1)
After reading chapters 22, 23, and 24, answer the following question.
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Suppose you are going to conduct a study utilizing Qualitative Research Design: which type of research would you use, and which method would you utilize to collect data and select your sample.
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Chapter 22
Sampling in Qualitative Research
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Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative samples tend to be large, random, and intensively studied.
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Answer
False
Qualitative samples tend to be small, nonrandom, and intensively studied.
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Methods of Sampling in Qualitative Research
Convenience (volunteer) sampling
Snowball sampling
Theoretical sampling
Purposive sampling
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Question
What is homogeneous sampling?
Deliberately reducing variation
Selecting cases that illustrate what is typical
Selecting the most unusual or extreme cases
Selecting cases that are intense but not extreme
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Answer
A
Homogeneous sampling (deliberately reducing variation), typical case sampling (selecting cases that illustrate what is typical), extreme case sampling (selecting the most unusual or extreme cases), and intensity sampling (selecting cases that are intense but not extreme)
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Purposive Sampling
Sampling for representativeness or comparative value
Sampling special or unique cases
Sampling sequentially
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Representativeness or Comparative Value
Maximum variation sampling
Homogeneous sampling
Typical case sampling
Extreme case sampling
Intensity sampling
Stratified purposive sampling
Reputational case sampling
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Purposive Sampling Special Cases
Critical case sampling
Criterion sampling
Revelatory case sampling
Sampling politically important cases
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Theory-based sampling is adding new cases based on changes in research circumstances or in response to new leads that develop in the field.
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Answer
False
Theory-based sampling is selecting cases on the basis of their representation of important, whereas constructs opportunistic sampling is adding new cases based on changes in research circumstances or in response to new leads that develop in the field.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Purposive Sequential Category
Theory-based sampling
Opportunistic sampling
Sampling confirming and disconfirming cases
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Sample Size in Qualitative Research
No explicit, formal criteria
Sample size determined by informational needs
Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation
Data quality can affect sample size.
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions
Ethnography
Mingling with many members of the culture
Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants
Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (cont.)
Phenomenology
Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer)
Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest.
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (cont.)
Grounded theory
Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people
Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Analytic generalization occurs when researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer
True
Analytic generalization occurs when researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Generalizability
Controversial issue
Researchers find findings:
Relevant
Meaningful
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Two Models
Analytic generalization: Researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
Transferability involves judgments about whether findings from an inquiry can be extrapolated to a different setting or group of people.
Transferability has close connections to the proximal similarity model that involves a conceptualization about which contexts are more or less like the one in the study in terms of a gradient of similarity for people, settings, times, and contexts.
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Copyright © 2012 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Chapter 23
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
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Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer
True
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses. Self-reports are the most frequently used type of data in qualitative studies, followed by observation.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Fieldwork Issues
Gaining participants’ trust
Pacing data collection to avoid being overwhelmed by the intensity of data
Avoiding emotional involvement with participants
Maintaining reflexivity
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Plans
How data will be recorded and stored
Technical equipment
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Unstructured and Loosely
Structured Self-Reports
Latitude in questions and answers
Yield rich narrative data
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Types of Qualitative Self-Reports
Unstructured interviews
Semistructured interviews
Focus group interviews
Joint interviews
Life histories
Oral histories
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Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Types of Qualitative Self-Reports (cont.)
Critical incidents interviews
Diaries and journals
Think-aloud method
Photo elicitation interviews
Self-report narratives on the Internet
*
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer
True
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation. Participant observers obtain information about the dynamics of social groups or cultures within members’ own frame of reference.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Preparing for Qualitative Interviews
Ensure that interviewers and respondents have a common vocabulary.
Develop and word questions to be asked; become familiar with questions.
Conduct a practice interview.
Decide how to present oneself to participants.
Decide on settings for data collection.
Obtain needed supplies.
*
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Conducting Qualitative Interviews
Take steps to “break the ice” to put participants at ease.
Share pertinent information about the study with participants.
Develop rapport to gain participants’ trust.
Listen intently to guide subsequent questioning.
*
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Conducting Qualitative Interviews (cont.)
