THE RESOURCES HAVE TO BE ACADEMIC OR PEER-REVIEWED JOURNALS

A review of literature on the topic you are researching is DUE  March 20th!!! 

Writing the Review of the Literature

The Review of the Literature have to be 6 pages, include at least 8 references, and follow APA Guidelines.

• Research questions introduced (what is it and why is it worth examining)
• Research questions narrowed to the studies discussed in the literature review.
• Statement outlining the organization of the paper

  For example, if there is a major controversy in the literature, you might briefly discuss it and they say you will be supporting both sides of the argument. You might also briefly discuss if three different methodologies have been used in addressing the question and say you will compare the results obtained by the three methods.

• Studies described in detail
• Studies compared and evaluated
• Implications of studies discussed

  Your judgement of what the studies show and what it suggests for your management problem.

Please look at the exemplar ROL before starting your assignment. The example can be found on the

Review of Literature

page in Module 1. 

RunningHead: EMPHASIS ON EXPERIENCE 1

Major League Soccer: Emphasis on Experience = Fans in the Stands

Alexis Petrou

University of Florida

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Introduction

Over the past decade, Major League Soccer has grown exponentially. In the past, soccer

always took a back seat to the so-called “Big Four” professional sports (football, basketball,

baseball, and hockey). It was always referred to as the least popular sport in the United States.

However, in a recent change of events, soccer is now increasing in popularity and is not too far

behind the other professional sports leagues. Major League Soccer was never really considered a

serious professional sports league. There teams were not successful, their stadiums were never

filled, and the average American had an apathetic feeling toward the sport. In fact, “professional

soccer in the United States would remain dormant for over a decade until FIFA awarded the

1994 World Cup to the United States” (Ageris & Nagel, 2013). The recent boom of soccer in the

United States has spread across the nation, and it is now one of the most popular sports among

children and young adults in the country. This has been helped by the growth of technology and

media contracts, with national television companies now airing soccer games from across the

globe on a weekly basis. The United States has recently caught up with most other countries to

appreciate the most popular sport in the world.

Because of this rapid growth, Major League Soccer has expanded quicker than most other

professional sports leagues. A decade ago, the MLS consisted of only 12 teams. Today, that

number has grown to 20, with a further four teams joining the league by 2018 to bring the total to

24. Their commissioner, Don Garber, has claimed that they will not stop there, and eventually

want to reach 30 teams to compete with the other professional sports markets. Even though this

expansion has been good for the sport of soccer, there are some negatives that come with it.

Expanding so quickly makes it difficult to attract fans to these relatively new franchises. Some of

the professional soccer teams in Major League Soccer are struggling to sell tickets and fill their

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stadiums for their home games. This is not a problem solely for Major League Soccer, as other

professional teams in other leagues also struggle to sell out stadiums and arenas every game.

However, if the MLS wants to be able to sustain their expansion, teams will need to create a

loyal fan base to be able to stay afloat. In order to successfully attract fans to soccer stadiums, it

is necessary to investigate what fans consider important to their experience at games. In order to

determine this, fan motivation must be defined and evaluated in order to find out who, what,

when, where, and why fans choose to attend soccer games. Fan satisfaction is a major key to

successfully selling out games in any sports league, but research must be done to find out what

satisfies the core demographic of soccer fans. Research must be done to see the perception of

Major League Soccer as a whole, with the product on the field, with the facilities, and with the

competition between franchises. In addition, ticket pricing and attendance records are inherently

connected, therefore it is important to see which markets are successful and why they have been

successful. There is a lack of research done on fan attendance specific to soccer, and while there

has been research done on the relationship between differing factors influencing spectator

attendance, “most of this body of work is relevant to the ‘big three’ sports of football, basketball,

and baseball” (Parrish, 2013). Marketing strategies from other sports leagues (NFL, NBA, MLB,

NHL) can be applied to Major League Soccer. The key component to the research in question is

finding out what aspects of the fan experience are most critical to the average soccer fan.

Review of Literature

Consumer Satisfaction

In today’s sports marketing world, consumer expectations are of the utmost importance.

In order to better understand which aspects of the fan experience are valued, Michael Mondello

and Brian Gordon (2015) focused on consumer satisfaction in the National Basketball

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Association. In their research, The NBA Fan Experience: A Case Study of a Professional Sport

Franchise, they utilized focus groups of season ticket holders from the Orlando Magic franchise

to discuss their opinions on the fan experience on a variety of variables. To determine a the most

avid fans, it is important to gauge the level of interest, passion, and loyalty a fan displays to a

favorite sports team. The more connected a fan is to their team, the more time, money, and effort

they will spend on products and activities correlated with that team. The research done by

Modello and Gordon (2015) was focused on finding what customers wanted from their fan

experience, and how teams were “delivering and creating memorable experiences for their

customers.” In order to do this, they used two different focus groups comprised of male and

female ticket holders, varying in age and demographics. There are usually “two types of

customer satisfaction at sporting events: game satisfaction and service satisfaction” (Mondello &

Gordon, 2015). It is imperative to satisfy both needs if a professional sports franchise wants to

attract more fans to their home games. By using questions focused on advertising, ticketing

pricing, the overall experience, motivations, and frequency of attendance, the research was able

to determine what factors are of the most important to NBA fans. The findings of this study are

of particular importance to Major League Soccer, because they can employ some of the results to

create a better atmosphere and draw more fans to their games. Customer satisfaction is key to

keeping fans around, and the amount of satisfaction can impact “social identification and the

level of involvement towards sporting events and clubs” (Beccarini & Ferrand, 2006). There has

been research done that is negative regarding satisfaction with a professional league’s marketing

and operations. Using questionnaires, Bo Gong, Minkil Kim, Tyreal Qian, and James Zhang

(2015) investigated fan satisfaction in the Chinese Soccer League to determine whether customer

attention and involvement correlates with satisfaction. Their findings showed that in China, fans

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became less satisfied with the league the more they became involved in it. Because they were

able to see how the market and teams operated, they were turned off to the idea of attending

more games. The fans of the Chinese Soccer League “perceive that the league has a number of

problems. (Gong, et al. 2015). Findings like these are important for the MLS to consider because

they want to create a league that can function properly, as well as increase the satisfaction and

attendance of all fans.

Target Market

There are a variety of results from the studies conducted that can have an impact on the

fan experience in Major League Soccer games. Even though the focus groups were based on

NBA fans, the findings are applicable to all professional sports leagues. Most fans tend to plan

their entire night based on a sporting event if they plan on attending. In order to encourage this,

Major League Soccer teams should look to promote game packages that can allow for this.

