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Chapter 17

Properties and Applications of Ruthenium

Anil K. Sahu, Deepak K. Dash, Koushlesh Mishra,
Saraswati P. Mishra, Rajni Yadav and
Pankaj Kashyap

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76393

Provisional chapter

Properties and Applications of Ruthenium
Anil K. Sahu, Deepak K. Dash, Koushlesh Mishra,
Saraswati P. Mishra, Rajni Yadav and
Pankaj Kashyap
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Abstract

Ruthenium (Ru) with atomic number of 44 is one of the platinum group metals, the others
being Rh, Pd, Os, Ir and Pt. In earth’s crust, it is quite rare, found in parts per billion
quantities, in ores containing some of the other platinum group metals. Ruthenium is silvery
whitish, lustrous hard metal with a shiny surface. It has seven stable isotopes. Recently,
coordination and organometallic chemistry of Ru has shown remarkable growth. In this
chapter, we review the application of Ru in diverse fields along with its physical and
chemical properties. In the applications part of Ru we have primarily focused on the
biomedical applications. The biomedical applications are broadly divided into diagnostic
and treatment aspects. Ru and their complexes are mainly used in determination of ferritin,
calcitonin and cyclosporine and folate level in human body for diagnosis of diseases. Treat-
ment aspects focuses on immunosuppressant, antimicrobial and anticancer activity.

Keywords: ruthenium, platinum group, biomedical application, rare element, cancer,
isotopes

1. Discovery of ruthenium

Ruthenium is one of the 118 chemical elements given in the periodic table. Out of these 118
elements, 92 elements originated from natural sources and remaining 26 elements have been
synthesized in laboratories [1, 2]. The last naturally occurring element to be discovered was
Uranium in 1789 [1, 3]. Technetium was the first man-made element to be synthesized in the
year 1937 [2]. Recently in the year 2016, four of the man-made elements were included in
periodic table. The four newly added elements goes by the name nihonium (Nh), moscovium
(Mc), tennessine (Ts), and oganesson (Og), respectively for element 113, 115, 117 and 118 [4].

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons

Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76393

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Discovery of Ruthenium had many twist and turns. A polish Chemist Jedrzej Sniadecki
(1768–1838) in 1808 was first to announce the discovery of an element which he named
Vestium after an asteroid called Vesta [3]. However, none of the contemporary Chemists
were able to confirm his discovery. Later he again reported discovery of element 44 while
working on the platinum ores from South America and published his results but again none
of the fellow chemist were able to confirm the element 44 [4]. Due to repeated failures of his
claim, Sniadecki got depressed and dropped the idea of further research on this element [1,
5]. After 20 years, a Russian chemist, Gottfried W. Osann, claimed the discovery of element
44. His discovery had the same fate as that of Sniadecki as none of his fellow chemist could
repeat his results [5].

At last in the year 1844, another Russian chemist Carl Ernst Claus [also known in Russian as
Karl Karlovich Klaus (1796–1864)] tried his luck on discovery of element 44. He succeeded in it
as he gave positive proof about the new element extracted from platinum ores obtained from
the Ural Mountains in Russia [6]. Claus had suggested the name of newly discovered element
as Ruthenium after the name Ruthenia which was the ancient name of Russia. Earlier Osann
had also suggested the same name for the element 44 [2, 5]. Ruthenium with atomic number 44
was given the symbol Ru. It is included in group 8, period 5 and block d in modern periodic
table and it is a member of the platinum group metals [5].

2. Occurrence in nature

Like other platinum group metals, Ruthenium is also one of the rare metals in the earth’s crust.
It is quite rare in that it is found as about 0.0004 parts per million of earth crust [6]. This fraction
of abundance makes it sixth rarest metal in earth crust. As other platinum group metals, it is
obtained from platinum ores [7]. For instance, it is also obtained by purification process of a
mineral called osmiridium [5].

3. Electronic configuration of Ru

In the modern periodic table, group 8 consists of four chemical elements. These elements are
Iron (Fe), Ruthenium (Ru), Osmium (Os) and Hassium (Hs) [7]. Ruthenium has atomic
number of 44, that is, it contains 44 electrons distributed in atomic orbitals and its nucleus
has 44 protons and 57 neutrons (Figure 1). Electron distribution in atomic or molecular
orbitals is called electron configuration which for Ru and the other group 8 chemical ele-
ments is shown in Table 1. Except for Ru, the electron configuration of group 8 elements
shows two electrons in their outer most shell; Ruthenium has only one electron in its
outermost shell. This tendency is quite similar to its neighboring metals such as niobium
(Nb), molybdenum (Mo) and rhodium (Rh) [8].

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications378

4. Isotopes of Ru

Any atom having same number of protons, but different number of neutrons is termed as an
Isotope. Isotopes can be differentiated on the basis of mass number as each isotope consists of
different mass number which is being written on the right of the element name [1, 7]. Mass
number indicates sum total of proton and neutron present in the nucleus of atom [9]. Ruthe-
nium has many isotopes although only seven of them are stable. Apart from seven stable
isotopes, 34 radioactive isotopes of Ruthenium are also found [8]. The most stable radioactive
isotopes are 106Ru, 103Ru, 97Ru having a half-life of 373.59, 39.26, 2.9 days, respectively. Other
characteristics of the main isotopes are listed in Table 2 [8].

Figure 1. Schematic of the electron configuration and nucleus of an atom of Ruthenium.

Atomic
number

Element Electron configuration Number of
electrons per shell

26 Iron (Fe) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 2,8,14,2

44 Ruthenium (Ru) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d7 2,8,18,15,1

76 Osmium (Os) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d6 2,8,18,32,14,2

108 Hassium (Hs) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d6 2,8,18,32,32,14,2

Table 1. Electron configuration of group 8 chemical elements.

