1. Describe the purpose of the article and the major points made by the author(s).
2. Describe your reaction(s) to reading this article. Do you agree/disagree with the major points made by the author(s)? Why/why not?
3. Discuss the significance of the article for working with children with disabilities and their families.
4. Discuss the implications of this article for educators/other professionals who work with culturally diverse children with disabilities.
5. Describe the educational practices/instructional strategies/recommendations that the author(s) identified and that you believe will be effective in working with a diverse student population.

The article is attached. Must be 2 full written pages with an additional page for references. 

 

372 CounCil for ExCEptional ChildrEn

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From Frazzled to
Focused

Supporting Students With

Executive Function

Deficits

Corinne Gist

Executive Function

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F0040059919836990&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-04-10

TEACHING ExCEptional ChildrEn | May/JunE 2019 373

Ms. Miller is an experienced special
education teacher at Huntley Middle
School. This year, she has several
students on her caseload demonstrating
difficulties that she did not notice
during her first year of teaching.
Students are losing assignments,
turning in homework late, missing
scheduled practices, and continuing to
exhibit ineffective problem-solving
strategies, even after receiving feedback.
Verbal reminders and loss of points on
late assignments have not been
effective. Ms. Miller is at a loss for how
to help these students.

The struggles these students are
experiencing are not unique to Ms.
Miller’s classroom. Special and general
education teachers experience similar
challenges on a daily basis. As any
teacher will tell you, reminders and
lectures to stay focused or to apply
oneself are not enough for many
children who have deficits in their
executive functioning skills. Executive
functions are often referred to as the
chief operating system of the brain.
Currently, there is no one agreed-upon
definition for the term executive
functions, but it is most often used as
an umbrella term for a set of processes
or subskills needed for higher-level
cognitive functioning (Suchy, 2009).
Executive function subskills include
task initiation, sustained attention,
working memory, and inhibition. These
skills are often referred to as self-
discipline or self-control by the general
public. Additionally, executive
functions are related to subskills
necessary for higher-order thinking
skills, such as planning, organizing,
goal setting, and problem solving. All
of these skills develop most rapidly
during the preschool years but
continue to develop during adolescence
and beyond (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012).
Students with diagnoses of autism
spectrum disorder (ASD), emotional
and behavioral disorders, specific
learning disabilities (LD), and attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
commonly demonstrate deficits in
executive function skills (Cole, Usher,
& Cargo, 1993; Martinussen & Tannock,
2006; Mattison & Mayes, 2012). In fact,

Barkley (2012), a leading expert on
ADHD, states that, at its base, ADHD is
an executive functioning disorder.

Deficits in executive functions can
lead to many difficulties for students
with disabilities. Research has shown a
strong correlation between deficits in
executive functions and deficits in
academic performance and social-
emotional functioning (e.g., Best, Miller,
& Naglieri, 2011; Clark, Prior, & Kinsella,
2002). In addition, results of a
longitudinal study reported that a
self-control assessment given to children
3 to 11 years old predicted physical
health, substance dependence,
socioeconomic status, and the likelihood
of a criminal conviction by age 32, even
after controlling for social class of origin
and IQ score (Moffitt et al., 2011).
Deficits in self-control were correlated
with poorer outcomes later in life.
Difficulty with impulsivity, problem
solving, and planning also affect an
individual’s ability to make and
maintain friendships (Diamantopoulou,
Rydell, Thorell, & Bohlin, 2007). With
executive function skills affecting so

many aspects of a student’s life, it is
important for teachers to find ways to
mediate these deficits in the classroom.

With state testing requirements,
response to intervention (RTI), and
positive behavior interventions and
supports (PBIS), teachers have more
responsibilities than ever before.
Adding one more skill set for teachers
to address may seem overwhelming;
however, deficits in executive function
skills are often related to academic and
behavior problems that lead to
referrals to the RTI or PBIS team.
Improving executive function skills
also increases students’ abilities to
perform academic, social, and daily
living tasks and decreases off-task and
challenging behaviors (Best et al., 2011;
Clark et al., 2002). Executive function
skills can also be addressed on a

student’s individualized education
program. Data can be collected in the
same manner as data are collected on
academic goals. If students are able to
plan, organize, stay on task, and
problem solve, they may not need
additional interventions that would
otherwise be required.

