1. Provide an example of (A) experimental, (B) quasi-experimental, and (C) nonexperimental research from the GCU Library provided below, (D) and explain how each research type differs from the others. When replying to peers, evaluate the effectiveness of the research design of the study for two of the examples provided.

2. Describe the difference between research and quality improvement. Provide a workplace example where qualitative and quantitative research is applied and how it was used within your organization. When replying to peers, discuss how these research findings might be incorporated into another health care setting.

polymers

Editorial

Education and Research during Pandemics:
Illustrated by the Example of Experimental
Biocomposites Research

Oisik Das 1,* and Seeram Ramakrishna 2,*
1 Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Luleå University of Technology, 97187 Luleå, Sweden
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore
* Correspondence: oisik.das@ltu.se (O.D.); seeram@nus.edu.sg (S.R.)

Received: 5 August 2020; Accepted: 17 August 2020; Published: 18 August 2020
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In late 2019, a novel Coronavirus was detected in Wuhan city of China, giving rise to the
catastrophic pandemic that is still rampant today. Initially, the worst-hit districts were put under
lockdown, which then extended to cities and eventually whole countries. Travel of people, along with
logistics of goods and services, were (and still are) severely affected. Most nations of the world urged
their citizens to stay indoors so as to avoid exposure to the virus, and thus remain infection-free.
One of the demographics that are negatively affected by the lockdown measures is the students and
researchers. Numerous universities around the world had to shut their premises at short notice,
thus prompting a rapid shift from in-classroom education to online education, a transition that normally
would take decades to happen. In particular, students received their classes through digital platforms,
which included Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Skype, etc., whereas the researchers adopted tele-working.
Although this strategy employed by universities is effective in curbing the further spread of the
virus, it has some unintended consequences. Firstly, owing to the uncertainly regarding the end date
for the current coronavirus pandemic, millennials and freshmen are unsure about their immediate
enrolment in their chosen courses and programmes. For example, the University of Ohio in USA
and the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom will hold online classes for the upcoming
fall and until the summer of 2021, respectively. This is particularly disheartening for international
students, who are anticipating an active academic experience that includes campus life, engagement
in classrooms, obtaining in-person feedback from lecturers, bonding and networking in cafes, etc.
Secondly, and more importantly, students whose programmes warrant undertaking a significant
amount of laboratory work are stressed about the stagnant nature of their research. While a few
fields of study can be conducted on a digital platform, experimental research requires the presence
of the person in laboratories for a substantial amount of time. Biocomposite education is at its core
an experimental one, which includes the design of the biocomposite, preparation of raw materials,
fabrication and manufacturing, prototyping, and finally testing and characterisation. Therefore, it is
critical to identify some effective means to propagate biocomposites education during pandemics,
wherein students and researchers are confined to quarantines. In other words, educators should create
paths for effective learning in the biocomposite field in a distanced education system via alternative
routes and remote controlled laboratories and equipment.

In light of the aforementioned, five strategies could be adopted by the students and researchers
to sustain biocomposites education and learning during viral outbreaks and disruptions. The first
strategy, which is one of the most obvious ones, is to bolster the theoretical knowledge regarding
composite science and technology. Often, a student or a researcher learns on the job, i.e., learning by
doing. While this is imperative to activate the psychomotor taxonomic domain, the cognitive domain
can be made robust by indulging in the comprehension of background knowledge regarding various
scientific phenomena and engineering concepts [1]. Although a student can progress through his/her

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Polymers 2020, 12, 1848 2 of 3

academic career and reach higher positions of lecturer or assistant professor by relying solely on the
‘working knowledge’ of biocomposites, an in-depth understanding of concepts like micromechanics,
macromechanics, laminate theory, structural mechanics, analytical modelling and finite element
modelling will make them reflective practitioners [2]. Additionally, these academics will be intrinsically
motivated [3] to conduct effective teaching and ground-breaking research. Therefore, the imparting of
theoretical knowledge on biocomposites will garner self-regulation [4], confidence and self-efficacy [5]
in the students and researchers.