Offering ticket packages for “Guys Night Out” or “Girls Night Out” could be beneficial to

attracting fans, especially young adults. The age of soccer fans “mostly ranges from 20-29 and

30-39 years” (Zorzou, et al. 2014). As pointed out in the study, “the majority of respondents

focused on ‘the entire experience’ when discussing their perceptions of attending a game”

(Mondello & Gordon, 2015). In addition, this specific study actually discovered that the Orlando

Magic contacted a MLS franchise, Sporting Kansas City to learn how they have increased ticket

sales. Sporting KC used sports analytics to find out in depth information about their average

fans. This is one way to discover what the average fans wants in their sporting experience.

Findings from other soccer cultures can be of importance when trying to increase ticket sales in

the United States. Mariana Carvalho, Felip Boen, Jose Pedro Sarmento, and Jereon Scheerder

(2015) looked into the attendance patterns in Portugal and Belgium to get a better understanding

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of predictors of soccer attendance. They focused on these two countries because they believed it

was a “good opportunity to include two different soccer attendance cultures” in order to find

patterns and profiles of fans (Carvalho, et al. 2015). Initially, Major League Soccer targeted the

“soccer mom” in order to attract fans to the stadiums. Recently however, there has been a shift to

young adults. Using surveys, Carvalho, et al (2015) suggests that there is a different market that

soccer teams should target: teens. While the push for soccer moms was partially successful,

Major League Soccer quickly learned that young adults were the best fans to try and attract for a

variety of reasons. However, teens should be targeted because “they are considered to be

trendsetters, because they influence their parents’ spending, and because they are a future

market” (Carvalho, et al. 2015). Major League Soccer should try to attract more teenagers

because they have a long term impact for game attendance. Teenagers and children tend to

become fans at a young age, so it is important to capitalize on this time frame. Argeris and Nagel

(20) further proved this theory when they found that “a weathly, young, white and male

population is associated with higher MLS attendance.” In addition, Mondello and Gordon (2015)

found that the main motives for attendance found in the study were centered on family influence.

The responders in the focus groups who had children tended to use that as an influence to attend

basketball games. In addition, some responders claimed games were used as a “family night out”

or “date night” with a significant other (Mondello & Gordon, 2015). It is not surprising to see

this, as many people use sporting events to get out of the house, as well as spend time with their

family or partner. Friends and peer groups also influenced fan attendance in a noticeable way.

Fans of Major League Soccer do no differ from those who are fans of the other four professional

sports leagues in the United States; they “tend to be young, male professionals with disposable

income” (Argeris & Nagel, 2013).

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Designated Players

Delving into the deep web of fan satisfaction can be a daunting task. There are a variety

of issues that have been shown to influence fan attendance at sporting events, and previous

research has found many different factors that can have an effect on a fan’s motivation to attend

games. One of the topics of influence that has been studied carefully is the work based around

the introduction of the “designated player” in Major League Soccer recently. Studies has shown

that attendance will increase with the presence of designated players, regardless of whether the

team is successful or not. When the Los Angeles Galaxy were able to convince David Beckham

to join their MLS franchise in 2007, the league discovered a new trend. Bringing in established,

well-known soccer players from around the world could have a positive impact on fan

attendance. Steve Argeris and Mark Nagel (2013) studied the effects of the “designated player”

on average fan attendance and they found that “Beckham’s inclusion on the Galaxy roster nearly

doubled attendance figures.” The MLS instituted the “Beckham Rule” because previous research

has shown that “MLS attendance is dependent upon the presence of ‘better players’” (Parrish,

2013). After the designated player rule was instituted, more teams were looking to attract highly

marketable superstars so that they could increase ticket sales and merchandise revenue. Charles

Parrish (2013) wanted to discover whether the presence of these new, attractive superstars had a

noticeable effect on fan attendance for franchises. By looking at the attendance records for

matches that had one or multiple designated players participating versus games without any,

results showed that there was a relationship present between fan attendance and the amount of

designated players participating in a match. In order to sell more tickets, Major League Soccer

franchises need to be able to sign quality soccer players from around the world, preferably ones

that are house hold names. It does not matter their age, but rather the recognition they have

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globally. The MLS has succeeded in implementing the strategy to make “it possible for teams to

pay market value to high profile players without having these salaries count against a team’s

salary cap” (Parrish, 2013). Fans want to see star players involved in their league, and allowing

franchises to sign more can increase attendance and ticket sales.

Game Atmosphere/Team Success

By looking at the designated player rule, Major League Soccer can learn a lot about their

product on the field when determining fan satisfaction. Fans do not necessarily care about the

product on the field, but rather about the atmosphere at the stadium and star players they will get

to see. For some teams, a major negative for season ticket holders is also the overall atmosphere

at games. Even though some teams’ “roster lacked genuine star power,” fans were still willing to

attend if the energy in the building was “electric” (Mondello & Gordon, 2015). Fans want to

experience something exciting and energetic. If the fans are not into the game, then it takes away

from the entire sporting experience. The product on the court or field is not as important as the

energy of the fans. It is of the utmost importance to provide an energetic game atmosphere, as

this was a strong predictor of fan satisfaction. Research has been conducted in Germany to

determine whether or not fans stay loyal when their teams get relegated to a lower division. The

study is important because it further proves that fans do not care if their team wins or loses, but

rather the emotional connection they feel with their favorite team. Previous research has shown

that “soccer fans tend to claim to maintain a deep relationship with their club” (Koenigstorfer,

Groeppel-Klein, & Schmitt, 2010). Using a longitudinal field study and applying an inner-

subject design, Koenigstorfer, Groeppel-Klein, & Schmitt (2010), were able to examine if fan’s

loyalty changes when their team gets relegated. Surprisingly, they found that “highly committed

fans and their clubs are strongly bound to each other—and this connection becomes even

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stronger after relegation” (Koenigstorfer, et al. 2010). Major League Soccer can look at this and

put it to use in a marketing strategy. Providing a great team atmosphere will have a greater

impact on fan loyalty than just success. Fans want to feel a connection to their club, and they can

achieve this by creating intimate connections throughout the franchise. If fans are able to have

this connection, then they will stand by the club, even in bad times. Fan passion has always been

described as a key componenet of intimidating franchises. A loyal fan base can help a team

achieve success and can thrive off the atmosphere provided by fans. Kirk Wakefield (2016)

wanted to investigate the role that passion plays in the consumption of fans. He wanted to know

if passion lead to an increase in fans’ desire to attend games or consume more information about

the team. Through his research, he found that “passion strongly predicted attendance” and the

more passionate a fan is, the more likely they are to attend (Wakefield, 2016). Fan passion has

always influenced leisure activites, but this is of particular importance to Major League Soccer

because they can use these findings to their advantage. By connecting fans to the franchise, they

will in turn become more passionate about it. The more passionate a fan is, the less likely they

are to desert the team in bad times.