Ms. Miller attended a teacher
preparation program that was known
for its strong application of applied
behavior analysis and prides herself on
her ability to apply behavioral
principles in her classroom. She runs a
well-structured classroom that includes
clear behavioral expectations, classwide
and individual reinforcement systems,
and individual supports for challenging
behaviors. Despite the structure Ms.
Miller provides for her students, she is
frustrated by her inability to help
students with executive function
deficits to stay organized, manage their
time, and problem solve in their daily
lives.

For example, one of Ms. Miller’s
students, Samantha, has difficulty
bringing the correct materials to math

class. She will often show up to class
without her calculator, protractor, or
graph paper. Samantha always appears
embarrassed and apologizes for
forgetting her materials, but her
behavior has not changed. Ms. Miller
allows Samantha to retrieve her items
from her locker, but, in turn, Samantha
misses the first 5 minutes of instruction.
After speaking with Samantha’s other
teachers, Ms. Miller learns that this a
common problem for Samantha. She is
also forgetting to bring her textbook,
homework, and materials to her
English, social studies, and physical
education (PE) classes. Samantha’s
grades are suffering due to her difficulty
with staying organized. She is failing
PE because she often forgets her gym
clothes at home or leaves them in her
locker.

Improving executive function skills also increases
students’ abilities to perform academic, social,
and daily living tasks and decreases off-task and
challenging behaviors.

374 CounCil for ExCEptional ChildrEn

Fortunately for Ms. Miller, she
already has the tools needed to help
Samantha and her other students
struggling with similar difficulties. The
behavioral principles she uses to
prevent and address challenging
behavior can also be applied to assist
students with executive function
deficits.

How Do I Teach Executive
Functioning Skills Using
Behavioral Principles?

From the behavioral perspective,
executive function skills involve
selecting, monitoring, and revising
behavioral strategies. These strategies
are then used to develop (and revise)
an appropriate plan (Borkowski &
Muthukrishna, 1992, as cited in Hayes,
Gifford, & Ruckstuhl, 1996). Executive
function skills allow students to (a) set
goals and engage in behaviors that lead
to achieving those goals, (b) engage in
behaviors that are consistent with the
chosen goals and avoid behaviors that
are not, and (c) self-evaluate behavior
and change course if the plan is not
leading to the desired outcome. All of
these behaviors are observable and
measurable and can be taught using
behavioral strategies.

Step 1: Define the Behavior

Before beginning the process of
teaching new skills, teachers must first
determine what it is they want to
teach—they must define the target
behavior. Defining the target behavior
simply means stating what the student
should do and describing the behavior
in observable and measurable terms.
For example, stating that Samantha
needs to be more organized is not an
observable or measurable statement.
What does it mean to be organized?
How can her teacher measure it? What
is meant by more? Instead of saying,
“Be more organized,” Samantha’s
teacher could state, “Samantha will
bring all her materials to class.” Her
teacher can create a list of the
materials needed and observe and
measure how often Samantha brings
those materials to class.

Step 2: Provide

Reinforcement

One of the most important steps in
teaching a new behavior is providing
reinforcement. Reinforcement involves
adding or subtracting something from
the environment immediately after a
behavior that increases future
frequency of the behavior under similar
circumstances (Cooper, Heron, &
Heward, 2007). Therefore, if the
reinforcer does not increase the
student’s behavior, it is not a reinforcer
for that student. It is crucial that
reinforcers are individualized for each
student—what is reinforcing for one
student may not be for another. For
example, Amber’s behavior may be
reinforced by social praise, whereas
Russell’s behavior may be reinforced
by extra opportunities to play on the
computer. In addition, reinforcers may
change over time, especially for
younger students and students with
short attention spans. It is important to
collect data on each student’s behavior
and adjust the reinforcers as needed.