In the second strategy, the students and researchers can devote their time to preparing
comprehensive and critical review articles meant for beginners and experienced researchers, respectively.
Not only does the preparation of review articles inadvertently facilitate the absorbance of overall
knowledge, but also their eventual publication in peer-reviewed journals attracts more citations
(compared to the narrowly focused research articles), which will boost the person’s academic career
and visibility. The writing of review articles enables the author to develop a holistic overview
regarding specific aspects of the biocomposite field. Additionally, the author becomes aware of
the latest developments in the state-of-the-art research, and is able to critically analyse and well
position his/her own research so as to address specific scientific and technological challenges and needs.
Thus, the above-mentioned facets of writing a review article are conducive for the development of
biocomposites education because students/researchers will learn by immersing themselves in loops of
experience, theories and practice, as specified by Boyatzis and Kolb, 1995 [6].

In the third strategy, the students and researchers can perform life cycle analyses (LCA) of various
biocomposite products. LCA does not require access to laboratories, and thus can be performed from
the safety of one’s home. Through LCA analysis, the student/researcher will be able to grasp the
importance of manufacturing and environmental sustainability, and attaining a circular economy
mind-set. It is critical to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and wastage at every stage of
the biocomposites’ life cycle, and LCA will shine light into the environmental impact of sourcing
raw materials and feedstock, processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair, maintenance and
disposal or recycling, i.e., the cradle-to-grave life of the product. The performing of LCA studies will
not only create opportunities for journal publications, but also encourage the student/researcher to
undertake industry-facing and market-oriented sustainable design and re-design of biocomposites in
the future. This will lead to the academic being environmentally conscious and striving towards waste
minimisation and pollution reduction during the biocomposite’s development and life cycle.

The fourth strategy is related to simulation studies of various aspects of biocomposites. Simulation
studies can be related to the determination of process feasibility parameters, its lifetime prediction,
failure mechanisms, etc. Although simulation without experimental validation could be futile,
students/researchers can delve into the modelling world, which can enable process optimisation
and effective product life cycle engineering. Furthermore, the students/researchers can visualise the
performance of the biocomposite without having to actually manufacture the product. Therefore,
simulation studies will not only enhance one’s theoretical understanding of composite science, but also
prepare one to tailor the design in order to have desirable performance properties and functionalities.
Simulation studies will be the closest thing for the students/researchers to experimentally designing
and developing biocomposites, and characterising their various properties in a manner akin to a
real-life laboratory session.

If performing real-world experiments is unavoidable, maybe the students/researchers can do so in
a simulated laboratory environment of virtual reality (VR), which is the fifth strategy. Nevertheless,
VR technology would not be accessible to all the students, especially in developing nations where
such technologies could be non-existent. VR technology can potentially allow students/researchers to
collaborate and interact with the artificially created biocomposite laboratory by moving through its
spaces and experiencing visual and auditory feedback from common instruments, such as injection
moulding machines, Instron Universal testing machines, cone calorimetry equipment, etc. Since VR has
been used in medicine in a way that has allowed the trainee doctors to rectify errors [7], the same can

Polymers 2020, 12, 1848 3 of 3

be emulated in biocomposite education. VR in biocomposite education will be beneficial in enabling
the student/researcher to develop his/her experimental skills, and will reduce the total cost of the
programme, since raw materials will not be expended.

In summary, there are several ways by which a student or a researcher can be immersed in
continuing biocomposites education during pandemics and massive disruptions. Adherence to the
aforementioned strategies will ensure that students/researchers can come back with a strong foundation
once the pandemic ends and the laboratories reopen. The following Figure 1 depicts the ideas put
forward in this article. An ideal solution for maintaining the flow of biocomposites research and
education is the combination of all the five strategies in some form or another.

Polymers 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 4

trainee doctors to rectify errors [7], the same can be emulated in biocomposite education. VR in

biocomposite education will be beneficial in enabling the student/researcher to develop his/her

experimental skills, and will reduce the total cost of the programme, since raw materials will not be

expended.

In summary, there are several ways by which a student or a researcher can be immersed in

continuing biocomposites education during pandemics and massive disruptions. Adherence to the

aforementioned strategies will ensure that students/researchers can come back with a strong

foundation once the pandemic ends and the laboratories reopen. The following Figure 1 depicts the

ideas put forward in this article. An ideal solution for maintaining the flow of biocomposites

research and education is the combination of all the five strategies in some form or another.

Figure 1. The five strategies for students and researchers to adopt in order to maintain the continuity

of biocomposites education during a pandemic.

1. Adesoji, F.A. Bloom taxonomy of educational objectives and the modification of cognitive levels. Adv. Soc.

Sci. 2018, 5, 5.