Adam Karg, Heath McDonald, and Geoff Schoenberg (2015) wanted to prove this further

by investigating whether coaching changes had a negative effect on fan attendance. This topic is

particulary important regarding season ticket holders, because it would impact whether or not

they choose to renew their tickets. Previous research has shown that the product on the field or

court does not necessarily influence season ticket holders’ decision to renew each year, but

coaching changes have not been investigated. Since “less than 5% of coaches across the four

major US professional leagues have tenure longer than a decade,” changes could have an adverse

effect on fan attendance (Karg, McDonald, & Schoenberg, 2015). Using an online questionnaire

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to determine fan satisfaction regarding coaching changes, they discovered that “appointing a new

coach was met with increases in positive attitudes toward almost every aspect of the season

ticket holder experience” (Karg, et al. 2015). Major League Soccer can use research like this to

its advantage because coaching changes occur rapidly for new professional teams. As the league

continues to expand, new coaches will be introduced, while other will be removed. The coaching

carousel will be in full effect, and it is important to know how season ticket holders will respond

to coaching changes. Professional franchises need to have coaching plans in place and know who

the successor will be. When teams hesitate after firing their head coach, season ticket holders

may be skeptical to renew. Attitudes can be expected to change positively “when the succession

cycle is completed—through the appointment of the successor’ (Karg, et al. 2015).

Soccer Specific Stadiums

When looking at the success of Major League Soccer recently, it is important to consider

the markets that have been chosen for expansion. Previous research by Charles Parrish (2013)

has shown that “soccer specific stadia provide a more appealing atmosphere for spectators.”

Using attendance figures and determining which teams have soccer specific stadiums, Parrish

was able to determine whether attendance is affected by the type of stadium used. When teams

used soccer specific stadiums, attendance actually increased. To back up this theory, Steve

Argeris and Mark Nagel (2013) investigated Major League Soccer attendance to determine the

effects of stadiums (soccer versus football specific), location, and designated players on fan

attendance. It is necessary to delve into these topics because these findings could play a major

role in where a new expansion team may choose to play, as well as who teams might try to sign

in the transfer market. As Major League Soccer continues to expand, the need for facilities

becomes more and more important. In the past, when expansion teams were joining the league,

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they usually tried to share football specific stadiums for their home soccer games. The problem

with this, however, is that soccer games did not attract as many fans as football games, therefore

the stadiums would usually look empty. Recently, though, a trend has begun where MLS teams

are “moving from large, American football-oriented multipurpose facilities into soccer-specific

venues” (Argeris & Nagel, 2013). When deciding expansion teams, Major League Soccer now

looks at whether teams are willing to build their own soccer specific stadium when they join the

league. Investigating this trend is key to determining fan satisfaction at games. When games are

held at soccer specific stadiums, it can make the fans feel more important, and that their teams

value their attendance. It is not a shared stadium, but rather their own home venue they can feel

attached to. Using a survey regarding on-field performance and stadium quality, Argeris and

Nagel (2013) were able to find that “the building of soccer-specific stadiums typically offered

fans a better on-site experience.” Major League Soccer can use this to create better fan

experiences by using soccer venues as home fields. The number of teams that have soccer venues

has increased, but it can only benefit Major League Soccer’s ticket sales if they require all

stadiums to have their own home field. Marko Sarstedt, Christian Ringle, Sascha Raithel, and

Siegfried Gudergan (2014) investigated the soccer specific stadium trend in Germany, using

online questionnaires and forums to determine that “satisfaction with the club stadium affects fan

satisfaction.” While the team on the field might have an impact on the experience, they found

that new stadiums could have an increase in attendance, even if performances on the field do not

change. As long as basic needs are filled in the stadium, most fans will be pleased to have their

own venue to cheer on their favorite team.

Advertising

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Also important is the advertising and availability of ticket packages. Using more social

media platforms could result in reaching more fans. If fans are not aware of the ticket plans that

are offered by the MLS franchise, then they will not be able to attend games. “Passion produced

the strongest effects on attendance, media consumption, Facebook usage, and Twitter usage

(Wakefield, 2016). For many fans, promotional nights often influence their desire to attend one

of the games. When there are promotional ticket offerings, or when there is a giveaway at the

arena, fans are more likely to attend the game. Especially when talking about fans with children,

this could be a useful tool to get parents to bring their children to the games if they know their

child might get a toy or poster for attending. In contrast, however, some of the reasons fans did

not attend games were due to the time commitment, scheduling conflicts, finance problems, and

affordability of tickets. Offering promotions that increase fan identification can have a positive

impact on attendance and viewership. Anne Wan-Ling Hu and Lin-Ru Tang (2010) used

questionnaires to determine that entertainment and perceived fan identification “positively

affected length of viewing behavior.” This shows that the happier fans are at games, the longer

they will stay. Offering promotional value will only increase the satisfaction of fans. In addition,

if concession prices were lower or if the tickets were more valuable (i.e. receiving a souvenir or

all-inclusive tickets), then fans might be more inclined to attend. One of the major problems that

the study by Mondello and Gordon (2015) found regarding attendance was the lack of awareness

for ticket plans. Almost all of the participants were not aware that there were ticket packages

available. The ticket plans gave fans the ability to overcome both the financial and scheduling

problems, both of which were the two biggest attendance constraints. The general awareness of

these plans was lacking, therefore more advertising can be done in order to sell more packages.

Since technology has continued to expand astronomically over the past decade, the use of it has

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become important to professional sports leagues. Social media can be used to advertise ticket

packages in order to reach the target market of teenagers and young professionals. Passionate

fans are more likely to use social media accounts to monitor their favorite team because “passion

strongly predicts social media behavior related to the team” (Wakefield, 2016). Almost every

young fan is on social media today, therefore using this could be of great value to Major League

Soccer to increase fan attendance.

Implications

The studies discussed can have a positive impact moving forward for Major League

Soccer. As the league grows, it needs to be able to continue to sell tickets, as well as develop the

fan experience into something truly memorable. From previous research, franchises have learned

that most fans care more about the experience rather than the product on the field or court. Major

League Soccer must move forward and try to use all soccer-specific venues, as this leads to

increased fan satisfaction. In addition, teams must try to target a new market: teenagers. Teens

are the future of fans; therefore, they must be pursued to increase fan loyalty at a young age.

