Psychology

For this discussion, complete the following:

Don't use plagiarized sources. Get Your Custom Essay on

Psychology

Just from $13/Page

Order Essay

Topic: Examining relationship between spirituality, self-esteem and happiness among African America men

Developing a strategy for data analysis that is consistent with the question developed and the methodology chosen.

Question

How do you feel the influence of spirituality and self-esteem affect African America men everyday life?

Methodology: Phenomenology research

Phenomenology research focuses on the lived experiences of the participants.

Participants 12-14

Develop a description of the key elements for data analysis that is consistent with one of the three research questions you wrote and its corresponding methodological design.
Describe the data analysis section you will use in your study.
Evaluate the effectiveness of the data analysis strategy, discussing its strengths and limitations.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

The Theory, Practice, and Evaluation of the Phenomenological Method as a Qualitative Research Pro…
Giorgi, Amedeo
Journal of Phenomenological Psychology; Fall 1997; 28, 2; ProQuest Psychology Journals
pg. 235

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

The material in this document comes from the HASOP manual Qualitative Research Approaches i

Psychology.

Data Analysis
Data analysis in ethnography: Thematic analysis and exemplary life
histories
Ethnography shares with the other four approaches a core method of data analysis, namely thematic
analysis. The other approaches may use different terms or specify slightly different procedures, but the
core analytic method is quite similar. We describe it briefly here in its ethnographic form, and we’ll
describe it briefly in its other forms when outlining the other approaches. Learners are advised to
master the general method regardless of the approach they select.

and listed. These patterns are derived from direct quotes and paraphrases of recurring ideas emerging
from the data. These patterns form the first level of thematic analysis.

Next, the researcher identifies data that correspond to the identified patterns. If, in a study of the cultu

of a corporation, a pattern is noted such as “males defer to hierarchically superior males, but not to
hierarchically superior females,” examples that confirm this – that show it is both recurring and an
accurate description of events – are located in the data (transcripts, notes, etc.) and annotated with the
listed pattern (as quotes along with citation of their source).

Now, the researcher combines and catalogues related patterns into themes. Themes are defined as
descriptive meaning units derived from the patterns. For example, if along with the earlier example this
pattern emerged: “males repeatedly initiate flirting behavior with females regardless of the females’ rank
and the females return the flirtation, even when they dislike it,” two themes or meaning units might be
constructed as follows: “Males impose rank-dominance on subordinate males” and “males impose
sexual-dominance on all females.”

Finally, at the highest level of abstraction, themes that emerge from the patterns (which emerged from
the original data) are synthesized together to form a comprehensive representation of the element o

the culture that is being investigated. The above meaning units or themes might constellate with oth

descriptive themes of the male and female interactions in the organization into a rich and textur

description of the rules, customs, attitudes, and practices around gender in that organization.

This distillation of the practice of thematic analysis is adapted from Taylor and Bodgan (1984) and
Aronson (1994).

In writing ethnographic reports, one common – though by no means required – presentation practice is
to construct “life stories” of representative or exemplary participants in the culture, group, or
organization. Perhaps a more accurate term would be “culture stories” or “organization stories.” The
objective is not to single out the individuals for study, but to use their experiences to exemplify key
themes found in the data. These representative life stories are not standard biographies or life histories
as might be found in biographical research.

These life or organizational stories are created in a process not unlike thematic analysis. Here,
however, the stories of the participants’ experience in the culture, group, society, or organization are
culled for the initial patterns of recurring experiences, behaviors, etc. These in turn are organized into
themes or meaning units which in a robust way exemplify important aspects of the larger culture,
society, group, or organization. Finally, as in thematic analysis, the meaning units are woven into a
richly evocative description of the meaning of the persons experience in this culture which stands for

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

many others’ similar experiences. In effect, the life story (or the organization story, if you will) of the
exemplar “stands for” the essence of the ethnographic description of what it means to be a member of
this culture, group, or organization.

eferences

Aronson, J. (1994). A Pragmatic View of Thematic Analysis. The Qualitative Report, 2, Number 1.
Retrieved January 20,2003, from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/index.html

Taylor, S, J. & Bogdan, R. (1984). Introduction to qualitative research methods: The search for
meaning. 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley.

Data analysis in case studies
Two types of data analysis for a case study are sometimes referred to (for example, Patton, 2005):
holistic analysis, in which the information about the entire case is analyzed; and embedded analysis, in
which information about a specific but limited aspect of the case is analyzed. For example, in a case
study of learners’ experiences with online education, if all aspects of the experience are studied – the
nature of the online platform, the IT support structure, the type of educational company providing the
online learning, the quality and training of the teachers, the nature of the curriculum, the demographics
of the learners, the costs and benefits perceived by the learners, the work load of the faculty, and so

and so forth – the analysis is said to be holistic.

However, if out of that mass of data only one aspect is analyzed and reported – for example, the
learners perceptions of the learning platform and of the instructors’ competence – this would be an
embedded analysis. A case study dissertation would most likely be a holistic analysis of a case or set of
cases.

There is no consensus format for case study data analysis, but a common series of steps can be found
in many sources. The following description is adapted from Creswell (1998) and Stake (1995).

• The opening step of data analysis – sometimes referred to as description – involves creating a

detailed description of the case as a whole and of its setting(s) and contexts. The objective is
both clarity and detail, creating a rich and textured picture of the case and its settings.

• The case study researcher looks at single instances in the described data and draws meaning
from each without (yet) looking for multiple instances. This process pulls the described data
apart and puts them back together in more meaningful ways. This may be called direct
interpretation.

• Next, the researcher seeks a collection of meaning-rich instances from the data, aggregating
these into categories of meaning, giving rise to the term categorical aggregation.

• By analyzing the categories (and the underlying instances and data of the various categories),
the researcher will identify themes – common statements of recurring description and patterns
of meaning – and connections between or among the themes. These themes will be developed
using verbatim passages and direct quotes from the data to elucidate each theme. At this point,
data from the case itself are used, without being compared yet with data and themes from other
cases; this is within-case analysis.

• The same steps are followed for each case in the series, so that each is analyzed within itself.
(For instance, if the study investigates ten cases of multiple sclerosis in young married people,
each person’s data are analyzed separately first, as a single case, before taking the next step)

• Then, the researcher will develop a thematic analysis across cases (across case analysis) as
well as interpretations of the integrated meaning of all the cases in the study.

• In the final, interpretive, phase, the researcher develops naturalistic generalizations from the
data as a whole and reports on the lessons learned from the case study.

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

References

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Grounded theory data analysis methods and procedures: Coding
Because grounded theory goes beyond the descriptive and interpretive goals of many other qualitative
models and is aimed at building theories, data analysis tends to be more complex and aims to achieve
an explanatory power that is not necessary in other approaches. The heart of the grounded theory
approach occurs in its use of coding, its main form of data analysis. There are three different types of
coding used in a more-or-less sequential manner (this discussion is adapted from Strauss and Corbin,
1990, 1998, Patton, 2003; and Creswell, 1998).

The first type of coding is open coding which is much like the description goal of science. Usually open
coding is done first. During open coding, the researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being
studied. This involves the process of describing the data through means such as examination,
comparison, conceptualization, and categorization. Labels are created to describe in one or a few
words the categories one finds in the data. Examples are collected for all these categories. For
example, in a grounded theory study of the effects of child sexual abuse, open coding might discover in
the reports of the participants some categories such as these: Feeling powerless, hating myself, hating
the abuser, or feeling permanently damaged.

The categories are studied more carefully to identify subcategories, which are called properties and
dimensionality in the categories. For instance, the researcher in our example might discover that “hating
myself” had a wide range of emotional power – in some participants it is very strong, whereas in others
it is not strong at all. The categories, properties, and dimensions discovered in the data are fully
described in the participants’ words.

Then begins the second type of coding: axial coding which involves finding links among the categories,
properties, and dimensions that were derived from open coding. (A link is an axis, hence the term
axial.) How is axial coding actually done?

Axial coding first identifies the central categories about the phenomenon. These central or core
categories tend to be the most important aspect(s) of element of the phenomenon, the one that clearly
has the greatest strength and appears in all or most of the participants’ reports or other data. For
instance, a central category of the phenomenon of the psychological effects of childhood sexual abuse
might be found to be “feelings of powerlessness.”

Next, the researcher explores the data carefully to discover causal conditions, which are categories of
conditions influencing the central category or categories. For instance, in the child sexual abuse study,
one causal condition might be found to be “repeated humiliations,” a condition that is found across
many reports to support or influence the development of feelings of powerlessness (the central
category).

The researcher continues axial coding by identifying interactions among the categories (which are
called strategies, although that term might be confusing). Strategies in the example study could be, for
example, “repeated humiliations strengthen feelings of powerless, but weaken hatred of the abuser
while strengthening self-hatred.” You might think of “strategies” in grounded theory as the equivalent of
correlations in statistical theory-building.

Axial coding continues with the identification and exploration of other supporting or weakening
conditions which exert lesser influences on the central variables. These are categories in the data

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

which label the contexts and intervening conditions. Examples from the grounded theory study of the
effects of child sexual abuse might include “protection by another adult,” which when found to be
present ameliorates (positively influences) the central category, but which is insufficient in itself to
prevent the damage entirely. Finally, consequences are carefully identified and described. These would
include all the outcomes of the presence of the central category in all its interactions (strategies) w

ith

contexts, intervening conditions, properties, dimensions, etc. Consequences describe what happens
when the central category is found under specific conditions. For example, when “feelings of powerless”
are found to be very strong, accompanied (interacting with) “isolation” and “repeated humiliation,”
depression may be found to be a consequence.

Notice that these consequences are NOT presupposed, but are carefully teased out of the real reports
and descriptions of their experiences by the many participants in the study. Preconceptions about the
theory must be left at the door. See “Phenomenology,” below, and its discussion of epoche and the
phenomenological reduction. Without using the terminology of phenomenology, the requirement is the
same.

The third type of coding is selective coding continues the axial coding activity of relating the subsidiary
categories to the central category(s). Selective coding is the process of selecting your main
phenomenon (core category) around which all other phenomena (subsidiary categories) are grouped,
arranging the groupings, studying the results and rearranging where necessary. It is necessary to
remain faithful to the data, so in selective coding, one frequently goes “back to the things themselves”
to ensure that one is capturing what one’s informants told one.

From this last type of coding, the grounded theory researcher moves toward developing a model of
process and a transactional system, which essentially tells the story of the outcome of the research.
Creating a literal “story line” is one manner of doing selective coding. The story line tells the results of
the axial coding in a coherent narrative. Many grounded theory researchers do not create a conditional
matrix, a diagram or picture of the various categories, interactions, and relationships among the central
category(s) and the subsidiary categories. But the conditional matrix is a very helpful tool in creating the
narrative story line which embodies the grounded theory.

The selective coding process typically focuses on two dimensions of the phenomenon: its process and
its transactional system. Again, the conditional matrix is quite useful in elucidating these two elements
of the theory.

• Process is the manner in which actions and interactions occur in a sequence or series. It
incorporates the time element. (“As time went on and I got older, the repeated humiliations
my father inflicted on me began to tear me apart. I started to hate myself, though not

first.”) It also incorporates the various categories which mutually influenced each other.
(“My brother tried to help, and I was grateful, but I was more worried he’d get hurt, so I
asked him to stay out of it. He hasn’t been much a part of my life since.”)

• The transactional system is a grounded theory’s analytic method that allows an
examination of the interactions of different events. (“Self-hatred led to increased willingness
to be hurt. It strengthened the belief among most participants that the victim is bad and
deserves punishment, and also strengthened the yearning for even the abusive “love”
offered by the perpetrator. This in turn alienated most participants from other sources of
more benign love, because the victims did not feel worthy of it.”)

The use of the conditional matrix and the process and transactional-system analysis leads finally to the
general description of the grounded theory. It might be a brief sentence distilling all the above work, or a
more complex statement. But it will also be accompanied by a set of propositions or hypotheses which

menon under study. explain the pheno

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

At this stage, it is usual for grounded theory researchers to return not only to the original data to ensure
that the theory fits those data, but may meet with the participants again to compare the theory wit
perceptions and to ask them whether the theory fits their experiences. Their responses will be taken as
new data to be incorp

h their

orated into the theory, which is thought to be in a continual adaptation and
volution. Grounded theory is never complete. (Adapted from Strauss, & Corbin, 1990, 1998; Creswell,

2002)

ge.

trauss, A., Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and theory for developing
grounded theory (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

e a

method of analysis of phenomenological data are acceptable in the General Psychology specialization.
ed provided they meet (are equivalent to) the criteria described in these pages.

r deeper
comparison. These segments (or “meaning units” as described above) will be organized

ematically in two major ways: within the context of a single interview, and across a series of

g
erviews” would not have been possible unless the

dividual phrases could have been cut out and kept in a separate “meaning unit” document of some

ings that emerge from the data in their own terms. If we include these two preliminary steps with

e
1998; Patton,

References

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousan
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sa

Strauss, A., Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and
techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Phenomenological Data Analysis
Most standard texts (e.g., Creswell, 1998; Patton, 2002; or Taylor and Bogdan, 1984) propos
general five-step model for phenomenological analysis. These steps are elaborated in three more
detailed models described in Appendix A (see “empirical phenomenology” [Amedeo Giorgi],
“transcendental phenomenology” [Clark Mousakas] and the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen Method of Analysis
of Phenomenological Data). The Giorgi model, the Moustakas model, and the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen

Other models can be us

Preliminary steps
The generic method of analysis consists of five essential steps, but is preceded by careful preparation
of the data and of the researcher. First, the data must be transformed into written form – usually
transcripts of interviews – which can be studied as a whole and, later, in bits or units. Word processing
programs are ideal for this, allowing both retention of the original interview in “raw” form and “cutting
and pasting” individual segments (phrases, sentences, paragraphs) into separate documents fo
analysis and
th
interviews.

For example, in a series of phenomenological interviews on the experience of grief in children, the
researcher found that participant A repeated the phrase, “she left me behind” many times in talking
about what it was like to lose his mommy. Within the context of that child’s experience, being “left
behind” became a very significant part of the experience, a “meaning unit.” Meanwhile, child B repeat
the phrase “she’s gone, I can’t find her” a number of times. This too was a meaning unit for child B.
Looking across both transcripts and comparing the two meaning units and reflecting deeply on them
and their contexts in the interviews, the researcher teased out a deeper level of meaning by comparin
the two different units: “I feel lost.” This “across int
in
kind, which word processing makes quite handy.

Before starting to analyze data, though, the researcher does a second preparatory step, which as been
described briefly above as the “phenomenological reduction.” She attempts to reduce the impact of his
or her biases, preconceptions, and beliefs about the phenomenon and opening oneself to the data and
mean

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

the five steps proposed by most texts, we have a generic seven-step model for data analysis, beginning

Step 1 and 2: Prepare the data and adopt the phenomenological attitude (“reduction” or “epoche” [see
below].)

tep 3: Achieve a Sense of the Whole. The researcher reads the entire description in order to get a

oes

de
ith psychological criteria in mind. The researcher next eliminates redundancies and clarifies and

concrete
ants, reflects on them, and comes up with the essence of the experience for the

articipant. The researcher next transforms each relevant unit’s essence into the language of

ere, the researcher synthesizes all of the transformed meaning units (now expressed in
e language of psychological science) into a consistent statement regarding the participant’s

r synthesizes all of the essence or structure statements
regarding each participant’s experience into one consistent statement, which describes and captures

above. Either of the
odels is acceptable for phenomenological research in the General Psychology specialization. The

tive
rationale should be approved by the mentor (and the dissertation committee, of course)

nd reviewed (with a rating of “Satisfactory” or better) by the Methodology Committee of the

85,
gy”)

Ernest Keen of Bucknell University (1975) and Paul F. Colaizzi and Emily M. Stevick of Duquesne

with:

Steps in phenomenological data analysis: Generic model
S
general sense of the whole statement.

Step 4: Discrimination of Meaning Units Within a Psychological Perspective and Focused on the
Phenomenon Being Researched. Once the sense of the whole has been grasped, the researcher g
back to the beginning and reads through the text once more and delineates each time that a transition
in meaning occurs. The specific aim is to discriminate “meaning units” from within a psychological
perspective and with a focus on the phenomenon being researched. The meaning unit should be ma
w
elaborates on the meaning of the units by relating them to each other and to the sense of the whole.

Step 5: Transformation of Subjects Everyday Expressions into Psychological Language with Emphasis
on the Phenomenon Being Investigated. Once meaning units have been delineated and linked
together, the researcher goes through all of the meaning units, which are still expressed in the
language of the particip
p
psychological science.

Step 6: Synthesis of Transformed Meaning Units into a Consistent Statement of the Structure of the
Experience. H
th
experience.

Step 6: Final Synthesis: Finally, the researche

the essence of the experience being studied.

Acceptable Models of Phenomenological Analysis
The generic model described above is elaborated in two acceptable and detailed models of
psychological phenomenological analysis developed by Amedeo Giorgi at Duquesne University an
Clark Moustakas at the Center for Humanistic Studies and The Union Institute. Each of these models is
detailed and provides a stepwise guide to the seven generic steps presented
m
Moustakas model is further elaborated in the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen model.

A learner may adopt a different model for the data analysis, provided that the alternative model is
least as clearly articulated and provides at least as much guidance for procedures as the accepted
models. The learner should prepare a careful description of and rationale for using an alterna
model, and that
a
Specialization.

The Giorgi model (usually called “empirical phenomenology” or “phenomenological psychology”) (19
1997) (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003) and the Moustakas model (often called “transcendental phenomenolo
and the “Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen Model” synthesized by Moustakas (1994) and based on the work of

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

University are described more fully in Appendix A. They differ from each other and from the generic
model above only in the ways in which they outline the procedures. Each provides much more detail

bout how to proceed in each step or stage.

eferences

Creswe research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand

Giorgi, A ). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University

Giorgi, A s a qualitative

Giorgi, A amic,
ng

y and design (pp. 243-273). Washington, DC: American

Keen, E ogy phenomenologically. Unpublished Manuscript. Lewisberg, PA:

rd age.

Taylor, itative research methods: The search for
meaning. 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley.

uld

e the researcher (who performs them) is a
articipant, they already are a form of data collection.

form of the phenomenological

duction or epoche (see Appendix A for a description of epoche).

other forms of self-expression may become the
rimary mode of both data collection and data analysis.

ith

ll, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

. (1985
Press.

. (1997). The theory, practice and evaluation of phenomenological methods a
research procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 28, 235-281.

.P. & Giorgi, B.M. (2003). The descriptive phenomenological psychological method. In C
P.M., Rhodes, J.E. & Yardley, L. (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expandi
perspectives in methodolog
Psychological Association.

. (1975). Doing psychol
Bucknell University.

Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3 ed.). Newbury Park, CA: S

S, J. & Bogdan, R. (1984). Introduction to qual

Data Analysis Methods in Heuristic Inquiry
In general, six steps characterize the heuristic approach to data analysis. They are as follows: initial
engagement, immersion, incubation, illumination, explication and synthesis (Douglass and Moustakas,
l985; Moustakas, , 1967, 1981, 1990, 2001). Steps 1 and 2 (initial engagement and immersion) wo
appear to be preliminary to data collection, but becaus
p

Step 1: Initial engagement involves and awareness of the topic. In heuristics it is essential that the
topic not only be of importance to the researcher but also that he/she experiences a sense of passion in
connection with it. From the experience of being with the topic in an open way emerges the questio
The culmination of the initial engagement period is the creation of a clear research question which
forms the heart of the inquiry. Initial engagement requires the researcher to reduce the influence of
preconceptions and beliefs about the phenomenon, so it includes a
re

Step 2: During the immersion step, the researcher makes his/her question the center of the
experiential world, allowing the self to become one with the question. This is done in a loose, non-
structured way, permitting openness to the range of related experiences, which helps to facilitate an
understanding of the phenomenon. During this step, the researcher is non-judgmental and non-critical,
open to the flow of experience (again, a version of the phenomenological reduction). The researcher is
open to intuitions (hunches based on clues) and tacit knowledge (knowing that he/she knows but not
knowing how he/she knows). At this stage, journaling or
p

During immersion, heuristic researchers also gather information from their co-researchers, in the form
of interviews, diaries, journals, writings, art, film, etc.., and immerse themselves in those data along w
their own data. Typically, each researcher finds a personal method for immersing oneself in the data

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

that are emerging from the interviews and other documents. As can be seen, data “collection” and d
“analysis” are not easily separated into d

ata
iscrete steps or stages, but are an integrated and ongoing

process each informing the other.

d on

el. No
y the engaged

searcher will be “present” to the process and reflecting often on how it is going.

er
n

n learner, because the time-and-money pressures of the four-course, one-year model can be
factor.

erves

s
d

indwelling and reflection
e essential structures of the experience of the phenomenon under study.

heuristic inquiry is similar to the “final synthesis” in the generic model of
phenomenological analysis.

uestion or problem AND (2) to develop portraits of the persons who have explicated the experience.

eferences

Douglas inquiry: The internal search to know. Journal of

Mousta arch. In J.F.T. Bugental (Ed.) Challenges of Humanistic
Psychology. McGraw-Hill.

