In the early centuries of Christianity, we can see a number of norms develop in what comes to be called Nicene Christianity in terms of both practice and belief. These norms can be observed in the areas of scripture, worship, doctrine, councils, hierarchical structure, art, and architecture. Pick one of these areas, and write a 1-2 page double-spaced essay explaining the development towards normative practice. For instance, you may write about the development of the New Testament canon, the development of the church hierarchy, etc.
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Establishing Norms and Boundaries
▪ “Gospel/Good News” – Focused on
Jesus’ works, his teachings, his
miracles, and especially his victory
over death on the cross through his
resurrection.
▪ Trinitarian Theology – Focused on
how Jesus and the Holy Spirit relate to
God the Father within a monotheistic
framework.
▪ Incarnation – The “taking on flesh” by
the Second Person of the Trinity
(Christ), i.e. God becoming human.
▪ Soteriology – The relation between
Jesus’ death/resurrection and human
beings’ salvation from sin and death.
▪ Ecclesiology – The understanding of
the Church as the people of God.
▪ Sacramental Theology – Baptism,
Eucharist (communion), Ordination,
Marriage, etc.
▪ Ethics – Inherited largely from second-
Temple Judaism, but modified by
teachings of Jesus.
▪ Ritual – From earliest times, we can see
Christians focus on the correct ways to
do certain rituals, or sacraments, such
as baptism, the Eucharist, etc. There is
also evidenced very early a particular
structure common to Christian worship.
This structure is connected to Hebrew
patterns of worship, despite
Christianity being composed more and
more of Gentiles.
And concerning baptism, in this manner
baptize: when you have gone over these
things, baptize in the name of the Father,
and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in
running water.
If you do not have running water, baptize
in other water. If you are not able to use
cold water, use warm. And if you have
neither, pour water on the head three
times, in the name of the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit. And before baptism,
the one baptizing and the one to be
baptized should fast, as well as any
others who are able. And you should
instruct the one being baptized to fast
one or two days before. (Didache 7)
▪ From the time of Christ, or shortly
thereafter, Jesus’ 12 apostles are seen
as holding places of authority.
▪ Already in the NT documents, we see
references to elders, deacons, and
bishops.
▪ Initially, the terms “elder/priest” and
“bishop” seem to be used
synonymously. However, they are
later distinguished as two separate
offices.
▪ By the second century, one bishop
per church, often with multiple
priests, deacons, etc.
▪ However, as time went on, a bishop
would preside over a diocese
(territory), within which priests
would serve in individual churches.
Bishop
Priests/Clergy
Laity (people)
MONASTICISM
▪ Prayer
▪ Asceticism
▪ Celebacy
▪ Work
▪ Solitude vs. Community
▪ Hospitality
▪ Missionary Work
CHURCH
CALENDAR
▪ Early evidence for the celebration of
Pascha/Easter.
▪ In time, more events from the life of Christ, as
well as the Virgin Mary, incorporated into the
Christian calendar as feast days, or fasts.
▪ From the second century at the latest, we see
evidence of particular Christians signaled out
for their holiness (saints) commemorated on
particular days.
▪ Link with Israel
▪ Particular theological understanding
of the “parting of the ways.”
▪ Age of Persecution
▪ Triumph of Christianity
▪ Hebrew Bible vs. Septuagint (LXX)
▪ Do Jews and Christians share the
same Scriptures?
▪ Translation vs. Interpretation
BIBLICAL CANON:
NEW TESTAMENT
Muratorian Fragment (possibly second century, although some
scholars date it to the fourth century)
“The third book of the Gospel is that according to Luke… The
fourth… is that of John… the acts of all the apostles… As for the
Epistles of Paul… To the Corinthians first, to the Ephesians second,
to the Philippians third, to the Colossians fourth, to the Galatians
fifth, to the Thessalonians sixth, to the Romans seventh… once more
to the Corinthians and to the Thessalonians… one to Philemon, one
to Titus, and two to Timothy… to the Laodiceans, [and] another to the
Alexandrians, [both] forged in Paul’s name to [further] the heresy of
Marcion… the epistle of Jude and two of the above-mentioned (or,
bearing the name of) John… and [the book of] Wisdom… We receive
only the apocalypses of John and Peter, though some of us are not
willing that the latter be read in church. But Hermas wrote
the Shepherd very recently… And therefore it ought indeed to be
read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church.”