Ms. Miller and Samantha discuss
reinforcer options and decide that
Samantha will earn buckeye bucks to
spend at the school store. Samantha
will have the opportunity to shop at the
school store on Fridays. Ms. Miller
knows that for some students, it may be
best to make the exchange period
(when the students can spend their
money) indiscriminable. In other
words, students do not know which day
of the week they will get to visit the
school store. This approach is best for
students who may engage in the desired
behaviors only toward the end of the
week or right before they are able to

cash in for the terminal reinforcer.
Samantha is able to wait until Friday to
shop at the store. In addition, her
behavior is also reinforced by the
positive praise she receives when she
earns the buckeye bucks.

Step 3: Create a Task Analysis

After the target behavior is defined, the
teacher can begin teaching the new
behavior. The first step is to analyze
the behavior by creating a task
analysis. A task analysis involves
breaking down complex or multistep
skills into smaller, easier-to-learn
subtasks (Heward, Alber-Morgan, &
Konrad, 2017). The number of steps
required will be determined by each
student’s individual needs and skill set.

Task analysis can be used to teach a
variety of skills, from cleaning tables
(R. Smith, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert,
1999) to training teachers to teach
literature (Browder, Trela, & Jimenez,
2007). For example, Bryan and Gast
(2000) taught students with high-
functioning autism on-task and
on-schedule behaviors using a task
analysis and picture schedule system.

Figure 1 provides an example of a
task analysis that could be used to teach
Samantha to bring her materials to
class. This task analysis was designed
specifically for Samantha and may need
to change if used with another student.
For example, a teacher may add
additional steps, combine steps, or
exclude steps that are not needed.

Step 4: Create a Chaining Plan

Once the task analysis is complete,
chaining can be used to teach the new

Figure 1. Task analysis for Samantha

Task: Samantha will bring her materials to class.

1. Go to locker after each period.

2. Take out checklist of needed materials for your next class (hung on locker
door with magnetic clip).

3. Check off each item on checklist as you put them into your book bag.

4. Put checklist back on top shelf of locker and close locker.

5. Walk directly to class with bookbag and materials.

TEACHING ExCEptional ChildrEn | May/JunE 2019 375

set of behaviors. Chaining involves
individually teaching each step of the
task analysis to create a chain or set of
behaviors and has been used to teach
functional and academic skills to
individuals of all ages (Purrazzella &
Mechling, 2013; Rao & Kane, 2009; Test,
Spooner, Keul, & Grossi, 1990). Most, if
not all, higher-order thinking skills
involve multiple steps and, therefore,
will probably be taught using a chaining
procedure. Chaining can be useful for
students who do not know how to
complete some steps, miss or skip steps,
or complete some steps incorrectly.
There are three types of chaining
procedures that are commonly used: (a)
forward chaining, (b) backward
chaining, and (c) total task chaining
(Cooper et al., 2007). In forward
chaining, the student is required to

complete only the first step in the chain
before earning a reinforcer (e.g., prize,
reward, praise). Once the first step is
mastered, the student is required to
complete the first and second steps in
order to earn the reinforcer. This pattern
continues until the student has
completed the entire chain.

Backward chaining follows a similar
process; however, the teacher begins
with having the student complete only
the last step in the chain in order to
earn the reinforcer. Once the student
has mastered the last step, he or she is
required to complete the last two steps
in the chain to earn the reinforcer, and
so on. Last, total task chaining involves
working on the entire chain from the
start—the student receives training on
each behavior in the chain during each
session.

There are a few points for teachers
to consider when deciding which
chaining method is best for their
student (see Slocum & Tiger, 2011, for
an experimental comparison of forward
and backward chaining). First, if the
student can already complete the first
couple steps in the chain, the teacher
may want to begin with forward
chaining. For instance, if a student
completes the first few steps of the
classroom morning routine (e.g., hang
up coat, take lunch out of book bag,
hang up book bag) but consistently
forgets to take homework out of the
book bag and turn it in, the teacher
may want to begin with forward
chaining. However, if the last step must
be completed, for example, in
Samantha’s case (she must bring all
her materials to class), the teacher may
want to use backward chaining
(Najdowski, 2017). The student is
responsible for independently
completing only the last step, and the
teacher can prompt or assist the
student through the beginning of the
chain.