Young adults usually have disposable income as well, and research has shown that focusing on

this demographic can have positive effects on ticket sales. Rules might have to be changed in

order to allow more franchises to sign designated players because that is who fans want to see

playing. Designated players can increase attendance as well as quality of the team. It also adds

value in marketing as teams will be able to create a face to associate with the franchise. It is

necessary to create marketing campaigns to advertise game plans, increase attendance, and create

the best overall experience so that fans will keep coming back for more. Major League Soccer

can learn from other professional leagues’ ticketing plans, as well as other soccer leagues around

the globe, and they can increase and sustain fan attendance in the future.

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References

Anne Wan-Ling, H., & Lin-Ru, T. (2010). Factors motivating sports broadcast viewership with

fan identification as a mediator. Social Behavior & Personality: An International

Journal, 38(5), 681-689.

Argeris, S., & Nagel, M. (2013). An investigation of Major League Soccer attendance. Journal

of Venue & Event Management, 4(2), 64-75.

Beccarini, C., & Ferrand, A. (2006). Factors affecting soccer club season ticket holders’

satisfaction: The influence of club image and fans’ motives. European Sport

Management Quarterly, 6(1), 1-22.

De Carvalho, M., Boen, F., Sarmento, J., & Scheerder, J. (2015). What brings youngsters into the

stadium? Sociopsychological predictors of soccer attendance among Belgian and

Portuguese young fans. Revista Portuguesa De Ciencias Do Desporto, 15(1), 21-40.

Gong, B., Pifer, N., Wang. J., Kim, M., Kim, M., Qian, T., Zhang, J. (2015). Fans’ attention to,

involvement in, and satisfaction with professional soccer in China. Social Behavior &

Personality: An International Journal, 43(10), 1667-1682.

Karg, A., McDonald, H., & Schoenberg, G. (2015). The immediate impact of coach succession

events on season ticket holder attitudes. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 24(1), 30-42.

Koenigstorfer, J., Groeppel-Klein, A., & Schmitt, M. (2010). “You’ll never walk alone”—How

loyal are soccer fans when their clubs are struggling against relegation?. Journal of Sport

Management, 24(6), 649-675.

Mondello, M., & Gordon, B. (2015). The NBA fan experience: A case study of a professional

sport franchise. Journal of Contemporary Athletics, 9(4), 285-298.

Parrish, C. (2013). Soccer specific stadiums and designated players: Exploring the Major League

Soccer attendance assumption. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation,

& Tourism, 1257-1270.

Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C., Raithel, S., & Gudergan, S. (2014). In pursuit of understanding what

drives fan satisfaction. Journal of Leisure Research, 46(4), 419-447.

Wakefield, K. (2016). Using fan passion to predict attendance, media consumption, and social

media behaviors. Journal of Sport Management, 30(3), 229-247.

Zorzou, A., Zorzou, J., Laios, A., Bebetsos, E., Kobodietas, D., & Apostolidis, N. (2014).

Motivations, attitudes and behavioral intentions of soccer games spectators. Journal of

Physical Education & Sport, 14(4), 507-513.

Review of Literature

The purpose of this review is to provide the literature and theoretical frameworks

related to the objectives of the study. The review contains many subsections, but the

organization overall is rather uncomplicated. First, the importance of conducting dyad level

research in organizational settings is provided. Second, the literature describing the role of

demographics in work dyads and groups is reviewed and evaluated. Finally, the various

theoretical foundations for relational demography are described.

The Importance of Dyad Research

Tsui, Xin, and Egan (1995) have asserted that much of the research on demographic

diversity in the work place has been performed at the group rather than dyad level. This

contention is surprising given the great deal of research that has shown the importance to

understanding the relationship between the superior and subordinate. For example, Tsui,

Xin, and Egan (1995) contend, “an important factor in how well a team works is the

relationship that a team leader has with each individual team member” (p. 97). Further, Fahr,

Podsakoff, and Organ (1990) indicated that much of the contract between an individual

employee and an organization is derived from the relationship the employee enjoys with his

or her immediate supervisor.

Much of research that has occurred at the dyadic level has occurred over the past three

decades. One paradigm that produced numerous studies at the dyadic level was originally

termed the vertical dyad linkage model (Dansereau, Cashman, & Graen, 1973). Recently this

line of research, which focuses on the leadership exchanges between superiors and

subordinates, has been categorized as the leader-member exchange (LMX) theory (Graen,

Novak, & Sommerkamp, 1982). Tsui et al. (1995) describes the basic tenets of the theory as

“leaders categorize subordinates into two groups: the ingroup (characterized by high trust,

interaction, support, and formal and informal rewards) and the outgroup (characterized by low

trust, interaction, support, and formal and informal rewards)”(p. 99).

The research that has been conducted under LMX theory has been able to establish that

ingroup members enjoy better relationships with, and benefit greater from, their supervisors

than outgroup members. Further, according to Graen and Cashman (1975), supervisors trade

resources (both personal and positional) for cooperation from subordinates. In exchange for

this collaboration, ingroup members benefit from enhanced access to information, decision-

making latitude, supervisory support, opportunity for challenging tasks, and influence.

An example of a study using this framework by Liden and Graen (1980) on 41

superior-subordinate dyads tested the validity of the vertical dyad linkage model, and reported

findings indicating the importance of achieving high quality exchange relationships. Results

signified that subordinates in high quality leader-member relationships, or the ingroup,

indicated having greater job responsibility, having a greater contribution to their work units,

and received higher performance ratings than those in low quality leader-member relationships

(i.e., outgroup relationships). Another study by Vecchio, Griffeth, and Hom (1986) of hospital

employees showed a positive relationship between job satisfaction and a high quality

relationship. In yet another study, Vecchio and Gobdel (1984) confirmed that high quality

leader to member exchanges were important to work related outcomes. Their study of 45

dyads in a business organization showed that subordinates achieving ingroup status were rated

higher by superiors, had fewer intentions to quit, and showed greater satisfaction with

supervision than those in the outgroup.

Another study of 261 superior-subordinate dyads from a telephone company (Duarte,

Goodson, & Klich, 1993), however, failed to indicate conclusive evidence of a positive link

between the quality of exchange and actual objective job performance. Yet, the researchers

reported that subordinates in the ingroup received higher performance appraisal ratings

regardless of the actual objective performance. That is, regardless of the actual performance

level by a subordinate, those enjoying ingroup status received higher subjective performance

appraisals than those experiencing low quality exchanges with a supervisor, which indicates a

positive bias by supervisors toward ingroup members.