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5. Physical and chemical properties of Ru

Ruthenium (Ru), Rhodium (Rh), Palladium (Pd), Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir) and Platinum (Pt)
form the Platinum group metals. Some of the fundamental properties of platinum group metals
are summarized in Table 3 [8]. Ruthenium is silvery whitish, lustrous hard metal with a shiny
surface. At room temperature, Ru does not lose its luster because it is unreactive in that condition
but shows paramagnetic behavior [7]. At the higher temperature of around 800�C, Ru reacts with
oxygen and gets oxidized [11]. It also reacts with halogens at higher temperature. As far as
dissolution is concerned, Ruthenium does not dissolve in most of the acid or mixture of acids such
as aqua regia which is a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid [7, 10]. When it is reacted with
alkali it forms ruthenate ion which leads to dissolution of Ruthenium in alkalies (Eq. 1) [6].

Main isotopes of Ruthenium

S. No. Isotopes Abundance Half-life

1 96Ru 5.54% Stable with 52 neutrons

2 97Ru Synthetic 2.9 days

3 98Ru 1.87% Stable with 54 neutrons

4 99Ru 12.76% Stable with 55 neutrons

5 100Ru 12.60% Stable with 56 neutrons

6 101Ru 17.06% Stable with 57 neutrons

7 102Ru 31.55% Stable with 58 neutrons

8 103Ru Synthetic 39.26 days

9 104Ru 18.62% Stable with 60 neutrons

10 106Ru Synthetic 373.59 days

Table 2. Physical properties of platinum group elements.

Ru Rh Pd Os Ir Pt

Atomic number 44 45 46 76 77 78

Atomic weight 101.07
u � 0.02 u

102.9055
u � 0.00002 u

106.42
u � 0.01 u

190.23
u � 0.03 u

192.217
u � 0.003 u

195.084 u

Electronic
configuration

Kr 4d7 5 s1 Kr 4d8 5 s1 Kr 4d10 Xe 4f14 5d6
6 s2

Xe 4f14 5d7 6 s2 Xe 4f14 5d9
6 s1

Density(g/cc) 12.2 12.41 11.9 22.59 22.56 21.45

Melting point(�C) 2334 1963 1555 3033 2447 1768

Boiling point(�C) 4150 3697 2963 5027 4130 3825

Electronegativity 2.2 2.28 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.28

Table 3. Characteristics of main isotopes of ruthenium.

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications380

ð1Þ

6. Chemical reactivity of ruthenium

6.1. Oxidation reaction of ruthenium

As noted above, Ruthenium undergoes oxidation reaction to form Ruthenium oxide [11]. When
Ruthenium oxide undergoes further oxidation in the presence of sodium metaperiodate, Ruthe-
nium tetraoxide (RuO4) is formed (Eq. 2), with properties somewhat similar to those of OsO4, in
that both are strong oxidizing agents. However, RuO4 differs from OsO4 since it can easily
oxidize diluted form of hydrochloric acid as well as ethanol at normal room temperature [12].
At temperatures above 100�C, RuO4 get reduced to its dioxide. RuO4 also has specific stain
property which is utilized in electron microscopy to investigate organic polymer samples [11, 13].

ð2Þ

At lower oxidation states such as +2 or +3, Ru does not undergo oxidation reaction. Ruthenium
reacts with hydroxide ions to attain higher coordination number [13]. Ruthenium does not form
oxoanion readily as seen with iron. Ruthenium attains +7 oxidation states when it reacts with cold
and diluted potassium hydroxide to form potassium perruthenate [14]. Ruthenium can also attain
same oxidation state when potassium ruthenate gets oxidize in the presence of chlorine gas [9].

6.2. Coordination complexes of ruthenium

Coordination complex is the process where a center molecule makes bond with surrounding
atoms or ions which are also known as ligands. Ruthenium readily forms coordinate com-
plexes with different derivatives. It reacts with pentaamines to form different coordination
complex. Ruthenium reacts with pyridine derivatives to form tris (bipyridine) ruthenium (II)
chloride (Eq. 3) [15]. Ruthenium also reacts with carbon containing compounds. Ruthenium
forms Roper’s complex when trichloride form of Ruthenium reacts with carbon monoxide [10,
15]. Ruthenium makes hydride complex when Ruthenium trichloride is heated in presence of
alcohol which then reacts with triphenylphosphine to form chlorohydridotris (triphenyl-
phosphine) ruthenium (II) (Eq. 4) [10].

ð3Þ

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ð4Þ

6.3. Catalytic activity of ruthenium

Ruthenium acts as a catalyst in many reactions. In the olefin metathesis, the carbene and
alkylidene complex of Ruthenium act as a catalyst. In Fischer Tropsch reaction (Eq. 5),
Ruthenium also acts as a catalyst [16]. Fischer Tropsch reaction is a reaction in which liquid
hydrocarbons are formed as a product of reaction between hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Decomposition process of ammonia also employs Ru as catalyst [17]. Ru also catalyzes
group of reactions called “borrowing hydrogen reactions”. Borrowing hydrogen reaction
is a reaction where two atoms of hydrogen are transferred to the catalyst to covert alcohol to
carbonyl. The same reaction occurs in the conversion of alcohol to alkenes [5, 17].

Ruthenium carbonyl complex catalyzes the conversion of primary alcohol to aldehydes and
secondary alcohol to aldehydes and ketones in the presence of a co-oxidant N-methylmor-
pholine-N-oxide (NMO) [8]. Ruthenium acts as a unique catalyst in oxidation reaction because
of its varying oxidation state that ranges from �2 to +8 [6].

