I just want an essay that has no sentences in it to increase the volume and that each sentence is useful.

1) This essay assignment academic research paper using at least 5 academic, scholarly sources. (such as

Or

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/inventions-what-are-the-10-greatest-of-our-time/

) professor’s example.

And using more than 5 popular sources.(such as newspaper)

Therefore the total sources is 10( 5scholarly sources+ 5 popular sources)

=> Please make MLA citation format.

2) Please choose the topic for  3D Printing, Self-Driving Car, and Drone.

3) The Length of the essay is must full of 8 pages or  9page. 

And Please make 1 introduction paragraph and 4-5 body paragraph(each body paragraph is must longer that 1 page) and 1 conclusion paragraph.( The professor really hate short paragraph.)

=> Also Please write the clear topic sentence at the front of the body paragraph.

4) The more detail about the assignment is on the file called Essay #3 Assignment Description( I will upload) 

Also I upload the sample essay, therefore if you confusing about it you can check. 

5) Please don’t write a generalized sentence at the body and conclusion paragraph. (such as Drone has much potential use for daily life.)

RHET 1302

Essay #3: Research Paper

Submit: Online via the Submit Essays button in Blackboard

Length: 5-7 pages

Sources: FIVE: A minimum of 3 Academic/ Scholarly and 2 Popular sources. You can have more

than five sources, but five is the minimum.

** Remember, you will complete the Proposal and Annotated bibliography before you write your draft.

Purpose: All semester, we have been working on communication and analysis. The main purpose of

this final essay is to understand that where you get information from, matters. All sources are not

created equally. Being able to locate, critically examine, and synthesizing several disparate sources in

order to construct an argument is one of the primary hallmarks of independent thinking. (And, the

development of confident, independent thinking is the main purpose of college education). Now, it is

your job to find the very best sources you can in order to support an argument.

Audience: For this essay, you should assume that you are writing for people who have some

knowledge of your subject matter. Therefore, it is not necessary to cite things that are common

knowledge to you within your field of study.

Subject Matter: Choose one invention or innovation that is interesting to you and write about it. It

can be from any time period or culture, but it has to be real. Choose something specific that you can

find an abundance of research about.

Note: This is not a middle school research project. Your main task is to show that you have done

significant research and that you are able to utilize your sources in relation to one another. This

assignment is about the quality of your research sources—it is not about the history of an invention.

You are simply using an invention as a focal point for research. The paper is also not simply a

description of sources. You still have to have an argument in your paper. Your argument will not be

about rhetorical appeals—this time you have to come up with an original thesis statement.

Requirements:

1. Read the two articles posted in Blackboard about Inventions. You can find them in the Essay
#3 Folder under Assignment Descriptions.

2. Choose one invention/ innovation to focus on. You may choose something listed in one of the
articles posted in Blackboard if you would like to, but you certainly don’t have to.

3. Research sources: You must utilize and discuss your sources extensively throughout the entire
essay. This means you need to do more than simply drop in a quote or two.

4. Thesis statement- you have to have one. Some ideas for the direction of your thesis might
include arguments about: the significance of your invention in relation to other similar

products; the transformation of your invention over time; the long-term implications of the

invention; how your invention changed society at the time it was created.

Examples of successful recent student paper topics: Virtual Reality, Pacemaker, MMR Vaccine, Amazon, GPS, CRISP

Technology, Integrated Circuit, Drone, Iris Recognition Technology, Deep Brain Stimulation, Automated Fingerprint

Identification System, 3D Printing, Self-Driving Car, Motion Control Games, Prosthetic Limbs, Motion-Capture

Technology, Triptans, MRI, UNIX, IOT, Touchscreen, Voice-Recognition Technology

LastName 1

Student Name

Dr. Riley

RHET 1302

Date

The Fibers Connecting America

The evolution of the American transportation system is a remarkable driving force

towards the increasing interconnectedness of the states, enormously benefitting individuals and

industries alike. The section of this diverse system that an average American depends on the

most is perhaps the roadways. A major part of the roadways in America that connects its

numerous states is the Interstate Highway system. Since its conception, the Interstate Highway

system has expanded dramatically to 47,000 miles today (Highway Finance). The system is

named after President Dwight D. Eisenhower who championed its establishment. President

Eisenhower made the interstate system a presidential priority and under his leadership, the

Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 was passed and signed into law (Ike’s Interstates). The

network has fulfilled its purpose of making travel faster, convenient, shorter and more efficient

for Americans. It has also intensified interstate commerce and made everyday products both

affordable and accessible to consumers. However, it has not adjusted itself to the changing

dynamics of the American population. A rapid and long-term change is needed in the network to

accommodate those regions with rising populations into the network and make highways more

accessible to them. The Interstate Highway System has fulfilled its various intended

socioeconomic purposes. However, its adverse impact on certain communities and lack of

adaptation still leaves room for betterment.

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The interstates were meant to serve multiple purposes, including greater civilian mobility,

defense and commerce development. Since its conception, the Interstate Highway System has

served these aspects well. One of the things that President Eisenhower had experienced during

his time in the military is that road travel in America was extraordinarily time-consuming and

inefficient (Ike’s Interstates; The Evolving Interstate). The Interstate Highway System addressed

this problem by not only reforming existing infrastructure but also increased its mileage and size.

This has allowed for congestion of traffic to reduce and made mobility more efficient. The boom

in the sole-operators of vehicles and households owning more cars could also be attributed to the

interstate system (The Evolving Interstate). Faster and more efficient mobility across state lines

also led to increasing interstate commerce. The design of the interstates made it easier for trucks

to move at greater speeds and extend the supply of goods to greater lengths. As a result, every

American is dependent on the interstates today, either directly or indirectly, since every single

product has been on the interstates at some point (Highway History). This efficiency in supply in

turn is beneficial for the consumers as well since cheaper transportation leads to lower and

sustained prices.

