9.3
Movements allowed Flexion and extension; lateral
flexion; rotation; the spine
region with the greatest range
of movement
Rotation; lateral flexion possible
but limited by ribs; flexion and
extension prevented
Flexion and extension; some
lateral flexion; rotation prevented
138 Exercise 9
9
Intercostal
spaces
Xiphisternal
joint
Heart
Sternal
angle
Jugular
notch
True
ribs
(1–7)
False
ribs
(8–12)
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
L
1
VertebraFloating
ribs (11, 12)
(b) (a)
T
2
T
4
T
5
T
3
T
9
Sternum
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
Figure 9.19 The thoracic cage. (a) Anterior view with
costal cartilages shown in blue. (b) Median section of
the thorax, illustrating the relationship of the surface
anatomical landmarks of the thorax to the thoracic
portion of the vertebral column.
Watch a video of the Sternum
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
□ Attempt to palpate the median sacral crest of your sacrum.
(This is more easily done by thin people and obviously in
privacy.) Place a check mark in the box when you locate the
structure.
The Coccyx
The coccyx (see Figure 9.18) is formed from the fusion
of three to five small irregularly shaped vertebrae. It is
literally the human tailbone, a vestige of the tail that other
Activity 4
Examining Vertebral Structure
Obtain examples of each type of vertebra, and examine
them carefully, comparing them to Figures 9.16, 9.17,
9.18, and Table 9.3 and to each other.
The Thoracic Cage
The thoracic cage consists of the bony thorax, which is com-
posed of the sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebrae, plus the
costal cartilages (Figure 9.19). Its cone-shaped, cagelike
structure protects the organs of the thoracic cavity, including
the critically important heart and lungs.
The Sternum
The sternum (breastbone), a typical flat bone, is a result
of the fusion of three bones—the manubrium, body, and
xiphoid process. It is attached to the first seven pairs of ribs.
The superiormost manubrium looks like the knot of a tie;
vertebrates have. The coccyx is attached to the sacrum by
ligaments.
The Axial Skeleton 139
9
it articulates with the clavicle (collarbone) laterally. The body
forms the bulk of the sternum. The xiphoid process con-
structs the inferior end of the sternum and lies at the level
of the fifth intercostal space. Although it is made of hyaline
cartilage in children, it is usually ossified in adults over the
age of 40.
In some people, the xiphoid process projects dor-
sally. This may present a problem because physical
trauma to the chest can push such a xiphoid into the underly-
ing heart or liver, causing massive hemorrhage. ✚
The sternum has three important bony landmarks—the
jugular notch, the sternal angle, and the xiphisternal joint.
The jugular notch (concave upper border of the manubrium)
can be palpated easily; generally it is at the level of the disc in
between the second and third thoracic vertebrae. The sternal
angle is a result of the manubrium and body meeting at a
slight angle to each other, so that a transverse ridge is formed
at the level of the second ribs. It provides a handy reference
point for counting ribs to locate the second intercostal space
for listening to certain heart valves, and it is an important
anatomical landmark for thoracic surgery. The xiphisternal
joint, the point where the sternal body and xiphoid process
fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.
□ Palpate your sternal angle and jugular notch. Place a check
mark in the box when you locate the structures.
Because of its accessibility, the sternum is a favored site
for obtaining samples of blood-forming (hematopoietic) tis-
sue for the diagnosis of suspected blood diseases. A needle
is inserted into the marrow of the sternum, and the sample is
withdrawn (sternal puncture).
The Ribs
The 12 pairs of ribs form the walls of the thoracic cage (see
Figure 9.19 and Figure 9.20). All of the ribs articulate
posteriorly with the vertebral column via their heads and
tubercles and then curve downward and toward the anterior
body surface. The first seven pairs, called the true, or verte-
brosternal, ribs, attach directly to the sternum by their “own”
costal cartilages. The next five pairs are called false ribs;
they attach indirectly to the sternum or entirely lack a sternal
attachment. Of these, rib pairs 8–10, which are also called
vertebrochondral ribs, have indirect cartilage attachments to
the sternum via the costal cartilage of rib 7. The last two pairs,
called floating, or vertebral, ribs, have no sternal attachment.
Transverse costal facet
(for tubercle of rib)
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
Body of vertebra
Head of rib
Intervertebral disc
Tubercle of rib
Neck of rib
Shaft Sternum
Angle
of rib
Cross
section
of rib
Costal groove Costal cartilage
(a)
Spinous process
Articular facet
on tubercle of rib
Shaft
Ligaments
Neck of rib
Head of rib
Body of
thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
(b)
Junction with
costal cartilage
Shaft Head Neck
Articular facet
on tubercle
Angle of ribCostal groove
Facets for articulation
with vertebrae
(c)
Figure 9.20 Structure of a typical true rib and its
articulations. (a) Vertebral and sternal articulations
of a typical true rib. (b) Superior view of the
articulation between a rib and a thoracic vertebra, with
costovertebral ligaments. (c) Right rib 6, posterior view.