ð5Þ

7. Ruthenium complexes

In recent years, there has been remarkable growth and evaluation in the field of coordination and
organometallic chemistry of Ru. Many publications have appeared recently on the formation of
Ru-based complexes and their applications in such areas as medicine, catalysis, biology,
nanoscience, redox and photoactive materials. These developments can be related to the fact that
Ru has the unique ability to exist in multiple oxidation states. Examples of these complexes and
various applications of Ru are reviewed in the following sections.

7.1. Development of half-sandwich para-cymene ruthenium (II) naphthylazophenolato
complexes

Ruthenium (II)-arene complex has a structure of three-legged piano stool with a metal at
the center in a quasi-octahedral geometry which is occupied by byan arene complex.
2-(naphthylazo)phenolate ligands reacts with chloro-bridged (g6-p-cymene) ruthenium com-
plex [{(g6-pcymene)RuCl}2(l-Cl)2] in methanol having molar ratio 1:1 at room temperature
leads to formation of monomeric ruthenium(II) complexes. The formed complexes (Figure 2)

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications382

show the solubility in polar solvents (dichloromethane and acetone) and are insoluble in non-
polar solvents (aspentane and hexane). It is stable in air and shows diamagnetic nature with
the +2 oxidation state [6, 10].

Figure 2. Structure of (p-cymene) ruthenium (II) 2-(naphthylazo)phenolate complexes.

Figure 3. Structure of Tris (bipyridine) ruthenium (II) chloride.

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7.2. Development of functionalized polypyridine ligands for ruthenium complexes

Polypyridine are coordination complexes containing polypyridine ligands such as 2,20-
bipyridine, 1,10-phenanthroline and 2,20,60200-terpyridine. Polypyridines are multi-denated
ligands which are responsible for characteristics property of metal complex they formed.
Some of complexes show the characteristics of absorption of light by a process called
metal-to-ligands charge transfer (MLCT). This said property of metal complex is due to
the change in substituent to the polypyridine moiety. Among the polypyridine ligands for
ruthenium complexes the mostly studied complex is Tris (bipyridine) ruthenium (II) chlo-
ride (Figure 3). It is a red crystalline salt having a hexahydrate form. Tris (bipyridine)
ruthenium (II) chloride salt is prepared when aqueous solution of ruthenium trichloride
reacts with 2,20-bipyridine in the presence of reducing agent hypo-phosphorus acid. In
this reaction Ru(III) gets reduced to Ru(II) [18].

8. Applications of ruthenium

Ruthenium has a wide variety of application in diverse fields. Few of the applications of
Ruthenium are listed below.

8.1. General applications

Ruthenium finds application both in electronic industry and chemical industry. In electrical
industry it is used in manufacturing of electronic chips [19]. Chemically it is used in the form of
anodes for chlorine production in electrochemical cells [20]. Ruthenium is used as a hardener
when it is mixed with other metals to form alloy. This characteristic of ruthenium is used in the
preparation of jewelry of palladium [18, 20]. When Ruthenium forms alloy with titanium it
improves its corrosion resistant property. Ruthenium alloys also find application in manufa-
cturing of turbines of jet engines [17]. Fountain pen nibs also contain Ru tips. Ruthenium has
also application in therapy. For instance 106 isotope of Ru has application in radiotherapy of
malignant cells of eye [11]. RuO4 is used in criminal investigations as it reacts with any fat or
fatty substance having sebaceous pigments to give black or brown coloration due to formation
of ruthenium dioxide pigments [12].

Ruthenium complexes tend to absorb light rays of visible spectrum. This property of ruthe-
nium finds application in manufacturing solar cells for production of solar energy. [16] Ruthe-
nium vapor get deposited on the surface of substrate and has magneto-resistive property. This
property of Ru is used in making a layer or film on hard disk drives [12].

8.2. Biomedical applications

8.2.1. Applications in diagnosis

• Ruthenium is used for determination of calcitonin level in blood. This determination
is helpful in diagnosis and treatment of diseases related to thyroid and parathyroid

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications384

glands. In treatment of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), determination of calcito-
nin level plays an important role. The process of determination of calcitonin level
involves one step sandwich assay method. This method is carried out in two incuba-
tion steps. Each incubation process takes 9 min each. In first incubation, 50 micro-
liters of sample of biotinylated monoclonal human calcitonin specific antibody and
monoclonal human calcitonin specific antibody labeled with ruthenium complex are
incubated. This incubation leads to formation of sandwich like complex where human
calcitonin is carrying both biotinylated and ruthenylated complex. After the first step,
second incubation step is done where streptavidin-coated microparticles is added.
Streptavidin-coated microparticle makes complex with biotin. After the incubation
step, measurement is done. For measurement, the mixture of incubation is aspirated
into measuring cells and micro particles of mixture are magnetically attracted to the
surface of electrode. After that the unbound particles are removed. Voltage is applied
on to the electrode and induction of chemi-lumiscent emission is done and after that
the response is studied with photomultiplier [12].