Step 3: After a period of time, having been immersed in the research question, the researcher puts
aside all deliberate focus on the experience and the data and allows the information to be processe
an unconscious level, a process known as incubation. When this becomes appropriate cannot be
arbitrarily specified, but depends on the data themselves. A common marker is when new themes are
no longer emerging in the data ( a condition sometimes called saturation). During incubation, data a
no longer being collected intentionally (although new insights may emerge or new information may
arise). Instead, the researcher allows the data to “go unconscious” and to be processed at that lev
intentional (conscious) work is done to further the interpretation, although obviousl
re

Step 4: The information continues to consolidate and grow (“incubate”) until a sense of discovery
occurs. This moment of realization and enlightenment is known as illumination, and often has the fell
of an “Aha!” experience. At this point, new knowledge is obtained, representing a whole that is great
than the sum of its parts. The great danger here is that the researcher will succumb to pressures of
time, money, or expediency and “force” an illumination which is not authentic. Because the incubatio
period (step 3) is by nature an unconscious process, it is unpredictable. One cannot know ahead of
time when insight or illumination will emerge. This provides an alement of risk to the Capella University
dissertatio
a

Step 5: The next step is explication. During the explication phase, the researcher returns to the data
(transcripts, documents, etc.), and with the new insights gained during the illumination phase, obs
the patterns and themes arising which portray essential meanings. This is a version of “thematic
analysis” as discussed in the section on ethnography. Indwelling is used to dwell within the experiences
and draw meaning from them. Polanyi (l966) refers to indwelling as follows: “It brings home to us that
it is not by looking at things, but by dwelling in them, that we understand their joint meaning” (p. l8). Thi
phase resembles the earlier immersion phase, with the difference that now one dwells in the data an
their emerging meanings and structures in order to interpret them, whereas in the earlier immersi
phase, one was immersed in the articulation of the phenomenon itself and in gathering similar
articulations from one’s co-researchers. The goal of step 5 is to articulate by
th

Step 6: The final step in a heuristic inquiry is synthesis. It is through synthesis that the whole
experience is captured. Synthesis is more than a summary, it is the creation of a new understanding o
the essence of the experience. “Synthesis goes beyond distillation of themes and patterns. It is not a
summary or recapitulation. In synthesis, the searcher is challenged to generate a new reality, a new
monolithic significance that embodies the essence of the heuristic truth” (Douglass and Moustakas,
l985, p. l7). The synthesis in

The task is (l) to arrive at a depiction of the experience, a synthesizing statement that illuminates the
q

s, B. & Moustakas, C. (l985). Heuristic
humanistic psychology, 25(3), 39-55.

kas, C. (1967) Heuristic rese

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

Moustakas, C. (1981) Heuristic methods of obtaining knowledge. In C. Moustakas, Rhythms, Rituals,
and Relationships. Center for Humanistic Studies.

Moustakas, C. (1990) Heuristic Research: Design, methodology and applications. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.

Moustakas, C. (2001) Heuristic research: Design and Methodology. In K.J. Schneider, J.F.T. Bugental
& J.F. Pierson, (Eds.) The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading edges in theory,
research, and practice. Sage.

Polanyi, M. (l966). The tacit dimension. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books Doubleday and
Company, Inc.

Detailed Step-by-Step Procedures for Data Analysis

Three Models of Phenomenological Analysis

A. Empirical Phenomenology is a model of phenomenological psychological research that was
developed at Duquesne University (Giorgi, 1985, 1997; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003).

In order to develop an understanding of the phenomenological psychological research method,
it is essential to first understand the concept of intentionality and its role in the
phenomenological method. The following passage from Amedeo Giorgi (1997) explains the
role of intentionality in phenomenology.

Finally, no discussion of phenomenology would be complete without mentioning intentionality.
Edmund Husserl took the term over from Franz Bretano but uses it in a fundamentally different
way. For Husserl, intentionality is the essential feature of consciousness, and it refers to the
fact that consciousness is always directed to an object that is not itself consciousness, although
it could be, as in reflective acts. More precisely, consciousness always takes an object, and the
object always transcends the act in which it appears. This idea is important for the human
sciences as well, since it helps overcome the Cartesian understanding of the subject-object
relationship. There are not two independent entities, objects and subjects, existing in
themselves which later get to relate to each other, but the very meaning of subject implies a
relationship to an object, and to be an object intrinsically implies being related to subjectivity.
Thus, the subject object relationship must be understood structurally and holistically (p. 237).

In the philosophical phenomenological method there are three interlocking steps: (1) the
phenomenological reduction, (2) description and (3) search for essences. The
phenomenological reduction is a methodological device devised by Husserl that is used to
make research findings, which use the phenomenological model more precise. During the
phenomenological reduction, one brackets past knowledge about the phenomenon
encountered in order to be fully present to it as it is in the concrete situation in which one is
encountering it. One puts aside or renders “non-influential” all past knowledge that may be
associated with the presently given object.

The researcher cannot expect all participants in the psychological phenomenological study to
be phenomenological and, thus, capable of assuming the attitude of the phenomenological
reduction. Moreover, for human science research, the details, biases, errors, and prejudices
that we carry with us in everyday life are exactly what have to be understood in psychological
phenomenological research. What is critical is that the description be as precise and detailed

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

as possible with a minimum number of generalities and abstractions. However, the
phenomenological attitude does demand that the researcher be able to do his/her work from
within the attitude of the reduction or else no phenomenological claims for the analysis could be
made.

There are two descriptive levels of the empirical phenomenological model:

Level 1, the original data is comprised of naïve descriptions obtained through open-ended
questions and dialogue.

Level II, the researcher describes the structures of the experiences based on reflective analysis
and interpretation of the research participant’s account or story.

The method of analysis consists of five essential steps which are as follows:

1) Sense of the Whole – One reads the entire description in order to get a general sense
of the whole statement.

2) Discrimination of Meaning Units Within a Psychological Perspective and Focused on

the Phenomenon Being Researched – Once the sense of the whole has been grasped,
the researcher goes back to the beginning and reads through the text once more and
delineates each time that a transition in meaning occurs with the specific aim of
discriminating “meaning units” from within a psychological perspective and with a focus
on the phenomenon being researched. The meaning unit should be made with
psychological criteria in mind. The researcher next eliminates redundancies and
clarifies and elaborates on the meaning of the units by relating them to each other and
to the sense of the whole.

3) Transformation of Subjects Everyday Expressions into Psychological Language with

Emphasis on the Phenomenon Being Investigated – Once meaning units have been
delineated, the researcher goes through all of the meaning units, which are still
expressed in the concrete language of the participants, reflects on them and comes up
with the essence of the experience for the participant. The researcher next transforms
each relevant unit into the language of psychological science.

4) Synthesis of Transformed Meaning Units into a Consistent Statement of the Structure

of the Experience – Finally, the researcher synthesizes all of the transformed meaning
units into a consistent statement regarding the participant’s experience.

5) Final Synthesis – Finally the researcher synthesizes all of the statements regarding

each participant’s experience into one consistent statement, which describes and
captures the essence of the experience being studied.

(Adapted from Giorgi, 1985, 1997; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003)

B. Transcendental Phenomenology -There are three core processes that facilitate derivation of
knowledge in the transcendental phenomenological approach as proposed by Clark Moustakas
(1994). The three core processes are: Epoche, Transcendental- Phenomenological
Reduction and Imaginative Variation.

1) Epoche: Setting aside prejudgments and opening the research interview with an

unbiased, receptive presence. It is returning to things themselves, free of
prejudgments and preconceptions.

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

2) Transcendental Phenomenological Reduction: The task is that of describing in textual
language just what one sees, not only in terms of the external object but also the
internal act of consciousness, the experience as such, the rhythm and relationship
between phenomenon and self. Textual qualities are as follows: rough and smooth;
small and large; quiet and noisy; colorful and bland; hot and cold; stationary and
moving; high and low; squeezed in and expansive, fearful and courageous; angry and
calm – descriptions that present varying intensities; ranges of shapes, sizes and
special qualities; time references and colors within an experiential context.

a. Bracketing the Topic or Question – The focus of the research is placed in

brackets, everything else is set aside so that the entire research process is
rooted solely on the topic and question.

b. Horizonalizaton – Every statement is treated as having equal value.
c. Statements irrelevant to the topic or question as well as those that are

repetitive or overlapping are deleted, leaving only the Horizons (the textual
meaning and invariant constituents of the phenomenon)

d. Delimiting Horizons or Meanings: Horizons that stand out as invariant
qualities of the experience.

e. Invariant Qualities and Themes – Non-repetitive, non-overlapping
constituents are clustered into themes.

f. Individual Textual Descriptions – Develop integration, descriptively, of the
invariant textural constituents and themes of each research participant.

g. Composite Textual Description – Develop integration of all of the individual
textual descriptions into a group or universal textual description.

3) Imaginative Variation: The task of Imaginative Variation is to seek possible meanings

through the utilization of imagination, varying frames of reference, employing polarities
and reversals, and approaching the phenomenon from divergent perspectives, different
positions roles or functions. The aim is to arrive at structural descriptions of an
experience, the underlying and precipitating factors that account for what is being
experienced; in other words the “how” that speaks to conditions that illuminate the
“what” of experience. How did the experience of the phenomenon come to be what it
is? The steps to Imaginative Variation are as follows:

a. Systematic varying of the possible structural meanings that underlie the

textural meanings. Vary perspectives of the phenomenon from different
vantage points, such as opposite meanings and various roles. Using free
fantasy variations, consider freely the possible structural qualities or
dynamics that evoke structural qualities.

b. Construct a list of the structural qualities of the experience.
c. Recognizing the underlying themes or contexts that account for emergence

of the phenomenon.
d. Develop structural themes by clustering the structural qualities into themes.
e. Considering the universal structures that precipitate feelings and thoughts

with reference to the phenomenon, such as: time, space, bodily concerns,
materiality, causality, relation to self, or relation to others;

f. Individual Structural Descriptions: For each participant, integrate the
structural qualities and themes into an individual structural description of
the experience.

g. Composite Structural Description: Integration of all of the individual
structural descriptions into a group or universal structural description of the
experience.

4) Synthesis of Meanings and Essences: The final step in the phenomenological

research process is the intuitive integration of the composite textual and structural

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

descriptions into a unified statement of the essences of the experience of the
phenomenon as a whole. The essences of any experience are never totally
exhausted. The fundamental textual-structural synthesis represents the essences at a
particular time and place from the vantage point of an individual researcher following
an exhaustive imaginative and reflective study of the phenomenon.

(Adapted from Moustakas, 1994)

C. Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen Method of Analysis of Phenomenological Data (See Flow Chart in
Appendix B)

Epoche is the first step in the phenomenological method and is a process in which the
researcher sets aside all preconceived ideas about what is being experienced and described by
the participants. Phenomenological Reduction is the process by which the participant describes
in textual language just what one sees, not only in terms of the external object but also the
internal act of consciousness, the experience under inquiry as such, the rhythm and
relationship between phenomenon and self. Textual qualities are as follows: rough and
smooth; small and large; quiet and noisy; colorful and bland; hot and cold; stationary and
moving; high and low; squeezed in and expansive, fearful and courageous; angry and calm –
descriptions that present varying intensities; ranges of shapes, sizes and special qualities; time
references and colors within an experiential context. During this step in the phenomenological
process, the textural qualities of the lived experience of the participant are separated. Those
comments that deal with the question are clustered into themes (Moustakas, 1994).

Following the Phenomenological Reduction, the researcher uses imaginative variation. The
task of imaginative variation is to seek possible meanings through the utilization of imagination,
varying frames of reference, employing polarities and reversals, and approaching the
phenomenon from divergent perspectives, different positions roles or functions. The aim is to
arrive at structural descriptions of an experience, the underlying and precipitating factors that
account for what is being experienced; in other words, the “how” that speaks to conditions that
illuminate the “what” of experience. How did the experience of the phenomenon come to be
what it is? Through the use of imaginative variation the researcher examines the data collected
from participants from different views, changing the frames of reference, using polarities and
reversals, and looking at the phenomenon from different perspectives, positions, roles, or
functions. Employ universal structures as themes: time, space, materiality, relationship to self,
relationship to others, bodily concerns, causal and intentional structures.

The final step of the process is called intuitive integration. Intuitive integration is the process by
which the researcher develops textural-structural synthesis that represents the essence of the
experience of the phenomenon under inquiry (Moustakas, 1994).

The steps to the modified Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen Method of Analysis of
Phenomenological Data are as follows:

1) Set aside all preconceived ideas about what is being experienced and described

by the participant (Epoche).

2) Consider each statement with the emphasis on the importance for description of
the experience.

3) Record all of the relevant statements dealing with the experience.

4) Make a list of every non-repetitive, non overlapping statement. These constitute

the invariant horizons or meaning units of the experience.

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

5) Cluster the invariant meaning units into themes.

6) Organize the invariant meaning units and themes into a description of the
textures of the experience (textural description). Include direct quotes and
verbatim passages from the participants.

7) Reflect on the textual descriptions. Through the use of imaginative variation,

develop a description of the structures of these experiences (structural
description).

8) Construct a textural-structural description of the meanings and essences of the

experiences for the individual participant.

9) Once this process is completed for the data collected from each participant in the
study, synthesize all of these descriptions into a composite textural-structural
description of the experience representing the essence of the experience of the
participants in the study as a whole. Thus, developing a composite textural-
structural synthesis, which represents the lived experience of the subject under
investigation for participants involved in the study.

(Adapted from Moustakas, 1994)

References

Brennan, J. (1998). History and systems of psychology. Prentice-Hall: New Jersey.

Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University
Press.

Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice and evaluation of phenomenological methods as a qualitative
research procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 28, 235-281.

Giorgi, A.P. & Giorgi, B.M. (2003). The descriptive phenomenological psychological method. In Camic,
P.M., Rhodes, J.E. & Yardley, L. (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expanding
perspectives in methodology and design (pp. 243-273).

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive
pedagogy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Data Analysis

Appendix B Flow chart of Keen’s version of transcendental phenomenological data
analysis

Step 1:
Epoche

Step 2: Phenomenological
reduction

Step 3: Imaginative Variation

Step 4: Intuitive synthesis

Epoche is the first step in the phenomenological method and is a process in which the researcher sets
aside all preconceived ideas about what is being experienced and described by the participants.
Phenomenological researchers develop their own techniques, often involving meditative or awareness
techniques (such as mindfulness meditation, journaling, and the like) to become aware of the arising of
biases or biasing thoughts).

Phenomenological Reduction is the process by which the participant describes in textual language just
what one sees, not only in terms of the external objects but also the internal act of consciousness, the
experience under inquiry as such, the rhythm and relationship between phenomenon and self. During
this step in the phenomenological process, the textural qualities of the lived experience of the
participant are separated and a textural description is developed.

The task of imaginative variation is to seek possible meanings through the utilization of imagination,
varying frames of reference, employing polarities and reversals, and approaching the phenomenon
from divergent perspectives, different positions roles or functions. The aim is to arrive at structural
descriptions of an experience, the underlying and precipitating factors that account for what is being
experienced; in other words, the “how” that speaks to conditions that illuminate the “what” of
experience.

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

The final step of the process is called intuitive integration. Intuitive integration is the process by which
the researcher develops textural-structural synthesis that represents the essence of the experience of
the phenomenon under inquiry

Data Analysis

Appendix C Flow chart of Generic thematic analysis of Qualitative Data

Step 1: Patterns of experience are identified: recurring
words and phrases are identified and summarized.
These are called meaning units.

Step 2: Confirming data (specific words, phrases, etc.) are
linked to the meaning units from step 1.

Step 3: Related patterns or meaning units (steps 1 & 2) are combined into
themes.

Step 4: Themes are synthesized to form a comprehensive
description of the phenomenon.

Patterns of experience or meaning units

Once the data are collected by observations, interviews (audio taped and transcribed), field notes, or
any other sources, patterns of experience (recurring words, phrases, descriptions, etc.) are identified
and listed. These patterns are derived from direct quotes and paraphrases of recurring ideas emerging
from the data. These patterns form the first level of thematic analysis.

Linking the data themselves to the meaning units (confirming the meaning units)

Next, the researcher identifies data that correspond to the identified patterns. If, in a study of the culture
of a corporation, a pattern is noted such as “males defer to hierarchically superior males, but not to
hierarchically superior females,” examples that confirm this – that show it is both recurring and an
accurate description of events – are located in the data (transcripts, notes, etc.) and annotated with the
listed pattern (as quotes along with citation of their source). This step is critical, because it provides
confirming evidence that the meaning units have emerged directly from the data themselves and not
from the researcher’s biases or preconceptions. This step also provides the material for substantiating
the “results” section of the dissertation (typically Chapter Four).

Creating Themes

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

Now, the researcher combines and catalogues related patterns into themes. This is a more abstract
step, during which the researcher must beware the intrusion of bias, preconceptions, beliefs, etc.
Themes are comprised of combinations and distillations of the descriptive meaning units derived from
the patterns in the data. For example, if along with the earlier example this pattern emerged: “males
repeatedly initiate flirting behavior with females regardless of the females’ rank and the females return
the flirtation, even when they dislike it,” two themes or meaning units might be constructed as follows:
“Males impose rank-dominance on subordinate males” and “males impose sexual-dominance on all
females.”

Synthesis of themes

Finally, at the highest level of abstraction, themes that emerge from the patterns or meaning units
(which emerged from the original data) are synthesized together to form a comprehensive
representation of the element of the culture that is being investigated. The above meaning units or
themes might constellate with other descriptive themes of the male and female interactions in the
organization into a rich and textured description of the rules, customs, attitudes, and practices around
gender in that organization.

This distillation of the practice of thematic analysis is adapted from Taylor and Bodgan (1984) and
Aronson (1994)

Data Analysis

Capella Proprietary and Confidential
ShortDoc_Internal
Last updated: 11/29/2006 3:05 PM

Appendix D Moustakas’ Description of Data Analysis in Heuristic Research

1) Place all the material drawn from one participant before you (recordings, transcriptions,
journals, notes, poems, art work, etc.). This material may either be data gathered by self-search
or by interviews with co-researchers.

2) Immerse yourself fully in the material until you are aware of and understand everything that is
before you.

3) Put the material aside for a while. Let it settle in you. Live with it but without particular attention
or focus. Return to the immersion process. Make notes where these would enable you to
remember or classify the material. Continue the rhythm of working with the data and resting
until an illumination or essential configuration emerges. From your core or global sense, list the
essential components or themes that characterize the fundamental nature and meaning of the
experience. Reflectively study the themes, dwell inside them, and develop a full depiction of
the experience. The depiction must include the essential components of the experience.

4) Illustrate the depiction of the experience with verbatim samples, poems, stories, or other
materials to highlight and accentuate the person’s lived experience.

5) Return to the “raw material” of your co-researcher (participant). Does your depiction of the
experience fit the data from which you have developed it? Does it contain all that is essential?

Complete the above steps for each participant. Then:
a) Place the Reflective Depiction for each participant before you.
b) Immerse yourself completely in the Reflective Depictions until you are fully aware of and

understand what they contain.
c) Put the material aside and engage in a rhythm of rest and work until the essential invariant and

non-repetitive themes of the material stand out.
d) Make a list of the essential components of the experience (these should portray the qualities,

nature, and meanings that characterize the experience).
e) From the above, develop a full reflective depiction of the experience, one that characterizes the

participants as a group, reflecting core meanings not only for the individuals but the group of
persons as a whole. Include in the depiction, verbatim samples, poems, stories, etc., to
highlight and accentuate the lived nature of the experience. This depiction will serve as the
creative synthesis, which will combine, in an esthetically pleasing way, the themes and patterns
into a representation of the whole. This synthesis will communicate the essence of the lived
experience under inquiry. The synthesis is more than a summary – it is like a chemical
reaction, a creation of anew.

f) Return to the individuals, select two or three and develop portraits of these persons that are
consistent with the composite depiction of the group as a whole, in such a way that the
phenomenon and the person emerge as real.
(Adapted from Moustakas, 1990)

References

Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Data Analysis Methods in Heuristic Inquiry
Douglass, B. & Moustakas, C. (l985). Heuristic inquiry: The internal search to know. Journal of humanistic psychology, 25(3), 39-55.
Moustakas, C. (1967) Heuristic research. In J.F.T. Bugental (Ed.) Challenges of Humanistic Psychology. McGraw-Hill.
Moustakas, C. (1981) Heuristic methods of obtaining knowledge. In C. Moustakas, Rhythms, Rituals, and Relationships. Center for Humanistic Studies.
Moustakas, C. (1990) Heuristic Research: Design, methodology and applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Moustakas, C. (2001) Heuristic research: Design and Methodology. In K.J. Schneider, J.F.T. Bugental & J.F. Pierson, (Eds.) The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading edges in theory, research, and practice. Sage.
Polanyi, M. (l966). The tacit dimension. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books Doubleday and Company, Inc.
Detailed Step-by-Step Procedures for Data Analysis
Three Models of Phenomenological Analysis
Brennan, J. (1998). History and systems of psychology. Prentice-Hall: New Jersey.
Giorgi, A. (1985). Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.
Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice and evaluation of phenomenological methods as a qualitative research procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 28, 235-281.
Giorgi, A.P. & Giorgi, B.M. (2003). The descriptive phenomenological psychological method. In Camic, P.M., Rhodes, J.E. & Yardley, L. (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design (pp. 243-273).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Appendix B Flow chart of Keen’s version of transcendental phenomenological data analysis
Appendix C Flow chart of Generic thematic analysis of Qualitative Data
Appendix D Moustakas’ Description of Data Analysis in Heuristic Research

Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Example

Data Analysis Strategies – Peer Review – Alex Bratty, I/O Psychology

Collapse

Top of Form

This posting will discuss the key elements of data analysis for a phenomenological investigation, the specific data analysis strategy that would be used with this methodology, and an evaluation of its effectiveness. A brief overview of the research topic, question, and sampling is provided for context.