2. Schön, D.A. Educating the Reflective Practitioner; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1987.

3. Rust, C. The impact of assessment on student learning: How can the research literature practically help to

inform the development of departmental assessment strategies and learner-centred assessment practices?

Act. Learn. High. Educ. 2002, 3, 145–158.

4. Ng, E.M. Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first year university

students. Comput. Educ. 2018, 126, 65–74.

5. Baker, D. What works: Using curriculum and pedagogy to increase girls’ interest and participation in

science. Theory Pract. 2013, 52, 14–20.

6. Boyatzis, R.E.; Kolb, D.A. From learning styles to learning skills: The executive skills profile. J. Manag

Psychol. 1995, 10, 3–17.

7. Li, L.; Yu, F.; Shi, D.; Shi, J.; Tian, Z.; Yang, J.; Wang, X.; Jiang, Q. Application of virtual reality technology

in clinical medicine. Am. J. Transl. 2017, 9, 3867.

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access

article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution

(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Figure 1. The five strategies for students and researchers to adopt in order to maintain the continuity
of biocomposites education during a pandemic.

References

1. Adesoji, F.A. Bloom taxonomy of educational objectives and the modification of cognitive levels. Adv. Soc. Sci.
2018, 5, 5. [CrossRef]

2. Schön, D.A. Educating the Reflective Practitioner; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1987.
3. Rust, C. The impact of assessment on student learning: How can the research literature practically help to

inform the development of departmental assessment strategies and learner-centred assessment practices?
Act. Learn. High. Educ. 2002, 3, 145–158. [CrossRef]

4. Ng, E.M. Integrating self-regulation principles with flipped classroom pedagogy for first year university
students. Comput. Educ. 2018, 126, 65–74. [CrossRef]

5. Baker, D. What works: Using curriculum and pedagogy to increase girls’ interest and participation in science.
Theory Pract. 2013, 52, 14–20. [CrossRef]

6. Boyatzis, R.E.; Kolb, D.A. From learning styles to learning skills: The executive skills profile. J. Manag Psychol.
1995, 10, 3–17. [CrossRef]

7. Li, L.; Yu, F.; Shi, D.; Shi, J.; Tian, Z.; Yang, J.; Wang, X.; Jiang, Q. Application of virtual reality technology in
clinical medicine. Am. J. Transl. 2017, 9, 3867.

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.55.4233

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1469787402003002004

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.002

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2013.743760

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683949510085938

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individual use.

References

based on the Danish national birth cohort. Am J Epidemiol
2009; 169: 313–22.

6. Gray R., Mukherjee R. A. S., Rutter M. Alcohol consumption
during pregnancy and its effects on neurodevelopment: what
is known and what remains uncertain. Addiction 2009; 104:
1270–3.

7 Kesmodel U., Kesmodel P. S., Larsen A., Secher N. J. Use of
alcohol and illicit drugs among pregnant Danish women,
1998. Scand J Public Health 2003; 31: 5–11.

8. Olsen J., Frische G., Kirchheiner H., Poulsen A. O. [Alcohol-
drinking habits among pregnant women in Odense 1985–
1986]. Ugeskr Laeger 1987; 149: 1420–2.

9. Tolstrup J. S., Nordestgaard B. G., Rasmussen S., Tybjaerg-
Hansen A., Gronbaek M. Alcoholism and alcohol drinking
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cogenomics J 2008; 8: 220–7.

add_2631 1278..••

THE NEED FOR MORE QUASI-
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ALCOHOL
CONSUMPTION DURING PREGNANCY

The review by Gray, Mukherjee & Rutter [1] presents
succinctly and accurately what we do and do not
(unfortunately) know concerning the effects of alcohol
consumption during pregnancy (ACDP). The review
highlights two key problems related to extant human
studies of ACDP: (i) the difficulties in understanding the
implications of variability in the quantity, pattern and
timing of alcohol exposure and (ii) the potential of corre-
lated risks to confound the associations between ACDP
and offspring neurodevelopmental traits. I will focus on
the latter concern, although research obviously relies
heavily on clearly defined and accurate measurement.
One of the major recommendations the authors make is
that researchers should use natural experiments, or
quasi-experimental approaches, which help to delineate
between the possible causal influence of ACDP and the
effects of covarying risks. The purpose of this commen-
tary is to emphasize this need further and provide
additional examples of quasi-experimental designs to
encourage additional research in this area. Interestingly,
many of these approaches have been used to study the
effects of an associated risk, that of maternal smoking
during pregnancy (SDP) [2].