• Folate is the main constituent of synthesis of DNA. It is also essential for formation of red
blood cells. Deficiency of folate leads to megalobalstic anemia. Deficiency of folate is esti-
mated by determination of folate level in erythrocytes as well as serum. Ruthenium plays an
important role in Elecys folate RBC assay in estimating folate deficiency in RBC. The process
involved in folate determination is competition principle. This process involves three steps
incubation method. In first incubation step folate pretreatment reagent is added which leads
to release of folate from its binding sites (erythrocytes). In the second incubation step, Ru-
labeled folate binding protein is added which makes complex with the sample. In the third
incubation step streptavidin bounded microparticles are added which get attached to
unbound sites of ruthenium-labeled folate binding protein. The whole complex is bound to
solid phase via streptavidin and biotin. For measurement, the mixture of incubation is
aspirated into measuring cells and microparticles of mixture are magnetically attracted to
the surface of electrode. After that the unbound particles are removed. Voltage is applied on
to the electrode and induction of chemi-lumiscent emission is done and after that the
response is studied with photomultiplier [12].

• Ruthenium is also employed in detection of cyclosporine by Elecsys cyclosporine assay.
Determination of cyclosporine is an important aspect for management of liver, kidney,
heart lungs and bone marrow transplant patients receiving cyclosporine therapy [12].

8.2.2. Applications in treatment

History of medical science shows metals like gold has always been used for medicinal purpose.
Though it is known that metals may have beneficial effect for health, but the exact mode of
activity remains unknown. Ruthenium also has been applied in treatment [21].

• Immunosuppressant: Immunosuppressant is drug used to suppress hyperactivity of
body’s immune system. An immunosuppressant Cyclosporin A which has wide applica-
tion in treatment of disease like anemia and psoriasis eczema has shown side effects
such as nausea, renal diseases, and hypertension. To modify the action of Cyclosporin A,

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complex is made with Ru(III). Ruthenium cyclosporin complex gives a stable compound
which results in an inhibitory effect on T lymphocyte proliferation [22].

• Antimicrobial action: antimicrobial drugs are drugs that inhibit microbial growth in
human body. Ruthenium complex has its effectiveness against wide range of parasitic
diseases. Microbial strains which are exposed to a certain kind of antimicrobial therapy
become resistant to that drug. The resistance develops because the microbes mutate
themselves against the organic compound of the drug. But with the formation of complex
with certain metals the effectiveness of the drug increases as the microbes are unable to
deal with the metal part of the organometallic complex of drug. In case of Chloroquine,
Plasmodium species develops résistance against it, whereas when Chloroquine is
complexed with ruthenium, resistance does not develop [23].

• Antibiotic action: antibiotics are drugs which are made from one particular microorgan-
ism and act on the other microorganism. Synthetic antibiotics are also nowadays made in
laboratory. Antibiotic exhibit their action by entering the cell of microbes and targeting
any vital biosynthetic pathway. Ruthenium has upper edge if it gets complexes with
synthetic antibiotics. Ruthenium being a metal has better tendency to bind to the cellular
component similar to Iron. When an organic moiety gets bind to a metal ion, at that time
sharing or delocalization of cations between the two moieties occurs. The change in
charges among the component of drug increases the permeability of cellular component
in favor of drug. For example, Thiosemicarbazone shows a remarkable increase in its
activity due to formation of complex of Ru [24].

• Inhibitory effect on nitric oxides: nitric oxide is a cellular component which is produced
by many cells. The main physiological role of nitric oxide is to produce vasodilation.
Nitric oxide does this action my increasing cellular level of cyclic-guanosine 30,50-
monophosphate (CGMP) which is a secondary messenger in the physiological system.
Over production of nitric acid can cause many disorders associated with respiratory
system such as tumor of respiratory system. It also causes severe hypotension on over
production. It also causes gastric inflammatory disorders. Ruthenium has beneficial effect
in treatment of over production of nitric oxides. When ruthenium is administered in
complex form such as ruthenium poly amino carboxylates, excess nitric oxide present in
blood binds to this complex readily and reduces ruthenium to form an unabsorbable
complex there by inhibiting its unwanted effects [25].

8.2.3. Applications of Ruthenium in cancer research

• Anti-carcinogenic activity: cancer or carcinoma is a stage where body cells undergo
uncontrolled proliferation and having invasiveness and metastatic property. To treat carci-
noma, drug therapy aims at inhibiting synthesis of cancerous protein as well as inhibiting
DNA replication. In market there are drugs such as Cisplatin which uses platinum as
anticancer agent. Though platinum has shown better results in treatment of cancer but in
some cancers, platinum is unable to show positive results. This shortcoming of Platinum
made way for use of Ruthenium as a new entrant in treatment of cancer. Ruthenium shows

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications386

the ability to bind to the DNA and inhibits its replication as well as protein synthesis.
Ruthenium has low aqueous solubility which was the only drawback of it. This drawback
was countered by using dialkyl sulfoxide derivative of ruthenium. The mechanism of action
of ruthenium as an anticancer agent is that it causes apoptosis of tumor cells by acting at
DNA level. Apoptosis is a controlled destruction of cells [17, 18].

• Radiation therapy: in cancer treatment radiotherapy has also been used. Radiation ther-
apy becomes beneficial only when it is proximal to the cancerous cell. The agents used in
radiation therapy are called radio sensitizers. To increase the proximity to cancerous cells
radio sensitizers’ complexes with ruthenium are used as Ru has the affinity to bind to
DNA easily [18, 19].

• Photodynamic therapy: it is a therapy where chemicals and electromagnetic radiations
are used. In this therapy chemicals are targeted on the cancerous cell, these chemicals
become cytotoxic when they interact with electromagnetic radiation. In this therapy
Ruthenium find its application as it increases the access of these chemicals to the cancer-
ous cells [20, 21].

• Action on cancerous mitochondria: mitochondria are the power house of any cell. This
makes it a potential target for anticancer therapy. Ruthenium red is a type of ruthenium
which is used to stain mitochondria. Mitochondrial surface has some calcium entity on it.
When ruthenium red is added, it reacts with this calcium and stains the mitochondria.
Ruthenium red also has tumor inhibiting activity. However, ruthenium red is not prefer-
ably used clinically as it has major side effects [20, 22].