In summary, based on conceptual and empirical research conducted under the leader-

member exchange model, the literature generally indicates that members of an ingroup will

experience significantly better relationships with their respective supervisor than those

subordinates in the outgroup. However, what has yet to be established from this literature is

what factors may contribute to the categorization of subordinates into an ingroup or outgroup

by their superiors. Based on preliminary evidence in the literature, there appears to be

evidence that demographic factors alone may have an impact on whether a subordinate will

experience high-quality exchanges (i.e., be an in group member), or low-quality exchanges

with supervisors (i.e., be an outgroup member).

Review of Previous Relational Demography Research

Tusi et al. (1995) have contended that relational demography is the missing link toward

a greater understanding of vertical dyad research. This assertion is based on preliminary

research that suggest that relational demographic similarity between superiors and subordinates

can play an important role in the well being of subordinates. However, the research on

relational demography is in its infancy. Only a few studies have explicitly examined relational

demography at the dyad level, though many studies have analyzed the theory utilizing larger

group samples. Therefore the literature concerning both work groups and work dyads are

presented, however, the reviewed literature in this section heavily emphasizes the relevant

contributions at the dyad level, and only the most noteworthy group level analyses.

The origin of relational demography research stems from the broader work on

organizational demography (Pfeffer, 1983). Organizational demography contends that the

distributional properties of both individual and group demographic characteristics in an

organization can have immense meaning beyond that associated with a demographic attribute

considered in isolation (Pfeffer, 1983). Tsui and O’Reilly (1989) were the first to posit the term

relational demography by suggesting that demographic variation could be analyzed even

further than that proposed by Pfeffer, and in the context of interacting group members. Tsui

and O’Reilly (1989) defined relational demography as the comparative demographic

characteristics of group members, including dyads, who engage in interactions on a regular

basis. They described the conceptualization in detail as:

We propose that knowing the comparative similarity or dissimilarity in given

demographic attributes of a superior and a subordinate or of the members of an

interacting work team may provide additional information about the members’

characteristic attitudes and behaviors and, more important, insight into the processes

through which demography affects job outcomes (Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989, p. 403).

Although Tsui and O’Reilly (1989) were the first to coin the term relational

demography and analyze specific research questions from this framework, previous research

had indicated the importance of relational demographics on interacting members. For example,

the work by Pfeffer and his associates under the organizational demography methodology

produced findings consistent with relational demographic studies. One such study by McCain,

O’Reilly, and Pfeffer (1983) indicated that organizational turnover was related to the

demographics of the group. Results suggested that those group members that belonged to

more homogeneous groups in terms of tenure experienced fewer turnovers. A similar study by

Wagner, Pfeffer, and O’Reilly (1984) examined turnover in top-management groups. Their

findings showed that individuals belonging to groups that were more heterogeneous in terms of

age were more likely to turnover than those in more homogeneous groups.

Another more thorough study by O’Reilly, Caldwell, and Barnett (1989) examined

work group cohesion and turnover. The research on field sales representatives included 20

different work groups consisting of 3 to 6 members each (N = 79). Their findings showed that

work groups that were most similar in terms of tenure, reported greater group cohesion among

the members and lower turnover. Further, findings at the individual level indicated that the

more similar members were in terms of tenure with other members, the less likely they were to

turnover and were more integrated.

There were a few early studies that focused on the relational demographic framework at

the dyad level as well. For example, one of the first studies to discuss a demographic effect in

interacting dyads was completed by Larwood and Blackmore (1978). Larwood and Blackmore

used 60 male and female students in an experiment to understand the behavior of soliciting

volunteer leaders. The study reported that the students tended to solicit leadership toward

members of their own sex more so than the opposite sex.

Liden (1985) studied 35 female bank employees in an attempt to measure the subjects’

reactions to female and male managers. Liden reported that 80% of the female subordinates in

the study actually showed a preference for a male manager. While this finding might

demonstrate that homogenous work teams provide no advantage in the work place, the author

drew a different conclusion. Liden concluded that the relationship was based on situational

variables, and not to gender differences. That is, because the female superiors in the banks

possessed less experience and the male superiors reported having more influence than female

managers, the preference for the male supervisors was based more on rank or position and not

gender of supervisor.

Tsui and O’Reilly (1989) were the first to perform a study under what is now

considered relational demography. The researchers framed their study under the similarity-

attraction paradigm and analyzed the effects of age, gender, education, company tenure, and

job tenure dissimilarities on four outcome variables. The outcome variables included

reputational effectiveness, supervisory affect, role ambiguity, and role conflict. The study

analyzed superior-subordinate dyads (N = 272) from a Fortune 500 multidivisional

corporation. Analysis included the use of blocked regressions that included the superior’s

demographics (block one), the subordinate’s demographics (block two), and relational

demographics (block three). The results of the study indicated a relational demographic effect

on three of the four outcome variables, and significant beta weights were yielded on 13 of the

24 possible relational demographic variables. Some of the most noteworthy findings included

subordinates in mixed-gender dyads were rated to perform worse and were liked less well than

those subordinates in a same-gender dyad. Subordinates in the mixed-gender dyads also

reported higher levels of role conflict and role ambiguity. Supervisors also indicated a greater

liking for subordinates with shorter job tenures than themselves, than those with the same or a

greater amount of tenure.

Weslowski and Mossholder (1997) conducted a more recent study under the concept of

relational demography, and framed the analysis under self-categorization theory. The

researchers tested if demographic dissimilarity between the dyad for the variables of race,

gender, age, and education affected subordinates job attitudes of job satisfaction, burnout, and

perceived procedural justice. The researchers collected data from 124 superior-subordinate

dyads working at two different service-oriented companies, and primarily used polynomial

regressions for analyses. The results of the study yielded significant relational effects for the

race variable only. Specifically, relational race was found to correlate with perceptions of

procedural justice and job satisfaction, but not for burnout. That is, those in mixed-race dyads

indicated significantly lower means for job satisfaction and procedural justice than those in

same-race dyads.