As Gray and colleagues [1] point out, the comparison
of differentially exposed siblings is a research approach
that can help to rule out confounding genetic and envi-
ronmental risks [3,4]. Converging evidence from sibling
comparison studies suggests that SDP is associated inde-
pendently with pregnancy-related outcomes (e.g. birth
weight and placenta ruptures) [5–8], consistent with a
causal inference. However, recent sibling-comparison
studies indicate that the association between SDP and
later neurodevelopmental traits, such as intellectual
abilities/academic achievement [7–10] and childhood

conduct problems [6,7], are due to family background
factors, not the teratogenic effects of SDP. As such, the
findings suggest that the underlying causal mechanisms
related to SDP depend upon the specific trait being
studied. Very few sibling comparison studies, however,
have explored ACDP [11].

The Children of Twins (CoT) design, an extension of
the cousin comparison design that accounts for environ-
mental factors that influence all family members in an
extended family, and genetic factors passed down from
the twin parent [12–14], can also be used to study pre-
natal risks. A CoT study found an independent associa-
tion between SDP and offspring birth weight [13],
providing converging evidence with sibling-comparison
studies. There are two extant CoT studies of ACDP; they
do not, however, provide consistent results concerning
the association between ACDP and offspring attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder [15,16].

Researchers are also incorporating numerous quasi-
experimental approaches into studies to test simulta-
neously alternative causal processes and account for
limitations/assumptions inherent in each. For example, a
comparison of differentially exposed full siblings, half-
siblings, full cousins (offspring of full siblings) and half-
cousins (offspring of half-siblings) suggests that genetic
factors passed down from mothers and fathers account
for the statistical association between SDP and offspring
academic functioning [10]. I am unaware of any such
studies of ACDP.

Many different quasi-experimental (or natural ex-
periments) can be used to study ACDP (reviews in
[2,17]). In designing future studies of ACDP, researchers
should consider including multiple offspring per family,
numerous mothers (and their offspring) in extended
families, and twin families. Future studies should also
consider including adopted individuals [18], partner
drug use during pregnancy and biomarkers to use
Mendelian randomization, as recommended by Gray
et al. [1]. These designs will provide invaluable insight
into the role of ACDP, but such research requires
special resources (e.g. access to twin registries) and the
passage of considerable time to follow a sample longitu-
dinally. In the meantime, are there data sets available to
researchers with multiple siblings, cousins or offspring
of twins, which include assessments of ACDP and
offspring adjustment? Such secondary data analysis
projects frequently require the use of less than ideal
assessments of alcohol use (e.g. [11]), but the field needs
many studies, using multiple samples and designs (each
with their own strengths and weaknesses) to draw
stronger inferences regarding the putative effects of
ACDP [17].

Certainly, more animal research and family studies of
ACDP need to be completed. Given the potential role of

1278 Commentaries

© 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Society for the Study of Addiction Addiction, 104, 1274–1280

confounding variables, however, the design and imple-
mentation of new natural experiments and the use of
existing quasi-experimental studies will be crucial for our
understanding of ACDP.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to Valerie Knopik and Amber Singh for
their help preparing the text. The author is supported by
grants from NICHD (HD056354 and HD053550) and
Indiana University (Faculty Research Support Program).

Keywords Alcohol, children of twins, natural
experiments, pregnancy, quasi-experiments, sibling
comparisons.

BRIAN M. D’ONOFRIO

Indiana University Bloomington,
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences,

1101 East 10th Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
E-mail: bmdonofr@indiana.edu

References

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during pregnancy and its effects on neurodevelopment:
what is known and what remains uncertain. Addiction 104:
1270–3.

2. Knopik V. S. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and child
outcomes: real or spurious effect? Dev Neuropsychol 2009;
34: 1–36.

3. Rodgers J. L., Cleveland H., van den Oord E., Rowe D. Resolv-
ing the debate over birth order, family size, and intelligence.
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4. Lahey B. B., D’Onofrio B. M., Waldman I. D. Using epidemio-
logic methods to test hypotheses regarding causal influences
on child and adolescent mental disorders. J Child Psychol
Psychiatry 2009; 50: 53–62.

5. Cnattingius S. The epidemiology of smoking during preg-
nancy: smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics, and
pregnancy outcomes. Nicotine Tob Res 2004; 6: S125–40.