• Effect on metastasis: metastasis is the ability of cancerous cell to spread in the body by
lymphatic or circulatory system. A tumor cell more than 1 mm in size requires additional
blood supply to spread in the body. Formations of new blood vessels are called angiogen-
esis. Drugs which act as anti-metastasis many inhibit this action. Ruthenium complexes
anti-metastatsis drug namely NAMI-A does the same action by binding to the mRNA and
production of denatured protein which gets accumulated on the surface of tumor making
a hard film and prevents any blood supply to the tumor cell. This action inhibits the
metastasis. Ruthenium has additional benefit that it easily crosses any cell so the reach of
the drug increases [23, 26].

9. Summary and conclusions

Ruthenium with atomic number of 44 and symbol Ru was discovered by Russian chemist
Karl Klaus (1796–1864). In earth’s crust, it is quite rare, found in parts per billion quantities,
in ores containing some of the other platinum group metals. It is silvery whitish, lustrous
hard metal with a shiny surface. The ability of Ru to exist in many oxidation states is an
important property of this rare element which plays an important part in its applications.
Ruthenium readily forms coordinate complexes and these complexes have their applications
in diverse fields such as medicine, catalysis, biology, nanoscience, redox and photoactive

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387

materials. In biomedical fields Ru is used for diagnosis and treatment purpose. For example,
Ru is used for determination of calcitonin level in blood which is helpful in diagnosis and
treatment of diseases related to thyroid and parathyroid glands. Also, Ru plays an important
role in Elecys folate RBC assay in estimating folate deficiency in RBC. Ruthenium cyclo-
sporin complex gives a stable compound which results in an inhibitory effect on T lympho-
cyte proliferation which shows its immune-suppressant action. Ruthenium complex has its
effectiveness against wide range of parasitic diseases. Ruthenium shows the ability to bind to
the DNA and inhibits its replication as well as protein synthesis. This property helps in the
treatment of cancer. This chapter gives a brief account of the various properties of Ru which
are exploited for applications in the medical field. It is likely that in the coming years, further
research will lead to even more useful applications of this miraculous element.

Author details

Anil K. Sahu1, Deepak K. Dash1, Koushlesh Mishra1, Saraswati P. Mishra1, Rajni Yadav2 and
Pankaj Kashyap1*

*Address all correspondence to: pankajkashyap333@gmail.com

1 Royal College of Pharmacy, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India

2 Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

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s190811933

Noble and Precious Metals – Properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications390

Ru Metal application

Final presentation

Here is the name of the authors
Represented by my name

Introduction
The ability of Ru to exist in various states of oxidation is a crucial property which enhances the application of Ruthenium in different sectors.
Ru readily established coordinate complexes which are essential in its application in various fields such as medicine, catalysis, biology, Nano science and photoactive materials.

General Application of Ru
The medical application of Ru involves the diagnostic and treatment aspects of various ailments. Ruthenium and its complexes is usually employed in determination of ferritin, calcitonin and cyclosporine and fatal levels in human body for diagnosis of the disease. In the treatment aspect, Ru is employed in immunosuppressant, anticancer activities and antimicrobial (Sahu et al., 2018).

Application 2
Ruthenium Nanoparticles Decorated Tungsten Oxide as a
Bifunctional Catalyst for Electro catalytic and Catalytic Applications
A previous study showed that the physiochemical properties of Ru-WO3 have super electrochemical performances essential for sensitive and selective detection of N2H4 with a desirable wide range of 0.7−709.2 μM and a detection limit and sensitivity of 0.3625 μM and 4.357 μA μM−1 cm−2 , respectively, surpassing other modified electrodes.
In addition, the Ru-WO3 catalysts were found to have good catalytic activities for the oxidation of DPS in presence of water oxidant giving desired sulfoxide yields (Rajkumar et al., 2017).

Application 3
Catalysis with Colloidal Ruthenium Nanoparticles
A recent review showed that ruthenium nanoparticles are essential catalysts in solution for diverse reactions.
The main application in this case includes; oxidation, reduction, Fischer-Tropsch, C-H activation, CO2 transformation, and hydrogen production via amine Borane dehydration or water-spitting reactions (Axet and Philippot, 2020).

Application 4
Nano catalysts depended colometric assay has the ability to detect and provide a novel context for the detection of hydrogen sulfide.
The Ru Nano catalysts depended colometric assay by contrast has the benefit of simple operation, quick responses and increased sensitivity and it is appropriate to attain on site visual analysis of H2S. due to the growth of Nano catalysts, ruthenium NPs as transition metals have high catalytic hydrogenation roles and can be used in minimization of nitro aromatic elements and azo dyes (Zhao, Luo, Zhu, et al., 2017).

Application 5
Metals and semiconductors nanoparticles have a wide application in the fields of catalysis, photography, optics, electronics, optoelectronics, data storage, and biological and chemical sensor.
The Pt. Ru/C catalyst have the best catalytic performance since ruthenium takes long electrochemistry time to dissolve.
it has the ability to keep the highest current density and a low rate of current decay for over one hour in all catalyst (Huang et al., 2005).