Another dyad level study that utilized a relational demography methodology was

conducted by Epitropaki and Martin (1999). The researchers analyzed the impact of

differences in age, organizational tenure, and gender between subordinates and their managers

as a potential moderator between the quality of leader-member exchanges, organizational

commitment, job satisfaction, and job-related well-being. The findings of the study did not

show direct relational demographic effects on any of the work-related outcomes. However, the

researchers did reveal some evidence of the moderating effect of relational demographics on

work outcomes. For example, when LMX was low, a high age difference was associated with

lower well being than when the age differences were low. That is, employees with a high

difference in age to their manager and low LMX, indicated lower well-being. Organizational

tenure differences between the manger and subordinate also moderated the relationship

between LMX and organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and well-being. Therefore,

the study indicated that those experiencing low LMX and having large organizational tenure

differences reported the lowest organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and well-being.

Any gender differences between the manager and subordinate were not found to moderate the

LMX relationship and the work outcomes. While this study fails to provide evidence of a

direct relational demographic effect on the work outcomes, it does demonstrate the importance

of relational demography in understanding work outcomes through the moderation in the

leader-member exchanges of dyads.

Judge and Ferris (1993) studied the extent that a demographic dissimilarity between a

superior and subordinate would affect the performance appraisal process on 81 registered

nurses and their supervisors from a hospital in central Illinois. The researchers chose just two

demographic variables for analysis, age and tenure, and hypothesized that the more similar a

the supervisor and subordinate were with respect to theses two variables, the more the

supervisor reported liking the subordinate, which would indirectly have an effect on a positive

performance rating. Results of the study supported the hypothesis in that increased similarity

between the dyad on a composite score of both age and tenure, positively affected supervisors’

affect toward subordinates, and therefore, indirectly affected a positive performance appraisal.

Another dyad level study by Green, Anderson, and Shivers (1996) assessed the effects

of organizational (e.g., work unit size) and demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, and

education differences) on the quality of leader-member exchanges (LMX) among a sample of

208 public library employees. Furthermore, the researchers assessed the relative contributions

of the organizational characteristics, relational demographics, and LMX on a subordinate’s

work attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction and organizational commitment). The results indicated that

a gender difference was evident on LMX and that LMX was of lower quality when the

subordinate and superior were of different genders. Further, the relational gender difference

almost always took the form of a female subordinate and a male supervisor. Therein, the

authors contend, “the presence of a male manager with a female subordinate may have taken

on special significance in this work setting and altered the LMX development process” (Green

et al., 1996, p. 210). The negative effect on the quality of LMX was subsequently found to

affect the job satisfaction variable indirectly through a positive effect of LMX on satisfaction.

The relational education variable was found to have a direct effect on organizational

commitment. The authors also report that organizational characteristics (unit size and work

load experienced) were negatively related to LMX quality.

An important group level, as opposed to dyad level, study by was conducted by Fields

and Blum (1997). The study analyzed the relationship between an employee’s job satisfaction,

and the gender composition of his or her work group. The authors surveyed a total of 820 men

and 814 women representing employed persons from across the United States. Results of the

study indicated that both men and women working in a gender-balanced group (similar

amounts of male and females) had higher job satisfaction levels than those working in more

homogeneous groups (i.e., mostly male or mostly female). Further, employees that worked in

groups containing mostly men indicated the lowest levels of job satisfaction from the other

groups. Those employees working in groups of mostly females, indicated job satisfaction

levels in the middle of the continuum. Although this study did not use relational demography

as a framework for analysis, the study further iterates the importance of demographic

characteristics on the well being of employees.

A more recent study by Lichtenstien and Alexander (2000) did use relational

demography as a framework for analysis. The study utilized data from 38 hospitals and

hospital administrative offices (N = 1,795). The authors hypothesized that perceptions of

advancement opportunities of employees with regard to demographic dissimilarity to the work

group in public sector organizations (i.e., VA hospital employees) would differ from previous

research utilizing private sector organizations. That is, the authors contended that being

demographically dissimilar to co-workers in a public sector organization would result in much

different results on perceived advancement opportunities than other relational demography

research that indicate a negative effect on the construct. Results of the study partially

supported the hypotheses, at least with respect to relational age and race. The results indicated

that the more dissimilar an employee was with regard to age and race, the greater the

perception of advancement opportunity was. The authors contend that these findings, which

contradict previous studies, could be attributed to the many equal opportunity policies that

public sector organizations pursue, which altered the expected relationship between

dissimilarity in demographics and perceptions of advancement opportunity in ones job.

Pelled (1996) conducted a study of 233 blue collar workers and assessed if a

demographic dissimilarity from those in a work group (n = 42) affected how individual’s

perceived the groups performance and conflict. Pelled used a relational demography

framework to shape the study hypotheses and assessed differences among the interacting

members on the demographic variables of gender, organizational tenure, and race. The model

included two hypotheses and assessed the effects of relational demography on the outcome

variables of perceived emotional conflict and perceptions of group performance. Results

indicated that both gender and tenure dissimilarity had positive relationships with the perceived

emotional conflict construct. Demographic dissimilarity was also negatively related to the

ratings of group performance indirectly through the conflict perception variable. That is,

although the demographic dissimilarities did not have a direct effect on the perceived

productivity of the group, the negative relationships toward the emotional conflict variable,

which subsequently predicted less perceived productivity, indicates that relational demography

can affect the confidence members have toward their group.

Jackson et al. (1991) produced a study that analyzed both the effects of demographic

similarity to a group on individuals and groups. The researchers examined the demographic

differences among the variables of age, organizational tenure, educational level, college

curriculum, industry experience, and military experience on a sample of 93 top management

teams (totaling 625 individuals) in the banking industry. The study was conducted under

similar theories—the attraction-selection-attrition model (ASA) (Schneider, 1987) and the

organizational demography model (Pfeffer, 1983). The effects of individual dissimilarity and

group heterogeneity on the outcome variables of recruitment, promotion, and turnover were

assessed using analysis of variance, correlations, and regressions. The group level analyses

indicated that group heterogeneity predicted turnover. That is, the more dissimilar the work

group was in terms of the demographic variables, the more turnover the team experienced over

the four-year period under study. The results at the individual level indicated that a

dissimilarity between the individual and the work group with respect to the demographic

variables predicted higher turnover. The results lent support for both models under

investigation in that demographic similarity (organizational demography) and psychological

similarity (ASA) effects on the outcomes were noted.