In terms of accessibility, it is undeniable that the interstates have increased the amount of

traffic served. Statistically, the interstate system merely comprises about one percent of

America’s National Highways. But, it is met by 24% of the Nations traffic (Highway History).

This massive increase in the population served is also indicative of the economic growth that the

interstates are responsible for. Increased roadway mobility is reflective of expansive job

opportunities, meaning Americans can look for better jobs, even at places far from where they

reside. This is in turn also gives Americans with a better choice of where to reside adjusting to

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their socio-economic desires, while retaining their right to work where they want and use the

interstates as convenient means of transportation to work.

While travelling as a part of the military during the Second World War, President

Eisenhower had seen the destruction deplorable roads had caused, including 230 recorded road

accidents (Ike’s Interstates). The lack of construction and muddy conditions were particularly

dangerous for trucks to travel upon. The interstates have been extremely effective at ensuring

effective truck travel across the nation. About 71% of all the freight transportation in the U.S.

depends upon the highways (Highway History). In addition to creating numerous jobs, the

interstates have helped intensify commerce. Small businesses as well as industries have been

great beneficiaries of the interstates since efficient transportation is tantamount to a sustained

trade environment, which also benefits the consumers.

The interstates have resulted in increased speeds at which vehicles travel but they have

not disregarded safety. As an innovation, the specific standards and designs of the interstates

have helped reduce fatalities dramatically. While safer vehicles have done their part, a

combination of standards have enhanced safety. The interstates have relatively wider shoulders,

slid-resistant pavements and better visible markings and signs, all of which have resulted in a

safer driving experience. As a result, fatalities have dropped from 6.05 per 100 million miles

travelled in 1956 when the construction began to 0.8 today. In addition, this fatality rate is way

less when compared to all other roads, which have a rate of 1.44 (Highway History). Therefore,

the interstates have certainly achieved their purpose of more efficient and safer travel for

vehicles of all kinds.

However, the positive impacts of the interstates cannot be applied to every sector in the

present day. During the initial construction, the regions with greater population and population

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density received more number of highways. But, the United States has evolved since then and

domestic mobility, as well as concentration of immigration into certain areas has greatly shifted

the dynamics of the population. The national population recorded in the 1940 was 150 million,

half of what was recorded in 2010. The number of metropolitan cities with a population of over 1

million has increased from 11 back then to 49, currently. Since the purpose of the Interstates was

to reduce traffic, increase mobility and connect large cities to each other, these population

changes should have led to significant changes in the system. However, such transformation has

not happened. Since the interstates were planned and built, the population has also increasingly

moved towards the southern and western states (The Evolving Interstate). Southern states have

not only become the primary destination for domestic migrants but also for immigrants

(Mapping Migration). However, the interstate network has not kept up with these population

shifts. The system has gone through changes and expanded every year with an increase of 10%

in mileage. But, the focus of this additions has not been uniformly focused. These changes were

concentrates in the densest part of the network and not high population growth areas (The

Evolving Interstate). Southern states have been leading in terms of population growth, with about

38% percent of the entire U.S population living in the south (U.S. Census Bureau). However, the

growth of the interstates has not matched the pace at which the southern population is growing.

Maps of the interstate highway system published by the U.S. Department of Transportation show

highly concentrated network of highways in the northeastern part of the United States, when

compared to fewer highways passing through southern states like Texas and Western states like

California, that have constantly led the nation both in terms of total population and population

growth (U.S. Census Bureau). This slow-paced and lack of adaptation of the interstate system to

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the population changes in the U.S. over the years and the status quo is one of the major

disappointments for the concerned regions and a drawback of the network as a whole.

The interstates catalyzed the move from cities to suburbs. The increasing urbanization

within America’s cities had led to booming population. This led to people deciding to move to

the suburbs. The interstates, through their promising convenience for commuters, made this

decision possible for Americans who planned on living in the suburbs but work in cities

(Highway to inequity). But, the overwhelming movement of population had caused suburbs to no

longer be uncongested. Those people who left cities in hopes of lesser crowds and traffic

congestion were left disappointed since the conditions were getting as deplorable as the cities

(Lewis, p.291). This eventually led to the degradation of the standard of living of those who

lived in these cities and suburban regions. By 1990, three out of every four Americans drove to

their jobs alone. This rapid increase in both the crowd and cars increased travel times. Andreas

Duany’s analysis of this rusting of the standard of living is apt. He compares U.S. to nations like

France and Italy, where an average household does not own as many cars as an average

American household. But, the people living in those nations have more free time, since they do

not spend as much time commuting on clogged highways (Lewis, p. 265). However, this

argument could be applied to only short-transit, mostly in cities. It is crucial to recognize that the

U.S. is extremely bigger in size when compared to nations like France and Italy. So, the

argument made by Duany would not wholly pertain to the immense geography of the U.S.

Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that people in nations like France and Italy often

prefer other means such as public transportation for short-transit within their cities. Thus, the

interstates have reduced the use of cheaper and more efficient forms of transportation like busses

and trains, and made them obsolete in many areas like the South. This nonexistence of public

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transportation in crowded cities and suburbs for short-transit further worsens their traffic and

increases travel time.

The interstates have had an adverse impact on racial minorities and the poor. The

proposition that the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 brought was rather attractive since the

cities got a huge chunk of federal funding for investing some of the money from own pockets

into highway construction. This made city planners focus on reforming their cities by looking for

lands that could be turned into highways. As mentioned before, the population increase in cities

and suburbs was dramatic. The interstates were intended to serve those densely populated

regions (The Evolving Interstate). But, people of certain races, specifically African-Americans

could not move to those areas since they lacked an equal access to jobs and were denied home

loans in certain areas through a practice called ‘redlining.’ So, they crowded into smaller

neighborhoods, slums and rural areas (The Role of Highways). In order to claim federal funds

and to serve their city and suburban populations, city planners came up with a plan with a

discriminatory edge. They decided to destroy slums for the purpose of building more highways

on those lands to serve urban and suburban populations (The Role of Highways). This practice of

driving racial minorities would continue to be a symbol of the discriminatory policies that the

interstate system gave birth to. For example, the completion of the highway, I-81, which ran

through the urban center, had the same effect it has had in almost all cities that put interstates

through their hearts. It decimated a close-knit African American community (The Role of

Highways). These factors are reflective of the marginalization of the vulnerable and inequality

generated by the interstate system. The use of eminent domain was exploited to the extremes.