Watch a video of the Rib
>Study Area>Pre-Lab Videos
Activity 5
Examining the Relationship
Between Ribs and Vertebrae
First take a deep breath to expand your chest. Notice how
your ribs seem to move outward and how your sternum
rises. Then examine an articulated skeleton to observe
the relationship between the ribs and the vertebrae.
(Refer to Activity 3, Palpating Landmarks of the Trunk,
section on The Thorax: Bones, steps 1 and 3, in Exercise
46, Surface Anatomy Roundup.)
140 Exercise 9
9
The Fetal Skull
One of the most obvious differences between fetal and adult
skeletons is the huge size of the fetal skull relative to the rest
of the skeleton. Skull bones are incompletely formed at birth
and connected by fibrous membranes called fontanelles. The
fontanelles allow the fetal skull to be compressed slightly
during birth and also allow for brain growth in the fetus and
infant. They ossify (become bone) as the infant ages, com-
pleting the process by the time the child is 1½ to 2 years old.
1. Obtain a fetal skull, and study it carefully.
Does it have the same bones as the adult skull?
How does the size of the fetal face relate to the cranium?
How does this compare to what is seen in the adult?
2. Locate the following fontanelles on the fetal skull (refer
to Figure 9.21): anterior (or frontal) fontanelle, mastoid
fontanelle, sphenoidal fontanelle, and posterior (or occipi-
tal) fontanelle.
Activity 6
Examining a Fetal Skull
3. Notice that some of the cranial bones have conical pro-
trusions. These are ossification (growth) centers. Notice
also that the frontal bone is still in two parts and that the
temporal bone is incompletely ossified, little more than a
ring of bone.
4. Before completing this study, check the questions on
the Review Sheet at the end of this exercise to ensure that
you have made all of the necessary observations.
Mandible
Maxilla
Sphenoidal
fontanel
Frontal
suture
Frontal
bone
Frontal bone
Ossification
center
Anterior
Occipital
bone
(a) Superior view
Posterior fontanelle
Parietal
bone
Anterior
fontanelle
Frontal
suture
(b) Left lateral view
Posterior
fontanelle
Mastoid
fontanelle
Parietal
bone
Ossification
center
Occipital
bone
Temporal bone (squamous part)
Frontal
bone
Sphenoidal
fontanelle
Frontal
bone
Anterior
fontanelle Parietal
bone
Occipital
bone
Mastoid
fontanelle
Sphenoidal
fontanelle
Temporal bone
(squamous part)
Mandible
Maxilla
Sphenoidal
fontanelle
Parietal
bone
Parietal
bone
Anterior
fontanelle
Frontal
suture
Frontal
bone
(d) Left lateral view(c) Anterior view
Figure 9.21 Skull of a newborn.
141141
The Skull
1. First, match the bone names in column B with the descriptions in column A (the items in column B may be used more
than once). Then, circle the bones in column B that are cranial bones.
Column A Column B
1. forehead bone
2. cheekbone
3. lower jaw
4. bridge of nose
5. posterior bones of the hard palate
6. much of the lateral and superior cranium
7. most posterior part of cranium
8. single, irregular, bat-shaped bone forming part
of the cranial base
9. tiny bones bearing tear ducts
10. anterior part of hard palate
11. superior and middle nasal conchae form from
its projections
12. site of mastoid process
13. site of sella turcica
14. site of cribriform plate
15. site of mental foramen
16. site of styloid process
, ,
17. four bones containing paranasal sinuses
18. condyles here articulate with the atlas
19. foramen magnum contained here
20. small U-shaped bone in neck, where many
tongue muscles attach
21. organ of hearing found here
, 22. two bones that form the nasal septum
23. bears an upward protrusion, the “rooster’s
comb,” or crista galli
, 24. contain sockets bearing teeth
25. forms the most inferior turbinate
a. ethmoid
b. frontal
c. hyoid
d. inferior nasal concha
e. lacrimal
f. mandible
g. maxilla
h. nasal
i. occipital
j. palatine
k. parietal
l. sphenoid
m. temporal
n. vomer
o. zygomatic
Name _____________________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date ___________________________________
REVIEW SHEET
The Axial Skeleton
E X E R C I S E
9
142 Review Sheet 9
2. Using choices from the numbered key to the right, identify all bones ( ), sutures ( ), and bone markings ( )
provided with various leader lines in the two diagrams below. Some responses from the key will be used more than once.