Application 6
The Ru based catalysts are the most effective anode catalyst for the methanol oxidation reaction in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs).
PtRu alloy Nano crystals have been recognized as being majorly effective electro catalysts for methanol oxidation. Pt.-Ru catalyst portrayed greatest methanol oxidation current and a lower poisoning abilities.
Crystalline RuO2 is an important element to have an efficient methanol oxidation form Pt nanoparticles. Pt-Ru catalyst have the ability to manage the chemical state of Ru to come up with RuO2H instead of Ru metal or basically anhydrous RuO2 due to inefficient proton conduction (Wang et al., 2016)

Conclusion
Ru metal has a wide application in various fields.
The ability of Ru to exist in various states of oxidation is a crucial property which enhances the application of Ruthenium in different sectors.
Additionally Ru readily established coordinate complexes which are essential in its application in various fields such as medicine, catalysis, biology, Nano science and photoactive materials.

References
Axet R. M.; Philippot, K. Catalysis with Colloidal Ruthenium Nanoparticles. J. Chem. Rev. [online] 2020, 120, 1085-1145. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed march 30, 2020)
Huang, J.; Liu, Z., He, C.; Gan, L. Synthesis of PtRu Nanoparticles from the Hydrosilylation Reaction and Application as Catalyst for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell. J. Phy. Chem. [online] 2005. 109(35), 16644-16649. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)
Rajkumar, C.; Thirumalraj, B.; Chen, S.; Veerakumar, P.; Liu, S. Ruthenium Nanoparticles Decorated Tungsten Oxide as a Bifunctional Catalyst for Electrocatalytic and Catalytic Applications. A. Chem. Soc. [online] 2017, 9, 31794-31805. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)
Sahu, A. K.; Dash, D. K.; Mishra K.; Mishra S. P.; Kashyap, P. Properties and Application of Ruthenium. In Noble and Precious Metals: properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications; Seehra, M.S., Bristow, A.D., InteckOpen, 2018; pp. 377-3190
Wang, H.; Chen, S.; Wang, C.; Zang, K.; Liu, D.; Haleem, Y.A.; Zheng X.; Ge, B.; Song, L. Role of Ru Oxidation Degree for Catalytic Activity in Bimetallic Pt/Ru Nanoparticles. J. Phy. Chem. [online] 2016, 120, 6569-6576. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)
Zhao, Y.; Luo, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Sun Y; Cui L; Song Q. Sensitive Colorimetric Assay of H2S Depending on the High-Efficient Inhibition of Catalytic Performance of Ru Nanoparticles. S. Chem. & Eng. [online] 2017. 5, 7912-7919. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)

RunningHead: PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF RUTHENIUM

PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF RUTHENIUM 2

Title:

Student Name:

Institution:

Date:

Ruthenium (Ru) is one of the platinum group metals with an atomic number 44. Ruthenium is a rare metal which is not commonly found in many parts of the world. It is a silvery, whitish, lustrous hard metal usually with a shiny coating. This metal composes of 7 stable isotopes. At room temperature, Ruthenium does not lose luster since it is unreactive in that condition and shows paramagnetic behaviour. At high temperatures, Ru usually reacts in presence of oxygen and gets oxidized. Additionally, it also reacts with halogen at high temperatures (Sahu et al., 2018). Also, Ru does not easily dissolve in most acids such as the hydrochloric acids and nitric acid.

The ability of Ru to exist in various states of oxidation is a crucial property which enhances the application of Ruthenium in different sectors. Ru readily established coordinate complexes which are essential in its application in various fields such as medicine, catalysis, biology, Nano science and photoactive materials. The medical application of Ru involves the diagnostic and treatment aspects of various ailments. Ruthenium and its complexes are usually employed in determination of ferritin, calcitonin and cyclosporine and fatal levels in human body for diagnosis of the diseases. In the treatment aspect, Ru is employed in immunosuppressant, anticancer activities and antimicrobial (Sahu et al., 2018).

Ruthenium is also essential in form of ruthenium nanoparticles decorated tungsten Oxide which are employed in electrocatalytic and catalytic applications. A previous study showed that the physiochemical properties of Ru-WO3 have super electrochemical execution essential for responsive and selective detection of N2H4 with an essential broad range of 0.7−709.2 μM and a detection limit and sensitivity of 0.3625 μM and 4.357 μA μM−1 cm−2 , respectively, outdoing other adjusted electrodes. In addition, the scholar’s notes that the GCEs were also discovered to have the required selectivity, stability, and reproducibility as s N2H4 sensors, even for investigation of actual samples. In addition, the Ru-WO3 catalysts have good catalytic activities for the oxidation of DPS in existence of water oxidant giving desired sulfoxide yields (Rajkumar et al., 2017).

In the recent past, there have been numerous studies based on the tungstate-based nanostructure due to their unique properties essential in numerous applications such as in optical, photo, and electrochemical catalyses. This has as well attracted a lot of attention on metal nanoparticles supported tungstate nanocomposistes which are currently being employed in making electrode components due to their high-performance super capacitors. Additionally, the ruthenium nanoparticles have been discovered to be highly sensitive electrochemical sensors crucial for identification of volatile organic compounds, biomolecules and other hazardous matters (Rajkumar et al., 2017).

Additionally, tungsten trioxide has also been employed for a long time. Tungsten trioxide has been employed in wide range of application in material science and chemistry as whole. Due to its significant properties of tungsten trioxide, the researchers suggest that it is one of the promising materials necessary for the electrodes which are essential in electro-oxidation reactions of N2H4. However tungsten trioxide has been affected by acidic and basic components and shows electrocatalytic reactions. However, the metal supported tungsten trioxide based catalyst shows a perfect conductive substrate in comparison to bare tungsten trioxide working electrode. In this case, the use of WO3 boost the electrochemically active surface area and enehance charge circulation and also the distribution of the analysts (Rajkumar et al., 2017).