The officials used eminent domain to capture the dwellings of the poor and focused more on

clearing that land rather than finding a new place for those people to live, something that would

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lead at least one scholar to conclude that “racial politics guided these unfortunate developments”

(Biles, p. 851). These policies did not result in a one-time impact of the poor and racial

minorities leaving their homes and finding other places to live. Moving meant leaving jobs and

disruption of education of their children, thereby keeping the flow of misfortunes alive through

generations (Highway to Inequity). Thus, while the network made life and travel easier for the

affluent, its cost was borne by the poor and racial minorities. While the standard of living in

cities and suburbs was dropping, the standard of living for these vulnerable populations was

becoming painfully nonexistent.

Overall, the Interstate Highway System has generated both advantages and disadvantages

like any other innovation. The present appalling nature of the interstates is the result of its lack of

adaptation to the changing trends in population. For instance, in the Dallas-Fort Worth

metropolis and on the outskirts, the condition of these vital highways is visible. Due to a lack of

renovation and timely alteration based on the changing dynamics, I-45 has been left in a

vulnerable condition, with frequent accidents, jams and slowdowns. This interstate highway

connects Dallas to Houston, the fourth most populated city in the U.S. However, a huge part of I-

45 still only has two lanes open, with some parts with narrower or no shoulders at all. This has

immensely increased travel times, while making the drive harder for bigger vehicles. Therefore,

a proper revamping and maintenance of the system is needed to ensure greater efficiency. Along

with that, the repetition of past mistakes and injustices must be avoided, so that the interstate

system does not lead to isolation of a certain community but rather serves as an effective means

of commute for all Americans. Nevertheless, the expansion of the system should not be as

aggressive as to make other more efficient modes of small-distance transit obsolete, especially in

cities. Hence, a better, more inclusive strategy is needed to further enhance this ambitious project

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championed by President Eisenhower. Better plans, and upholding of justice and the rule of law

is needed to make this system work for all Americans. The further enhancement of this

incredible innovation depends on these factors which are necessary to ensure the best and

effective use of American taxpayer money.

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Works Cited

Aisch, Gregor, and Robert Gebeloff. “Mapping Migration in the United States.” The New York

Times, The New York Times, 15 Aug. 2014,

www.nytimes.com/2014/08/16/upshot/mapping-migration-in-the-united-states-since-

1900.html.

Biles, R. (2014). “Expressways before the Interstates: The case of Detroit, 1945-1956.” Journal

of Urban History, 40(5), pp. 843-854.

FHWA. “Highway Finance Data Collection.” U.S. Department of Transportation/Federal

Highway Administration, 2011,

www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/pubs/hf/pl11028/chapter1.cfm.

FHWA. “Highway History.” U.S. Department of Transportation/Federal Highway

Administration, 2016, www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/history.cfm.

Karas, David. “Highway to Inequity: The Disparate Impact of the Interstate Highway System on

Poor and Minority Communities in American Cities.” City of Nashville, University of

Delaware , Apr. 2015,

www.nashville.gov/Portals/0/SiteContent/Planning/docs/trans/EveryPlaceCounts/1_High

way%20to%20Inequity .

Lewis, Tom. “Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American

Life.” Cornell University Press, 2013.

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/pubs/hf/pl11028/chapter1.cfm

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/history.cfm

http://www.nashville.gov/Portals/0/SiteContent/Planning/docs/trans/EveryPlaceCounts/1_Highway%20to%20Inequity

http://www.nashville.gov/Portals/0/SiteContent/Planning/docs/trans/EveryPlaceCounts/1_Highway%20to%20Inequity

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Pfeiffer, David A. “Ike’s Interstates at 50.” National Archives and Records Administration,

National Archives and Records Administration, 2006,

www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/summer/interstates.html.

Semuels, Alana. “The Role of Highways in American Poverty.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media

Company, 18 Mar. 2016, www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/03/role-of-

highways-in-american-poverty/474282/.

US Census Bureau. “Idaho Is Nation’s Fastest-Growing State, Census Bureau Reports.” The

United States Census Bureau, 20 Dec. 2017, www.census.gov/newsroom/press-

releases/2017/estimates-idaho.html.

Weber, Joe. “The Evolving Interstate Highway System and the Changing Geography of the

United States.” Journal of Transport Geography, Pergamon, 27 Aug. 2012,

www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692312001846.

http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/summer/interstates.html

http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/03/role-of-highways-in-american-poverty/474282/

http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/03/role-of-highways-in-american-poverty/474282/

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/estimates-idaho.html

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/estimates-idaho.html

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692312001846

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Student Name

Dr. Kristin N. Riley

RHET 1302

Date

Shocked to Death

In 1890, the electric chair was born thanks to the Gerry Commission in the United States

and put to work the same year, in New York’s administration of capital punishment (Essig 245).