Last, total task chaining is best for
students who have the skills needed to
complete the entire behavior chain but
require additional motivation to do so.
For example, total task chaining may be
used with a high school student who
has the ability to fill out a planner every
day but needs some extra motivation (or
reinforcement) to do so.

Total

chaining
is not the best option for students who
are easily frustrated with long tasks
(Najdowski, 2017). See Figure 2 for a
summary of chaining options.

Ms. Miller sits down with her team
to create a plan to assist Samantha
with bringing her materials to class.
The plan includes the use of chaining,
prompting, reinforcement, fading
prompts, and self-management
strategies.

The first component involves
teaching Samantha the behavior chain
described in the task analysis in Figure
1. Ms. Miller’s teaching assistant, Ms.
Gebhardt, will walk Samantha through
Steps A, B, C, and D. In order to earn
the reinforcer, Samantha is responsible
only for independently walking to class

Figure 2. Forward, backward, and total task chaining

376 CounCil for ExCEptional ChildrEn

with her materials (Step D). After she
reaches some set criteria for
independently completing Step D (e.g.,
independently walks to class with
materials for 3 consecutive days), she
will be required to put her checklist
away (Step C) and walk to class with
her materials (Step D) to earn the
reinforcer.

Step 5: Select Prompts

Once the task analysis is complete and
the chaining procedure has been
selected, the teacher must determine
what types of prompts the student will
need in order to engage in the
behavior. Prompting involves providing
some type of assistance in order to
evoke a target behavior. For instance, if
the teacher asks the entire class to line
up and one student does not do so, the
additional verbal direction or gesture
given to that student is a prompt. As
with the other steps, the number and
types of prompts required will be
individualized for each student. Using
prompts in the classroom is a
successful strategy for assisting
students with LD, autism, and other
disabilities (Garfinkle, & Schwartz,
2002; Moore, Anderson, Glassenbury,
Lang, & Didden, 2013; Rouse, Alber-
Morgan, Cullen, & Sawyer, 2014).

Figure 3 provides examples of prompts
for a target behavior.

Ms. Miller has decided that Ms.
Gebhardt will use verbal and visual
prompts to assist Samantha in learning
to bring her materials to class. Ms.
Miller and Samantha will create a list
of the steps Samantha must follow to
assure she brings her materials to class
(i.e., task analysis). Additionally, they
will create lists of the materials she
needs for each class. These lists will be
posted in her locker. Last, Ms. Gebhardt
will meet Samantha at her locker and
provide verbal prompts as she learns
each step in the behavioral chain. Ms.
Gebhardt’s assistance will be faded as
Samantha becomes more independent.

Step 6: Create a System for Data
Collection

In addition to consistently providing
reinforcement, data must be collected
when teaching a new skill. Collecting
and analyzing data is the only way to
determine if the student is learning the
new skill. Data also help in making
decisions regarding when to add or
fade prompts, change the teaching
method (e.g., forward chaining vs. total
task chaining), or begin teaching a new
skill. Including the student in the data

collection and analysis can add extra
motivation for the student. Most
students enjoy seeing their progress in
graph form.

The task analysis created for
Samantha will also serve as the data
collection form (see Figure 4) Ms.
Gebhardt will use to collect data on
Samantha’s progress. Ms. Gebhardt will
circle the type of prompt needed for
each step in the chain. For example, if
Samantha forgets to walk to her locker
after class and needs a verbal prompt to
do so, Ms. Gebhardt will circle the V for
verbal prompt. If Samantha requires
only a gestural prompt for the next step,
Ms. Gebhardt will circle the G. Last, if
Samantha is able to complete a step
without any prompts, Ms. Gebhardt will
circle the I to indicate Samantha
completed the step independently. Once
Samantha has independently completed
the determined step(s) for 3 consecutive
days, the next step will be added to the
chain.