Overview of Research Topic, Question, & Sampling

The proposed research topic is to explore the experience of flourishing in the workplace for full-time corporate managers. As such, a question derived from the research topic that would be suitable for a phenomenological investigation could be, what is the essence of flourishing at work for corporate managers? The primary form of data collection would be open-ended, in-depth interviews, and it is proposed that at least n = 10 corporate managers would be interviewed, consistent with the range of 3 to 25 participants recommended for phenomenology (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Data Analysis for Phenomenology

Although a phenomenological study includes more detailed steps, it still follows the general qualitative data analysis approach. This consists of five broad phases, including (1) preparing and organizing the data, (2) reviewing the data and creating notes, (3) identifying/coding themes, (4) interpretation, and (5) generating written and visual representation of the findings (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Thus, for the proposed research study, this would involve transcribing the interviews, reading these transcriptions and making notes in the margins and elsewhere related to emergent ideas, identifying themes, interpreting what these imply, and synthesizing these findings into an in-depth understanding of the essence of flourishing at work among corporate managers. However, this is just a general overview of the phenomenological data analysis process, and because numerous types of phenomenology exist, different and specific procedures are used for data analysis depending on the model that is followed. For the purpose of this discussion and the proposed study, the model of empirical phenomenology (Giorgi, 1997) would be used, and this is consistent with permitted data analysis methods at Capella University (Percy, Kostere, & Kostere, 2015).

Data Analysis Strategy

The data analysis strategy recommended for the proposed study is that of empirical phenomenology developed by Giorgi (1997). This method is thought of as two levels of description, including (a) the raw data collected from interviews and (b) the researcher’s account of the essence of the phenomenon based on analysis and interpretation (Percy et al., 2015). Or, it can be characterized as three broad phases: “(1) the phenomenological reduction, (2) description, and (3) search for essences” (Giorgi, 1997, p. 239). However, to address these two levels (Percy et al., 2015) or three phases (Giorgi, 1997), seven detailed steps are involved. First, the data must be transcribed and organized, and second, the researcher must engage in phenomenological reduction (Percy et al., 2015). This means that the researcher must reflect on and minimize any bias or preconceptions, and bracket pre-existing knowledge of the phenomenon to allow for inductive analysis (i.e., the findings emerge from the data) (Giorgi, 1997). Once these initial preparatory steps have been taken, the researcher moves through the remaining five stages of data analysis.

The first of these five stages is to read through all the interviews in their entirety to achieve a holistic impression of the data. Next, the researcher reads through the interviews again and identifies psychological “meaning units.” Essentially, in this stage, the researcher is looking for moments where transitions in meaning occur during the participants’ responses. The meaning units are then examined in relation to one another and the holistic sense of the data. Additionally, the units are clarified, and any redundancies are removed. The third stage involves some interpretation from the researcher by reflecting on the meaning units to generate the essence of the participants’ experience and converting these units into psychological language. The fourth stage is to synthesize the converted meaning units into a summary statement that captures each participant’s experience of the phenomenon. In the fifth and final stage, all the statements about each participant’s experience are synthesized to produce a detailed statement that describes the essential lived experience being investigated (Percy et al., 2015). Thus, there are five crucial stages of data analysis and two preparatory steps that comprise Giorgi’s (1997) data analysis strategy of empirical phenomenology.

Evaluation of Data Analysis Strategy

An evaluation of Giorgi’s (1997) empirical data analysis strategy for phenomenology reveals both strengths and limitations. Perceived strengths include the foundational step of phenomenological reduction and the systematic way in which the data are analyzed. Indeed, the use of phenomenological reduction helps to ensure that the data are analyzed inductively. Otherwise, if preconceptions and prior knowledge were included in this process, the analysis could become more deductive in nature (i.e., seeking to confirm or refute what is already known). Additionally, the use of a systematic step-by-step procedure provides a uniform framework that can help researchers develop an audit trail of their analysis (Patton, 2015). Consequently, the inclusion of these aspects—phenomenological reduction and systematic analysis—can contribute to the reliability of a phenomenological study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). However, there are also limitations to this data analysis strategy. Unlike the data analysis methods used by Moustakas or Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen (as cited in Percy et al., 2015), Giorgi’s (1997) model does not differentiate between textural and structural descriptions of the experience being studied, nor does it use imaginative variation, which invites the researcher to experiment with meaning units/themes and examine them from multiple angles. Finally, consistent with most qualitative studies, Giorgi’s (1997) data analysis method is subjective. Even when using the standards of phenomenological reduction and a systematic approach, ultimately, each researcher makes his/her own judgments and interpretation of the data (Patton, 2015). Moreover, phenomenological reduction is unlikely to eliminate or decrease a researcher’s implicit bias because, by its very definition, implicit bias is unconscious to an individual (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017). Thus, the data analysis approach used in empirical phenomenology has both strengths and limitations.

In conclusion, data analysis for phenomenology fits with the general approach to analyzing data in any qualitative study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). However, it also has specific and detailed procedures that must be followed, and there are several different types of phenomenology that have their own method of data analysis (Patton, 2015). The proposed study would use empirical phenomenology (Giorgi, 1997), which means that two preliminary steps (i.e., data preparation and phenomenological reduction) along with five stages of analysis must be closely followed (Percy et al., 2015). This systematic approach contributes to the reliability of the study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019), but it also has some limitations that are consistent with the subjective nature of qualitative research (Patton, 2015), and in comparison to other phenomenological approaches (Percy et al., 2015).

References

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice, and evaluation of the phenomenological method as a qualitative research procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 28(2), 235-281.

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage.

Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2019). Practical research: Planning and design (12th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Percy, W.H., Kostere, K., & Kostere, S. (2015). Qualitative research approaches in psychology. Retrieved from

http://assets.capella.edu/campus/doctoral-programs/PsychologyQualitativeResearchApproaches

Professor feedback

This is a great response to the questions posed within this discussion, Alex. This method is used to analyze the data for the structure and texture of experience. This isn’t the same as identifying patterns and themes. Two key elements of Giorgi’s method include phenomenological reduction and imaginative variation. These methods are sometimes confused with the identification of patterns and themes, but these steps are not a part of this type of analysis. Within this method the data is broken down into meaning units and examined in an attempt to make sense of what was experienced. It is then put back together in a way that ‘gets at’ the essence of what was experienced. These steps are often misunderstood and sometimes misrepresented in reprinted texts. This is why it is always a good idea to locate and review the primary source that is being referenced so that you can verify what is stated and acquire an in-depth understanding of what is communicated within that source. From what I can tell, you are off to a great start. To advance your knowledge even further and help you build your library, attached is another article that you might find interesting. Thank you for your contribution to this discussion.

Dr. Roberts

Bottom of Form

A SURVEY OF MEASURES OF
TRANSPERSONAL CONSTRUCTS

Douglas A. MacDonald
Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Laura LeClair
Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Cornelius J. Holland
Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Aaron Alter
Toronto,Ontario,Canada

Harris L. Friedman
Fort Myers,Florida

It has been the contention of some researchers that transpersonal psychology should
give serious consideration to the development, validation and use of standardized
assessment instruments designed to measure transpersonal constructs as a means of
facilitating the growth of the area as an empirical science (e.g., Friedman, 1983;
MacDonald, Tsagarakis & Holland, 1994). In the spirit of this position, the authors of
the present paper reasoned that one possible avenue of generating interest in such
research tools would be to provide investigators with a comprehensive, accessible
and easy-to-understand resource which presents information on measures currently
available in the literature. To this end, we undertook two literature surveys to uncover
measures which are available for use in transpersonally oriented research and we
present our findings below. However, before discussing the nature and results of our
literature searches, we believe it is important to outline the benefits and drawbacks of
objective tests as well as their implications for the transpersonal domain.

STANDARDIZED ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH

Conventional quantitative research methodologies (which include standardized test-
ing) have often been viewed by transpersonal theorists as an ineffective means of

TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2 171

investigating not only the transpersonal domain (e.g., Grof, 1985; Washburn, 1988;
Wilber, 1990) but also, people in general (Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980). In fact,
much of the transpersonal perspective regarding objective testing can be summarized
by Wilber (1990): “… once you have translated the world into empiric measurement
and numbers, you have a world without quality, guaranteed” (p. 26). Indeed, given
the great difficulties in simply describing and communicating transpersonal experi-
ences (Wilber, 1977, 1990),it may seem that standardized tests, which tend generally
to translate the individual into a number, have virtually no hope for furthering
knowledge of the transpersonal domain.

Thoughwe are in agreementwith the common observation that transpersonal experi-
ences are primarily trans-verbal and trans-logical and can only truly be understood
throughdirect experiences(thus limitingall quantitativeand ultimatelyall qualitative
methods), we believe that the value of testing for transpersonally oriented research
can be better appreciated if it is viewednot as a means of accessingand understanding
transpersonalexperience directly,but instead as a tool which can be used to explore
the “expressions” of such experiences. By expressions, we are referring to the
behavioral,physiological,psychological(cognitive/emotional),and sociologicalcor-
relates of transpersonal experience as well as the theories (religious and secular)
generatedto explain these experiences(MacDonaldet al., 1994).

This view of objective testing is consistent with the current understanding of the
purpose,nature and limits of transpersonalpsychologyin three ways which we argue
qualify psychometric testing as a research method worthy of consideration. First,
Walsh and Vaughan(1993) define transpersonalpsychologyas “the area of psycho1-
ogy that focuses on the study of transpersonalexperiences and related phenomena.
These phenomena include the causes, effects and correlates of transpersonalexperi-
ences and development,as well as the disciplinesand practices inspiredby them” (p.
203). Given this definition, it can be understood that transpersonal psychology
involvesnot only the direct study of transpersonal experiencebut also the study of the
expressions and correlates of this experience, a task for which psychometric tests
could prove valuable.

Second,conventionalpsychologyhas been confrontedwith the difficulty of defining
and measuring many of its central constructs including emotion, attitudes,personal-
ity, intelligenceand psychopathology.In all cases, empiricalresearch has been made
possible by linking (actually reducing) the construct to some behavior or verbaliza-
tion which is viewed as embodying the construct (i,e., by operationalizing the
construct).Moreover,with aUthe constructsmentionedabove, the developmentand
use of standardizedquantitative assessmenttools has flourished largely because the
expression of the construct has lent itself to quantification(e.g., it can be measured
with anythingranging from simple frequencycounts of behaviors and verbalizations
to the behavioral sequence leading to the proper completion of a behavioral task).
Interestingly, one of mainstream psychology’s most compelling and empirically
robust theories of personality, the five factor model (Digman & Inouye, 1986;
Goldberg, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987), has been partly developed through an
examinationof natural languagedescriptorsthoughtto be associatedwith personality
(e.g., Norman, 1963). In light of the fact that there are language descriptors which
have been developedto expressaspects of transpersonalexperienceand identity(e.g.,

172 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

transcendental, mystical, spiritual, holy), as wen as generally predictable behaviors
(and behavior changes) associated with such experiences, it appears that it may be
possible to develop measures of various expressions of transpersonal experience
based on how the experients use language in describing their experience and/or in
how they behaved before, during and/or after the experience. Research has appeared
which indicates that groups consisting of schizophrenics, individuals describing
hallucinogenic drug states, individuals describing experienced mystical states, and
individuals describing important personal experiences, can be differentiated based
upon their use of language descriptors (Oxman, Rosenberg, Schnurr, Tucker & Gala,
1988)2.

Third, empirical research using conventional quantitative methodologies to examine
the relationship of biopsychosocial and behavioral functioning to spiritual practice
and experience is relatively well represented in the literature (e.g., Murphy, 1993). In
addition, published research has been appearing which indicates that standardized
measures of transpersonal constructs can be utilized effectively to support trans-
personal theory (e.g., Cloninger, Svrakic & Przybeck, 1993; Friedman, 1983;
MacDonald et at, 1994).

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF TESTS FOR TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH

We strongly believe that the argument outlined above provides a rationale for
pursuing the development and use of tests of transpersonal constructs in trans-
personally oriented research. However, investigators opting to rely on paper and
pencil measures which operationalize transpersonal constructs must be wary of their
limitations both in the general sense and specifically in relation to the transpersonal
area. Most of these limitations are interrelated but can be summarized as follows:

1) The operationalization problem (a.k,a. the problem of ineffability). The most
obvious shortcoming of psychometric testing is the difficulty of developing tests
which adequately operationalize a construct of interest. Though operationalization is
inherently problematic because it results in the reduction of a phenomenon/construct
to a highly constrained set of observable criteria, this limitation of testing derives
most of its substance from the facts that a) in order for a test to be considered
adequate, people who use a test and/or who are interested in the construct the test
assesses, must come to some degree of consensus as to what type of expressions (i.e.,
behaviors, verbalizations) the construct embodies, and b) there has never been total
agreement in any area of psychology regarding what universe of expressions consti-
tute any given construct. This lack of agreement among scientific psychologists
regarding the operationalization of any construct has contributed to the proliferation
of tests for virtually every construct studied in the discipline (e.g., personality,
intelligence, psychopathology; Comrey, 1988).

For the transpersonal domain, the problem of operationalization can also be seen as a
major obstacle for psychometric testing. Insofar as the purpose of transpersonal
psychology might be limited to the study of transpersonal experience, it has already
been established that valid and complete knowledge about transpersonal states of
consciousness cannot be obtained through conventional empirical methodologies.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 173

Consequently, because such experiences are inherently ineffable, any attempt to
operationalize and measure them through the use of psychometric tests, will ulti-
mately prove insufficient in capturing their essence. Thus, a transpersonal test cannot
measure anything more than an expression of spiritual experience.

2) The validity problem. Once a test has been constructed to measure a specific
construct, there is then the problem of validity; how can test developers empirically
demonstrate that their tests are measuring what they claim to be measuring? Though
there are numerous methodologies and statistics available to help explore that
question (e.g., see Anastasi, 1988; Cronbach, 1990), it is the position of modern
psychometric theory that a test can never be validated in any absolute sense since the
validity of any standardized measure is limited to the populations and contexts with
which the measure has been empirically validated (i.e., limited external validity/
generalizability), For example, a test which has been validated on white, middle-class
North Americans may not provide valid information on individuals belonging to a
different race, culture, and/or socio-economic class. Accordingly, all psychometric
tests are highly limited in what they can tell us about human functioning.

For transpersonal psychology, the task of establishing the construct validity of a
psychometric measure is especially problematic for at least two reasons. First, if it is
accepted that transpersonal experience is ineffable and beyond adequate operational-
ization, it then is inevitable that there will be considerable skepticism regarding any
claims to a test’s validity regardless of the existence of any empirical support for the
test. Second, if a test is ever going to gain any acceptance within the transpersonal
movement, it will have to demonstrate that it can reliably differentiate between a)
individuals who are known to have had spiritual experiences and people who are
known to have not had such experiences, and b) individuals who are known to have
had different types of transpersonal experiences. However, in order to complete such
“known groups” validation, test developers need access to a sufficiently large popu-
lation of people who are accurately judged as having had legitimate transpersonal
experiences. As we are sure the reader can imagine, the activity of securing such a
population (or a respectable sample from such a population) for test validation
purposes will likely prove to be exceedingly difficult.

3) The “illusion” of spirituality problem (a.k.a., the response bias’ problem or the
spiritual materialism problem). This limitation derives its name from an article by
Shedler, Mayman and Manis (1993) entitled “The Illusion of Mental Health.” Shedler
et al, (1993) demonstrated that paper and pencil measures of mental health/psychopa-
thology cannot differentiate between psychologically healthy individuals and self-
deceptive unhealthy individuals who reported on the tests that they were healthy. If
psychometric testing in conventional areas of psychology is being challenged due to
difficulties with response bias, then the validity of measures of transpersonal con-
structs must also be called into question. The reason for this can be stated as follows:
can any measure designed to assess constructs such as degree of spiritual realization
differentiate between people who are truly spiritual and those who endorse test items
indicating they are spiritual when in fact they are not? As a more specific instance,
can a psychometric test differentiate between a spiritual person and an individual who
might be guilty of spiritual materialism? (Spiritual materialists are those who “de-

174 TheJournaloj TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

ceive [themselves]into thinking [they are] developing spirituallywhen instead [they
are] strengthening[their] egocentricitythrough spiritual techniques” [Trungpa, 1973,
p. 3].) Given the current state of knowledge about objective testing, it appears
improbable that measures of transpersonal constructs would be any more successful
in controllingresponse bias/style than conventionalmeasures. In considerationof the
fact that there are no satisfactorypsychometric solutions to this limitation at present,
alternative criteria (e.g., clinical judges) which aid in the reliable detection of test
response bias/style should be utilized in conjunction with objective measures when-
ever possible.

Despite these difficulties,we contend that the development and use of psychometric
tests have numerous benefits for transpersonal research including the following: I)
once adequate training in psychometrics and test construction is obtained, tests are
relatively easy to construct, use, score and interpret; 2) tests can be completed in a
relatively short period of time and can be administeredboth individuallyor to groups;
3) tests allow for standardizedmeasurementof a constructthereby making it easier to
compare findings from different studies and easier to replicate existing findings; 4)
tests allow for fast accumulation of empirical literature on a wide variety of theories
and phenomena; 5) tests can be used to verify transpersonaltheory (MacDonaldet al.,
1994); and 6) tests allow for easier comparison between transpersonal concepts and
mainstream psychological concepts. Thus, psychometric tests could promote a dy-
namic link between transpersonal concepts and the nomological net (Cronbach &
Meehl, 1955) of mainstream psychologicalconstructs.

In conclusion, it is our position that the transpersonal area has much to gain in using
standardized tests in research. However, we must emphasize that psychometric
testing is a limited methodology which can only provide useful knowledge if used
properly (e.g., by having an adequate knowledge ofthe limits of the validity of’a test
and using the measure accordingly). Even though we are confident that testing
research, as a quantitative research methodology, is capable of generating useful
information relevant to the transpersonal domain, we recommend that it be used in
conjunction with more qualitativeresearch strategies, such as the phenomenological
method (Patrik, 1994; Walsh, 1995), in studying transpersonal states of conscious-
ness.

LiteratureSearch:Parameters

This article reports the findings of two literature searches, one completedin 1992and
a second in late 1994. The searches, undertaken at three Canadian universities,
partially involved the use of the PsychLit and Dissertation Abstracts CD-ROM
databases. The authors, however, also obtained numerous references from books and
journals of which they had knowledgeat the time of the searches. In the computerized
database searches,identical search terms were used. These keywords consisted of the
following: spirituality, spiritual, spirit, mystical, mysticism, transpersonal, holistic,
test, measure, form, questionnaire,survey, and inventory. These terms were used in
combination with each other in order to ensure that as many references as possible
were obtained. Note that we did not rely on any search terms explicitly involving

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 175

religion or religiosity. It was our intent only to survey the literature with regard to
measures of transpersonal constructs which are not delimited by traditional notions of
religion or religiosity.

Resultsof LiteratureSearches

The results of the searches were impressive; numerous measures were uncovered.
However, when we made closer inspection of the literature obtained, we observed, as
did Lukoff, Turner and Lu (1993) in their survey of spirituality assessment tools, that
many instruments make use of terms involving religion/religiosity, most notably
from a monotheistic Judeo-Christian perspective (e.g., belief in, or experience of,
God). Though there are a few measures which do not rely on such terminology (e.g.,
Spiritual Orientation Inventory; Self-Expansiveness Level Form; Spirituality Assess-
ment Scale) and others which do not use it in an explicitly denominational manner
(e.g., Index of Core Spiritual Experience), it is reasonable to conclude that many
measures of transpersonal constructs appear to be confounded with religion/religios-
ity at least to some extent. Consequently, researchers must be skeptical of the
construct validity of most of the tests designed to assess transpersonal constructs. In
particular, investigators relying on these assessment tools should give considerable
thought to the degree of construct purity and validity they need in a measure if they
plan on using it in a study with any given subject population. For instance, it appears
very likely that measures relying on theistic terminology will demonstrate greater
empirical sensitivity to individuals who subscribe to a monotheistic faith than to
those people who practice nontheistic or polytheistic forms of religion/spirituality
(Lukoff et al., 1993). In light of this, investigators should exercise caution in their
selection of measures since the validity of the measure may be compromised or
enhanced by the subject population tested”.

Notwithstanding the confound of religious and transpersonal constructs which limits
many existing measures, we were still able to uncover a wide variety of question-
naires which appear to have promise as research tools in the transpersonal area Tests
which receive discussion in this article were selected because they demonstrated
some, if not all, of the following characteristics: a) they seem to embody transper-
sonal constructs in a manner which minimize or eliminate a confound with religious
concepts; b) they appear to be assessing unique constructs relative to other measures;
c) they appear to have satisfactory validity and reliability; and/or d) they have been
used effectively in research. Table I provides summary overviews of the measures
discussed.

In selecting questionnaires which assess unique constructs, it was our intent to
present the broadest range of measures possible in order to help facilitate new lines of
research. In keeping with this, we have included measures of intrinsic religious
motivation and paranormal beliefs/experiences in this article. The inclusion of the
former measures was done because they have exhibited robust empirical relation-
ships with transpersonal phenomena and concepts. Conversely, measures of para-
normal experienceslbeliefs have been included because they appear to hold potential
for some areas of transpersonal research; though some theorists make a distinction
between transpersonal and parapsychological phenomena (e.g., see Wilber, 1990, p.

176 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, J995, Vol.27, No.2

73), others (e.g., Neher, 1990)assert that suchphenomenafall under the umbrellaof
a psychologyof transcendence.

It is importantto notethat thereare a numberof measureswhichassessconstructsthat
a) arenot entirelyreducibleto religionor religiousconstructs,and b) seempotentially
useful for transpersonallyorientedresearch,which do not receivediscussionin this
paper.These measures,andtheir primaryreferences,are listed in a table at the end of
the article (see Table 2). Lastly,the paper concludeswith a table listing sources for
additionalmeasuresand literaturediscussingissuesrelevantto testing (see Table 3).

Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden, 1992)

The SAS was createdin responseto the absenceof measuresof spiritualityfor use in
nursing research.