Probe for information as needed.
Be ready to handle emotionality.
Be prepared to manage crises (e.g., interruptions, equipment problems).
Achieve a positive closure.
*
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Observation in Qualitative Studies
Unstructured observation in naturalistic settings:
Includes participant observation
*
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Getting Started in a Participant Observation Study
Getting an overview
Gaining entrée
Establishing rapport/developing trust
*
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation to focused observation.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer
True
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation (broad observations) to focused observation of more carefully selected events.
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Observations
Descriptive observation
Focused observation
Selective observation
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through mobile positioning by observing from a fixed location.
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Answer
False
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through a combination of single positioning (observing from a fixed location), multiple positioning (moving around the site to observe in different locations), and mobile positioning (following a person around a site).
Copyright © 2017 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Observational Locations in Participant Observation
Single positioning: staying in one location
Multiple positioning: moving around the site to get different perspectives
Mobile positioning: following a single participant as he or she moves to different locations
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Methods of Recording Unstructured Observations
Log (field diary)
Field notes
Descriptive (observational) notes
Reflective notes
Methodologic notes
Theoretical notes (or analytical notes)
Personal notes
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Chapter 24
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
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1
7 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
1
Question #1
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #1
True
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses. Self-reports are the most frequently used type of data in qualitative studies, followed by observation.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Types of Data
Knowing the most likely sources of data
Open to other possible sources
Qualitative traditions
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Method of data collection
Primary: interviewing
Secondary: observation
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Fieldwork Issues
Gaining participants’ trust
Pacing data collection to avoid being overwhelmed by the intensity of data
Avoiding emotional involvement with participants
Maintaining reflexivity
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Plans
How data will be recorded and stored
Technical equipment
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Unstructured and Loosely
Structured Self-Reports
Latitude in questions and answers
Yield rich narrative data
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Types of Qualitative Self-Reports #1
Unstructured interviews
Semistructured interviews
Focus group interviews
Joint interviews
Life histories
Oral histories
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8
Types of Qualitative Self-Reports #2
Critical incidents interviews
Diaries and journals
Photo elicitation and photovoice interviews
Self-report narratives on the Internet
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9
Question #2
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #2
True
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation. Participant observers obtain information about the dynamics of social groups or cultures within members’ own frame of reference.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Preparing for Qualitative Interviews
Ensure that interviewers and respondents have a common vocabulary.
Develop and word questions to be asked; become familiar with questions.
Conduct a practice interview.
Decide how to present oneself to participants.
Decide on settings for data collection.
Obtain needed supplies.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
12
Conducting Qualitative Interviews #1
Take steps to “break the ice” to put participants at ease.
Share pertinent information about the study with participants.
Develop rapport to gain participants’ trust.
Listen intently to guide subsequent questioning.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
13
Conducting Qualitative Interviews #2
Probe for information as needed.
Be ready to handle emotionality.
Be prepared to manage crises (e.g., interruptions, equipment problems).
Achieve a positive closure.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
14
Observation in Qualitative Studies
Unstructured observation in naturalistic settings
Includes participant observation
The observer role
Four-phase sequence
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15
Getting Started in a Participant Observation Study
Gaining an overview
Windshield survey
Gaining entrée
Establishing rapport/developing trust
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16
Question #3
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation to focused observation.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #3
True
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation (broad observations) to focused observation of more carefully selected events.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Observations
Descriptive observation
Focused observation
Selective observation
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Question #4
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through mobile positioning by observing from a fixed location.
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Answer to Question #4
False
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through a combination of single positioning (observing from a fixed location), multiple positioning (moving around the site to observe in different locations), and mobile positioning (following a person around a site).
Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Observational Locations in Participant Observation
Single positioning: staying in one location
Multiple positioning: moving around the site to get different perspectives
Mobile positioning: following a single participant as he or she moves to different locations
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22
Methods of Recording Unstructured Observations
Log (field diary)
Field notes
Descriptive observational notes (focused)
Reflective notes
Methodologic notes
Theoretical notes (or analytical notes)
Personal notes
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