Step 7: Prevent Prompt
Dependency (Fading and
Self-Management)

The ultimate goal of teaching any
skill, whether it be academic, social,
or related to executive functions, is to

Figure 3. Example of prompts that may be used when teaching a new skill

Target: Complete morning routine.
1. Hang up backpack.
2. Put lunch in bin.
3. Take out bell work, notebook, and pencil.

Prompt Type Definition Examples

Verbal Involves spoken or written words for
hints, cues, reminders

“Sheri, please take out your morning routine checklist.
Remember, your first step is to hang up your book bag.”

Visual Visual cue or reminder of desired
behavior

Sheri has a checklist on her desk that contains words
and/or pictures that represent each step in the chain.

Gestural Pointing or moving eye gaze towards
the item

The teacher points to the checklist to show Sheri which
step is next.

Modeling Demonstrating the behavior for the
student

The teacher hangs up Sheri’s book bag and then has
Sheri hang up the book bag herself.

Additional Auditory/
Tactile Prompts

Devices that can prompt the start of
a behavior or shorten/lengthen the
duration of a behavior

The teacher sets a timer and vibrating device (e.g.,
MotivAider®) and has Sheri complete all the steps before
the timer goes off.

TEACHING ExCEptional ChildrEn | May/JunE 2019 377

have the student be able to complete
the task independently. Many times,
the steps are put into place, but
teachers forget to slowly fade the
prompts and thin the schedule of
reinforcement. Fading prompts
involves decreasing the number of
prompts given for a particular step or
set of steps. If prompts are withdrawn
too quickly, the student may regress in
his or her progress; however, if
prompts are not faded at all, the
student may become prompt
dependent and demonstrate the target
behaviors only when prompted.
Thinning the reinforcement schedule
means increasing the requirements for
receiving reinforcement. For example,
initially Samantha may earn a buckeye
buck for every class period she brings
her needed materials. The teacher
could thin her reinforcement schedule
by requiring her to bring her materials
to all of her classes in order to earn
the buckeye buck. The decision to
fade prompts and thin reinforcement
should be made based on the
student’s data.

As prompts are faded, teachers
should work with the student to create
a self-management plan. Self-
management is defined as “the
personal application of behavior
change tactics that produces a desired

change in behavior” (Cooper et al.,
2007, p. 578). Self-management is often
used as a blanket term to cover a group
of behaviors including self-monitoring
(self-recording), self-evaluation, and
self-delivered reinforcement (Cooper
et al., 2007). Self-management
interventions can improve an
individual’s awareness of his or her
behavior, minimize the need for
external supports, and increase
maintenance and generalization of
behavior change (Cooper et al., 2007).
It is important to transfer the
responsibility of prompting and
reinforcing the behavior to the student,
as the student is the only one who is
always present when the behavior is
exhibited. In addition, learning
self-management skills will increase
independence and reduce reliance on
the teacher. A recent meta-analysis
(Lee, Simpson, & Shogren, 2007) found
that self-management interventions for
individuals with ASD successfully
increased appropriate behaviors across
several domains (e.g., problem
behavior, academic performance, daily
living skills). Additional research has
found similar results for students with
ADHD, LD, and emotional and
behavioral difficulties (Alsalamah,
2017; for a review, see Briesch, &
Briesch, 2016). For easy-to-use

self-management strategies, see Joseph
and Konrad (2009).

Once Samantha independently
completes the entire behavior chain, the
verbal prompts from her teacher will be
faded. Samantha will keep the list of
materials for each class in her locker
and independently use them when
needed. Additionally, Samantha will
need to bring all of her needed
materials to class in order to earn her
buckeye buck. As Samantha increases
her independence, the number of
consecutive days she is required to bring
her materials in order to earn the
buckeye buck will gradually increase.

Ms. Miller has helped Samantha and
her other students strengthen their
executive functioning skills by applying
behavioral procedures. She is confident
her students have learned the skills
needed to successfully transition into
high school. Ms. Miller’s students will
use their self-management plans to stay
organized, set goals, and problem solve
for years to come.