The SAS is designed to assess a conceptionof spirituality called the “spirituality
model” which Howden(p. 6) developed”throughthe processesof conceptanalysis,
synthesisand derivation…. as well as theoryconstruction”using variousdefinitions
of spiritualityfoundin the philosophical,psychological,sociological,theologicaland
nursing literature (e.g., Burkhardt,1989; Frankl, 1963;Hungelmann,Kenkel-Rossi,
Klassen& Stollenwerk,1985;Jackson, 1980;Pilch, 1981;Reed, 1987;Sinnott,1969;
Vaughan, 1986).

Accordingto the spiritualitymodel, spirituality”is the dimensionof one’s being that
is an integrating or unifying factor which is manifested through unifying inter-
connectedness, purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources, and
transcendence”(Howden, 1992,p. 15).UnifyingInterconnectedness(UI) is referred
to as “the feeling of relatednessor attachmentto others,a sense of relationshipto all
of life, a feeling of harmony with self and others, and a feeling of onenesswith the
universeand/or a universal element or Universal being” (Howden,p. 15). Purpose
and meaningin life (PML) is defined”as the processof searchingfor or discovering
events or relationshipsthat providea sense of worth, hope, and/or reason for living!
existence”(p. 15).Innemess or innerresources(IN) is said to involve”the processof
striving for or discovering wholeness, identity, and a sense of empowerment.
Innerness… [is] manifestedin feelings of strength in times of crisis, calmness or
serenity in dealing with uncertaintyin life, guidancein living, being at peace with
one’s self and the world, and feelings arability” (p. 15-16).FinaUy,Transcendence
(TR) is seen “as the ability to reach or go beyondthe limits of usual experience;the
capacity,willingness,or experienceof risingabove or overcomingbodily or psychic
conditions;or the capacity for achievingwellness and/or self-healing”(p, 16). The
SAS has been designedto assess spiritualityas demarcatedby this definition.

The SAS as it was originally designed consistedof 44 items and used a six-point
Likertscale rangingfrom I (stronglydisagree)to 6 (stronglyagree).However,based
upon an evaluationof the measure’s reliabilityand the content validity, eight items
were deleted.Thereafter,four more items were dropped from the SAS based upon
interimreliabilitycalculationsusing the 36-itemversionofthe instrument.Finally,a
principal componentsanalysis of the 32-item version of the SAS using a sample of

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 177

–….l
00

TABLE IA

~ CHARACTERISTICSOF MEASURESDISCUSSED
~

~ Spirituality Spiritual Orientation Index of Core Mystical Experiences Peak Experiences Intrinsic Religious Self-Expansiveness;:
~ Assessment Scale Inventory (SOl) Spiritual Experience Scale (M-Scale) Scale (PES) Motivation Scale Level Form (SELF)
l::t (SAS) (INSPIRIT) (IRMS)-..
-a, Primary Howden (1992) Elkins, Hedstrom, Kass, Friedman, Hood (1975) Mathes, Zevon, Hoge (1972) Friedman (1983)
~ Reference(s) Hughes, Leaf & Leserman, Roter & Joerger
;::: Saunders (1988) Zuttermeister & (1982)
{; Benson (1991)

~ Construct Assessed Spirituality Spirituality Core Spiritual Mystical Experience Peak Experiences Intrinsic Religious Self-expansivenessc
;::: Experience Motivation (self-concept)
l::l-..
~ Number of Items 28 85 7 (Item 7 consists 32 70 10 18
~ of 13 parts)::s-
c Subscales 1. Unifying L Transcendent None 1. Ego Quality (4) None None 1. Personal Subscale (5)

~ (Note: Numbers in Interconnectedness- Dimension (13) 2. Unifying Quality (4) 2. Middle Subseale (8)parentheses are the UI(9) 2. Meaning and 3. Inner Subjective 3. Transpersonal…. number of items 2. Purpose and Purpose in Life (10) Quality (4) Subscale (5)
Ie
-e belonging to each Meaning in Life- 3. Mission in Life (9) 4. Temporal/Spatial
,….. PML(4) 4. Sacredness in Life (15) Quality (4)
~ 3. Innerness-lN (9) 5. Material Values (6) 5. Noetic Quality (4)
:- 4. Transcendence- 6. Altruism (7) 6. Ineffability (4)
t-v TR(6) 7. Idealism (10) 7. Positive Affect (4)
;-.l

8. Awareness of the Tragic 8. Religious Quality (4)

~ (5)
t-v 9. Fruits of Spirituality (10)

Response Fonnat Six-point Likert Seven-point Likert Items 1-6 are Five-Point Likert True/False Four-point Likert Five-point Likert Scale
Scale (SD-Strongly Scale {I-Intensely Multiple Choice; Scale (+l-Probably Scale (A- Strongly (A- Very Willing;
Disagree; D-Disagree; Disagree; 4-Neutral; Item 7: Four-point True; -l-Probsbly not Agree; B- Agree; B- Somewhat Willing;
DM-Disagree 7-Intensely Agree) response scale True; +2-Definitely C- Disagree; C· Neutral;
Moderately; (Definitely Disagree; True; -2- Definitely D- Strongly D- Somewhat
AM-Agree Moderately; Tend to Disagree; Not True; ?-Cannot Disagree) Unwilling;
A-Agree; SA-Strongly Tend to Agree; decide) E- Very Unwilling)
Agree) Definitely Agree)

Time to Administer 10 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes 15 minutes 20 minutes 5 minutes 10 minutes
(Note: These times
are approximate)

Norms No formal norms No formal norras; No focmalnorms; No fonnal norms; No formal norms; No formal norms- No formal norms;
(Note: When Howden (1992) Elkins et al (1988) Kass, Friedman Hood (1975) does Mathes et al (1982) see Hoge (1972) MacDonald et al (1994)
numbers are N=189: UI- 44.95, do not provide et al (1991) do not not provide N= 116 Males= for item score means N=209 Personal- 21.46,
reported, they 4.86; descriptive statistics provide descriptive descriptive statistics SO.IS, 11.10; 2.92; Middle- 30.95,
represent the PML- 20.38, 3.20; statistics Females> 52.10, 4.49;
Mean and Standard IN- 45.63, 5.00; 10.96 Transpersonal- 14.58,
Deviation, TR- 28.23,3.96 3.92
respectively) Total SAS- 139.18,

14.30

Reliability Internal consistency Internal consistency lnternal consistency hems and Subscale Internalconsistency Internal consistency Test-retest- two-week
(alpha); Total= .92; (alpha); Subscales= (alpha)= .90 to Total Score (Kuder-Richardson) (Kuder-Richardson) .57-.83 and 12-week
Subscales= .72-.91 .75-.95 correlations= .29-.64 .94 for men, =.90 .34-.57 for suhscales;

.92 f

::… Validity

~
(Note: The types of Content, Factorial, Content, Criterion- Criterion, Convergent, Face Convergent, Criterion, Criterion, Convergent,
validity which have Criterion- see see Elkins et al Convergent, Factorial validity Discriminant Convergent, Discriminant, Factorial

~ received support are Howden (1992) (1988) Discriminant, questionnable Factorial
~ stated) Factorial- see Kass,

~ Friedman et al

~
(1991)

~ Controls for None 20 items are None Half of the items are Half of the items are None

None

;:: Response Bias negatively worded negatively worded negatively wordediii
‘” Availability Howden (1992) Contact Sara Elkins, Kass et al (1991) Hood (1975) Eugene Mathes, Hoge (1972) Friedman (1983)
~ 33443 Cape Bay Place, Ph.D., Department of
~ Dana Point, CA 92629 Psychology, Western
§ illinois University,
~ Macomb,IL,61455.,.
<::! Other References None Lee & Bainurn (1991); None Caird (1988); Campbell Morneau, Hood (1975); MacDonald, Tsagarakiss l::l Smith (1991); (1983); Fite (1981); Macfsonald, Powell & Thorson & Holland (1994) "- Zainuddin (1993) Hood (1977a, 197Th); Holland & Holland (1991) ~ Hood, Hall, Watson & (in press); tl Biderman (1979); Noble (1984) ::t Hood, Manis &;::

Watson (1990); Lukoff'”1;J” & Ln (1988); Noble
(1984); Propst (1979)

–.l
\0

..-
QO
<:::>

TABLE1B

;;l CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURESDISCUSSED
l’l>

?;;- Transpersonal Ego Grasping East-West Paranormal Beliefs Assessment Integration Boundary Questionnaire
l:: Orientation to Orientation (EGO) Questionnaire Scale (PBS) Schedule for Altered Inventory (II) (BQ)
~
s, Learning (TOTL) (EWQ) States of Conscious-

~
ness (ASASC)

~ Primary Shapiro & Fitzgerald Knoblauch & Gilgen&:Cho Tobacyk & Milford van Quekelberghe, Ruffing-Rahal

Hartmann(1991)

Q Reference(s) (1989) Falconer (1986) (1 979a) (1983); Tobacyk Altstotter-Gleich &: {I 991)::I
~ (1991) Hertweck (1991)
!I>
~ Construct Assessed Transpersonal Ego Grasping Eastern and Western Paranormal Beliefs Altered States Well-being Ego Boundaries
c orientation to learning (Taoist Orientation) Worldviews Experiences Integration;:,;
l::>- Number of Items 40 20 68 25 325 37 145
~

“i!
Subscales 1. Fantasy Techniques None 1. Man andthe 1. Traditional 1. Personal data (22) None 1. SleeplWakelDream (12)g.

c (Note: Numbers in Applied in Schools Spiritual (4) Religions Belief 2. Extraordinary 2. Unusual Experiences
0″ parentheses are (10) 2. Man and Nature (4) Mental Process (22) (19)
~ number of items 2. Mysticism Preferred (16) 2. Psi Beliefs (4) 3. Parapsychology, 3. Thollghts/Feellngs/
“- belonging to each to Science as an 3. Man and Society 3. Witchcraft (4) own experiences (11) Moods (16)
\0 subscale) Epistemology (10 (16) 4. Superstition (4) 4. Parapsychology, 4. Childhood! Adolescence!
,~ 3. Mystical/Occult! 4. Man and Himself 5. Spiritualism (3) own view (9) Adulthood (6)

~
Paranormal (16) 6. Extraordinary 5. Esoterics (16) 5. Interpersonal (15)

!”– Techniques Applied 5. Rationality of Life Forms (3) 6. Positive Mystic 6. Sensitivity (5)
N to Schools (10) Man (16) 7. Precognition (3) Experiences (40) 7. Neat/Exact/Precise (l1)
_’1 4. Transcendent 7. Negative Mystic 8. Edges/Lines/

~
Consciousness (l0) Experiences (40) Clothing (20)

8.hna~tion(18) 9. Opinions About
N 9. Dreams (44) Children and Others (8)

10. Dissociation (23) 10. Opinions Abouts
1L Hallucinations (15) Organizations (10)
12. Hypersensitiveness 11. Opinions About People

(12) Nations, Groups (14)
13. Changed Feeling 12. Opinions About

of Time and Space (23) Beauty (7)
14. Change (30)

Response Format Five-point Likert True/False Five-point Likert Five-point Likert Scale Five-point Likert Six-point Likert Scale Five-point response scale
Scale (SA- Strongly Scale (I-Agree (I-Strongly Disagree; Scale (o-Not At All; Scale (I-Strongly (o-no, not at all,
Agree; A- Agree; Strongly; 2-Agree 2-Moderately Disagree; I-lust a Little; Disagree,2-Moder- not true for me to 4- yes
u, Uncertain; Moderately; 3-No 3-Undecided; 2- To Some Extent; ately Disagree, definitely, definitely true
D- Disagree; Opinion; 4-Disagree 4-Moderately Agree; 3- To a Large Extent; 3-Slightly Disagree, of me)
SD- Strongly Disagree) Moderately; 5-Strongly Agree) 4- Completely} 4-Slightly Agree

5-Strongly Disagree) 5-Moderately Agree
6-Strongly Agree)

Time to Administer 20 minutes 10 minutes 25 minutes 10 minutes 90 minutes 20 minutes 45 minutes
(Note: These times
are approximate)

East-West item None
pairs constructed to
neutralize response set

Hartmann(1991)

Adair (1990); Celenza
(1986); Galvin (1990);
Levin(1986);Levin,~

& Zywiak (1991)

Criterion, Convergent,
Discriminant, Factorial

One-third of items are
worded in the opposite

Intemal consistency
(alpha)= .93 for total scale
(138 items)

No formal norms-
see Hartmann(1991)
for descriptive statistics
for a variety of different
samples

None

Content, Convergent,
Criterion- see

Ruffing-Rahal
(1991)

Internal consistency
(alpha)« .91

No formal norms;
Ruffing-Rahal
(1991) N==182;
168.97, 23.04

Exclusion of neutral
response option;
Half of items are
negatively worded

Ruffing-Rahal
(1991)

Contact R. van
Quekelberghe,
Universitat Koblenz-
Landau; Fachbereich
8: Psychologie; Im
Fort 7; 6740 Landau,
Germany

None

Content, Criterion,
Discriminant,
Factorial

Avoidance of
pathological
wording in items

Internal consistency
(Guttman split-half,
alpha)- .81-.86 and
.80-.98 for subscales

Convergent,
Discriminant

Tobacyk & Milford
(1983)

Davies (1988);
deBarbenza, Claribel &
deVila (1989); Gagne &
McKelvie (1990); Irwin
(1990); Tobacyk (1984,
1985a, 1985b); Tobaeyk
& Milford (1984, 1988);
Tobacyk, Milford, et al
(1988); Tobacyk, Miller,
et a1(1988);Tobacyk &
WiIki.nson (1990);
Williams et al (1989)

Test-retest: .89 for total
scale and .60-.84 for
subscales

Norms available for PBS No formal norms-
and PBS-R in Tobacyk see
(1991); Tobacyk & vanQuekelberghe,
Milford (1983) provide et al (1991) for
descriptive statistics on descriptive statistics
a sample of 424 subjects for subscales

Criterion,
Convergent,
Discriminant

Gilgen& Cho
(1979a)

Cho & Gilgen
(1980); Gilgen &
Cho, (1979b, 1980);
Gilgen, Cho &
Stensrud (1980)

Knoblauch (1988,
1990); Knoblauch
& Bowers (1989);
MacDonald et al
(1994)

Knoblauch &
Falconer (1986)

No formal norms-
see Gilgen & Cho
(1979a, 1980) and
Cho& Gilgen
(1980) for
descriptive statistics
on a variety of
different samples

Internal consistency Test-retest» .76 for
(Kuder-Richardson, total scale
alpha)= .79, .81;
Test-retest- .72

Seven items are
scored in the
reverse direction

No formal norms;
Knoblauch &
Falconer(1986)
x-ss-7.97, 4.43

Stewart B. Shapiro,
Department of
Education,
University of
California,
Santa Barbara, CA
93106-9490

None
None

Internal consistency;
Split-hal:F.98 for total
scale; A l p h a = .96 for
total scale and .82-.93
for subscales

Content, Criterion, Criterion,
Convergent, Factorial Convergent,
validity ambiguous Discriminant

Available from test
author at address
below. Shapiro &
Fitzgerald(1989)
report descriptive
statistics for four
samples

Availability

Other References

Validity
(Note: The types of
validity which have
received support are
stated)

Controls for
Response Bias

Norms
(Note: When
numbers are
reported, they
represent the
Mean and Standard
Deviation,
respectively)

Reliability

-00-

….
00
N

TABLE IC

~ CHARACTERlSTlCSOF MEASURES DISCUSSED
(II

~ Personal Philosophy Holistic Living Death Temperament and Phenomenology of Spiritual Well Being
l:: Inventory (PPI) Inventory (lILI) Transcendence Character Inventory Consciousness Scale (SWBS)S
I:l Scale (DTS) (TCI) Inventory (PCr)-.g, Primary Persinger & Makarec Stoudenmire, Batman, Hood & Morris (1983) Cloninger, Svrakic & Pekala (1982); Pekala, Paloutzian & Ellison
~ Reference( s) (1987, 1993) Pavlov & Temple Przybeck (1993) Steinberg & Kumar (1982); Ellison (1983)
tl (1985) (1986)
;ll

~ Construct Assessed Presence of Temporal Holistic Living Death Transcendence Seven factor model of Dimensions of Spiritual Wen-Being
~
B Lobe Signs Psychobiological Phenomenological
::: Personality Experience
l:l- Number of Items 140 80 23 226 53 20;;p
‘IS Subscales I. Information related to 1. Physical (20) 1. Biosocial (3) 1. Novelty Seeking (40) 1. Positive Affect I. Religious Well-Being:..-
0 (Note: Numbers in Temporal lobe 2. Emotional (20) 2. Mystical (5) 2. Harm Avoidance (35) 2. Negative Affect (10)

~
parentheses are the functioning (20) 3. Mental (20) 3. Creative (5) 3. Reward Dependence 3. Altered Experience 2. Existential Well-Being
number of items 2. Beliefs (30) 4. Spiritual (20) 4. Nature (5) (24) 4. Visual Imagery (IO)

….. belonging to each 3. Control/Mundane 5. Religious (5) 4. Persistence (8) 5. Attention
‘C subscale) Experiences (14) 5. Self-Directedness (44) 6. Self-Awareness’C….. 4. Admission (9) 6. Cooperativeness (42) 7. Altered Awareness
~

5. Total Temporal Lobe 7. Self-Transcendence 8. Internal Dialogue
r- Signs (56) (33) 9. Rationality
~ 10. Volitional Control
.~ 11. Memory

~
12. Arousal

(Number of items in
~ each scale not provided)

Response Format YesINo Five-point response Four-point Likert scale True/False Seven-point response Six-point response scale
scale (A-Least Optimal (I-Strongly Disagree to scale (Anchors not (SA-Strongly Agree,
to E- Most Optimal 4-Strongly Agree) provided) MA-Moderately Agre

A-Agree, D-Disagree,
MD-Moderately Disagree,
SD-Strongly Disagree)

Time to Administer 45 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes 60 minutes 15 minutes 10 minutes
(Note: These times
are approximate)

Norms See Persinger No formal norms- see No formal norms; No formal norms- see No forma! norms- see Extensive norms
(Note: When & Makarec (1993) for Stoudenmire et al (1985) Hood & Morris (1983) Cloninger et al (1993) Pekala et al (1986) for available- Bufford,
numbers are information on norms for descriptive statistics do not provide for descriptive statistics descriptive statistics on Paloutzian & Ellison
reported, they for each dimension descriptive statistics a variety of different (1991)
represent the across sex and age samples
Mean and Standard
Deviation,
respectively)

Reliability Test-retesr- .70-.90 for Internal Consistency Internal consistency Internal Consistency Internal Consistency Test-retest» .73-.99
TTLS; Internal (Spearman-Brown)> (alpha)= .53-,75 for (alpha)= .65-.89 for (alpha)= .65-.90 for Internal Consistency
consistency (alpha)= .72-.91 for subscales subscales scales; ,47-.86 for scales (alpha)= .78-.94
.70 subscale

Validity Criterion, Convergent, Criterion, Convergent, Convergent, Factorial Criterion, Convergent, Criterion Content, Criterion,
(Note: The types of Discriminant, Factorial Discriminant validity questionnable Discriminant, Factorial Convergent, Factorial
validity which have validity questionnable
received support are
stated)

;:”. Controls for Control and Lie scales None Some items are None None Half of the items are

~
Response Bias included to detect negatively worded negatively worded

~
unusual responding

‘

~ Persinger & Makarec Health Services, Washington University (l16B), Coatesville (1991)
~

(1987). For total PPI- 4507 McArthur St. School of Medicine, Veterans Administration
Ii: Michael A. Persinger, Pascagoula, MI 39567 4940 Children’s PI, Medical Center,
!11 Behavioural St. Louis, MO, 63110 Coatesville, PA 19320
‘” Neuroscience Laboratory,
~ Department of

if Psychology, Laurentian
~ University, Sudbury,
~ Ontario, Canada P3E 2C6
(\l

01 Other References Huot, Makarec & Stoudenmire, Batman, Vandecreek & Nye Svrakic, Whitehead, Pekala & Kumar (1984, see Ellison & Smith
<:::>
::l: Persinger (1989); Pavlov & Temple (1993) Przybeck & Cloninger 1986) (1991); Ellis & Smith
i:l-. Makaree & Persinger (1986); Stoudenmire, (1993) (1991)
g (1985,1990);Persinger Stevens & Cumbest
~ (1988, 1991a, 1991b); (1989); Stoudenmire,
‘”~ Persinger & Valliant Temple, Pavlov &
n (1985); Richards & Batman (1988)
tt Persinger (1991); Ross

& Persinger (1987)

….-
00
w

189 adults aged 40-60 years, resulted in the deletion of four more items. The fmal
version of the SAS consists of 28 items which make up the four subscales; 1) VI (9
items), 2) PML (4 items), 3) IN (9 items), and 4) TR (6 items). This version of the
SAS still relies upon the six-point Likert scale. Subseale scores are obtained by
summing responses to items belonging to each subscale. The total SAS score is
obtained by summing the four subscale scores.

The psychometric properties of the 28 items of the SAS were examined by Howden
(1992). Interitem consistency is shown to be satisfactory with coefficient alpha
values ranging from .72 to .91 for the four subseales; the total SAS obtained an alpha
of .92. Subscale-to-total SAS correlations were calculated and resulted in correlations
ranging from .78 to .88. Subscale inter-correlations were found to range from .50 to
.73. Factorial validity has been provided for the SAS by a principal components
analysis which resulted in the extraction of six factors (using a varimax rotation)
accounting for 64.8 percent of the total score variance. The PML and TR subscale
items formed distinct factors. The VI subscale items made up two of the factors which
were interpreted as reflecting connectedness to others and connectedness to life,
community and the world. Similarly, the IN subscale items loaded heavily on two
factors which were identified as “innerness expressed as harmony, balance, peace and
relationship with Supreme Being, and . . . innerness utilized for guidance and
strength, particularly in times of difficulty or struggle” (Howden, 1992, p, 124).
Finally, the external validity of the SAS was examined by Howden (1992) who found
that a) there is no significant relationship between the total SAS score and a recent
experience of a crisisevent;b) there is a weak but significant relationship between
total SAS scores and reported religiousness (r= .24, p<.OOI); and c) there is no relationship between frequency of attendance of religious events and total SAS scores.