BIBLICAL CANON:
NEW TESTAMENT
▪ Eusebius (fourth century Christian bishop and historian)
▪ 1. […] it is proper to sum up the writings of the New Testament which have
been already mentioned. First then must be put the holy quaternion of
the Gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles… the epistles of Paul…
the epistle of John… the epistle of Peter… After them is to be placed, if it
really seem proper, the Apocalypse of John, concerning which we shall
give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among
the accepted writings [Homologoumena].
▪ 3. Among the disputed writings [Antilegomena], which are nevertheless
recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that
of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called
the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or
to another person of the same name.
▪ 4. Among the rejected writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and
the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to
these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the
Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper,
which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted
books.
▪ 5. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the
Hebrews… And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books…
such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others
besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles …
they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they
are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them
to be cast aside as absurd and impious.
The first New Testament canon list
that exactly matches our New
Testament today comes from a letter
from Athanasius in 367 CE.
juhka
`
Christian Architecture
History and theory of Architecture II
Professor Dr. Majd Al-Homoud
Al-Balqa’ Applied University
College of Engineering
Department of Architecture
Rana Al-Khateeb
22nd /3/2017
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CONTANT PAGE
Early Christian Architecture
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Byzantine Architecture
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Romanesque Architecture
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Early Christian Architecture
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Early Christian Architecture
o Early Christian architecture:
1. titulus (church assigned for the cardinals)
2. catacombs (burial place)
3. martyria (church built above a tomb)
By the beginning of the fourth century Christianity was a growing mystery religion in the
cities of the Roman world. It was attracting converts from different social levels. Christian
theology and art was enriched through the cultural interaction with the Greco-Roman
world. But Christianity would be radically transformed through the actions of a single
man.
Rome becomes Christian and Constantine builds churches:
In 312, the Emperor Constantine defeated his principal rival Maxentius at the Battle of
the Milvian Bridge.
After that victory Constantine became the principal patron of Christianity. In 313 he
issued the Edict of Milan which granted religious toleration. Although Christianity
would not become the official religion of Rome until the end of the fourth century,
Constantine’s imperial sanction of Christianity transformed its status and nature.
Neither imperial Rome nor Christianity would be the same after this moment.
Rome
would become Christian, and Christianity would take on the aura of imperial Rome.
Colossus of Constantine, c. 312-15 (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome)
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The transformation of Christianity is dramatically evident in a comparison between the
architecture of the pre-Constantinian church and that of the Constantinian and post-
Constantinian church.
Basilica
The basilica model was adopted in the construction of Old St. Peter’s church in Rome.
What stands today is New St. Peter’s church, which replaced the original during the
Italian Renaissance.
Whereas the original Roman basilica was rectangular with at least one apse, usually
facing North, the Christian builders made several symbolic modifications. Between
the nave and the apse, they added a transept, which ran perpendicular to the nave.
This addition gave the building a cruciform shape to memorialize the Crucifixion.
The apse, which held the altar and the Eucharist, now faced East, in the direction of
the rising sun. However, the apse of Old St. Peter’s faced West to commemorate the
church’s namesake, who, according to the popular narrative, was crucified upside
down.
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Plan of Old St. Peter’s Basilica
One of the first Christian churches in Rome, Old St. Peter’s followed the plan of the Roman
basilica and added a transept (labeled Bema in this diagram) to give the church a cruciform
shape.
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The most crucial period of Christianity was the first three centuries A.D.
1. Officially recognized as the state religion of Rome in 326 A.D. by the Roman
Emperor Constantine
o Replaced Paganism
2. First Christian architecture was modest in scope and served two needs:
o Provided a space for spiritual needs of the living (عبادة(
o Provided a burial place for the dead
Early Christian meeting places were actually set-up in pre-existing apartments or homes:
o These locations were known as titulus
o Most were rebuilt into full scale churches
Best known early Christian architecture are the burial places, known as catacombs:
o Early Christians were quite poor
o Burial was provided in individual “shelf” tombs or private family chambers
o Usually located beneath churches
Open air cemeteries were also in existence
o Actually preferred over the dreary catacombs
o Vatican Hill:
Modest monument of the late second century
Said to have marked the grave of Saint Peter
Now occupied by the church of Saint Peter
Earliest art forms found in the catacombs , underground passageway
Basilicas were built throughout the roman empire to accommodate the large numbers of
Christian worship
Technical advances from roman architecture made making larger structures possible
Christian churches were seen as retreats from the real world as a spiritual experience
seen in these churches
Plain exterior but ornate interior:
o The basilica was design with a large central aisle called a nave , at the end
there was a semi-circular area called the apse.