A group level study by Mueller et al. (1999) studied teachers in 405 urban school

district schools under relational demography theory, a racial prejudice framework, and status

characteristics theory. The studied assessed the direct effects of the racial composition of the

schools teachers and students on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and career

commitment. Furthermore, the researchers were interested in assessing what variables would

act as mediators of the group composition differences effect on satisfaction and commitment

constructs. Specifically, the authors main hypotheses was that teachers that worked in schools

in which there own race was dominant would experience greater commitment and job

satisfaction than teachers in schools where a race other than their own was primary. Further,

the authors tested whether White teachers in schools with predominately White colleagues

would experience greater coworker support, role conflict, and autonomy, a contention that is

grounded in the nonsymmetry hypothesis. Results indicated that the racial composition of

schools affected the White teachers but not the Black teachers, which lent support for the

nonsymmetry hypothesis that Whites in Black-dominant settings often react more negatively

than Blacks in White-dominant settings. The specific results indicated that White teachers in

“mismatched” settings (e.g., in a Black-dominant school) experienced greater role conflict,

inadequate resources, and less job autonomy. These negative effects in turn shaped less job

satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, no racial composition effects on career

commitment were found. As such, the authors assert that relational demography effects appear

to have “more short-term than long-term effects on teachers” (Mueller et al., 1999, p. 211).

Tsui, Egan, O’Reilly (1992) constructed a framework built on self-categorization

theory to test a series of hypotheses regarding relational demographic differences with respect

to age, race, tenure, education, and gender. The researchers tested the effects of relational

demography on the outcome variables of commitment, attendance behavior, and tenure

intentions among 1,705 workers across three different industries. The results indicated that an

increase in work-unit diversity among group members negatively affected the psychological

attachment of the individuals. Specifically, the researchers reported general relational

demography effects on three of the five difference variables. The tenure, gender, and race

variables all accounted for a difference in all three of the outcome variables. For the gender

and race relational scores, the direction of the relationship was as hypothesized. Thus, the

greater the difference in gender and race of the individual toward the work group, the lower

levels of commitment, the higher the frequency of absences, and the lower stay intentions were

experienced by the employees. However, the hypothesized effects for education and tenure

were not supported. In fact, the opposite effects to those hypothesized were actually found to

exist.

Numerous interesting results were noted in the study by Tsui et al. (1992). The most

noteworthy of these emerged in the nonsymmetrical effects analysis for the gender variable

(i.e., separate analysis for each gender). For the men in this analysis, an increase in the gender

composition of the work group was actually associated with less psychological attachment,

increased absence, and fewer stay intentions. However, for women, an increase in the gender

from others in the group was associated with greater levels of organizational attachment. Thus,

it appears that men are more affected by an increase in the heterogeneity of a work group, and

would have more positive psychological outcomes in a male-dominated or all male setting.

However, females appear to be unaffected by an increase in the gender heterogeneity a work

group.

Theoretical Frameworks Explaining Demographic Effects

Relational demography effects can be best explained by self-categorization theory, a

theory grounded in Tajfel’s (1974) social identity theory. Hogg and Terry (2000) contend that

Tajfel developed the theory to indicate “how beliefs about the nature of relationships between

groups (status, stability, permeability, legitimacy) influence the way that individuals or groups

pursue positive social identity” (p. 122-123). One principle of an individual’s social identity is

that of self-enhancement, which is related to one’s self-esteem (Riordon, 1995). Individuals

are expected to desire to establish a high level of self-esteem (e.g., Brockner, 1988), this in turn

will motivate them to achieve a favorable self-identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). However, in

order for individuals to identify how they feel about others, they are required to identify

themselves first (Tsui et al., 1992).

To establish this identity, individuals are expected to partake in a self-categorization

process (Turner, 1987). Self-categorization elaborates on social identity theory and contends

that individuals “classify themselves and others into social categories using characteristics such

as organizational membership, age, race, status, or religion” (Tsui et al., 1992). These social

categories allow individuals to define themselves in terms of social identity (Miklos, 1999).

Furthermore, the process allows individuals to assume a more positive self-identity and s/he

may consequently seek to maximize their ingroup uniqueness and disfavor the outgroups

distinctiveness (Kramer, 1991). Stephan and Stephan (1985) have asserted, “people who are

regarded as superior experience anxiety concerning interaction with others who are regarded as

inferior” (p. 163). This anxiety can in turn challenge one’s self-esteem and enable people to

avoid contact with members of an outgroup, and to increase the stereotyping behavior toward

the outgroup (Tsui et al., 1992).

The theory is ideal for analysis in an organizational context because existence of the

numerous groups in these setting (e.g., work groups, supervisor-subordinate dyads,

management groups) and the research that suggests that individuals prefer to function in

homogeneous groups of similar others rather than in a group of dissimilar others (e.g.,

Schneider, 1987). Relational demographics are relevant because individuals often classify

themselves and others into categories using various characteristics such as gender, race, age,

tenure, and education (Riordan, 1995; Tsui et al., 1992; Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). Thus, if an

individual’s demographic background and characteristics (such as age, gender, tenure, race, or

religion) make them distinct, she or he may engage in social identification and subsequent self-

categorization based on the particular background or characteristic (Pelled, 1996).

At the dyad level, self-categorization theory and relational demographic effects

contends that demographic dissimilarities between the two members can lead to an increase in

polarization between the members based on definition of the social group as a whole (i.e.,

conflicting outgroup or ingroup group memberships when compared to the broader group as a

whole) (Turner & Oakes, 1989). Further, when demographic dissimilarities exist within a dyad,

subordinates and superiors may tend to stereotype each other and emphasize their differences

(Weslowski & Mossholder, 1997). These contentions, along with the literature reviewed

indicating the importance of ingroup and outgroup categorizations in dyad studies, and the

reviewed relational demographic studies, suggest that dyads that differ demographically may

negatively affect individual work-related variables.

Databases and search engines for academic literature in sport management

Databases

1. ABI/INFORM Global
2. EBSCO – Academic Search Premier
3. JSTOR
4. SPORTDiscus with Full Text
5. SBRNet
6. Web of Science
7. WorldCat – FirstSearch
8. Lexis-Nexis (legal research and newspapers)
9. PsycINFO
10. Dissertations and Theses Full Text

Internet

1. Google Scholar
2. CV’s
3. Professional organizations (e.g., NCAA.org)

UF Library
1. Smathers Library West Catalog
2. Interlibrary loan (ILL)

 

Running head:

MANAGEMENT DILEMMAS

1

MANAGEMENT DILEMMAS 4

MANAGEMENT DILEMMAS

Student’s name

Institutional affiliates

Course

Date

Part I: Management Dilemmas

1. The first management dilemma is whether student-athletes should get paid in the International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF) instead of just giving them free scholarships to higher education. Literature source:

https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/jlas29&section=4

2. The other dilemma is the main reason as to why the coaches of soccer in the International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF) cannot manage their projects. Literature source:

https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7XOxDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=What+is+the+main+reason+why+Soccer+coaches+faile+managing+their+projects&ots=erIlD1GbPs&sig=Df_0npM8G3iQ6gmg11ShLDLJacQ

3.