The SAS is a measure of spirituality which does not rely upon any religious theory or
terminology, Consequently, because of its nondenominational construction, this
instrument shows great promise as a research tool for investigations into spirituality
and its physical, psychological, and interpersonalI social correlates. The fact that the
SAS is a fairly short measure also contributes to its appeal for research purposes since
it would place minimal time demands on researchers and their subjects. Nevertheless,
further examination of the construct validity of the SAS as wen as investigations into
its relationship to other measures of similar and dissimilar constructs is needed.

SpiritualOrientationInventory
(SOl,’Elkins,Hedstrom,Hughes,Leaf & Saunders,1988)

The SOl is “a measure of spirituality based on a humanistic model and designed to
assess the spirituality of those not affiliated with traditional religion” (p. 5). The
measure is the product of a content analysis of the works of numerous writers on
religion and spirituality including James (1958), Jung (1964), Maslow (1970),
Dewey (1934), Eliade (1959) and Frankl (1963), among others. Based on their review
of the literature, Elkins et al. (1988) extracted a definition of spirituality and the
spiritual person which consists of nine components. Briefly defined, these compo-
nents are:

184 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

I) Transcendent Dimension: “the spiritual person has an experientially based belief
that there is a transcendent dimension to life” (p. 10);
2) Meaning and Purpose in Life: ”the spiritual person has known the quest for
meaning and purpose and has emerged from this quest with confidence that life is
deeply meaningful and that one’s own existence has purpose” (p, 11);
3) Mission in Life: “the spiritual person has a sense of ‘vocation'” (p. 11);
4) Sacredness of Life: “the spiritual person believes life is infused with sacredness
and often experiences a sense of awe, reverence and wonder even in “nonreligious”
settings” (p. 11);
5) Material Values: “the spiritual person can appreciate material goods … but does
not seek ultimate satisfaction from them nor attempt to use them as a substitute for
frustrated spiritual needs” (p. 11);
6) Altruism: “the spiritual person believes we are our “brother’s keeper” and is
touched by the pain and suffering of others” (p. 11);
7) Idealism: “the spiritual person is a visionary committed to the betterment of the
world” (p. 11);
8) Awareness of the Tragic: “the spiritual person is solemnly conscious of the tragic
realities of human existence” (p. 11); and
9) Fruits of Spirituality: “the spiritual person is one whose spirituality has borne fruit
in his or her life. True spirituality has a discernable effect upon one’s relationship to
self, others, nature, life and whatever one considers to be the ultimate” (p. 12).

Elkins et al. (1988) informally validated these nine components by having five
persons they considered to be highly spiritual (from Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant
and Jewish traditions) evaluate them. At their interviews, all of the evaluators
supported the ELkins et al, (1988) definition of spirituality.

Based on their literature review, the interviews and their examination of existing
measures of spirituality (e.g., Allport & Ross, 1967; Hood, 1970; Yinger, 1969),
Elkins et al, (1988) initially constructed 200 items which, after being rated by experts,
was reduced to l57 items. This served as the first research version of the SOL After
eliminating those that were found not to discriminate between people rated as highly
spiritual and a group of graduate students (Elkins, 1988; see below), only 85 items
were retained to operationalize each of the nine components of their definition of
spirituality for the final version of the SOL Respondents are provided with a seven-
point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree to rate the
extent to which they agree with each of the items. The SOl is scored by reversing
response values for negatively phrased items and summing item responses for each
subscale.

The SOl has been shown to be a reliable measure with the scales of the 85-item
version producing coefficient alphas ranging from. 75 to .95 (Elkins, 1988; Elkins et
al., 1988). Also, support for the criterion validity ofthe SOl has been provided; Laud
and Elkins (1988) found that the mean scores of 24 adults judged as being “highly
spiritual” were higher than those of96 graduate students on all SOl subscales except
Idealism. Moreover, two additional studies which used the SOl demonstrated that the
measure can be used to predict differences in spirituality in various subject popula-
tions; Smith (1991) found that 172 polio survivors obtained notably greater scores
than 80 non-polio subjects on all SOl subscales except Idealism. Similarly, Lee and

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 185

Bainum (1991) found that hospice workers scored significantly higher on the SOl
than a sample of hospital nurses. Finally, as a point of interest, Zainuddin (1993)
examined the relationship between the SOl and psychogenic needs and found that
autonomy and aggression needs were the best negative predictors of spirituality.
Zainuddin also found that self-actualization needs conld also predict level of spiritu-
ality.

Even though the reliability of the SOl has been shown to be satisfactory, much more
knowledge regarding its validity is needed before confidence can be warranted in its
use in research. This is especially true with regards to construct validity (including
factorial validity) and the relationship of the SOl subscales to other measures of
similar constructs. Elkins et al. (1988) state that future psychometric research focus-
ing on reliability and factorial, content and concurrent validity is to be completed.
However, to our knowledge, no such work has appeared in the literature. Despite this,
as was the case with the SAS, the SOl is a measure of spirituality which was designed
to eliminate the confound with religious concepts and terminology. In light of’this, as
well as its success in differentiating between known groups of subjects, the SOl may
prove to be a good instrument for research comparing/contrasting groups of individu-
als who are hypothesized to differ in spiritual orientation.

Index of Core Spiritual Experience
(INSPIRIT; Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Zuttermeister & Benson, 1991)

According to Kass et al, (1991), the INSPIRlT was developed in response to three
considerations: a) measures of spiritual experience (e.g., Hood, 1970, 1975; Ring,
1984) indicate that such phenomena are fairly prevalent (e.g., Davis & Smith, 1985;
Ring, 1984); b) the occurrence of spiritual experience may be associated with
psychological well-being (e.g., Hay & Morisy, 1978; Hood, 1977b; Ring, 1984); and
c) based on their research and clinical experiences (e.g., Benson, 1975, 1987; Bowen,
Justyn,Kass, Miller, Rogers, Rogers & Wood, 1978), Kass et al. (1991) developed a
notion of spiritual experience which did not seem to be accounted for by existing
measures. Kass et al. (1991) add that existing measures of spiritual experience do not
appear to define the construct adequately enough to account for and expose the
intrinsic religious variables (Le., spiritual experience) which are linked to health.

The INSPIRlT is a measure of “core spiritual experience,” a construct which Kass et
al. (1991) state is made up of two discernable elements, namely,

1) a distinct event and a cognitive appraisal of that event which resulted in a personal
conviction of God’s existence (or some form of higher power as defined by the person); and
2) theperceptionof a highlyinternalizedrelationshipbetweenGod andthe person(i.e., God
dwellswithin and a correspondingfeelingof closenessto God) (p. 204).

The INSPIRlT was created to overcome the limitations of existing measures of
spiritual experience in uncovering a link between spiritual experience and health.

The INSPIRlT is a paper and pencil measure that consists of seven items which are
used to operationalize the two characteristics of the core spiritual experience. Items

186 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27,No.2

one through six ask respondents multiple choice questions regarding the occurrence
and nature of spiritual experiences and the impact of these experiences on beliefs and
religious motivation. For item seven, respondents are provided a four-point rating
scale to rate twelve statements describing various types or aspects of spiritual
experience. Kass et at (1991) assert that items 1,2, 4 and 6 identify behaviors and
attitudes which would be present in a person who felt close to God and who held the
perception that God dwells within. Items 3, 5 and 7 are understood as identifying
experiences which had led to a conviction of God’s existence. Items one through
seven of the INSPIRIT are scored by numerically coding item responses from 1 to 4,
summing them and then dividing by the total number of questions. For item 7, only
the highest scoring statement of the twelve statements is used for calculating the total
INSPIRIT score. The greater the INSPIRIT mean score, the more likely it is that the
respondent has had, and been affected by, a core spiritual experience.

Kass et al, (1991) performed several analyses on the INSPIRIT to examine its
psychometric properties and found that the measure seems to have good reliability as
suggested by an alpha coefficient of .90, and satisfactory validity as suggested by the
following: a) a principal components analysis resulted in the extraction of one factor
on which all seven INSPIRIT items loaded heavily; b) the INSPIRIT correlated
significantly with the Intrinsic scale (r= .69, p<.OOOI),but not the Extrinsic scale, of the Religious Orientation Inventory (Allport & Ross, 1967); c) multiple regression analyses revealed that the INSPIRIT is positively and significantly related to in- creased life purpose and satisfaction as measured by the Inventory of Positive Psychological Attitudes to Life (Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Caudill, Zuttermeister & Benson, 1991), and inversely related to average symptom frequency as assessed by the Medical Symptom Checklist (Leserman, 1983); and d) the INSPIRIT discrimi- nated between outpatients with longer versus shorter histories of using meditation to elicit a relaxation response.

There are three strengths of the INSPIRIT which support its use in transpersonal
research. First, the notion of core spiritual experience which the measure has been
designed to assess was developed based on both the clinical and research experience
of the test constructors. Most other measures of spiritual experience operationalize
definitions of the construct which are grounded almost exclusively on theory and not
on direct observation. Second. the INSPIRIT is a parsimonious measure of spiritual
experience. Since it consists of only seven items, the measure can be administered
quickly and easily. Third, as the above research indicates, the INSPIRIT demon-
strates a significant empirical relationship between spiritual experience and both
psychological and physical health. Consequently, the INSPIRIT may serve as an
excellent measure for use in research focusing on transpersonal experience and its
impact on functioning.

Despite these strengths, the INSPIRIT can be criticized on at least two accounts. First,
though it attempts to use them in non-denominational ways, it nonetheless relies
heavily on monotheistic terms, especially “God.” Resultingly, as was discussed
earlier in this paper, the INSPIRIT may be more sensitive to individuals who adhere
to monotheistic religious systems than to those who practice nontheistic or polytheis-
tic faiths. Second, the current scoring procedure for the INSPIRIT results in the loss
of a fair amount of data from item seven. Some effort should be made to develop a

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 187

more effectiveprocedure for using responses to item seven (e.g., instead of using only
the highest scoring rating for calculationof the total INSPIRIT score, the mean rating
of the twelve parts of item seven could be used).

Mystical Experiences Scale (M-Scale: Hood, 1975)

Hood (1975) states that the M-Scale was created in order to provide an empirical
means of investigatingphenomena,namely religious and spiritual experience, which
up to that time had very little empirical work done on them. The M-Scale can be
understood most simply to be an operationalizationof the eight dimensions of
mystical experience delineated by Stace (1960).These dimensions are labelled and
defined by Hood (1975) as follows:

I) Ego Quality: “… the experience of a loss of sense of self while consciousnessis
nevertheless maintained. The loss of self is commonly experienced as an absorption
into something greater than the mere empirical ego” (Hood, 1975,p. 31);
2) UnitYingQuality: “… the experience of the multiplicity of objects of perception
as nevertheless united. Everything is in fact perceived as one” (p, 31);
3) Inner Subjective Quality: “… the perception of an inner subjectivity to all things,
even those usually experienced in purely material forms” (p. 32);
4) Temporal/Spatial Quality: “refers to the temporal and spatial parameters of the
experience.Essentially both time and space are modified with the extreme being one
of an experience that is both ‘timeless’ and ‘spaceless'” (p. 32);
5) Noetic Quality; “refers to the experience as a source of valid knowledge. Empha-
sis is on a nonrational,intuitive, insightful experiencethat is nevertheless recognized
as not merely subjective” (p, 32);
6) Ineffability: “refers to the impossibility of expressing the experience in conven-
tional language, The experience simply cannot be put into words due to the nature of
the experience itself and not to the linguistic capacity ofthe sugject (sic)” (p. 32);
7) Positive Affect: “refers to the positive affective quality of the experience. Typi-
cally the experience is of joy or blissful happiness” (p. 32); and
8) Religious Quality: “refers to the intrinsic sacredness of the experience. This
includes feelings of mystery, awe, and reverence that may nevertheless be expressed
independently of traditional religious language” (p. 32).

Hood (1975) indicates that Stace’s (1960) criterion of’paradoxicality was not used in
tbe M~Scale because Hood did not consider it an essential aspect of mystical
experience and because it did not “effectively discriminate”(p. 31) in his preliminary
work.

The M-Scale is a paper and pencil test which consists of 32 items. Though Hood
(1975) began with an item pool of 108 items which operationalized Stace’s (1960)
categories, he chose to retain only those items which “proved to be the most clearly
understood while retaining face validity in terms of Stace’s conceptualizations”(p.
30). Moreover, Hood (1975) asserts that the 32 items of the final M-Scale demon-
strated the most satisfactoryempiricalvalidity as reflected in “discriminationindexes
calculated on the basis of the ratio between mean responseper item by the top quartile
and the lower quartile of respondents to initial forms of” the M-Scale (po 30-31).

188 TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995,Vol.27,No.2

Each of the dimensions of Stace (1960) are represented by four items (two positively
expressed and two negatively expressed). Based on a factor analysis Hood (1975)
also delineates two subscales; a general mysticism factor which includes twenty
items (which completely embody the dimensions Unifying Quality, Temporal/Spa-
tial Quality, Inner Subjective Quality and Ineffability; it also includes three items
from Ego Quality and one item from Positive Quality) and a religious interpretation
factor made up of the remaining twelve items. Respondents are provided with a five-
point Likert scale, ranging from -2; “this description is definitely not true of my own
experience or experiences” to +2; “this description is definitely true of my experience
or experiences”, to rate the extent to which the item accurately describes the person’s
experience. Respondents are also provided with a “I cannot decide” option, which is
recorded as a “?” on the questionnaire. However, the M-Scale instructions encourage
respondents to provide answers to all of the items. Item responses are numerically
coded as -2, -1 +1 and +2, respectively and are recorded by the respondent on the
questionnaire as such. The scoring of the M-Scale consists of reversing the sign of the
item response for negatively phrased items, adding three to all item score responses (a
response of? is assigned a value of three) and then summing them to obtain the
dimension scores and the total M-Scale score. Total scores can range from 32,
meaning the least mystical, to 160 which is the most mystical. Scores of the two M-
Scale factors can also be obtained by summing the converted item responses as per
the procedure above for the items belonging to each factor.

Evidence of adequate, but not exceptional, reliability of the M-Scale has been
provided by Hood (1975) who intercorrelated the individual items, the eight dimen-
sions, and the two factors, respectively, to the total M-Scale score. Correlations for
the items ranged from .29 to .55. Correlations for the eight dimensions ranged from
.39 to .64. Correlations for the factors are .86 for the general mysticism factor and .66
for the religious interpretation factor. Hood interpreted these correlations as indicat-
ing that the M-Scale has satisfactory internal consistency. In addition, Hood
intercorrelated the positive (i.e., summed the positively expressed items) and nega-
tive (i.e., summed the negatively expressed items) expressions of all eight conceptual
categories and found numerous significant relations. He interpreted this latter finding
as indicating “that the form of expression does not alter the meaningfulness of the
measurement of these categories and hence the mixed nature of this scale is of
significance in avoiding problems of response set when correlating this scale with
other measures” (Hood, 1975, p. 33).

The validity of the M-Scale has been relatively well examined and satisfactory
support for the measure has been provided. Hood (1975) performed a principal
components factor analysis (using a varimax rotation) and found two mtereorrelated
factors (r= .47, p<.OI), which support the construct validity of the M-Scale as a measure of Stace's concepts. Additional evidence in support for this factor structure is provided by Caird (1988) who replicated Hood's (1975) factor structure when employing a two-factor solution in a principal axis factor analysis. Interestingly, when a three-factor solution was utilized, Caird fonnd that the religious interpretation category split into two factors indicative of two types of interpretation, noetic and religious. For both solutions, Caird found that the factors were highly intercorrelated. Alternatively, Campbell (1983) performed a principal components analysis on M- Scale item scores which resulted in the extraction of eight factors. She goes on to state

A Survey of Measuresof TranspersonalConstructs 189

that “although these results are not necessarily incompatible with those of Hood, the
present results at least appear to suggest that the Mysticism scale is a good deal more
complex than Hood’s previous work implies” (Campbell, p, 77).

The M-Scale has also demonstrated adequate convergent validity as reflected in the
pattern of correlations between the two M-Scale factor scores, the total M-Scale score
and other measures of theoretically related constructs found in research. For example,
Hood (1975) found significant correlations between the M-Scale total and Hoge’s
(1972) Intrinsic Religious Motivation scale (r= .81, .68 and .58, p<.Ol for M-Scale total, factor one, and factor two, respectively), Hood's (1970) Religious Experience Episodes Measure (1=.47 and p<.Ol for M-Scale total and factor two; r= .34, p<.05, for factor one), and Taft's (1970) Ego Permissiveness Scale (r= -.75, -.75 and -.43, p<.O1 for total, factor one and factor two).

The M-Scale has been used fairly extensively in research. Though most of this work
was not done with the intent to examine the psychometric properties of the measure,
it nonetheless provides further insight into the validity of the instrument. In light of
this, the authors of this paper surmised that a brief overview of the findings of the
literature we obtained would be in order. These findings consist of the following:

1) Relationship of the M-Scale to other measures: a) Hood (1975) correlated the M-
Scale and its two factors to the MMPI clinical and validity scales and found
significant correlations between the M-Scale total, factor one and factor two scores
and the MMPI Lie (L), Hypochondriasis (Hs) and Hysteria (Hy) scales. He inter-
preted the relations between the M-Scale and the latter two MMPI scales as being
consistent with the “concern with bodily processes and intense experiential states” (p.
39) typically associated with mystical consciousness; b) Fite (1981) also correlated
M-Scale scores to the MMPI but obtained a very different pattern of correlations.
Non-significant correlations were found with the MMPI L, Hs and Hy scales;
however, he observed numerous significant correlations between the M-Scale total
and factor scores and MMPI Correction (K). Depression (D), Psychopathic Deviate
(Pd), Paranoia (Pa), Schizophrenia (Sc), Hypomania (Ma), Social Introversion (Si)
and several specialized MMPI scales including the Subtle-Obvious Clinical scales,
Phobias (Pho), Ego Control (Ee), Acting-out Ratio (AOR) and Internalization Ratio
(lR). Moreover, Fite (1981) correlated the M-Scale to the Millon Multiaxial Clinical
Inventory (MCMI; Millon, 1977) and found significant negative correlations be-
tween the M-Scale total and factor scores and the MCMI Asocial scale. Conversely,
significant positive relations were found between the M-Scale and MCMI Gregari-
ousness. The M-Scale religious interpretation factor also correlated significantly with
the MCMI Avoidant and Narcissistic scales. Fite concluded that his evidence was
inconclusive in providing support for the hypothesis “that persons reporting more
mystical experience will also demonstrate greater capacity for ‘regression in service
of the ego’ than persons reporting less mystical experience” (p. 123); c) Hood, Hall,
Watson and Biderman (1979) found many meaningful relations between the M-Scale
and the fifteen personality dimensions of the Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI;
Jackson, 1976). They also observed a number of sex differences in the pattern of
significant correlations obtained. Nevertheless, based on their findings and ignoring
the obtained sex differences, Hood et al (1979) assert that the person reporting
mystical experience as indicated on M-Scale factor one,

190 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

may be describedas one with a breadthof interests,creativeand innovative,tolerantof
others, social adept, and unwilling to accept simple solutionsto problems. This person is
likelyto be criticalof tradition.However, a person reportinga religiouslyinterpreted
mysticalexperience[as indicatedon factortwo] is likelyto be traditionallyorientedand
concerned with the welfare of others (p. 806).

As Hood et al. (1979) indicated, these findings reveal stable and healthy personality
correlates to reported mystical experience; d) Campbell (1983) found significant
correlations between the M-Scale and the Thinking-Feeling scale of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The M-Scale general mysticism factor also correlated
with MBTI Sensation-Intuition whereas the religious interpretation factor produced a
significant negative relation with MBT! Extraversion-Introversion. In addition, using
stepwise multiple regression, Campbell found that the MBTI scales of Feeling,
Intuition and Sensation best predicted M~Scale factor one scores whereas factor two
scores were best accounted for by MBTI Feeling, Judging and Perception as well as
age. The total M-Scale score was best predicted by MBT! Feeling, Intuition and
Judging and subject age. Finally, using discriminant function analysis, Campbell
observed that both the M-Scale and the MBTI could discriminate between group of
people reporting mystical experience from a group who did not; e) Noble (1984)
obtained significant relationships between the M-Scale total and factor scores and the
Peak Experiences Scale (PES; Mathes, Zevon, Roter & Joerger, 1982; r= .66, .63, .58,
p<.OOlfor M-Scale total, factor one and factor two, respectively) and with numerous scales of the Perceived Self Questionnaire (Heath, 1968), a measure of psychological health and maturity; these findings were consistent with Noble's expectations; f) Hood (I 977a) found significant relations between the M-Scale and Self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1964), especially the general mysticism factor. Hood observed that individuals high in self-actualization appeared more likely to have mystical experiences caused through the use of drugs or sexual activity whereas mystical experiences seemed to be precipitated by religious or nature settings in persons low in self-actualization; g) Hood (1978) reported a notable correlation between the M-Scale and the Adjective Check List suggesting there is a relationship between reports of mystical experience and a healthy orienta- tion to self.