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Rome and the Holy Land
Roman Structures:
Lateran:
o Constantine donated this structure to be seat of the Bishop of Rome (The
Pope)
o Built around 313 A.D., prior to the official establishment of Christianity in
Rome
o The first important Christian structure in Rome
o Has been rebuilt, leaving only its foundations and historical evidence as to its
original form
Emperor Constantine
o 313 AD edict of Milan
New forms in architecture
o old forms, new function
Christian mass
o evolved as an indoor event
Rome
San Giovanni in laterano
o prototype – roman – basilica
Old saint peter’s , Rome 320 AD
o most important
o atrium , narthex , transept
Holy land
Church of the nativity
Church of the holy sepulcher
Central plan martyria
o based on roman heroes (shrine)
The Holy Land: is an area roughly located between the Jordan River and the
Mediterranean Sea that also includes the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River.
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A 1759 map entitled The Holy Land showing not only the Ancient Kingdoms of Judah and
Israel in which the 12 Tribes have been distinguished, but also their placement in different
periods as indicated in the Holy Scriptures by Tobias Conrad Lotter
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(Old) St. Peters Church
Considered the most important basilican church built by Constantine
Building began around 333 A.D.
Located on the slope of the Vatican Hill in Rome
Covers a cemetery and features a shrine to Saint Peter, whom is presumably buried
there
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Old St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome, from: Giovanni Ciampini, De sacris aedificiis a
Constantino Magno constructis: synopsis historica, 1693, p. 33
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Exterior reconstruction of Old St. Peter’s
This reconstruction depicts an idea of how the church appeared in the fourth century.
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Structures in the Holy Lands
Constantine also built many structures in the Holy Lands
Church of the Nativity (كنيسة المهد(
o Built in Bethlehem as a shrine to honour Christ
o Replaced in the sixth century A.D. with the modern structure
o Very similar to St. Peters but on a much smaller scale
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At the Church of the Nativity, three rival Christian groups use their caretaking duties to
maintain their claims to the basiilica. (Remi Benali / Corbis)
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The interior of the Church of the
Nativity as photographed by Lewis
Larsson of the American Colony,
Jerusalem
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The basilica and grounds as they
were depicted to appear in a work
published in 1487
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The interior of the Church of the Nativity as it was depicted to appear in 1833
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An illustration from 1911 Britannica
depicting the plan of Church of the
Nativity, Bethlehem. (1) Narthex; (2)
nave; (3) aisles.
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Church of the Holy Sepulchre)كنيسة القيامة \ القبر المقدس(
Built to honour the burial place of Christ
More elaborate than the Church of the Nativity
o Had been instructed by Constantine to be “ a basilica more beautiful than any on
Earth”
Surrounded the Holy Sepulchre
Believed to be the burial place of Christ
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View of Holy Sepulchre
Courtyard
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Church of the Holy Sepulchre
(1885). Other than some restoration
work, its appearance has essentially
not changed since 1854. The
Immovable Ladder, the small ladder
below the top-right window, is also
visible in recent photographs; this
has remained in the same position
since 1854 over a disagreement to
move it.
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A view into the Jesus tomb through
a newly created window, Church of
the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem,
October 30, 2106
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Byzantine Architecture
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Early Byzantine Architecture
Justinian I devoted much of his reign (527–565 CE) to reconquering Italy, North Africa,
and Spain. During his reign, he sought to revive the empire’s greatness and reconquer
the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. This attempt at restoration
included an ambitious building program in Constantinople and elsewhere in the
empire, and is the most substantial architectural achievement by one person in
history.
Justinian I from San Vitale in Ravenna
Byzantine Emperor Justinian forcefully pushed for the spread of Christianity along with the
expansion of his empire.
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Hagia Sophia, Constantinople 537 C.E.