Putting It All Together

The steps for teaching executive
function skills are versatile—they can
be used to teach of range of skills to a
range of students. Here is an example

Figure 4. Data sheet for Samantha

Week of: Day:

Step Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Notes

Go to locker after class.

I G V I G V I G V I G V I G V

Take out checklist of
materials for your next class.

I G V I G V I G V I G V I G V

Check off each item on
checklist as you put them
into your book bag.

I G V I G V I G V I G V I G V

Hang checklist back on door
and close locker.

I G V I G V I G V I G V I G V

Walk directly to class. I G V I G V I G V I G V I G V

Total

I_____
G____
V____

I_____
G____
V____
I_____
G____
V____
I_____
G____
V____
I_____
G____
V____

Prompt Key: I: Independent G: Gesture V: Verbal

378 CounCil for ExCEptional ChildrEn

of how to put all the steps together.
This scenario follows Nathan, a student
who is struggling with staying
organized and managing his time, as
he works with his guidance counselor
to develop a plan.

Nathan is an 11th grader who is
involved in many activities at school.
He is on the soccer team and hopes to
receive a scholarship to play soccer in
college. Nathan’s school counselor
advised him to become involved in
other school activities to increase his
chances of receiving a college
scholarship. This school year, Nathan
has joined the yearbook club, is active
in the gaming club, and volunteers at
the local food bank. In addition to these
activities, he receives academic tutoring
three times a week. Over the past
semester, Nathan has started missing
practices, meetings, and assignments.
Nathan and his teachers agree that he
needs to create a plan to assist him in
managing all of his responsibilities.

1. Define the target behavior. Nathan
will complete his planner checklist
at the end of each school day.
Although Nathan may have more to
work on than just writing in his

planner, this skill is currently the
top priority. Nathan admits that he
cannot remember when his
assignments are due, the dates of
his club meetings, or what time he
has practice. Completing his planner
each day will allow him to keep
track of all of his responsibilities.
Once he has mastered this skill, the
team can create a plan to work on
related skills.

2. Determine reinforcement plan. Mr.
James, Nathan’s guidance
counselor, will provide verbal praise
when Nathan independently
completes steps on his checklist.
Additionally, Nathan will receive
naturally occurring social
reinforcement from his coaches and
teachers when he decreases the
number of missing assignments and
practices. Additional tangible
reinforcement (e.g., snacks, school
store bucks, gift cards) can be added
if needed.

3. Create a task analysis (planner
checklist). Nathan and Mr. James
create a planner checklist for
Nathan to complete each day (see
Figure 5). Mr. James knows that if
Nathan writes down his meetings,
practices, and assignments, he will

be more likely to remember them
and, in turn, attend and complete
them. Nathan is responsible for
deciding which details he needs to
record for each activity (e.g., time of
event, materials needed, length of
activity).

4. Decide on a chaining plan. Mr.
James determines that total task
chaining will be used to assist
Nathan with completing this
checklist. Nathan has the skills to
complete each step but requires
additional prompts to write in his
planner each day.

5. Select a prompting procedure.
When the plan is first implemented,
Mr. James will sit with Nathan at
the end of each school day to
complete his checklist. Mr. James
will provide verbal prompts only for
the steps that Nathan does not
complete on his own. Verbal
prompts may include information
on the activity (e.g., due date,
practice start time) or reminding
him where to look for certain
information. For example, if Nathan
does not have any after-school
activities listed, Mr. James may tell
Nathan to check his e-mail for his
volunteer schedule or to check his

Figure 5. Checklist for Nathan

Directions: Complete the checklist at the end of each school day. Mark yes if the step is complete; mark no if
the step is not complete or if Nathan needs prompts to complete the step. Total the yes and no responses at the

bottom of the checklist.

Task Yes No

1. Each academic subject is listed for today and tomorrow

2. Each subject has an assignment listed and includes the following information

a. The name of the assignment

b. The due date of the assignment

c. The estimated amount of time needed to spend on the assignment each night

3. Completed assignments are crossed off

4. After-school activities are listed and include the following information

a. The time of the activity

b. The location of the activity

c. Supplies and equipment needed

Total

TEACHING ExCEptional ChildrEn | May/JunE 2019 379

soccer team’s web site for his
practice and game schedule.