2) Experimental or Quasi-experimental Research: a) Hood, Morris and Watson
(1990) used a modified M-Scale to assess the experience of 73 university students
classified as either intrinsically religiously motivated, extrinsically motivated or
indisoriminantly pro-religious who were subjected to an isolation tank experience
under either religious or non-religious set conditions. Tiley found that the three
religious types did not differ on factor one as a function of set conditions. However,
indiscriminantly pro-religious subjects had higher factor two scores under the reli-
gious set conditions, whereas factor two scores were unaffected by set conditions for
intrinsics and extrinsics. Intrinsic subjects had higher factor two scores while extrin-
sic participants had lower factor two scores regardless of set conditions. Hood et al.
(I990) also found that subjects classified as intrinsically motivated reported their
isolation tank experiences in religious terms whether prompted to do so or not
whereas indiscriminately pro-religious subjects were more likely to do so when
prompted and extrinsics did not regardless of prompting; b) Propst (1979) found that
increased antisocial behavior was exhibited by subjects who had external locus of

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 191

control and a low M~Scale score, c) Hood (1977b) observed that individuals engaged
in a high stress nature experience obtained significantly greater M-Scale scores than
persons involved in a low stress experience, suggesting that an anticipated stressful
event may serve as a trigger for mystical experience. (The reader is referred to Lukoff
and Lu [1988] for a more detailed discussion of Hood, 1977a, 1977b. They also
present a study of marginal quality by Finney & Maloney [1985] which utilizes the
M-Scale.)

The M-ScaLe can be viewed as a relatively well designed measure of mystical
experience which appears to have found much success to date. However, there are
some inconsistencies and apparent oversights in the empirical literature which bring
the validity and reliability of the instrument into question. First, there is no knowl-
edge about the stability of M-Scale scores. Even though the M-Scale has been in
existence for about twenty years, we were unable to locate any studies which examine
the test-retest reliability of the instrument. Given that there is a dynamic relationship
between the reliability and validity of any standardized test, it would seem prudent to
obtain more knowledge about the reliability of the M~Sca]e than is currently avail-
able. Second, even though there are indications that sex differences may affect M –
Scale scores (e.g., Hood, Hall, Watson & Biderman, 1979), there has not been any
research that we could find which explicitly and systematically addresses this pos-
sible shortcoming.

Third, the factor analytic work on the M~Scale does not allow for complete confi-
dence in the two-factor model that Hood (1915) constructed. Additional research
confirming the robustness of the general mysticism and religious interpretation
factors may be highly valuable in establishing the factorial complexity of the instru-
ment. Lastly, there are indications that respondents, especially older persons, have
difficulties differentially responding to the M-Scale items (Hood, 1975). Thus, there
is some question as to the validity ofM~Scale scores obtained from some populations
on the basis of age. Nevertheless, we are in support of Rood (1975) who contends that
the M-Scale “is a potentially useful instrument for persons interested in the investiga-
tion of mystical experiences, especially within a religious context” (p, 39).

Peak Scale (PES: Mathes, Zevon, Rater & Joerger, 1982)

The PES is a measure of the tendency of a person to have peak experiences as
conceptualized by Maslow (1970). Test construction began with the development of
143 true-false items directly derived from Maslow’s detailed description of peak
experiences. Based on item to scale-total correlations calculated using data from two
samples consisting of230 subjects, Mathes et at (1982) dropped 73 items, leaving a
total of 70 items. Mathes et at noted that the remaining items were all scored in a
positive direction (i.e., in the direction of a true response). In order to prevent the
confounding of scale scores due to acquiescence, the PES creators reworded half of
the items in the negative. To ensure that the rewording of items did not affect internal
consistency, Mathes et at administered the revised items to 63 males and 104 females
and correlated the item scores to the score total They found that all but seven of the
items did not obtain significance for men and five did not obtain significance for

192 TheJournal of’TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol. 27, No.2

women. However, based on the fact that interitem consistency was found to be
satisfactory, these items were retained in the final version of the PES. The PES is
scored simply by summing the item responses which endorse aspects of peak
experiences.

In terms of its psychometric properties, the PES has demonstrated good reliability as
found in Kuder-Richardsonreliability coefficients of .94 for men and .92 for women
(Mathes et al., 1982)and adequate validity as suggested by the following; significant
correlations between PES scores and the number of peak experiences reported by
subjects (r= .24, p<.05 for males; r= .24, p<.05 for females); numerous significant correlations between PES scores and subject ratings of three passages describing a mystical experience on such criteria as the interestingness of passages, meaningful- ness of passages, feelings of being emotionally moved by the passages, enjoyment of reading, the ability of readers to "get into" the passages and arousal of "mystical feelings" in the subjects; and theoretically consistent correlations between the PES and measures of related constructs including the Absorption scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974; r= .50, p<.005, for men; r= .54, p<.005, for women), a measure of Being-value achievement devised by Mathes et at (1982) (r= .37, p<.005, for men; r= .23, p<.05, for women), and numerous scales of the Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1964), a measure of self-actualization (for males: Self-regard:r= .24, p<.05; Nature of Man, Constructive: r= .29,p<.025; for females: Inner-directedness: r= .28, p<.025; Self-actualizing value: r= .31, p<.025; Self-acceptance: r= .27, p<.025) (Mathes et al., 1982). Additional evidence in support of the validity of the PES has been provided by Noble (1984) who found that the measure significantly correlated to Hood's (1975) Mystical Experiences Scale (total score- r= .66, p<.OOI; factor one- r= .63, p<.OOl; factor two- r= .58, p<.OOI) and with numerous scales of the Perceived Self Questionnaire (PSQ; Heath, 1968), a measure of psychological health and maturity (PSQ total- r= .18, p<.OI; Intellectual Skills- r= .19, p<.Ol; Values- r= .14, p<.05; Symbolization- r= .22, p<.OI; Allocentrism- r= .13, p<.05; Integration- r= .17, p<.Ol). Lastly, Morneau, MacDonald, Holland and Holland (in press) found significant relations between the PES and a measure of complex partial epileptic signs (Persinger & Makarec, 1987, 1993; see below; r= .35, p<.OOI) and several scales of the revised Paranormal Beliefs Scale (PBS-R; Tobacyk 1991; see below) including the total PBS-R score (r= .36, p<.OOI) and subscales assessing Traditional Religious Beliefs (r= .30, p<.Ol), Psi Beliefs (r= .27, p<.Ol), Spiritualism (r= .32, p<.OOI), Precognition (r= .30, p<.Ol) and Extraordinary Life Forms (r= .20, p<.05).

Based on their analyses of the PES, Mathes et al, (1982) concluded the following:

Although individuals who report having peak experiences are also likely to have experi-
ences involving intense happiness, they are even more prone to report having cognitive
experiences of a transcendent and mystical nature. This suggests that although the peak
experience involves positive affect, it is primarily a cognitive (mystical) event. Individuals
who report having peak experiences are more likely to report living in terms of Being-
values, such as truth, beauty, and justice than individuals who do not report having peak
experiences. Finally, self-actualizing individuals are more likely to report having peak
experiences than less self-actualizing individuals, though the relationship is not a very
strong one. In general, this picture is consistent with the theorizing of Maslow (p, 107).

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 193

The greatest strength of the PES lies in its grounding in Maslow’s theory. In fact,
given that many items of the PES are borrowed directly from Maslow’s (1970) own
writing, and the findings reported above, it is very likely that the PES is a measure
which is an acceptable operationalization of what Maslow originally meant by peak
experiences. Thus, the PES appears to hold promise as a measure for research
examining peak experiences and their relation to psychological health. However, no
investigations have been undertaken which examine the factorial validity of the PES.
Until such an analysis is completed, investigators using this scale must be sensitive to
the possibility that the scale may be a multidimensional (i.e., multi-factorial)
operationalizaticn of the construct and thus not a homogeneous measure of peak
experiences.

IntrinsicReligiousMotivationScale (IRMS;Rage, 1972)

Hoge (1972) states that the development of the IRMS was prompted by the existence
of conceptual diffuseness in existing notions of intrinsic and extrinsic religion and by
the questionable validity of measures of the same. The IRMS operationalizes and
assesses the aspect of intrinsic religious motivation identified and defined by Runt
and King (l971) as ultimate versus instrumental religious motivation. In order to
remain consistent with Allport and Ross (1967), Hoge defined this aspect of religious
motivation as a bidirectional dimension with intrinsic motivation at one end and
extrinsic motivation at the other. Hoge contends that the IRMS is not a measure of
behavior, perception or cognitive style but of religious motivation from an American
Christian perspective. He adds that test items asking about specific religious behavior
were excluded from the IRMS for two reasons: a) such behavior does not serve as a
reliable indicator of intrinsic religious motivation, and b) it was desirable to keep
religious behavior separate conceptually and operationally from the notion of intrin-
sic religious motivation.

The IRMS is a paper and pencil test made up often items which consist of statements
about the people’s orientation to religion in their lives. Respondents are provided a
four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (numerically coded as one for
scoring), and agree, (coded as two), to disagree (coded as four) and strongly disagree
(coded as five) to rate the extent to which they agree with the test items. Item
responses are summed and the mean calculated to obtain the IRMS score. The lower
the IRMS score, the higher the respondent’s intrinsic religious motivation.

The IRMS has demonstrated good reliability as indicated by a Kuder-Richardson
reliability coefficient (using formula 20) of .90 (Hoge, 1972). In terms of validity, the
IRMS appears to have adequate factorial validity (Hoge, 1972) as well as good
convergent and discriminant validity; the IRMS has produced strong correlations
with other measures of intrinsic religious orientation including Feagin’s (1964) (r=
.85 for total scale; r= .87 for intrinsic scale) and Allport and Ross’ (1967) (r= .87 for
total scale; r= .86 for intrinsic scale; Hoge, 1972) and with the Mystical Experiences
Scale (Hood, 1975; r= .81, p<.OI). Moreover, evidence of satisfactory criterion validity has been found by Hoge (1972) who obtained a correlation of .585 between IRMS scores and minister's ratings of 51 subjects as either intrinsically or extrinsi- cally motivated. Finally, Powell and Thorson (1991) observed a strong relationship

194 TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27,No.2

between the IRMS, scores on a death anxiety scale and constructions of death among
145 people.

Given the findings reported above, it appears that the IRMS could serve as a
satisfactory brief measure of intrinsic religious motivation. In fact, given the magni-
tude of the correlations between the IRMS and the scales of Allport and Ross (1967)
and Feagin (1964), it appears that the IRMS is assessing constructs virtually identical
to these other measures. However, as is the case with most measures of this concept,
the IRMS is limited by its operationalization of intrinsic religious motivation from an
exclusively American Christian perspective. Nonetheless, the strong correlation
between the IRMS and a measure of mystical experience which was obtained by
Hood (1975) suggests that the JRMS could be used as a Christian-oriented measure of
the extent to which peoples’ religious orientation is grounded in the occurrence of
spiritual experiences.

Self ExpansivenessLevel Form (SELF;Friedman,1983)

The development of the SELF was prompted by Friedman’s (1983) perception that
transpersonal psychology was lacking adequate measures of relevant concepts which
would allow for the development of a cumulative body of empirical knowledge based
upon a shared technique. The general concept that the SELF is designed to assess is
self-expansiveness, a construct defined by Friedman (1983, p. 38) as “the amount of
True Self which is contained within the boundary demarcating self from not-self
through the process of self-conception.” More specifically, self-expansiveness has
been operationalized as three distinct levels based upon a spatial-temporal cartogra-
phy of self-concept (Sampson, 1978; Shostrom, 1968). The three levels are the
personal, middle and transpersonal. Each level of self-concept corresponds to a
subscale on the SELF. The Personal Subscale, made up of five items, was included to
assess the degree of identification that a person has with the “here-and-now” level of
the self. Friedman (1983) states that the personal subscale can best be understood as
measuring Western conceptions of positive mental health. The Transpersonal
Subsoale, also consisting of five items, was designed to assess a person’s “degree of
identification with aspects of reality beyond that which is ordinarily conceived as
being part of the individual” (Friedman, 1983, p. 40). Further stated, the transpersonal
subscale assesses the degree of “extension of the self-concept beyond the here-and-
now such that there [has been or] is a dissolution of the individual’s perception of self
as an isolated biosystem existing only in the present time” (p. 39). The Middle
Subscale, made up of eight items, is said to serve as a bridge between the personal and
transpersonal levels of self-expansiveness. Friedman (1983) states that research into
the meaning of the middle subscale has been minimal and no knowledge of what it
measures has been obtained. The middle subscale was included to increase the overall
face validity of the SELF.

The SELF is a paper and pencil test that consists of 18 randomly ordered self
descriptive statements which are rated by an examinee on a five-point Likert scale,
ranging from A: “very willing to use to describe my sense of self or identity” to E:
“very unwilling to use to describe my sense of self or identity,” for the degree of
willingness of the examinee to identify with the test items. SELF scale scores are

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 195

obtained by numerically coding and summing the item responses (A=5, B=4, C=3,
0=2, E=I). The higher the score on a given subscale, the more True Self is incorpo-
rated into a person’s self concept.

The SELF has demonstrated satisfactory reliability; Friedman (1983) found two-
week test-retest correlations of .83 and .80 for the personal and transpersonal
subscales respectively, while MacDonald, Tsagarakis and Holland (1994) found two
week test-retest reliabilities of .57 for both the personal and middle subscales and .69
for the transpersonal scale, and three-month test-retest correlations of .36, .34 and ,57
for the personal, middle and transpersonai subscales,In terms of inter-item consis-
teney, Friedman (1983) found Spearman-Brown reliability coefficients of .81 and .78
for the personal subscale and .66 and .68 for the transpersonal subscale. MacDonald,
Tsagarakis and Holland (1994) found coefficient alpha values of.72 and .75 for the
personal scale, .58 and .67 for the middle subscale, and. 79 and .65 for the transper-
sonal subscale.

Examination of the validity of the SELF has been fairly comprehensive and satisfac-
tory support has been provided. To briefly elaborate, the results of four principal
components analyses have provided support for the factorial validity of the personal
and transpersonal subscales (Friedman, 1983; MacDonald et al., 1994). Moreover,
the SELF personal and transpersonal subscales have been shown to have adequate
convergent and discriminant validity as demonstrated in correlational findings con-
sistent with expectation between the SELF subscales and measures of theoretically
related and non-related constructs (e.g., the personal subscale has been found to
significantly correlate with the Time Competence Scale and the Inner Supports Scale
of the Personal Orientation Inventory, the Total Positive Score ofthe Tennessee Self
Concept Scale [TSCS; Fitts, 1965J, the Self-Descriptio» Inventory, the Ego Grasping
Orientation and numerous scales of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [MBTI] and the
NEO Personality Inventory [NEO-PI] whereas the transpersonal subscale has been
shown to significantly correlate to the M-Scale [r= .32, p<.005J but not the MBTI and only weakly with the Openness to Experience domain of the NEO·PI; both subscales have not been found to correlate with intelligence, social desirabilhy, a number of measures of response style from the TSCS and each other; Friedman, 1983; MacDonald et al., 1994). Also, evidence for the criterion validity of personal and transpersonal subscales was obtained by Friedman (1983) who was able to use these subscales to differentiate between groups of individuals known to vary in the extent to which they identified with the transpersonal and "here-and-now" levels of self (e.g., students, yoga practitioners, members of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology).

Outside of the Temperament and Character Inventory, the SELF is the only measure
available which is designed to assess aspects of transpersonal identity. In light of its
uniqueness as well as the favorable findings supporting the validity and reliability of
the personal and transpersonal subscales, it appears as though the SELF holds much
potential for use in research exploring the relation of conventional and transpersonal
aspects of identity to spiritual practice/experience. Moreover, as was suggested by
MacDonald et al. (1994), the lack of notable relations between the transpersonal
subscale and the MBTI and NEO·PI suggest that this subscale may be useful in
investigating the possible existence of a “sixth” factor of personality/identity (in

196 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

addition to the commonly accepted five factors in conventional personality psy-
chology) which could incorporate the spiritual into mainstream conceptions of
personality.

However, despite its potential usefulness, the SELF is currently limited in at least
three ways. First, Friedman (1983) did not focus any of his attention on the theoretical
and empirical development of the middle subseale. As a result, outside of Friedman’s
claim that the sub scale is a bridge between the personal and transpersonallevels of
self-expansiveness, little is known about what the subscale is assessing. Fortunately,
some work has been done to further explore this aspect of the SELF. In their detailed
examination of the instrument, MacDonald et at (1994) state that “the middle level
can be understood as encompassing aspects of sel f-concept which have some aspects
of spatial-temporal expansiveness but are not expanded to the point which results in
the dissolution of separate egoic identity” (p. 179). This can include identification
with behaviors, memories, body parts or movements and social behavior/relations.
MacDonald et al. also examined the psychometric properties of the middle subscale
and found that it has adequate reliability (coefficientsreported above) and some
degree of validity as suggested by significant correlations between the middle
subscale and both the personal and transpersonal subscales (r= .34 and .41, p<.OI, respectively), and by the replicated finding of a multidimensional factor structure. In addition, MacDonald et at (1994) obtained a number of significant correlations between the middle subscale and the scales on the MBTI and NEO-PI suggesting that it may be assessing a construct which is relatively well represented in existing personality tests.

Second, there are no specific interpretive criteria available to indicate the meaning of
the magnitude of a given subscale score or to indicate the meaning of subscale scores
in comparison with each other (e.g., what does a high personal subsoale score and a
moderate transpersonal subscale score tell us about the test taker?). Even though
SELF scores could be simply understood as reflecting greater self-expansiveness
with increased magnitude in the subscale scores, a more definitive interpretive
system might be developed in order to make the measure more useful, both for
individual assessment and group use in research.

Third, there are indications that SELF scores, especially the personal and middle
subscales, may be affected by gender (MacDonald et al., 1994). This finding needs to
be kept in mind when using the SELF in research with both men and women and in
developing an interpretive system (e.g., separate systems may be required for males
and females).

TranspersonalOrientationto Learning(TOTL;Shapiro& Fitzgerald,1989)

The TOTL is a measure of the extent to which a person’s attitudes about learning are
transpersonal in nature. Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) state that “according to the
Transpersonal Orientation, schools and other settings for learning are environments
for the development of spiritual potential. . . . Intuitive and receptive modes of
consciousness are considered equal in importance to cognitive, rational, logical and
active modes” (p. 374-376). They add that the TOTL was constructed because there

A Survey of M~!asures of TranspersonalConstructs 197

was no prior empirical work in existence which applied the transpersonal perspective
to education.

Development ofthe TOTL began with the construction of 222 test items based on the
content analysis of the writings of twenty-five well-known transpersonall humanistic
psychologists. This item pool was subjected to independent screenings by a number
of judges who rated each item for clarity and relevance. Based on inter-judge
agreement and on pilot study data, the item pool was reduced to 67 items. Using a
five-point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to S-strongly agree, this 67-
item version of the TOTL was administered to 166 graduate students. Using the
results of an item analysis of this data, 19 items were eliminated. Eight more items
were dropped on the basis of the findings of a factor analysis. These procedures
reduced the overall TOTL to 40 items. Based on a second factor analysis which used
an equamax rotation (a procedure which divides the variance accounted for by each
factor equally across the factors), the TOTL is broken down into four subscales each
containing 10 items. The subscales are labelled 1) Fantasy Techniques Applied in
Schools, 2) Mysticism Preferred to Science as an Epistemology, 3) Mystical/Occult/
Paranormal Techniques Applied to Schools, and 4) Transcendent Consciousness.
TOTL total and subscale scores are obtained by simply summing the item responses.
The greater the TOTL score, the greater the person’s transpersonal orientation to
learning.

Evidence in support of the reliability of the TOTL has been provided. For the entire
TOTL, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) found a split-half reliability of .98 and a
Cronbach’s alpha of .96. For the subscales, alphas values were found to range from
.82 to .93 with a mean alpha of .88.

In terms of validity, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) assert that the content validity of
the TOTL was established during test construction by basing item development
directly on the work of transpersonal thinkers and by having judges rate the items.
Criterion validity ofTOTL has been supported by findings indicating that the TOTL
could differentiate among known groups. In particular, it was found that mean TOTL
scores were significantly higher for students in confluent (humanistic) education,
followed by students in counseling psychology, who, in tum, scored higher than two
groups made up of students from single and multiple subject credential programs
(Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989). Moreover, the TOTL has demonstrated adequate
convergent validity; Shapiro and Fitzgerald correlated the TOTL to a number of
measures which assess similar constructs, and obtained significant correlations with
the Orientation to Learning (OTL; Shapiro, 1985), a measure of humanistic orienta-
tion to learning (r= .46, p<.OS), the Intuitive-Feeling temperament scale of the Kiersey Temperamental Sorter (Kiersey & Bates, 1978), a short form of the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (r= .38, p<.05), and the Concrete Experience Scale of the Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1976; r= .22, p<.05). Lastly, evidence for factorial validity has been provided through two principal components analyses. The first analysis, which used a varimax rotation, resulted in all TOTL items loading on a single factor, whereas the second analysis, which used an equamax component rotation, uncovered the four factor structure which partitions the TOTL items into the four subscales mentioned above (Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989).

198 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

The TOTL is unique in that it is the only transpersonal measure which has direct
relevance to educational research: “the contribution of an objective scale such as the
TOTL lies in its availability as a reliable and valid measure of a transpersonal
orientation to education” (Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 383). In terms of the
application of the TOTL, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) state that,

this scalecouldprovidea usefulway of assessingparent,teacherand studentattitudesand
changesin theseattitudesinfluencedby certaineducationalregimes.In addition,the TOTL
scalesfurtheropenup a lineof scientificinvestigationof the correlatesof suchattitudesand
their effectson learningand development(p. 383).

However, anyone who uses the TOTL at this time should be sensitive to the fact that
all of the items are worded in such a manner that subjects strongly endorsing an item
indicate their responses in the same positive direction. Thus, the researcher should be
sensitive to the impact of response bias on test scores. In addition, the factor structure
of the TOTL may be unstable. Shapiro and Fitzgerald caution against the use of
subscale scores since they are likely to be unstable due to the use of the equamax
factor rotation. Resultingly, researchers should exercise discretion when using the
subscales until further research can ascertain whether the construct is unidimensional
or multidimensional, since the results of the factor analyses indicate that both may be
correct. At present the TOTL appears to be best used as a measure of a general
orientation towards the transpersonal approach to education.