The electric chair models a simple design; it often has leather straps around the armrests, back,

and seat of the chair, a metal helmet electrode connecting to the scalp of the person seated, and

another electrode connecting to the their legs. This chair utilizes the alternating current (AC)

system to electrocute those who are secured in it (Gordan). Although not practiced by the

majority of the states in America now, from the mid-1800s to mid-1900s, the states that practiced

the death penalty adopted the electric chair to execute prisoners using electrocution (Martschukat

914). Prior to the creation of the electric chair, the most common form of execution in the United

States was hanging, but around the world, it consisted of the guillotine, axing, strangulation,

firing squads, burning, poisoning, etc. As these methods of execution were thought to be very

violent, since they can result in a slow and painful death, supporters of capital punishment were

afraid the death penalty would eventually be deemed as a “cruel and unusual punishment” and

written out of existence (Martschukat 913). To prevent this extinction, one supporter in

particular, Dr. Alfred Porter Southwick, sought to find an alternate method for legally killing

prisoners (Moran 70). He ultimately thought of death by electrocution because he believed that

the use of electricity, which was a fairly new discovery that society had considered very

powerful, was capable of swiftly killing those sentenced to death, thus making the death penalty

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more humane (Moran 71). Being a dentist and not knowing much about electricity, Southwick

requested the help of Thomas Edison, who at the time was competing in the “Current Wars” with

George Westinghouse over their patented currents; direct current or DC versus AC (Moran 74).

With Southwick’s work in the Gerry Commission and the aid of Thomas Edison’s knowledge

and secret contributions, the electric chair was made in 1890 and adopted into the justice system.

Unfortunately, though, for Southwick and those who supported the invention, the electric chair

did not last as a common tool used for the death penalty, as it was ironically recognized to be a

“cruel and unusual punishment” by the government almost a century later (Seitz 71). Through

the untimely occurrences of the hot-public-debate topic, concerning capital punishment, and the

“Current Wars” between Edison and his rival, the electric chair was brought into this world. The

creation and use of this invention desensitized society, in regards to death, and simultaneously

numbed and stirred conversation over the ethical and moral issues of the death penalty in the

United States.

While public hanging was the primary form of execution in the early 1800s, this caused

controversy as a vast amount of people came to view the executions as if “attending [a] show,

picnic basket in tow” (Capers 254). Prisoners were paraded to their deaths as the public

insensitively viewed the disturbing executions that could last up to forty-five minutes (Moran

68). These sore sights available to society, along with the increased want for privacy, eventually

brought up fueled debate over public executions. Talk of capital punishment then died down

once public execution in New York was abolished, but, this did not stay for long, since some

people began arguing that the death penalty should not even exist (Moran 68). Once again,

though, the public changed their minds when immigrants and crime rates increased in the states

and they preferred the death penalty to remain intact (Moran 68). This shows contradictory levels

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of sensitivity in society that persists through the history of the electric chair. The portion of the

public that argued against the death penalty eventually sided for the death penalty when it was

the ethnic minorities that were being sent to be executed (Moran 69). Following this situation

was the Civil War, and due to the focus on the war, people’s minds were too occupied to be

debating over the death penalty. But after the war, some looked at the topic again with a changed

perspective but more sensitive view of death and demanded a more humane way of killing

(Moran 69). Anti-gallows and death penalty organizations began gaining popularity and

opposingly sparked a fear of losing the death penalty in others (Seitz 39). This debate built up to

the point where scientists and others were beginning to get involved as they looked into many

other possible ways to execute someone (Moran 70).

A supporter of the death penalty, dentist Alfred P. Southwick, was especially motivated

to find an alternate method of execution in order to save capital punishment (Martschukat 912).

In 1881, Southwick “witnessed the accidental electrocution of a Buffalo drunkard” and “since

the man appeared to not suffer,” he wanted to incorporate this concept of electricity in the death

penalty (Moran 70). The bluntness in which Richard Moran, author of Executioner’s Current:

Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and the Invention of the Electric Chair, describes

Southwick’s experience with the electrocuted man, creates a matter-of-fact tone that is void of

emotions. This adds to the theme of insensitivity during the creation of the electric chair. By

1884, around election time, the public greatly demanded for something to be done about the

method of execution. In response, New York Lieutenant-Governor David Bernet Hill sought

important individuals and formed the Gerry Commission, in which he also recruited Southwick

(Moran 71). With the Commission grew Southwick’s obsession and “great enthusiasm” in

conducting “series of crude but deadly experiments” on animals (Moran 71). The contrasting

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diction provided by Moran emphasizes that Southwick’s goal or “enthusiasm” to use electricity

to “provide justice,” clouds his judgement over the reality of his doings: killing. Although, the

joy he supposedly feels is not derived from the murdering of innocent creatures, but rather his

discovery of using electricity for a “marvelously humane method of execution,” the fact remains

that he is not bothered by the deaths of the animals or the upcoming deaths to come with the

creation of the electric chair (Moran 71). Southwick was engrossed in the study of electricity

similar to Edison, “Benjamin Franklin and his contemporaries,” according to Martschukat,

author of the journal “The Art of Killing by Electricity: The Sublime and the Electric Chair,”

who “had tested the destructive power of electricity on animals” (909). This shows the vastness

of insensitivity that took place during the creation of the electric chair with many people going

around electrocuting living things in the name of science and “human progress.”

A little further into the development of the electric chair, Southwick had actually sent out

questionnaires to the public asking which form of execution they preferred (Moran 72). The

results tallied up to being predominantly in the category in which if a change had to be made to

the death penalty, they would prefer execution by electricity (Moran 73). At this point, people

still believed electricity would kill its victims painlessly and effortlessly so it is understandable

as to why the majority of society was willing to accept this as a form of execution as opposed to

the grueling hangings, but, Dr. J Mount Bleyer, a survey respondent, had sent in a full explicit

report explaining various more promising alternatives to the electric chair to Southwick (Moran

73). Bleyer suggested the use of morphine injections or chloroforming prisoners (which is

actually used today: lethal injections and gas chambers) but Southwick dismissed his ideas as he

was persistent and confident in his own working out (Moran 73). The dentist then needing

approval from the rest of his Commission to create the electric chair, sought the help of “the

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greatest electrician of modern times,” Edison (Moran 75). Upon first request, Edison had actually

rejected helping Southwick since he was actually against the death penalty (Moran 74). But after

Southwick appealed to Edison’s pride and sense of progress, Edison gave in with what will be

later be described as malicious or at least desensitized intent (Moran 74). Edison helped

Southwick determine the most powerful and deadly current to be used for the electric chair (AC)

and because of his “approval,” the Gerry Commission gladly accepted Southwick’s electric chair

invention (Moran 71-75). Through ignorance and subtle manipulation, Southwick pushed his

idea to be created just to keep the death penalty and also having the glory of having “saved” it.