Part II: Define Research Questions

1. What should be done in order for the association to recognize that the students who play soccer require more than just a scholarship? How should they be made to understand that even good grades can attain a student a scholarship which means that athlete students need more than just a scholarship?

2. What steps should be taken in order to help soccer coaches plan better and come up with strategic plans that will help in successful project management and will gear effective planning, scheduling, and allocation of resources needed for their projects?

Part III: Further Define Research Questions

1. Resource management- assigning the available resources to the project according to the importance and time that the particular thing should take in order for a project to run smoothly and get enough of everything to see it through until it is done.

2. The schedule is a plan of carrying out a procedure or process given a list of things that should be done at a particular event with the sequence of how all the things should appear at specific times.

3. Athletics is defined as a collection of sporting activities that involves walking, running, throwing and jumping. The most common types are road-running, track, and field and walking races.

4. Soccer which is also known as football is a game played by two different teams which have eleven players in each, a referee and a coach.

References

Brown, K., & Williams, A. (2019). Out of Bounds: A Critical Race Theory Perspective on Pay for Play. J. Legal Aspects Sport, 29, 30.

Rollnick, S., Fader, J., Breckon, J., & Moyers, T. B. (2019). Coaching Athletes to be Their Best: Motivational Interviewing in Sports. Guilford Press.

Running head: MANAGEMENT DILEMMAS 1

MANAGEMENT DILEMMAS 6

Management Dilemmas

Name

Institutional Affiliation

Management Dilemmas

Part I: Research Questions

1. Should student athletes receive a stipend by the universities as reimbursement for participating in sports? Are there policies under the ISSF that guide on how best students should be compensated for their participation in different sports?

2. What challenges do coaches face in managing their respective teams? Is there an approved ISSF standard management structure that would allow coaches to participate and interact more with their players such that they are not only constrained to their managerial duties?

Part II: Research Topic

Problem Statement

Professional athletes earn large sums of money, though considered unethical; due to the fact that most of the times these athletes are students who are “exploited”. The estimated value rose through college athletics is considered to be roughly more than a billion dollars yearly, with this revenue being generated from an estimated 25 football schools and 64 basketball schools respectively (Brown & Williams, 2019). The concern raised is that the students do not get to see the money earned; but instead are offered athletic scholarships, allowing them to get free college education. The concerning factor is that most students use this opportunity as a chance to qualify for professional leagues, without considering the beneficial factors that their education offers. They are continuously to sacrifice their class and study hours such that they can practice and travel for their sports (Brown & Williams, 2019). Even though a scholarship seems like a good deal for some of these college athletes, what criteria is used to reward those athletes who are often viewed as celebrities and exploited for their affiliation with different institution to earn money for them?

Quite often, managers are faced with the dilemma of relating with their athletes mainly because they are absorbed in managerial duties that limit their interactions with their players. As a result, the element of teamwork is ignored and disregarded, leading to lack of communication, lack of trust, and continued conflict, which may affect the effectiveness of the team (Rollnick, Fader, Breckon, & Moyers, 2019). Sometimes the coaches aspect of caring is viewed as interference because there is no connection between the players and their coach, with coaches feeling left out of most decisions made by the players. This in mind, the study focuses on finding new strategies that can be applied by all coaches in every sport, such that the aspect of unity and communication is achieved, with coaches participating more in their respective projects.

Importance of the Study

Given the dynamic scope of this industry, it is important to do more research to understand the depth of the dilemma within the industry, with the use of previous and current research to provide insight on different perspectives about the industry. Global advancements in fields such as medicine, technology, and informatics create valid cause to conduct regular research in the industry, tracing elements of change that may be important in mitigating managerial dilemmas. The research is beneficial to aspiring sports managers as well as young athletes who wish to venture into different sports within the industry.

Part III: Review of Literature- Additional Sources

1. There are conflicting opinions on whether the revenue gathered from the ISSF and NCAA should be used to pay college education for student-athletes. The NCAA us against the idea mostly because they feel that the athletes are at risk of exploitation, and prefer using the funds to contract coaches who would be posted in different facilities. However, the risks that these student athletes put themselves in through injury and the high competition gives an uncertain thought about the future of their athletic careers. Literature source https://digitalcommons.daemen.edu/academic_festival/95/

2. Governance and Policy making in the sports industry is essential in the structure and function in different sports, similar to those within the workplace. The journal demonstrates how individual sports organizations are what make up the industry, raising questions on policy issues and ethical concerns raised daily. Additionally, managers have different perspectives that give a glimpse of the impact of governance and policies on sports professionals. The journal, therefore, helps understand the perspective of the sports industry through giving examples of some real-world case studies. Literature source

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315213057

3. The article gives a systematic analysis of how coaches play a role in unintended conflict in sports, giving an example of New Zealand rugby and cricket coaches. Through a systematic approach, the article gives an example of a model derived from Edgar Schein’s three model theoretical framework, which uses previous beliefs and values, artifacts, and assumptions in management. The framework was designed to change the culture of management from one that encourages violence to one that encourages integrity and honor. Literature source

https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315130194/chapters/10.4324/9781315130194-3

Research Objectives

1. To determine whether student-athletes should receive compensation or stipend for generating revenue for their institutions.

2. To determine appropriate strategies coaches can use to be more involved in their projects.

References

Brown, K., & Williams, A. (2019). Out of Bounds: A Critical Race Theory Perspective on Pay for Play. J. Legal Aspects Sport, 29, 30. Retrieved from

https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/jlas29&section=4

Garvin, D. (2019). Pay for Play. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.daemen.edu/academic_festival/95/

Hums, M. A., & MacLean, J. C. (2017). Governance and policy in sport organizations. Routledge. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315213057

Rollnick, S., Fader, J., Breckon, J., & Moyers, T. B. (2019). Coaching Athletes to be Their Best: Motivational Interviewing in Sports. Guilford Press. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=7XOxDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=What+is+the+main+reason+why+Soccer+coaches+faile+managing+their+projects&ots=erIlD1GbPs&sig=Df_0npM8G3iQ6gmg11ShLDLJacQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Smith, K. (2017). The role of sports coaches in creating culture: A dysfunctional case. In Sports, Peacebuilding and Ethics (pp. 29-38). Routledge. Retrieved from https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315130194/chapters/10.4324/9781315130194-3