One notable structure for which Justinian was responsible is the Hagia Sophia, or
Church of Holy Wisdom, built by Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, both of
whom would oversee most building projects that Justinian ordered within
Constantinople. Like most Byzantine churches of this time, the Hagia Sophia is
centrally planned, with the dome serving as its focal point.
Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles plan for the Hagia Sophia
a) Plan of the gallery (upper half); b) Plan of the ground floor (lower half).
The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome that
at its maximum is over 180 feet from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched
windows. Although the dome appears circular at first glance, repairs to its structure
have left it somewhat elliptical, with its diameter varying between 101 and nearly 103
feet.
Hagia Sophia is considered the ideal Byzantine model. Built by emperor Justinian of
the Eastern Roman Empire, He hired Isidorusof Miletus and Anthemiusof Trallesto
construct this building.
The building is a 230 foot by 250 foot rectangle with a 100 foot square centered upon
it. The pendentivedome rises 70 feet before the less the full hemispherical dome.
Within the arch of the pendentivedomes, half domes were created on the long side of
the rectangle to create the nave. This was new for the time.
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The Imperial Gate, reserved only for the emperor, was the main entrance of the
cathedral. A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the
upper gallery, which was traditionally reserved for the empress and her entourage. It
is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until it reaches the apse.
After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, the plan of the Hagia Sophia would
significantly influence the construction and design of the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–
1557).
An interior view of Hagia Sophia
The Emperor Justinian ordered the
construction of Hagia Sophia in 532 CE.
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The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred
particular interest for many art historians,
architects, and engineers because of the
innovative way the original architects
envisioned it. The cupola is carried on four,
spherical, triangular Pendentive, an element
that was first fully realized in this building.
The Pendentive implement the transition from
the circular base of the dome to the
rectangular base below to restrain the lateral
forces of the dome and allow its weight to
flow downwards. They were later reinforced
with buttresses.
At the western entrance side and the eastern
liturgical side are arched openings that are
extended by half domes of identical diameter
to the central dome, and carried on smaller
semi-domed exedras. A hierarchy of dome-
headed elements creates a vast, oblong
interior crowned by the central dome, with a
span of 250 feet.
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St. Vitale, Ravenna, 532 C.E.
Emperor Honorius I moved the Capital of the Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna
on the Northwest Coast of Italy. So Ravenna too was then built up to house an
Empire.
St. Vitale is an engineering marvel.
Early Christians determined that domes were too heavy if solid so they built hollow
ceramic units to create the dome. This reduced the weight and allowed the structure
to go higher by reducing the mass of the surrounding walls.
The Octagonal building housed a circular nave with a series of niches for relics and
other ritual events.
The sanctuary sat behind the altar which was the space for precious relics & for
special rituals.
The Apse at the end was opened up to bring in light to shine behind the priest, giving
him a “heavenly glow” The interior had stone tile flooring plaster walls painted or
with Mosaic tiles patterns or sculpture.
The church due to its height could support two levels of clerestory windows.
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Abel and Melchizedek make their offerings to God, foreshadowing the offering of the
Eucharist made on the high altar just below this mosaic.
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Pendentive
In architecture, a triangular segment of a spherical surface, filling in the upper corners
of a room, in order to form, at the top, a circular support for a dome. The challenge of
supporting a dome over an enclosed square or polygonal space assumed growing
importance to the Roman builders of the late empire. It remained for Byzantine
architects, however, to recognize the possibilities of the Pendentive and fully develop
it. One of the earliest examples of the use of the Pendentive is also one of the
largest—that of Hagia Sophia (completed ad 537) at Istanbul.
Interior view of Hagia Sophia – Istanbul
– showing Pendentives.
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San Marco 11thC
• The basilica’s interior is decorated throughout with mosaics on gold ground and with
many varieties of marble;
• The floor is of inlaid marble and glass. In the restricted light their colors glow.
• The screen separating the choir from the nave has marble statues
Saint Mark’s Basilica in Venice, Italy, was first built in the ninth century and rebuilt in the
eleventh century in its current form following a fire. The basilica is a grand building, built
next to the Doge’s Palace. It initially functioned as the doge’s private chapel, then a state
church, and in 1806 became the city’s cathedral. The basilica houses the remains of Saint
Mark, which the Venetians looted from Alexandria in 828 and prompted the building of
the basilica.