His ignorance can be identified with his stubborn exchanges with Bleyer who actually presented

valuable alternatives yet Southwick down-right rejected them and he also manipulates Edison

into unintentionally becoming a famous-figure- head in the creation of the electric chair.

Although, Edison had been partially deceived to help Southwick with his glorification

goals, he also had his own selfish reasons to accept. Edison, at the time, was the “Current Wars,”

with his rival, George Westinghouse (Essig 11). He patented direct current (DC) while

Westinghouse patented alternating current (AC). AC current was far cheaper and was able to

reach long distances in a way “the vision of America could become reality” (Martschukat 906).

The fact that Westinghouse’s capable of doing what the country’s vision was and in all aspects

superior to Edison’s, was not fathomable to the “greatest electrician” so he went about to prove

how dangerous AC current was (Martschukat 915). Edison began “waging a propaganda

campaign” where he passed 1,000-volt AC current through “animals ranging in size from cats to

horses” with the same desensitized obsession as Southwick, Benjamin Franklin, and other

scientists (Gordou). While those others killed animals in the name of science, Edison did so in

the name of financial profit and pride. He also takes this a step further as he tells Southwick to

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use AC in the electric chair, in the name of “human progress.” Moran explores the various

reasons as to why Edison may have pushed aside his beliefs of the death penalty to help

Southwick, and narrows it down to the self-serving reason being that he wanted to discredit

Westinghouse’s AC and gain popularity for his own DC (62). Edison thought if people knew that

AC can be used to execute people then they will fear it and instead use DC for everyday

purposes, thus profiting from it financially and through pride since he had been using this

propaganda for so long. So he had actually donated/bribed prisons to use Southwick’s electric

chair to help publicize the “dangerous” AC (Gordon). But, unfortunately for him, the electric

chair and AC were “understood to give society a sense of elevation” since “electrocution was

widely perceived as an advance of civilization” during the initial uses (Martschukat 900). This

optimistic view of the electric chair did take a turn for the worse, but not until nearly a century

later because of how much society had become excited and then numb to the executions and

death penalty.

Once the electric chair was created, it was first used on August 6, 1890, in New York for

the execution of William Kemmler who was sentenced the death penalty for having murdered his

girlfriend (Martschukat 915). Being the first execution by electrocution, it “aroused intense

interest” in the neighboring areas and media and “political string-pulling” occurred to “secure

places among the 25 witnesses” (Gordon). This excitement out of context is normal, but seen

with the circumstances of death, it can be viewed to be morbid and insensitive on the part of

society. Despite the laws abolishing public executions, journalists “were eager to exploit the

sensational aspects of electrocution” so the public can experience “a virtual front-row seat” view

of the execution (Seitz 46). This eagerness, similar to that of Southwick’s when electrocuting

animals, is inappropriate since it is associated with the death of a living being but during this

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time, it was seen as normal because society had become desensitized through the creation of the

electric chair. The process of first execution began with Kemmler being strapped into the electric

chair in the room opposite of the witnesses viewing the execution through a one way glass

(Gordon). The executioner was also placed on the other side of the glass so the prisoner is unable

to see him (this was done so the executioner does not hold the burden of killing the prisoner

directly as they are pressing the button to send the current through their body). This method of

execution is incredibly dehumanizing the prisoner as they are strapped and tied down, unable to

view anyone during their last moments, and overall have no control over the situation. Just as

bad as the immoral practices of this killing, the actual execution was faulty. What should have

ended quickly and effortlessly, resulted in Kemmler suffering a “gruesome and prolonged death”

(Seitz 41). These were not the results the public was expecting-the electric chair was meant to be

more humane than hanging and technologically advanced-but they continued using it for a

century to come because society had become numb to all of the violent executions of the past.

Even though with more uses of the electric chair there were more successful executions, there

were also some terrible ones. This did not seem to bother other states such as Ohio,

Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Virginia since they had “adopted electrocution” as the exclusive

method of execution (Seitz 38). Other states adopted the electric chair later on and the theme of

insensitivity was adopted with it. In 1997, after a mishap in executing through electrocution in

Florida, the Attorney General Robert Butterworth jokes that people who want to commit murders

should not do so in Florida as they “may have a problem with [their] electric chair” (Capers 250).

This statement lacks appropriate emotions given that a man’s head just caught on fire while

being executed. This insensitivity is best explained through Caper’s analysis of Andy Warhol’s

Electric Chair series in which he explains the “spectacle became a little redundant. We became a

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little anesthetized” (257). From the beginning of capital punishment, the death penalty is meant

to 1) punish the criminal and 2) prevent other crimes by showing the public the consequences of

misconducts, so they have the tendency to get violent (Moran 76). Because, society has

experienced such violence, they have become numb and insensitive to the dehumanizing aspects

of it.

Not until the mid-1900s was when the public reengaged in conversation of the ethics and

morality of capital punishment and the death penalty (Martschukat 913). A big part in stirring the

conversation was artist Warhol’s painting series called Electric Chair. This artist who is known

for vibrant repetitive pictures of “Campbell’s soup cans, Brillo boxes,” “Marilyn Monroe and

Elizabeth Taylor” takes on a different tone to his paintings with this grave series of an empty

electric chair in the center of an execution room (Capers 244). He claims that the emptiness and

vagueness “points to the anonymity of most executions and to our distance from them” (Capers

251) This analysis is reflects the history of the electric chairs, because the public had

dehumanized the prisoners as test subjects for this invention that remained an infamous star for

over a century. This simplistic artwork from 1964, similar to the simple design of the electric

chair, by Warhol encouraged the questioning of the effectiveness and morality of the death

penalty (Capers 243).