6. D’Onofrio B. M., Van Hulle C. A., Waldman I. D., Rodgers J.
L., Harden K. P., Rathouz P. J. et al. Smoking during preg-
nancy and offspring externalizing problems: an exploration
of genetic and environmental confounds. Dev Psychopathol
2008; 20: 139–64.

7. Gilman S. E., Gardener H., Buka S. L. Maternal smoking
during pregnancy and children’s cognitive and physical
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8. Lundberg F., Cnattingius S., D’Onofrio B., Altman D., Lambe
M., Hultman C. et al. Maternal smoking during pregnancy
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9. Lambe M., Hultman C., Torrang A., MacCabe J., Cnattingius
S. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and school perfor-
mance at age 15. Epidemiology 2006; 17: 524–30.

10. D’Onofrio B. M., Singh A. L., Iliadou A., Lambe M., Hultman
C., Neiderhiser J. M. et al. A quasi-experimental study of
maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring aca-
demic achievement. Child Dev 2009; in press.

11. D’Onofrio B. M., Van Hulle C. A., Waldman I. D., Rodgers J.
L., Rathouz P. J., Lahey B. B. Causal inferences regarding
prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing
problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1296–304.

12. Silberg J. L., Eaves L. J. Analyzing the contribution of genes
and parent–child interaction to childhood behavioral and
emotional problems: a model for the children of twins.
Psychol Med 2004; 34: 347–56.

13. D’Onofrio B. M., Turkheimer E., Eaves L. J., Corey L. A., Berg
K., Solaas M. H. et al. The role of the Children of Twins
design in elucidating causal relations between parent char-
acteristics and child outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry
2003; 44: 1130–44.

14. Heath A. C., Kendler K. S., Eaves L. J., Markell D. The
resolution of cultural and biological inheritance: informa-
tiveness of different relationships. Behav Genet 1985; 15:
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15. Knopik V. S., Heath A. C., Jacob T., Slutske W. S., Bucholz K.
K., Madden P. A. F. et al. Maternal alcoholism and offspring
ADHD: disentangling genetic and environmental effects
using a children-of-twins design. Psychol Med 2006; 2006:
1461–71.

16. Knopik V. S., Jacob T., Haber J. R., Swenson L. P., Howell D. N.
Paternal alcoholism and offspring ADHD problems: the chil-
dren of twins design. Twin Res Hum Genet 2009; 12: 53–62.

17. Rutter M., Pickles A., Murray R., Eaves L. J. Testing hypoth-
eses on specific environmental causal effects on behavior.
Psychol Bull 2001; 127: 291–324.

18. Neiderhiser J. M., Leve L. D., Ge X., Scaramella L. V., Conger
R. D., Reid J. B. et al. The impact of prenatal drug exposure
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780.

add_2634 1279..••

NEURODEVELOPMENT AND PRENATAL
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

We are grateful for this opportunity to respond to the
commentaries on our paper [1]. While there is general
agreement on making more use of natural experiments
to draw causal inference there is also a concern that two
of the main problems, misclassification of exposure and
confounding, may continue to pose problems and should
be addressed. We agree fully with this assessment. More-
over, it was, in part, to deal with these problems that we
suggested the natural experiment approach.

While the issue of accurate measurement and classi-
fication of alcohol consumption during pregnancy is
important, we do not agree with O’Leary & Bower’s sug-
gestion that we need to improve this before going on to
develop new research designs [2]. Rather, we would see
these aims as complementary. Furthermore, given the
social undesirability of drinking during pregnancy in
many countries and the difficulties in accurate appraisal
and recall of quantity, frequency and timing of drinking
behaviour by self-report, we doubt that this problem
could be eliminated, although the use of more consistent
methods for classifying maternal alcohol consumption
throughout pregnancy may improve matters.

Commentaries 1279

© 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Society for the Study of Addiction Addiction, 104, 1274–1280

mailto:bmdonofr@indiana.edu

References

Das, O., & Ramakrishna, S. (2020). Education and Research during Pandemics: Illustrated by the Example of Experimental Biocomposites Research. POLYMERS, 12(8). https://doi-org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.3390/polym12081848

D’Onofrio, B. M. (2009). The need for more quasi-experimental studies of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Addiction, 104(8), 1278–1279.

https://doi-org.lopes.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02631.x

Frye, D. (2020, September-October). Memory Mishaps. Psychology Today, 53(5), 5. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A634532163/PPNU?u=canyonuniv&sid=PPNU&xid=940883cc