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St. Mark Basilica location
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St. Mark Basilica location
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Saint Mark’s Basilica was built in the Byzantine Greek-cross plan. Each arm is divided into
three naves and topped by a dome. At the crossing is a large central dome. The main
apse is flanked by two smaller chapels. The narthex of the basilica is U-shaped and wraps
around the western transept. It is decorated with scenes from the lives of Old
Testament prophets.
Plan of St. Mark’s Basilica
The circles mark the location of each dome.
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St. Mark Basilica location
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The entirety of the basilica is richly decorated. The floor is covered in geometric
patterns and designs that use the Roman decoration techniques known as opus
sectile and opus tesselatum.
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The lower walls and pillars are covered in marble polychromatic panels, and the
upper walls and the domes are decorated with twelfth- and thirteenth-century
mosaics. The central dome depicts an image of Christ Pantocrator, and the overall
decorative program depicts scenes from the life of Christ and images of salvation
from both the Old and New Testament.
The interior of St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice, Italy
A view from the clerestory-level walkway shows its richly decorated mosaics and marble,
polychrome panels.
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Middle Byzantine Architecture
Background:
Renaissance (842 –1204)
Follows period of the Dark Ages (610-842)
Culminated in Icoloclasm
Empire reduced from Justinian’s rule
Relatively stabilized
Reached a peak in a flowering of the arts
Architectural Plans:
Cross-in-square
Domed central core
Radiating cross-arms
Barrel-valued
Vaulted corner units
Octagon-domed:
Triple-domed
Douple-apsed outer narthex
Inner narthex with a single dome
Barrel-vaulted aisles
Bodrum Camii (the Myrelaion)
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Theotokos Church, Hosios Loukas
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Late Byzantine Architecture
Pantanassa
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Parigoritissaat Arta:
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Romanesque Architecture
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Romanesque Architecture
The term “Romanesque” means “like Roman”. It refers to the architecture of the 11th
and 12th centuries in medieval Europe to Roman Architecture, based on similarities
of forms and materials.
General Appearance:
1.
Dark, solemn spaces
2.
Exterior is simple, severe
3. Modest Height
4. Horizontal lines
5.
Multiple Units
Architectural Elements:
1.
Round arches
2.
Barrel Vaults
3. Piers supporting vaults
4. Groin vaults
Dark, solemn spaces
Romanesque churches and castles were dark, with few openings.
Wars and invasions were commonplace, so windows and doors were kept to a
minimum.
With stone and masonry buildings, buildings were safe from fire and invaders, but
required large supports for the weight of walls and vaults.
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Exterior is simple, severe
A combination of masonry, arches and piers are the basis of the Romanesque style.
The main concept for buildings was the addition of pure geometrical forms.
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Modest Height, Horizontal lines
Romanesque churches have an emphasis on horizontal lines, similar to those of Greek
& Roman public buildings.
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Multiple Units
Several geometric forms make up the building, rather than one shape. This changes in the
Gothic era to one large cross shape.
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Architectural Elements:
1. Round arches
2. Barrel Vaults
3. Piers supporting vaults
4. Groin vaults
Round arches
Round arches are similar to those of the Romans.
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Barrel Vaults
Also called Tunnel Vaults, Barrel Vaults replace the flat roofs commonly used in
Roman architecture. This is the simplest vault, created by combining a series of round
or Roman arches.
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Piers supporting Vaults
The Pier (an upright support generally square or rectangular in plan) is a better
solution for heavy masonry walls than the column.
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Groin Vaults
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Abbey Church of St. Martin du Canigou
c. 1001 – 1026
Built on a steeply falling site in the French Pyrenees
Two stories
Both three-aisled and barrel vaulted
Small, dark, and plain
o Illustrates considerable skill in handling a difficult site
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Abbey Church of Cluny
c. 910
Originally a small, timber-roofed construction
o Called Cluny I
Replaced in 955 – 981
o Called Cluny II
o Almost completely barrel vaulted
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Abbey Church of St. Philibert
Located at Tournous, Burgundy, France
Twin towered exterior
Facade balanced by pyramidal buildup of the eastern group
Body of the church had a normal basilican plan
Radiating chapels allowed for the display of relics at different altars
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