People did begin to question the death penalty, especially with the use of the electric

chair. In 1995, Nicholas Ingram was sentenced to death and his friend/attorney, Clive Smith,

viewed his execution by electrocution and reported back the awful experience and lies the prison

covered up for years (Smith). The electric chair had promised to provide an instantaneous death,

void of violence and pain. Smith challenges those promises by asking, “Why carry on cooking

him [then]?” or, “tie him down so tightly?” or, “bind his mouth firmly shut” (Smith). These

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broken promises are what led the electric chair to be declared as a “cruel and unusual

punishment.” Now, replacing the electric chair in most states is the lethal injection or gas

chamber, similar to those that Bleyer suggested over a century ago. Still in some states, like

Tennessee, Florida, and Virginia, the electric chair can be used in execution if the prison does

not have any drugs for lethal injection or by the prisoners’ choosing (Dockterman). The most

recent use of the electric chair was in 2013 during the execution of Robert Gleason Jr. in Virginia

upon his request (Owens). Gleason was not the only criminal to request execution by

electrocution; there were many before and also one currently in waiting. Wayne Doty, a prisoner

in Florida is currently on the death penalty list and has requested to be electrocuted rather than

injected with lethal drugs (Berman). His possible reasoning for this choice was due to the mild

scandals surrounding the drug used for lethal injections and also because he believes the electric

chair is the fastest and most humane form of execution (Berman). The death penalty still remains

a highly controversial subject between people who have lost sight of the killings and those that

are overly sympathetic. As society thinks it is moving forwards, in this case, it is really just

enhancing the primitive ways of killing.

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Works Cited

Berman, Mark. “Florida Inmate Asks to Be Executed by Electric Chair Rather than Lethal

Injection.” The Washington Post. WP Company, 23 Oct. 2015. Web. 27 Apr. 2018.

Capers, Bennett. “On Andy Warhol’s ‘Electric Chair’.” California law review 94.1 (2006): 243-60.

Print.

Dockterman, Eliana. “Tennessee Brings Back Electric Chair.” Time.com (2014): 1-2. Print.

Essig, Mark. Edison & the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death. N.p.: Walker, 2005. Print.

Gordon, John Steele. “Thomas Edison’s Deadly Game.” American Heritage 51.6 (2000): 15-8.

Print.

Martschukat, Jürgen. “”The Art of Killing by Electricity”: The Sublime and the Electric Chair.” The

Journal of American History 89.3 (2002): 900-21. Print.

Moran, Richard. Executioner’s Current: Thomas Edison, George Westinghouse, and the Invention

of the Electric Chair. 1st ed.. ed. New York: New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. Print.

Owens, Michael L. “Robert Gleason Got Death the Way He Wanted It.”HeraldCourier.com. N.p.,

17 Jan. 2013. Web. 27 Apr. 2018.

Seitz, Trina N. “The Killing Chair.” North Carolina Historical Review 81.1 (2004): 38-73. Print.

Smith, Stafford Clive. My Private View of a Ritual Death: To Witness the Death in the Electric

Chair of Nicky Ingram is to be Appalled by the Barbarity of this Method of Execution and

Outraged by the Flaws in the US System of Justice with its Inbuilt Cruelty to Prisoners.,

1995. Print.

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Student Name

Kristin Riley

RHET 1302

Date

Getting Away with Lying: The Polygraph’s Validity in Criminal Investigation

For as long as humans have lied to one another, attempts have been made to develop

various methods to accurately separate the truth-tellers from the deceivers. These original

mechanisms were usually unethical in nature, such as the Bedouins of Arabia from 300 B.C, who

forced the accused to lick a hot iron in order to determine if they were speaking the truth (Lewis

86). The invention of the modern polygraph introduced a new way to evaluate deception by

utilizing a combination of psychology, biology, and technology, rather than relying on gruesome

coercion alone. Developed during the early 20th century in the United States, the polygraph test

has several attributors to its creation: William Moulton Marston, John Augustus Larson, and

Leonarde Keeler (Synnott 60-61). A popular misconception made by the general public is that

the device is a “lie-detector”, and can, almost magically, ascertain whether or not a person is

completely guilty. However, there is no direct, fool-proof way to measure lying. Instead, the

polygraph analyzes various physiological aspects of the person being evaluated, such as blood

pressure, heart rate, and respiration (Lewis 87). While the diagnostic results from these tests

should show accuracy in condemning a guilty person, the polygraph is known for, “sufficient

false positive and false negative results [that] make the findings in individual cases of

questionable value” (Steinbrook 123). Mental illness, emotional confusion, and anxiety are all

uncontrollable factors that can lead to innocent people being convicted of crimes they did not

commit, letting the actual perpetrators get away unpunished. Since its initial adaptation in the

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field of criminal investigation, the validity of the polygraph has been highly controversial for its

testing procedures, and is illegitimate in concluding whether or not someone is telling the truth.

Even since its beginning, the history of the polygraph can be summarized by years of

public criticism and debates of its credibility in the court of law. In 1923, William Marston, who

emphasized systolic blood pressure as an indicator of deception, wanted the results of the test to

be admitted as evidence in court cases, particularly Frye v. United States (Synnott 61). However,

his attempt to make it admissible was unsuccessful because it had, “not yet gained such standing

and scientific recognition among physiological and psychological authorities” (USLegal). This

rule was known as the Frye Standard, exhibiting that the polygraph was not accepted by the

scientific community, and therefore did not meet the legal criteria to be reliable evidence

(USLegal). The first empirical evaluation of the polygraph did not come until 41 years later in

1965, and was conducted by the US Committee on Government Operations (Synnott 61). In spite

of the condemning results stating that, “People have been deceived by a myth that a metal box in

the hands of an investigator can detect truth or falsehood,” advocates for the instrument

disregarded the criticisms of the polygraph’s scientific soundness (Synnott 61-62). Ironically,

those that were more likely to “beat the system” and show its inability to be reliable were

advocates themselves, those who knew the device and its limitations better than anyone. In fact,

William Casey, the director of the CIA during the 1980s, was a supporter of the polygraph and

took the test every month because, “he knew he could beat them” (Steinbrook 123). This

controversy surrounding the lack of methodical capability in the device should have pushed for

greater research and development to improve its testing procedures. But even in the beginning of

the 21st century, it was still being criticized for its poor quality, its inability to improve on its

theoretical founding, and its heavily biased research (Synnott 60). Modern day polygraph tests,

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while far more technological and standardized than its predecessors, still has a lot to be critiqued

on in its methods of detecting deception.