6. Collect data. Data will be collected
using the task analysis/checklist in
Figure 5. Each day, Mr. James and
Nathan will count the number of
responses of yes and no and graph
the totals. If either total stays
stagnant or moves opposite of the
desired direction, additional
interventions (e.g., additional
prompts or reinforcement) will be
introduced.

7. Fade prompts and develop self-
management plan. When Nathan
has completed all the steps on the
checklist, without prompts, for 3
consecutive days, Mr. James and

Nathan will decrease their meetings
from 5 to 4 days each week. The
number of meetings a week will
continue to decrease until Nathan is
able to independently complete the
checklist.

When Nathan becomes independent
with the checklist, the team may want to
create a new plan to assist Nathan in
managing his time. This plan could
include creating a daily schedule that
specifically indicates the time of day and
duration of time Nathan will spend on
each activity. For additional information
on teaching time management skills, see
the resources listed for Teaching
Executive Functions in Figure 6.

Conclusion
When students struggle with executive
function skills in the classroom, it
affects all aspects of their learning.
Fortunately, teachers can use behavioral
principles to teach their students the
skills they need to be successful. When
target behaviors are clearly defined, a
task analysis is created, appropriate
reinforcers are selected and delivered, a
chaining plan and prompt procedures
are put in place, data are collected, and
responsibility for implementing the plan
is slowly transferred to the student,
independence can be achieved. By
following the steps outlined in this
article, teachers can teach their students
to independently organize, plan, and

Figure 6. Additional resources

Topic Resource Description

Reinforcement

Perle, J. G. (2016). Teacher-provided positive attending to
improve student behavior. TEACHING Exceptional Children,
48, 250-257.

A practitioner paper with practical
strategies for implementing positive
attending in the classroom

Smith, K. (2016, December 2). Positive reinforcement in
the classroom: Tips for teachers. Retrieved from https://
cehdvision2020.umn.edu/blog/positive-reinforcement-
teacher-tips/

A teacher tip sheet for implementing
positive reinforcement in the classroom

National Center on Intensive Intervention (February, 2016).
Reinforcement strategies. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Education, Office of Special Education Programs,
National Center on Intensive Intervention. Retrieved from
https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/
Reinforcement_Strategies_508

A tip sheet describing positive
reinforcement strategies

Self-
management

Joseph, L. M., & Konrad, M. (2009). Have students self-
manage their academic performance. Intervention in Schools
and Clinic, 44, 246-249.

A practitioner paper with 10 easy to use
self-management tools

Schulze, M.A. (2016). Self-management strategies to support
students with ASD. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 48,
225-231.

A practitioner paper with strategies for
implementing self-management with
students with ASD.

Teaching
Executive
Functions

Najdowski, (2017) A. C. Flexible and focused: Teaching
Executive Function Skills to Individuals With Autism And
Attention Disorders

A manual that includes ready-to-
implement lessons for executive
functioning skills

Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2009) Smart But Scattered: The
Revolutionary “Executive Skills” Approach to Helping Kids
Reach Their Potential

A book that provides information on
identifying, assessing and teaching
executive function skills to children

https://cehdvision2020.umn.edu/blog/positive-reinforcement-teacher-tips/

https://cehdvision2020.umn.edu/blog/positive-reinforcement-teacher-tips/

https://cehdvision2020.umn.edu/blog/positive-reinforcement-teacher-tips/

https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/Reinforcement_Strategies_508

https://intensiveintervention.org/sites/default/files/Reinforcement_Strategies_508

380 CounCil for ExCEptional ChildrEn

manage their time. Mastering these
skills will allow students to succeed in
school and life.

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Corinne Gist, doctoral candidate,
Department of Special Education, The Ohio
State University, Columbus.

Address correspondence concerning this article
to Corinne Gist, The Ohio State University,
305 Annie and John Glen Ave, Columbus, OH
43201 (e-mail: gist.22@osu.edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children,
Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 372–381.
Copyright 2019 The Author(s).

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