Ego Grasping Orientation (EGO; Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986)

The EGO is a measure of Taoist orientation that assesses ego grasping, a construct
defined as “a dualistic stance that is marked by the person’s attempts to make things
more positive while striving to eliminate the negative aspects of human experience”
(Knoblauch, 1985, p. 55). The notion of ego grasping was developed by Knoblauch
and Falconer based on the psychotherapeutic adaptation of the Taoist concepts of yin-
yang, wu-wei and teoTest items were constructed by extracting statements made by
clients in audio-taped therapy sessions which seemed to affirm or support the concept
of ego grasping. Knoblauch (1985) states that an individual high in ego grasping
would, according to the Taoist perspective, be highly motivated by egoic idealism
and ego centeredness,

The EGO takes the form of a twenty-item true/false questionnaire which is scored in
the direction of ego-grasping. The greater the EGO score, the greater the ego grasping
by the individual.

Research has shown that the EGO has good inter-item consistency and test-retest
reliability, obtaining coefficient alphas of .81 and .82 (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986),
a Kuder-Richardson reliability of. 79 and a three-month test-retest con-elation of. 72
(MacDonald et al., 1994). Moreover, the EGO has demonstrated satisfactory validity
(Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986; MacDonald et al., 1994) and, based on the pattern of
correlations obtained by Knoblauch and Falconer (1986) between the EGO and ten
measures of psychopathology, it appears that elevated EGO scores are associated
with anxiety, poor self-esteem, depression and impaired socialization skills. EGO

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 199

scores have also been associated with high risk variables for problem drinking in
adult children of alcoholics (Knoblauch, 1990); marginal functioning in alcoholic
college students who were adult children of alcoholics (Knoblauch & Bowers, 1989);
and psychological characteristics present in a sample of female alcoholics which
differentiated them from their male counterparts (Knoblauch, 1988).

The authors ofthis article are in agreement with Knoblauch and Falconer (1986) who
state that “the strength of the inventory lies in its ability to measure a person’s place
on [the continuum ranging from observational acceptance or te to fighting against the
Tao, or ego grasping], which, in tum, indicates a strong relationship with Western
personality dimensions” (p. 80). However, as the test developers have noted, the
EGO “is not a measure of personality since, from a Taoist perspective, personality is
an alien concept” (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986; p. 80). Thus, researchers should
make efforts to not equate ego-grasping with any personality or psychological
variable. Moreover, one must be equally cautious when using the EGO to assess
concepts such as degree of spiritual realization, since despite the fact that low scores
suggest that a given individual may “be relatively free from anxiety, depression, low
self-esteem, and low socialization skills, it does not suggest anything more than an
orientation towards observational acceptance or teoIt is not a measure of enlighten-
ment” (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986, p. 80).

In terms of general applications, the EGO could prove useful in psychotherapy and
meditation outcome research. In addition, it could be a useful measure for contribut-
ing diagnostic information to clinicians and researchers which conventional tests do
not provide. Following from this, the EGO could also serve as a tool for selecting
clients or subjects for specific therapeutic interventions.

East-West Questionnaire (EWQ; Gilgen & Cho, 1979a)

Cho and Gilgen (1980) state that “the EWQ [is] designed to reflect the basic monism
of [Eastern] thought and the dualism inherent in traditional Western philosophy and
religion” (p, 1093). Stated differently, the EWQ has been developed to ” … measure
traditional Eastern and Western perspectives on reality, ‘” man-in-the-world”
(Gilgen & Cho 1979a, p. 835), and belief systems (Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980).
“By Eastern is meant the basic assumptions common to Buddhism, Taoism, Confu-
cianism and Hinduism; and by Western, the Judeo-Christian and Greek underpin-
nings of European and American thought” (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a, p. 835).

According to Gilgen and Cho (1979a), the Eastern perspective is defined as a non-
dualistic view of reality which produces the following beliefs or assumptions:
humans are not separate from nature but are one with it; physical, mental and spiritual
realities are one; humans should recognize their essential unity with nature, mind and
spirit rather than expend energy analyzing, labelling, categorizing, manipulating, or
exploiting them; as a result of their oneness with the universe, humans should
experience a sense of comfort and belongingness in any place and with any person;
science and technology are not an effective means of improving the human condition;
“enlightenment” directly concerns achieving a sense of oneness with the universal;

200 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

enlightenment is a state where all dichotomies vanish; and, meditation is the principle
vehicle for achieving enlightenment.

The Western perspective, conversely, is defined by Gilgen and Cho (l979a) as a
dualistic view of reality which generates the following beliefs: humans have traits
which set them apart from nature and the spiritual; the human being is divided into a
body, a spirit and a mind; there exists a personal God who is above the realm of
humans and nature; humans must control and exploit nature to ensure their survival
and prosperity; rationality and analytic problem solving are valued and should be
emphasized; science and technology have provided beneficial things for humans and
will continue to do so in the future, and; competition and activity are seen as valuable
and should be reinforced.

The EWQ is a paper and pencil test that consists of 68 items (actually, 34 East-West
item pairs) which are rated by respondents on a five-point Likert scale for the degree
to which they agree with the content of the test items. The 34 pairs of items are
unequally divided among five categories: 1)man and the spiritual, 2) man and nature,
3) man and society, 4) man and himself, and 5) the rationality of man. Gilgen and Cho
(1979a) explain that East-West item pairs were constructed in order to “neutralize
response set” (p. 837).

In terms of scoring, Gilgen and Cho (1979a) state that “while the questionnaire can be
scored in a number of ways, the selected scoring procedure involves computing a
percentage Eastern thought score” (p. 839). They state that this score can be derived
using the following procedure: a) assign a weight of two to “strongly agree” re-
sponses and one to “agree but with some reservations” responses, b) compute scores
of agreement for the Eastern and Western statements, c) divide the Eastern agreement
score by the agreement score which is the sum all of the items and, d) multiply by 100.
Gilgen and Cho (1979a) contend that while their recommended scoring procedure
does not utilize all of the test data (e.g., 3, 4, and 5 responses are discarded), it is
advantageous in that it provides a score scale which ranges from 0 to 100. Generally,
when using tile above procedure, score elevations can be interpreted as reflecting the
extent to which belief systems of respondents which are more Eastern in nature.

The EWQ has demonstrated satisfactory reliability as reflected in a two-week test-
retest correlation of .76 (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a). Evidence has been provided which
supports the convergent and discriminant validity of the instrument (Gilgen & Cho,
1979b). For example, as the researchers expected, the EWQ was found to signifi-
cantly relate to the Consciousness I, II and III scales (Krus & Tellegen, 1975) and the
Zen Scale (Krus & Krus, 1978) (Gilgen & Cho, 1980). Moreover, the EWQ appears
to have excellent criterion validity as has been shown in its ability to differentiate
between groups of subjects known to vary in the “Easternness” in their thinking. The
EWQ has demonstrated such differences with Buddhists, transpersonalpsycholo-
gists, arts and business college students and business people (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a),
Korean and American college students and Korean Buddhists and Korean Christians
(Cho & Gilgen, 1980), and transpersonalpsychologists and middle management
business executives [Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980).It is important to note that some
sex differences have been observed on the EWQ (Gilgen & Cho, 1979b).

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 201

On the surface, the EWQ can be understood simply as a measure of some gross
differences in cultural world view as expressed in Eastern versus Western societies,
or, more exactly, the degree of Eastern or Western enculturation that a person has
experienced. Following from this, the EWQ can be severely criticized for relying on
highly reductionistic and impressionistic definitions of Eastern and Western world
views. However, in consideration that it is a measure of belief systems and not
transpersonal experience per se and given the existing research supporting the
validity of the measure, especially its ability to differentiate between subject popula-
tions of different cultures, religions and world views, it appears that the EWQ could
be effectively used in research involving heterogeneous subject populations in which
a plurality of cultures, religions and world views are represented. Moreover, the
EWQ may prove useful in applied research as both a screening tool to aid in the
assignment of subjects/therapists to various treatment conditions involving an East-
ern orientation (e.g., Eastern-influenced therapies and techniques versus traditional
Western-based psychotherapies) and as a measure of treatment outcome for subjects
who have undergone an Eastern-based therapy or technique (e.g., to determine if
there is an increase in Eastern or Western thought in individuals who experienced
Vipassana meditation versus conventional psychotherapies).

ParanormalBelieft Scale (PBS; Tobacyk& Milford, 1983)

The PBS is a self-report paper and pencil questionnaire which is designed to assess a
factor analytically derived multi-dimensional conception of paranormal beliefs.
Impetus for the construction of the PBS was derived from Tobacyk & Milford’s
(1983) perception that existing measures of paranormal beliefs are limited due to
their reliance on untested assumptions about the structure of paranormal beliefs (e.g.,
many measures of paranormal beliefs such as Randall & Desrosiers’ [1980] were
constructed under the assumption that belief in the paranormal is a unidimensional
construct without any empirical support for such an assumption). The test authors
surmised that “a more valid procedure in the construction of a paranormal belief-
assessment instrument might be first, to assess the structure of paranormal belief in a
sample and, second, to base the construction of an assessment instrument on the
paranormal belief structure obtained in that sample” (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983, p.
1030).

Based on this strategy, Tobaeyk and Milford devised an item pool of61 items which
they either borrowed from existing assessment instruments or constructed them-
selves. This item pool was assumed to be a comprehensive representation of the
content domain encompassed by the construct of paranormal beliefs. Thereafter,
these 61 items were administered to a sample of 391 university students who used a
five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1- “strongly disagree with this item” to 3-
“undecided or don’t know” to 5- “strongly agree with this item”) to rate the extent to
which they agreed with the content ofthe items. Following this, Tobacyk and Milford
(1983) subjected the item scores to a principal axis factor analysis (varimax rotation)
which resulted in the extraction of 13 factors. After examining the obtained factors
for interpretability and stability, seven were retained and used to form the basis of a
multidimensional definition of paranormal beliefs. In addition, items which produced

202 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No, 2

the highest loadings on these factors were kept and used to operationalize each
component of paranormal beliefs. In the end, a 25-item measure of paranormal
beliefs which consists of seven subscales was developed. The seven subscales consist
of the following: 1) Traditional Religious Belief (i.e., traditional Christian belief), 2)
Psi Beliefs (e.g., psychokinesis, mental telepathy), 3) Witchcraft (e.g., black magic,
voodoo, spells, witches), 4) Superstition, 5) Spiritualism (e.g., communication with
the dead, astral projection, reincarnation), 6) Extraordinary Life Forms (e.g., belief in
the existence of controversial life forms such as the Loch Ness monster, Big Foot and
the Abominable Snowman) and 7) Precognition (i.e., belief in predicting the future
through paranormal means). The first four subscales are made up of four items each
whereas the latter three subscales are made up of three items each. Respondents are
provided with a five-point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to 5-strongly
agree, to rate each item for the extent to which they agree that it embodies a belief
they have. PBS subscale and total scores are obtained by summing item responses.
The higher the score on a subscale or the total PBS, the more strongly the person holds
beliefs about the existence of paranormal phenomena.

The PBS and its subscales have been shown to have satisfactory reliability; the total
PBS obtained a four-week test-retest reliability of ,89 while the seven subscales
produced reliabilities ranging from .60 (for the Precognition subscale) to .84 (for Psi
Belief). Moreover, evidence of satisfactory validity has been provided. For example,
intercorrelations between the PBS subscales revealed that the seven components of
paranormal beliefs appear to be largely independent of each other. Also, convergent
and discriminant validity has been supported as suggested in the findings of expected
correlations between the PBS and its subscales and a measure of locus of control
(indicating that persons who have a more external locus of control tend to have
greater belief in the paranormal), a measure of death threat (interpreted as indicating
that individuals who score higher on Traditional Religious Belief tend to have less
fear of death), a measure of self-esteem and adjustment (indicating that most aspects
of paranormal beliefs are not related to level of adjustment; as hypothesized, Tradi-
tional Religious Beliefs significantly correlated with this measure suggesting that
people who score higher on this subscale show better self-esteem), a measure of
uncritical inference making (suggesting that Spiritualism is more associated with
uncritical inferences whereas Traditional Religious Beliefs are not), a dogmatism
scale (indicating that only Witchcraft is associated with a dogmatic orientation), and
a measure of irrational beliefs (indicating that Superstition and Spiritualism are
associated with irrational beliefs) (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). Finally, Tobacyk and
Milford (l983) found that females scored significantly higher on the PBS subscales
of Traditional Religious Beliefs and Precognition while males scored higher on the
Extraordinary Life Forms subscale; outside of these relationships, no other notable
sex differences were found.

The PBS has met with some measure of success as reflected in the number of
published studies using the scale (e.g., Davies, 1988; defsarbenza, Claribel & deVila,
1989; Gagne & McKelvie, 1990; Irwin, 1990; Tobacyk, 1984, 1985a, 1985b;
Tobacyk & Milford, 1984, 1988; Tobacyk, Milford, Springer & Tobacyk, 1988;
Tobacyk, Miller, Murphy & Mitchell, 1988; Tobacyk & Wilkinson, 1990; Williams,
Taylor & Hintze, 1989).

A Survey of Measures of TrarlspersonalConstructs 203

Tobacyk and Milford (1983), based on their findings, state that the PBS may be useful
in the study of the implications that paranormal beliefs have for “personality func-
Honing, especially that which concerns locus of control, death threat, self-concept,
inference making, dogmatism, and irrational beliefs” (p. W36). The PBS has been
included in this review because it seems to be a soundly constructed measure of
paranormal beliefs which may prove useful for investigations into the relationship
between belief systems and how people organize their experience (e.g., how do
people who have spiritual experiences or who have a spiritual orientation to life relate
to paranormal beliefs? Do they believe in out-of-body experiences, extra-sensory
perception and the like?).

It is noteworthy that a revised version of the PBS has been developed (PBS-R;
Tobaeyk, 1991). The PBS-R differs from the PBS in that it utilizes a seven-point
rating scale, is made up of 26 items, and contains revised items in the Precognition,
Witchcraft and Extraordinary Life Forms subscales, Tobacyk (1991) states that
“these improvements resulted in greater reliability [four-week test-retest reliability of
.92 for total PBS-R] and validity, less restriction of range, and greater cross-cultural
validity in Western cultures” (p. 2). (A copy of the PBS-R can be obtained by writing
Jerome J. Tobacyk, Box 10048 Behavioral Sciences, Louisiana Tech University,
Ruston, LA 71272). To date, we are only aware of two studies which utilize the PBS~
R. In the first, Tobacyk (1992) confirmedhis hypothesis that “relationships between
paranormalbeliefs and locus of control are moderated by both self-monitoring and
idealism” (p. 2). Second, Morneau, MacDonald, Holland and Holland (in press)
found significant relationships between the PES (reported above) and a measure of
complex partial epileptic signs. In both of these instances, the findings suggest that
the PBS-R may prove to be as effective as the PBS in research.

Assessment Schedulefor Altered States of Consciousness
(ASASC;van Quekelberghe,Altstotter-Gleich& Hertwick; 1991)

The ASASC is an rnultiscaledinstrument which was designed to serve as a compre-
hensive measure of altered states of consciousness (ASCs). The test authors state that
the development of the ASASC and its subscales was guided by various definitions
and taxonomies of ASCs including Tart’s (1975, 1977), Gowan’s (1978-1979) and
Fischer’s (1975). However, they cite Ludwig’s (1966) definition of ASC as being
most central to test construction. Ludwig (1966) defines ASCs as

any mental state(s), inducedby various physiological,psychological,or pharmacological
maneuversor agents,which can be recognizedsubjectivelyby the individualhimself(or by
an objectiveobserverof the individual)as representinga sufficientdeviationin subjective
experience or psychological functioning from certain general norms for that individual
during alert, waking consciousness(p. 226; taken from vanQuekelbergheet at, 1991, p.
377).

VanQuekelberghe et al, (1991) assert that their intent in creating the ASASC “was to
construct an instrument for assessing any altered-states experiences a person may
have had and is able to recall at the time of questionnaire administration” (p, 378-
379).

204 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

The ASASC is comprised of 325 items which are unequally divided into 14
subscales,Respondents are provided a five-point rating scale (O-not at all, 1- just a
little, 2- to some extent, 3- to a large extent and 4- completely) to rate the extent to
which the items apply to themselves and their own experiences and beliefs.
Vanquekelberghe et a1. assert that “the items were formulated carefully so that
respondents would not get the impression that such extraordinary experiences could
be viewed as psychopathologic” (p. 379). Moreover, they comment that each
subscale has its own instructions and thus can be administered independently of each
other.

The fourteen subscales of the test were devised based upon interview data with
experts in ASCs, literature reviews, and upon the nature of the items themselves.
These subscales consist of the following: 1) Personal data (22 items): this subscale
consists of questions which asks respondents to provide general demographic data
(e.g., sex, age, education) as well as information pertaining to their experiences with
any activities (e.g., psychotherapy, meditation) or substances (e.g., drugs) associated
with ASCs; 2) Extraordinary Mental Processes (22 items): “this subscale is used to
assess unusual trains of thought, strange ideas, or extraordinary experiences” (p.
380); 3) Parapsychology, own experiences (11 items): assesses the respondent’s
personal parapsychological experiences (e.g., precognition, telepathy); 4) Parapsy-
chology, own view (9 items): “in this subscale, the subject estimates the probability
of the occurrence of typical ESP” (p. 380); 5) Escterics (16 items): “the relatively
broad area of esoteric practices [e.g., ranging from everyday practices such as
horoscopes and superstitions to spiritual healing and participating in seances] and
‘supersensory perception’ are covered in this subscale’ (p. 380); 6) Positive Mystic
Experiences (40 items): this subscale measures ecstatic states of consciousness akin
to peak experiences; 7) Negative Mystic Experiences (40 items): this subscale is
designed to assess intense negative experiences “such as those that may be encoun-
tered on a bad trip. Fear of dying, fear of disintegrating or losing control over oneself
or feeling surrounded by ‘evil forces’ are a selection of the topics covered … ”
(vanQuekelberghe et al, 1991, p. 380); 8) Imagination (18 items): assesses imagina-
tion and visualization ability; 9) Dreams (44 items): this subscale taps two areas; ” …
the extent to which the subject is preoccupied with his/her dreams and . . . the
occurrence of different types of dreams (e.g., lucid dreams, nightmares, dreaming of
paradise, etc.)” (vanQuekelberghe et al., 1991, p. 381); 10) Dissociation (23 items):
“this subscale assesses information pertaining to the intensity of experiences of the
trance or hypnotic type, as well as tendencies toward dissociation. Deep concentra-
tion, comparable to inner contemplation, as well as suggestibility, are important
aspects of this subscale” (p. 381); 11) Hallucinations (15 items): concerns “hallucina-
tory images and mental processes resembling megalomaniac ideas and delusions of
being influenced by alien forces” (p. 381); 12) Hypersensitiveness (12 items): “this
subscale covers two areas synesthetic experiences and abilities, such as perceiving
the notes of a tune in colors [and] perceptual sensations of an extreme nature and
heightened body sensitivity” (p. 381); 13) Changed Feeling of Time and Space (23
items): this subscale assesses altered body sensations and perception of time as well
as the perception of object transformation; and 14) Change (30 items): this subseale
assesses the long-term effects of experiences (positive and negative ones) on personal
development.

A Surveyof Measuresof Transpersonal Constructs 205

The ASASC has been shown to have good reliability with the fourteen subscales
producing alpha coefficients ranging from .80 to .98 and Guttman split-half coeffi-
cients ranging from .81 to .96. The validity of the measure also appears to be
satisfactory; vanQueketberghe et al. (1991) obtained favorable factor analytic results
suggesting that each subscale “seemed to fit to the experiential area for which the
items were constructed” (p. 386). Moreover, no age, education or religious denomi-
national effects were found to effect ASASC subscale scores. However, some sex
differences were observed; women were found to score higher on three subscales
(Parapsychology, own experiences, Parapsychology, own view and Dreams). In
addition, individuals actively practicing their religion obtained significantly greater
scores on three subscales (Parapsychology, own view, Esoterics and Dissociation).

Additional analyses completed on the ASASC which support its validity include the
following; Intercorrelations of subscale scores reveal correlations ranging from .40 to
.82; analysis of ASASC subscale scores pertaining to personal experiences through
nonmetric multidimensional scaling produced an orthogonal two dimensional solu-
tion. The first dimension is described as supersensory experiences/ecstasy whereas
the second is said to embody imagination/existential experiences/spirituality. Finally,
the subscale scores have been used to devise distinct profile types for specific groups
of individuals including those who have had extensive drug experiences, persons who
engage in esoteric practices and people suffering from schizophrenia, major depres-
sion and heroine addition (vanQuekelberghe et al., 1991).

The ASASC is an ambitious and unique instrument in its attempt to be a comprehen-
sive measure of altered states of consciousness. Given the evidence in favor of its
validity and reliability, the ASASC appears to hold much promise for use in research
concerning the occurrence and subjective nature of non-ordinary experiences. Even
though the entire measure is somewhat long, vanQuekelberghe et at. (1991) empha-
size that testing time can be minimized by administering only those subscales which
are needed in a specific study. Furthermore, they mention that a 100-item short form
of the ASASC is available (no validity or reliability data is presented). Despite this,
knowledge regarding the instrument’s construct validity, especially convergent and
discriminant validity, and its empirical relationship to other measures of theoretically
similar and dissimilar constructs is completely absent. Thus, the instrument should be
used with caution until additional psychometric research is completed.