The testing procedures for most polygraph exams are highly dependent on the person

who conducts it, since there is not a universally standard approach. While the type of questions

asked depend on which methodology the test examiner subscribes to, the most widely-used

version is the Comparative Question Test (CQT) (Synnott 67). Once the individual is hooked up

to the various sensors and equipment, a pre-test is conducted in order to establish a control-

group, as well as convince the examinee that the polygraph actually does work (Steinbrook 89).

This is just one example of examiner bias, which can ultimately influence the emotions and

anxieties someone feels during the interview, leading to skewed data. The next part of the CQT

consists of comparing physiological reactions to relevant questions (RQ) –regarding the current

crime- and the previous comparison questions (CQ) –applicable, but not about the crime (Offe

291). It is assumed that truthful people will focus more on the CQ, while those that are guilty

will react stronger to the RQ, since it directly addresses the crime that they committed (Offe

292). However, the amount of significance the examiner places on the CQ and explanation

during the pre-test can create differences in identification rates for guilty individuals (Offe 299).

In the post-test phase, the physiological data recorded by the machine, such as electrodermal

activity, arousal, and breathing, are analyzed most often solely by the examiner. The amount of

influence they possess is significant, as they alone, “set the cut-off points at which a given

response is indicative of deception,” and ultimately conclude if the results indicate guilt in a

person (Synnott 68). If the examiner shows bias in their questioning and has little psychological

training, this can result in the polygraph creating false positives and false negatives. Essentially it

is the examiner, not the device itself, that has the true power in convicting who they feel is guilty

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or innocent. However, this partiality is not the only factor that makes the polygraph non-reliable

in the criminal justice system, as unethical methods of the test are continuously used today.

One controversial approach to detecting deception is known as the Reid technique,

named after psychologist John Reid, a polygraph advocate who adapted this method for police

interviewing purposes (Gudjonsson 33). Rather than utilize the technology that is primarily used

in polygraph exams, Reid believed that, “the individual conducting the polygraph examination

was the real lie detector,” and therefore relied on interrogation rather than scientific,

physiological measurements (Synnott 62). This nine-step interviewing style is classified by

increasing the suspect’s anxiety levels, weakening their resistance, confronting them with

questionable incriminating evidence, and then giving the suspect a false sense of security

(Gudjonsson 34). While it is a fundamentally successful method in obtaining confessions, the

manipulative nature of this test creates concerns over the Reid techniques’ dubious ethical codes.

One of the major issues with guilt-presumptive interrogation is that it can lead to one of the

worst possible outcomes for criminal investigation: false confessions by innocent people. Steve

Drizin, legal director of the Center on Wrongful Convictions, says that these examiners only give

suspects two options: “admit to the crime using the given justification or confess without it,

leaving the suspect to appear like a monster” (Johnson). Whether hooked up to a polygraph

machine or relentlessly hounded by condemning questions, the subject is at the mercy of the test

examiner, who has the ultimate power in convicting a person of deception or truth. And while

confessions can be either voluntary or police-pressured, there are many factors that can lead to

one falsely admitting guilt. Intoxication, verbal threats, the age of the suspect, and a

misunderstanding of the situation can all be crucial variables for people that confess

(Innocenceproject). However, one of the most worrisome aspects of techniques that are meant to

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determine truthfulness is the disregard of mental illnesses and their effects on the examinee in

these testing conditions.

Those with mental disorders are at a high risk in interrogation environments where

examiners have the capability to produce wrongful convictions based on misleading data. When

the physiological aspects of the body related to arousal increase during questioning, the

polygraph machine reads this as an indicator of lying. However, while deception may be one

reason for this change, confounding factors such as anxiety, anger, and fear may also provide an

explanation (Steinbrook 122). For those suffering from general anxiety or panic-related

disorders, these uncontrollable emotions can drastically increase due to the stressful nature of the

test. Because of this, the polygraph can falsely read this as a sign of lying. Psychotic suspects

with illness-related delusions are especially liable to false results when hooked up the device, as

cases show that, “the polygraph will find that the patients are telling the truth, even when asked

about events that in fact did not occur” (Hirschmann 4). Lack of medication, undiagnosed

suspects, and other psychological dysfunctions can further diminish the polygraph’s already

questionable validity in detecting deception. False confessions are especially probable in police

guilt-presumptive interrogation where examiners,” are not given any special training on

questioning suspects with mental disabilities” (Innocenceproject). With the already biased and

influential power interrogators have over examinees, mentally ill individuals are at a

disadvantage if they exhibit abnormal behaviors and responses to questioning. What results from

these wrongful admissions to guilt is the perpetuation of the misleading correlation that mentally

ill people are more likely to commit crimes. Despite the polygraph being founded on the basis

for incorporating psychology into the criminal justice system, its testing standards do not

conform to that of the American Psychological Association (Steinbrook 122-123). Coupled with

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the fact that it is not required for test examiners to have psychological training, especially in

regards to mentally ill suspects, the polygraph’s legitimacy in accurately determining truth is

further diminished.