A recent review conducted by Axet and Philippot (2020), aimed at enlightening the interests of the Ruthenium metal at the Nano scale for a selection of catalytic reactions carried in solution form. The study composed of models with controlled ruthenium nanoparticles which allowed the evaluation of how their characteristic impacts their catalytic properties. The review showed that ruthenium nanoparticles are essential catalysts in solution for diverse reactions. The main application in this case includes; oxidation, reduction, Fischer-Tropsch, C-H activation, CO2 transformation, and hydrogen generation via amine Borane dehydration or water-spitting reactions. The study showed that the ruthenium nanoparticles are highly performing in such reactions (Axet and Philippot, 2020).

Ru NPs are very versatile catalyst for reduction reactions. The adjustability is shown through the varieties of reduction reactions, such as the hydrogenation of C=C, C=O, and −NO2 employing various reducing agents. Due of the uncomplicated application of some of these reactions, for example the reduction of styrene by H2 or reduction of −NO2 via NaBH4 and the capability for the comparison of the results with the previous studies, test reactions are employed essential characterization means of gathering data on the surface properties of nanocatalysts. Basically, the nanocatalysts for reduction reactions have undergone through huge revolution over the past years. In the beginning, they were only stabilized with simple molecules, as per this time ruthenium nanocatalysts are very complex since better designs have been established due to the establishment of nanochemistry tools. The development is quit visible from the new ligands that have been designed to get a necessary property via the introduction of a second metal or through employment of reactive fcc structure (Axet and Philippot, 2020).

Similarly, Nano catalysts depended colometric assay has the ability to detect and provide a novel context for the identification of hydrogen sulfide. The Ru Nano catalysts depended colometric assay by contrast has the benefit of indelicate activities. Quick feedback and increased sensitivity and it is appropriate to attain on site visual evaluation of H2S. Due to the growth of Nano catalysts, ruthenium NPs as transition metals have high catalytic hydrogenation roles and can be used in minimization of nitro aromatic elements and azo dyes. Ru NPs were synthesized and proved that great catalytic hydrogenation roles for the deterioration of orange. Ruthenium showed great catalytic hydrogenation achievements in the deterioration of azo dyes. Ru NPs were used to attack the azo bonds of orange 1, resulting to the gradual degradation of orange 1 to aromatic amine or hydrazine derivatives through the hydrogenation minimization. Red colored orange would gradually change to no color with the use of Ru NPs as a catalyst. Ruthenium showed high catalytic performances that was high compared to that of Pt. NPs, Ir NPs. The red colored orange could gradually degenerated to colorless by Ru NPs but gradually converted to pink due to Ru NPs solution because of the weak the thioresistance of Ru NPs (Zhao et al., 2017).

Additionally, in this research, standard Ru Nps were synthesized and indicated high catalytic hydrogenation processes for the degeneration of orange I. Orange I-Ru Nps was developed for the delicate and selective colorimetric supervision of H2S with regard to H2S convinced poisoning of the catalytic operative contexts of Ru Nps. The degeneration kinetic curves of Orange I Ru NPs amplifiers were studied with the availability of various concentrations of H2S and the color dying procedure of orange I was studied (Zhao et al., 2017).

The connection between H2S concentration and the degeneration speed limited of orange I was developed and the LOD was very low. This showed that the Ru Nps based colometric assay can be used as an innovative signal transduction and amplification strategy for the complicated determination of H2S. Ru NPs behave like electron mediator move the electrons and hydrogen from N2H4 to the azo bonds thus resulting to the degeneration and decolorization of orange I. the catalytic degradation reaction could as well be seen after the increment of H2S because of the H2S induced catalytic poisoning and the inactive effectiveness of Ru NP catalysts. The catalytic hydrogenation activity of orange I while making use of Ru NPs as catalysts could be used to determine the presence of H2S.the Ru NPs depended colometric guideline is used to detect ultrasensitive H2S (Zhao et al., 2017).

Metals and semiconductors nanoparticles have a great administration in the parts of catalysis, photography, optics, electronics, optoelectronics, data storage, and biological and chemical sensor. Pt. and Pt. alloy nanoparticles are catalytically functioning in normal conditions electro oxidation processes of interest to direct methanol fuel cell administration. The use of ruthenium in the Pt. catalyst produces great results. There are two approaches that have been proposed to deal with the enhanced Pt. catalytic actions toward methanol oxidation by ruthenium: due to ruthenium surface atoms, absorbed CO is oxidized at possibilities of more negative than that on Pt. Therefore, the Pt. surface sites are accessible for hydrogen adsorption and oxidation. Another approach is the ligand effect strategy which involves alteration of electronic properties of Pt. through Pt. – Ruthenium orbital overlap. The Pt. Ru/C catalyst have the best catalytic attainments since ruthenium takes long electrochemistry time to dissolve (Huang et al., 2005).

Additionally, it has the ability to keep the highest present density and a low speed of present decay for more than an hour in all catalyst. After a thermal treatment there a slight shift in Ru3d which peaked to a reduced biding energy that leads to the eradication of the capping elements on the nanoparticles and transform the surface oxidation state (Huang et al., 2005).

In past research, it has been found that the integration of Pt nanoparticles from hydrosilylation reaction as well as micro-wave aided synthesis of carbon-supported PtRu nanoparticles that might be used as catalysts for methanol fuel cell. The electro oxidation of liquid methanol on Pt and PtRu alloy nanoparticles synthesized from the hydrosilytion reaction was studied. It was found that Pt and Pt allows portrayed catalytic reactions in normal condition electro oxidation activities that can be applied in fuel cell. During the hydrosilylation activity, the byproducts of Si compound were not difficult to do away with. When the Si embodied shell is not available, the catalytic reaction of the PtRu nanoparticles was more than that of other strategies. The TEM study images showed that clear lattice planes were seen occupying all the particles if the particles are seen in the appropriate side. Thus the PtRu nanoparticles have the ability to be viewed as an independent crystal lattice, this showed that the development of Ru rich alloys. After the thermal treatment the diffraction peaks maximized in concentration and sharpness for Pt and Pt rich alloy catalysts which showed that they was maximization of crystallinity of metals (Huang et al., 2005).