(fo
ss
a)
(fossa)
1. carotid canal
2. coronal suture
3. ethmoid bone
4. external occipital protuberance
5. foramen lacerum
6. foramen magnum
7. foramen ovale
8. frontal bone
9. glabella
10. incisive fossa
11. inferior nasal concha
12. inferior orbital fissure
13. infraorbital foramen
14. jugular foramen
15. lacrimal bone
16. mandible
17. mandibular fossa
18. mandibular symphysis
19. mastoid process
20. maxilla
21. mental foramen
22. middle nasal concha of ethmoid
23. nasal bone
24. occipital bone
25. occipital condyle
26. palatine bone
27. palatine process of maxilla
28. parietal bone
29. sagittal suture
30. sphenoid bone
31. styloid process
32. stylomastoid foramen
33. superior orbital fissure
34. supraorbital foramen
35. temporal bone
36. vomer
37. zygomatic bone
38. zygomatic process of temporal bone
Key:
Review Sheet 9 143
3. Define suture.
4. With one exception, the skull bones are joined by sutures. Name the exception.
5. What bones are connected by the lambdoid suture?
What bones are connected by the squamous suture?
6. Name the eight bones of the cranium. (Remember to include left and right.)
7. Give two possible functions of the sinuses.
8. What is the orbit?
What bones contribute to the formation of the orbit?
9. Why can the sphenoid bone be called the keystone of the cranium?
The Vertebral Column
10. The distinguishing characteristics of the vertebrae composing the vertebral column are noted below. Correctly iden-
tify each described structure by choosing a response from the key.
a. atlas
b. axis
c. cervical vertebra—typical
d. coccyx
e. lumbar vertebra
f. sacrum
g. thoracic vertebra
Key:
1. vertebra type containing foramina in the transverse processes, through which
the vertebral arteries ascend to reach the brain
2. dens here provides a pivot for rotation of the first cervical vertebra (C1)
3. transverse processes faceted for articulation with ribs; spinous process pointing
sharply downward
4. composite bone; articulates with the hip bone laterally
5. massive vertebra; weight-sustaining
144 Review Sheet 9
6. “tail bone”; vestigial fused vertebrae
7. supports the head; allows a rocking motion in conjunction with the occipital
condyles
11. Using the key, correctly identify the vertebral parts/areas described below. (More than one choice may apply in some
cases.) Also use the key letters to correctly identify the vertebral areas in the diagram.
a. body
b. intervertebral foramina
c. lamina
d. pedicle
e. spinous process
f. superior articular facet
g. transverse process
h. vertebral arch
i. vertebral foramen
Key:
1. cavity enclosing the spinal cord
2. weight-bearing portion of the vertebra
, 3. provide levers against which muscles pull
, 4. provide an articulation point for the ribs
5. openings providing for exit of spinal nerves
, 6. structures that form an enclosure for the spinal cord
, , 7. structures that form the vertebral arch
12. Describe how a spinal nerve exits from the vertebral column.
13. Name two factors/structures that permit flexibility of the vertebral column.
and
14. What kind of tissue makes up the intervertebral discs?
15. What is a herniated disc?
What problems might it cause?
16. Which two spinal curvatures are obvious at birth? and
Under what conditions do the secondary curvatures develop?
Review Sheet 9 145
17. On this illustration of an articulated vertebral column, identify each curvature indicated, and label it as a primary or
a secondary curvature. Also identify the structures provided with leader lines, using the letters of the terms listed in
the key below.
Key: a. atlas
b. axis
c. intervertebral disc
d. sacrum
e. two thoracic vertebrae
f. two lumbar vertebrae
g. vertebra prominens
(curvature)
(curvature)
(curvature)
(curvature)
146 Review Sheet 9
The Thoracic Cage
18. The major bony components of the thorax (excluding the vertebral column) are the
and the
19. Differentiate between a true rib and a false rib.
Is a floating rib a true or a false rib? .
20. What is the general shape of the thoracic cage?
21. Using the terms in the key, identify the regions and landmarks of the thoracic cage.
Key:
L1 vertebra
a. body
b. clavicular notch
c. costal cartilage
d. false ribs
e. floating ribs
f. jugular notch
g. manubrium
h. sternal angle
i. sternum
j. true ribs
k. xiphisternal joint
l. xiphoid process
Review Sheet 9 147
The Fetal Skull
22. Are the same skull bones seen in the adult also found in the fetal skull?
23. How does the size of the fetal face compare to its cranium?
How does this compare to the adult skull?
24. What are the outward conical projections on some of the fetal cranial bones?
25. What is a fontanelle?
What is its fate?
What is the function of the fontanelles in the fetal skull?
26. Using the terms listed, identify each of the fontanelles shown on the fetal skull below.
Key:
a. anterior fontanelle
b. mastoid fontanelle
c. posterior fontanelle
d. sphenoidal fontanelle
Parietal
bone
Occipital
bone
Temporal bone
Frontal
bone
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Active communication to understand requirements.
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