The controversial history of the polygraph exhibits how both human beings and machines

are not inherently reliable at tasks they are intended to be experts at. In today’s time where

people are becoming progressively more dependent on technology, this can lead to many

shortcomings if too much trust is placed in them. People rely on machines to provide the correct

answers to questions that are impossible to know on one’s own, whether it is a calculator or an

fMRI. High expectations are also placed on the specialists who are trained to operate them, using

years of advanced education and experience to draw conclusions from scientific data. In some

cases, this dependability can mean the difference between life and death. For instance, even

though medically licensed doctors achieve over ten years of schooling, “More than 5%, or about

12 million U.S. adults, could be misdiagnosed during an outpatient visit,” and half of these

mistakes have the potential to provide worse outcomes (Rice). Despite this high percentage of

diagnostic errors, Americans continuously place trust in their doctor, since an expert has greater

knowledge of medicine than a novice does. For the criminal justice system, the same issue

applies to suspects who are at the mercy of interrogators. Just as a doctor can find an illness

where one does not exist, polygraph examiners have the potential to determine guilt in an

examinee who has none. While a polygraph machine can create results based on scientific

physiological data, it is ultimately up to a human to draw conclusions from it. And as the history

of the polygraph and other deception-detection techniques show, examiner manipulation, bias,

and disregard to mental illnesses can create outcomes that do not accurately reveal the truth. This

kind of psychological pressure that examiners can place on suspects can be seen in cases like

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Gary Gauger’s, who spent three years in jail and nine months on death row after falsely

confessing to the murder of his parents (Eldeib). Despite the actual results being inconclusive,

Gauger was so bewildered that he ultimately accepted the “truth” that investigators told him, and,

“began to speculate how he might have killed his parents” (Eldeib). Until progressive

development and research towards improving the polygraph’s testing procedures are pushed, it

should not be seen as a reliable device in convicting people of lying. Rather than continue

focusing on old foundational theories that view only specific physiological reactions as

indicators of deception, researchers should look more into brain activity correlations. In addition

to utilizing neuroscience-based technologies to find new interrelationships, finding and

incorporating methods to diminish examiner bias should be also be emphasized. Specialized

psychological training and experience needs to be a requirement in order to become a polygraph

interrogator so that suspects with mental illnesses are not at a higher risk for false convictions

than those without them. While technology can be upgraded to become more efficient over time,

it is harder for humans to be able to improve themselves if they do not understand that they too

are susceptible to making mistakes.

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Works Cited

Bunn, Geoffrey. “The Lie Detector, “Wonder Woman” and Liberty: the Life and Work of

William Moulton Marston.” History of the Human Sciences, vol. 10, no. 1, 1997, p. 91.

Eldeib, Duaa. “The Polygraph and Wrongful Convictions: Juan Rivera, Kevin Fox and Gary

Gauger.” Chicago Tribune, 10 Mar. 2013.

Gudjonsson, Gisli H, and John Pearse. “Suspect Interviews and False Confessions.” Current

Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 20, no. 1, 2011, pp. 33–37.

Innocence Project. “False Confessions or Admissions.”

Johnson, Krista. “City Alumna’s Case Highlights Risk of False Confessions.” Iowa City Press-

Citizen, Press Citizen, 16 July 2017.

Lewis, Jerry A, and Michelle Cuppari. “The Polygraph: The Truth Lies Within.” The Journal of

Psychiatry & Law, vol. 37, no. 1, 2009, pp. 85–92.

Offe, Heinz, and Offe, Susanne. “The Comparison Question Test: Does It Work and If So

How?” Law and Human Behavior, vol. 31, no. 3, 2007, pp. 291–303.

Rice, Sabriya. “Misdiagnosis Could Affect 12M U.S. Adults Annually, Study Finds.” Modern

Healthcare, 16 Apr. 2014.

Shmuel Hirschmann, et al. “The feasibility of the polygraph examination in psychotic patients.”

WebmedCentral, 12 August 2014.

Steinbrook, Robert. “The Polygraph Test — A Flawed Diagnostic Method.” The New England

Journal of Medicine, vol. 327, no. 2, 1992, pp. 122–123.

Synnott, John, et al. “A Review of the Polygraph: History, Methodology and Current Status.”

Crime Psychology Review, vol. 1, no. 1, 2015, pp. 59–83.USLegal, Inc. “The Frye

Standard and Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence.” Forensic Law.

Student Name:

CATEGORY AND CRITERIA

(A+)

15

(A)

14

(B+)

13

(B-)

12

(C)

11

(D+)

10

(D-)

9

(F)

8

Introduction

Paper begins in a meaningful way and not with the beginning of human history. Introduction includes

consideration of the background circumstances of your invention.

Thesis Statement

A sophisticated thesis statement is present, which goes beyond a simplistic good or bad judgment on the

invention.

Interpretation and Analysis

There should be no filler statements. Make sure to acknowledge the implications of your invention.

Use of Evidence

Use concrete examples that are taken directly from your sources. Do not speak in generalities or

abstraction. Tie your writing to the specific and to details.

Research Sources

A minimum of 5 textual sources (3 academic, 2 popular) need to be present in the paper. Sources need

to be relevant, interpreted accurately, and successfully incorporated throughout the essay.

Organization and Paragraph Development

Essay is logically organized. Transitions smoothly connect each idea from one paragraph to the next.

MLA Format and Citations

1″ margin, correct heading, essay text is double-spaced in 12pt. Times New Roman font. Paper is a

minimum of 5 full pages. Essay is given an engaging title beyond “Essay #3” Specific examples are

properly cited parenthetically with page number reference and in the Works Cited page.

Grammar, Spelling, and Punctuation

Use of correct grammatical conventions and punctuation. Lack of spelling errors.

Style and Tone

Style, tone, and word choice are appropriate to audience specifications. Lack of clichés, personal

pronouns, contractions, slang, and abbreviations. Varied sentence structure.

Conclusion

Presents a coherent conclusion that successfully draws essay to an end without being repetitive.

TOTAL FINAL GRADE:

POINTS EARNED

Grade Rubric: Essay #3: Invention Research Paper