In addition, the Ru based catalysts are more effective anode catalyst for the methanol oxidation reaction in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). PtRu alloy Nano crystals have been recognized as being majorly effective electro catalysts for methanol oxidation. Pt.-Ru catalyst portrayed greatest methanol oxidation present and low poisoning abilities. The high catalytic processes of pt.-Ru alloys for the electro oxidation of methanol are showed by the functional activities of the alloy surface (Wang et al., 2016).

The availability of crystalline RuO2 is an important element to have an efficient methanol oxidation form Pt nanoparticles. Pt-Ru catalysts have the ability to manage the chemical condition of Ru to come up with RuO2H instead of Ru metal or basically anhydrous RuO2 due to inefficient proton conduction. Ru nanoparticles have Pt rich core and a Ru rich shell structure. After annealing, the alloying range of Ru nanoparticle maximized, a part of the Ru atoms shifted to surface and most of the surficial oxidized Ru atoms were minimized and included alloying. Methanol electro-oxidation processes showed that electro catalytic progress was enhanced with maximizing oxidation level of superficial oxidation atoms. (Wang et al., 2016)

In conclusion, Ru oxidation degree is as well used for the catalytic reactions in bimetallic Ru nanoparticles. The high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy image showed that the ready PtRu element are developed from Ru and Pt compounds. The EDX elemental mapping image shows that Ru atoms have high level of diffusion more compares to that of Pt atoms. The Ru alloys has a bit of weak white line peak to that of pure pt. This shows that the alloying impact could not result to the maximization of white line peak intensity. The addition of white line can be associated with a surface oxidation impact. Its source is the oxidation of other areas Pt atoms. The white line intensity of PtRu, Pt2Ru, and PtRu2 is does not change while PtRu annealed showed that distinct addition can be proven using the addition of the oxidized Pt atoms after annealing. This study showed that the Ru nanoparticles have PT-rich core and Ru-rich shell structure. After the annealing process, the alloying range of the Ru nanoparticles maximized, a part of Pt atoms moved to the surface and the oxidized Ru element were minimized and took part in alloying. This showed that electro catalytic performance became better due to the addition of oxidation level of Ru atoms.

References

Axet R. M.; Philippot, K. Catalysis with Colloidal Ruthenium Nanoparticles. J. Chem. Rev. [online] 2020, 120, 1085-1145.

https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf

(accessed March 30, 2020)

Huang, J.; Liu, Z., He, C.; Gan, L. Synthesis of PtRu Nanoparticles from the Hydrosilylation Reaction and Application as Catalyst for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell. J. Phy. Chem. [online] 2005. 109(35), 16644-16649. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)

Rajkumar, C.; Thirumalraj, B.; Chen, S.; Veerakumar, P.; Liu, S. Ruthenium Nanoparticles Decorated Tungsten Oxide as a Bifunctional Catalyst for Electrocatalytic and Catalytic Applications. A. Chem. Soc. [online] 2017, 9, 31794-31805. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)

Sahu, A. K.; Dash, D. K.; Mishra K.; Mishra S. P.; Kashyap, P. Properties and Application of Ruthenium. In Noble and Precious Metals: properties, Nanoscale Effects and Applications; Seehra, M.S., Bristow, A.D., InteckOpen, 2018; pp. 377-3190

Wang, H.; Chen, S.; Wang, C.; Zang, K.; Liu, D.; Haleem, Y.A.; Zheng X.; Ge, B.; Song, L. Role of Ru Oxidation Degree for Catalytic Activity in Bimetallic Pt/Ru Nanoparticles. J. Phy. Chem. [online] 2016, 120, 6569-6576. https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)

Zhao, Y.; Luo, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Sun Y; Cui L; Song Q. Sensitive Colorimetric Assay of H2S Depending on the High-Efficient Inhibition of Catalytic Performance of Ru Nanoparticles. S. Chem. & Eng. [online] 2017. 5, 7912-7919.

https://scifinder.cas.org/scifinder/view/scifinder/scifinderExplore.jsf (accessed March 30, 2020)

1- Introduction

2- Discovery of ruthenium and Occurrence.

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of boook

Link to citing information

https://www.intechopen.com/books/noble-and-precious-metals-properties-nanoscale-effects-and-applications/properties-and-applications-of-ruthenium

3-Chemical and physical properties

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of boook

4-Compounds of Ru (refining of the platinum-Group Metals)

(Refining of the platinum-group metals)Chapter of book

Please make this part two pages.

5- Ruthenium complexes

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of boook

6-Extraction (preparation of Ru)

1-CONCENTRATE COMPOSITION

3- SEPARATION TECHNIQUES USED IN THE REFINING OF THE PLATINUM-GROUP METALS

From (Refining of the Platinum-Group

Metals) chapter of book.

7- General applications

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of book.

8-Catalytic activity of ruthenium, general application in catalysis.

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of book.

9- Application of Ru nanoparticles in catalysis

Articles (4– 9– 6 – 19-20) that6 articles you have done.

10- Application of Ru in some other different fields.

Articles (12-14-16-17-18- last article).

11- Summary and conclusions

From( Properties and Applications of Ruthenium ) chapter of book.

12- References