Integration Inventory (II; Ruffing-Rahal, 1991)

The II is an instrument designed to assess well-being or, more specifically, well-
being integration in older persons. The measure was developed to address the need
“for validated instruments in clinical practice to facilitate the appraisal and tracking
of well ness in holistic, experiential and personalized tenus” (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991, p.
10).

Based upon a grounded theory analysis of several interviews with older adults
deemed to exhibit well-being, Ruffing.Rahal devised a conception of wellness that
consists of three core themes labelled Activity, Affirmation and Synthesis which she
describes as follows:

206 The Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

· .. Activityaddressedthe individual’s selectionand structuringof meaning-investedrealms
of activity in everyday life (physical,psychological,spiritual, intellectual),as well as the
capabilityto successfullyperformthem. The secondcore theme.Affirmation,relatedto the
individual’s perception of a continuity of life meaning, past and ongoing, and expressed
specifically in such positive assertions as satisfaction, hopefulness, and religiosity. The
third core theme, Synthesis, referred to the individual’s reconciliation of painful life
experiences and resilient capacity to incorporate and unify the full diversity of past
experienceinto an individualframeworkof meaning(p. 11)

Ruffing-Rahal (1991) adds that her model of well-being seems to be consistent with
the Jungian notion of individuation (i.e., the consciousness differentiation and inte-
gration of aspects of the psyche or personality into itself); “accordingly, integration
connotes the attainment of well-being in terms of the meaningfulness of daily life” (p.
11).

After devising her model of well-being, Ruffing-Rahal constructed an initial item
pool of forty items from the transcripts from the aforementioned interviews. She
reports that the forty items were revised and refined based upon four years of clinical
work and community health research to establish their content and face validity.
Following this, the forty refined items were reviewed by eight gerontology and
community health experts for their relevance in the assessment of well-being. All the
items were judged as having representative content.

The II is a 37-item measure which utilizes a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1-
strongly disagree to 6- strongly agree. Ruffing-Rahal states that half of the items are
negatively phrased as a strategy to minimize the effects of response bias. Moreover,
she indicates that the Likert scale was designed without a neutral response option in
order to evade “any tendency to influence response patterns” (p. 13). Though the II
could be group administered, Ruffing-Rahal states that the measure can be completed
in a personal interview in about twenty minutes. The II is scored by reversing the
responses on negatively phrased items and summing the item responses.

The reliability of the II has been shown to be satisfactory as reflected in an internal
consistency (alpha) coefficient of .91 (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991). The content validity of
the instrument was established through the refinement and review process discussed
above. The construct validity (actually convergent validity) of the instrument was
evaluated by examining its relationship to two measures of theoretically related
constructs, namely the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (POeMS;
Lawton, 1972, 1975) and the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS; Paloutzian &
Ellison, 1982), using a sample of older adults (mean age= 77 years). Ruffing-Rahal
obtained significant correlations between the II and the total and subscale scores of
both the PGeMS and the SWBS (total SWBS: r= .52, p<.OOOI; Religious Well-Being scale: r= .31, p<.OOOl; Existential Well-Being: r= .73, p<.OOOl). Lastly, subject ratings of their own well-being in the areas of health, comparison with others, satisfaction with life and happiness, all produced significant correlations with the II, providing further evidence for the validity of the instrument.

The II appears to be a potentially useful instrument for the assessment of well-being
from a developmental perspective. Though the instrument has been designed to

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 207

assess well-being integration in older populations and has been validated as such, it
seems that it may lend itself for use with populations of varying ages. However, given
that the II has not been empirically validated or systematically utilized with younger
persons, researchers should be cautious in their interpretation of II scores obtained
from such populations. Research investigating the relationship of age to II scores
would prove valuable ill establishing the external validity of the measure. In addition,
further work on the validity of the II, especially in terms of factorial validity needs to
be examined before strong confidence in the measure can be had. Despite this, the II
may be useful for “tracking health and wellness interventions [such as meditation or
psychotherapy] on an interview or self-administered basis” (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991, p.
13). The II might also be used to generate unique insights into the relationship of
well-being to transpersonal experience.

BoundaryQuestionnaire(BQ;Hartmann,1991)

The BQ is a measure of the thinness or thickness of boundaries. The development of
the BQ was precipitated by Hartmann’s research and clinical work on nightmares,
dreaming and sleep disorders. In particular, Hartmann devised a theory of personality
boundaries through interview and projective test (primarily Rorschach) data obtained
from hundreds of research participants and clients seeking treatment for sleep
disorders. Hartmann contends that his concept of boundaries, though not necessarily
a new one, allows for an explanation of behavior which has not been adequately
captured by personality theories to date (e.g., individual differences in ego strength,
consistency of use of defense mechanisms, perception of self, other, and environ-
ment, ability to experience non-ordinary states of consciousness, prevalence of
psychopathology and the like; the reader is referred to Hartmann, 1991 for a more
detailed discussion). Though he applauds his qualitative approach to the study of
boundaries as being valid and insightful, he reasoned that information on boundaries
could bemore simply obtained through the use of a standardized questionnaire.

In general, boundaries can be understood as the psychological area which separates
one component or dimension of the psyche from another andlor from the external
world. Stated differently, boundaries refer “broadly to the degree of connection or
separation between any two entities, processes or functions in the mind” (Hartmann,
1991, p. 233). The specific types of boundaries which Hartmann (1991) has concep-
tualized are operationalized in a 145-item questionnaire. There are twelve categories
of boundaries that are included in the BQ. These consist of the following: 1) Sleep/
Wake/Dream (12 items) (e.g., “when I awake in the morning, I am not sure whether
I am really awake for a few minutes”; Hartmann, 1991, p. 58); 2) Unusual Experi-
ences (19 items) (e.g., “I have had deja vu experiences”; p. 59); 3) Thoughts,
Feelings, Moods (16 items) (e.g., “Sometimes I don’t now whether I am thinking or
feeling”; p. 59); 4) Childhood, Adolescence, Adulthood (6 items) (e.g., “I am very
close to my childhood feelings’; p. 59); 5) Interpersonal (15 items) (e.g., When I get
involved with someone, we sometimes get too close”; p. 59); 6) Sensitivity (5 items)
(e.g., “I am very sensitive to other people’s feelings”; p. 59); 7) Neat, Exact, Precise
(11 items) (e.g., “I keep my desk or worktable neat and well organized”; p, 59); 8)
Edges, Lines, Clothing (20 items) (e.g., “I like houses with flexible spaces, where you
can shift things around and make different uses of the same rooms”; p. 59); 9)

208 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Opinions about Children and Others (8 items) (e.g., “I think a good teacher must
remain in part a child”; p, 59); 10) Opinions about Organizations (10 items) (e.g., “In
an organization, everyone should have a definite place and a specific role”; p. 60); 11)
Opinions about People, Nations, Groups (14 items) (e.g., “There arc no sharp
dividing lines between normal people, people with problems, and people who are
considered psychotic or crazy”; p. 60); and 12) Opinions about Beauty, Truth (7
items) (e.g.• “Either you are telling the truth or you are lying; that’s all there is to it”;
p. 60). Hartmann asserts that the items within each category are designed to “cover as
wide a range as possible” (p. 60). In addition, he indicates that about two-thirds of the
items are worded so as to measure thinness of boundaries while the remaining third
are worded in the reverse (i.e., to assess for thickness of boundaries).

In order to complete the BQ, respondents are provided a five-point scale ranging from
o(no, not at all or not at all true of me) to 4 (yes, definitely or definitely true of me) to
rate the extent to which they agree with each item (or find the item to be descriptive
of themselves). Scoring is completed by reversing the response scores for the items
assessing boundary thickness (i.e., 0=4, 1=3,2=2, 3=1 and 4=0) and summing the
item responses. Scores are obtained for each of the 12 boundary categories. As well,
the first eight categories above are summed to obtain a Personal Total score, the latter
four categories are summed to obtain a World Total score and all categories are
summed to generate a total boundary score (called SumBound). For all categories and
total scores, scores can be interpreted as measures of boundary thinness such that the
greater the score, the thinner the boundaries.

Hartmann (1991) reports that a preliminary version of the BQ was revised based upon
detailed comments obtained from thirty colleagues and students who completed the
questionnaire. Thereafter, the measure was administered to over 800 individuals and
correlations of items to SumBound scores were calculated. Hartmann found that most
of the items con-elated well with the total boundary score. However, seven of the
items were found not to con-elate adequately. Consequently, when he completed an
analysis of the psychometric properties of the BQ, he decided to not include these
items. Thus, all reliability and validity data are based upon 138 items.

The reliability of the BQ has been found to be good, as reflected in an internal
consistency coefficient (alpha) of .93 (Hartmann, 1991). The validity of the instru-
ment has also been examined and favorable evidence provided. For instance, a
principal components analysis of BQ item scores resulted in the extraction of a 13-
factor solution of which the first twelve appeared to support Hartmann’s concep-
tion of boundaries. Moreover, Hartmann (1991) found that the criterion validity of
the BQ is satisfactory; the BQ successfully differentiated between groups of in-
dividuals known to vary in the thinness of their boundaries (e.g., artists vs. naval
officers). Further evidence of criterion validity has been provided by Celenza
(1986) who hypothesized and found that individuals diagnosed with borderline
personality disorder demonstrate thinner boundaries as assessed by the BQ and by
Levin (1986) who found that nightmare sufferers had notably thinner boundaries
than individuals not experiencing such problems. Hartmann notes that some age
and sex differences have been observed with the BQ such that women scored
slightly thinner on a consistent basis whereas older subjects scored thicker than
younger respondents.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 209

In addition to the above psychometric support for the BQ, several investigations
have been undertaken which look at the relationship of the instrument to other
measures including the MMPI validity and basic clinical scales (Hartmann, 1991),
special index scores measuring boundaries on the Rorschach and instruments assess-
ing schizotypal personality (Adair, 1990; Levin, 1986), measures of hypnotizability
such as the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, the

Absorption Scale

and the Field Inventory (Barrett, 1989) and instruments designed to assess the
maintenance of emotional distance and defense against affect (Celenza, 1986). This
research suggests that the BQ is assessing constructs which a) seem to be largely
independent of existing measures of personality, neuroticism and gross psychopa-
thology but associated with some personality disorders such as borderline and
schizotypal personality, b) are related to a measure of boundary deficit on the
Rorschach, c) are significantly correlated with a person’s degree of hypnotic suscep-
tibility (with the strongest relationship produced with the Absorption scale, r= .54,
p<.OOl), and d) are negatively related to measures of defense against affect and emotional distance such that thicker boundaries are associated with greater emo- tional distance from others and greater defense against strong emotionality. Further- more, Hartmann (1991) reports the results of a study looking at the relationship of BQ scores to performance on a neuropsychological test battery; as expected, persons with thick boundaries approached problems in a systematic manner but demon- strated little variability or flexibility in their approach, whereas individuals with thin boundaries were less systematic but more flexible and adaptable in their approach to problem solving. Lastly, the BQ has been successfully used in investigations exam- ining the relationship of boundary thinness to autonomic nervous system arousal, the frequency of dreaming, and to a variety of sleep disorders (the reader is referred to Hartmann [1991J for his discussion of this research).

The BQ appears to be an instrument which has tremendous potential for deepening
our understanding of the role of boundaries on virtually all aspects of human
functioning, including the transpersonal dimensions. Outside of the studies men-
tioned above, the BQ has been used in research on dreaming (both lucid and
nightmare) and creativity (Galvin, 1990; Hartmann, 1989; Levin, Galin & Zywiak,
1991), areas of which have drawn attention in the transpersonal area. Additional
applications of the BQ include use in research examining the relationship of bound-
ary thinness to the occurrence of transpersonal experiences and non-ordinary states of
consciousness and, conversely, in investigations on the impact of such experiences on
an individual’s boundaries.

PersonalPhilosophyInventory (PPI;Persinger & Makarec, 1987, 1993)

The PPJ is an instrument which is designed to assess the presence of behaviors
generally associated with anomalous temporal lobe activity as found in temporal lobe
epilepsy (i.e., temporal lobe signs). The main impetus behind the construction of the
measure was to “study the existence of temporal lobe signs within the normal
population” (Persinger & Makarec, 1987, p. 181), in order to explore the hypothesis
(Persinger, 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Persinger & Valliant, 1985) that anomalous transient
electrical foci in the temporal lobe structures (most notably the amygdaloid and
hippocampal structures) which has come to be associated with conditions, beliefs and

210 The Journal oj TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

states of consciousnesssuch as glossolalia,peak experiences,paranormalbeliefs and
experiences,and temporal lobe epilepsy/psychosis(e.g., Mahl, Rothenberg,Delgado
& Hamlin, 1964;Makarec & Persinger, 1985, 1990;Neppe, 1983;Persinger, 1984b;
Persinger& Valliant, 1985),is a normally occurringphenomenonwhich differs in its
pathological (e.g., temporal lobe epilepsy) and nonpathologicalmanifestations only
in terms of its frequency,duration and intensity.

The PPI is an instrument consisting of 140 yes/no items. Persinger and Makarec
(1987) report that “in addition to a variety of control and informationstatements, it
contains items that were designed as less intense equivalents of the most frequent
experiences of behaviors that are reported by patients who were diagnosed with
complex partial epilepsy. Many of the signs are also reported by patients during
[direct] electrical stimulation [of the temporal lobe]” (p. 181). Twenty items ask for
information which the test constructors reasoned may be relevant to temporal lobe
functioning (e.g., church attendance, hand preference). Persinger and Makarec
(1993) state “there are two items per theme to check consistency” (p. 36). Thirty
items are described as assessing beliefs that range from “exotic beliefs to extreme
religious opinions, egotistical references and fear” (Persinger & Makarec, 1993, p.
36). Fourteen items of the PPJ are used to make up a control or “mundane experi-
ences” scale which is included “to control for ‘yes’ responding” (Persinger &
Makarec, 1993,p. 36). Also, an admission scale which containsnine MMPI Lie scale
items is incorporated to identify “silly” responders. Lastly and most importantly,
fifty-six items comprise the Total Temporal Lobe Signs (TILS) scale. The TTLS
scale is broken down into several subclusters including Complex-PartialEpileptic-
Like Signs (CPELS), Interictal-Like Behaviors (ILB) and Temporal-LobeRelevant
(TLR) indicators. Persinger and Makarec (1993) describe these item subclusters as
follows:

The CPELS items refer to experiences that are very similar or analogous to those most
frequently reported by patients during limbic seizures, while ILB items refer to behaviors
that are similar to those reported by patients when (scalp) EEG- detectable seizures are not
occurring although interictal spikes may be visible. The TLR indicators compose a cluster
of items that are similar to behaviors that traditionally have been associated with temporal
lobe epilepsy (p. 37).

The various PPJ subscale scores are calculated as a percentage of yes responses, a
procedure which involves summing the number of yes responses for each subscale,
dividingthe sum by the number of items belongingto the subscale and multiplyingby
100.

The reliability of the TTLS scale and its componentitem subclustershas been shown
to be satisfactoryas suggestedin test-retestcorrelationsof .90, .85 and. 70 for IO-day.
Zl-day and IOO-dayretest intervals, respectively. The control subscale has also
generated comparable test-retest correlations over the 10- and IDO-dayretest inter-
vals (Persinger & Makarec, 1987). In addition, the TTLS subscales have produced
inter-item reliability coefficients(alpha) of about. 70 (Persinger & Makarec, 1993).

The criterion validity of the PPJ has been shown to be adequate. Makarec and
Persinger(1985, 1990)obtainedcorrelationsof moderate strengthbetween scores on

A Survey ofMeasures of TranspersonalConstructs 211

temporal lobe item clusters and religious beliefs and specific electric patterns in the
temporal lobes, but not the occipital lobes, ofa sample of normal subjects. Moreover,
the TTLS subscale clusters, especially CPELS, has been successfully used to differ-
entiate between groups known to differ ill the frequency, intensity and duration of
transient temporal lobe activity they experience (i.e., groups known to vary in the
extent to which they report experiencing temporal lobe signs; e.g., temporal lobe
epileptics, meditators, artists, and persons reporting paranormal and religious experi-
ences; Morneau et al., in press; Persinger, 1984a, 1984b, 19840, 1993; Persinger &
Makarec, 1993). As well, Persinger and Makarec (1993) state that they have observed
consistent CPELS score elevations in “patients referred for mild to moderate anxiety,
depression and career (self-identity) crisis … ” (p. 34). Evidence for the factorial
validity of the PPI has been much more equivocal but is still supportive of the
instrument; Persinger (1984c) factor analyzed the TTLS and control cluster items and
produced a two factor solutions (TILS items loaded on the first factor; control items
loaded on the second factor). Conversely, Persinger & Makarec (1993) obtained four
factor solutions for men and women separately when they factor analyzed the 56
TTLS items (which they labelled Sensory Enhancement, Affective-Dissociation,
Ego-alien Intrusion and Literary Interests).

The PPI has been used to examine the relationship of temporal lobe signs and a
variety of psychological constructs in norma) individuals (with normality being
defined by MMPI criteria). Persinger and Makarec (1993) assert that

normal volunteers … who display elevated CPELS are also significantlymore: (1)
suggestible(Ross & Persinger, 1987) accordingto Spiegel’s (Spiegel & Spiegel, 1978)
HypnoticInductionProfile;(2) subjectto dissociativestates(Richards& Persinger,199I);
(3) prone to subjectiveparanormalexperiencesand beliefs (Persinger& Valliant, 1985);
and (4) likely to endorse multiple childhood fantasies and imaginingsaccordingto the
Wilson-Barberscale (1978) (p, 34).

Persinger and Makarec (1993) add that the notable relationship between the CPELS
and imagination, fantasy and suggestibility, factors which have been proposed as
facilitating therapeutic interventions (e.g., Rossi, 1986), suggest that the instrument
may be useful in clinical settings.

The PPI is a distinctive instrument which has served Persinger and his colleagues
well in providing evidence in support of their continuum model of temporal lobe
functioning (Persinger & Makarec, 1993). Even though the measure is based on a
highly reductionistic view of numerous experiential states and behaviors (i.e., that
experiences such as mystical, religious and paranormal experiences as well as
temporal lobe epilepsy arc a function of the same type of transient brain activity), it
nonetheless appears to lend itself for use in transpersonally oriented research. For
instance, the PPI could be used to in exploratory research to examine the relationship
between types of transpersonal experiences and temporal lobe functioning.

Holistic Living Inventory (HLl; Stoudenmire, Batman, Pavlov & Temple, 1985)

The HLIwas constructed in an attempt to eliminate the lack of clarity that the notion
of holistic living (i.e., holism), was receiving in the literature during the 1970s and

212 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

1980s. According to Stoudenmire et al, (1985), the HLI delineates specific dimen-
sions of holistic living which are defined in operational terms. On the HLI, the
assessment of holistic living is grounded on behaviors which are seen as leading to
optimal functioning. The inventory focuses on reported behaviors and not on
thoughts or feelings of people nor on what they think or feeL This was done under the
assumption that, “if people engage often enough and accurately enough in the
relevant activities, sooner or later they will achieve their desired ends” (Stoudenmire
et al., 1985, p. 303).

The authors of the HLI selected four components or dimensions of holistic living
which are in accord with the conceptions of holism held by such groups as the
American Holistic Medical Association and the Institute of Religion and Health.
These dimensions, and the definitions of optimal functioning which apply to each of
them, are as follows:

a) physical dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of physical
fitness through responsible exercise and weight control, temperate use of non-nutritive
substances, and the regular monitoring and regulation of the physical functioning; b)
emotional dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of emotional
satisfaction through responsible pleasure seeking in all areas of people, places and things
including attention to sexuality; the avoidance and/or early remediation of unpleasant
emotions such as anger, depression and anxiety; c) mental dimension: optimal functioning
is defined as the enhancement of mental development through pursuits of reason and
knowledge, the cultivation and depreciation [sic] of aesthetics and the avoidance andlor
remediation of any irrational attitudes about the nature of mankind; d) spiritual dimension:
optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of spiritual “oneness” with whatever a
person considers to be higher than himself as an individual through the use of reason,
experience and intuition; the ongoing development of and the adherence to a responsible
ethical system (Stoudenmire et al., 1985, p. 303-304).

The HLI has eighty multiple choice items, twenty for each of the four dimensions.
Each item has five choices ranging from the least optimal (A), to the most optimal
(E). Scoring for each item is one point for A, two points for B, three for C, four for D
and five for E. Scores consist of the item sums for each of the four dimensions. The
higher a score is on a given dimension, the more optimal a respondent is functioning
on that dimension.

Research exploring the psychometric characteristics of the HLI has shown that the
inventory has adequate reliability as indicated in Spearman-Brown split-half reli-
abilities ranging from .72 for the emotional dimension to .91 for the mental dimen-
sion (Stoudenmire et al., 1985). Satisfactory validity (including a demonstrated
ability to differentiate between known groups) for each of the four dimensions has
also been shown (Stoudenmire et al., 1985; Stoudenmire, Batman, Pavlov & Temple,
1986), though a significant relationship between the mental and spiritual dimensions
has been observed (r= .33, p< .01; Stoudenmire et al., 1985). Also, a significant age effect has been found on the spiritual dimension indicating that older persons (e.g., forty years and over) report engaging in more optimal spiritual behaviors than do younger persons (Stoudenmire et al., 1985).

The HLI has been used effectively in research as a tool for assessing treatment
improvement in forty-five personality disordered residents of a six-week alcohol

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 213

treatment program (Stoudenmire, Stevens & Cumbest, 1989). In addition, the items
of the HLI have been successfully used as a basis for developing a repertoire of
positive modelling behaviors for disturbed children (Stoudenmire, Temple, Pavlov &
Batman, 1988).

HLI is unique among the measures reported in this paper in that it is the only one
which assesses four recognized aspects of well-being, including the spiritual. This
should make the HLI a particularly appealing test since a researcher interested in the
relationship between spirituality and mental or physical health, for example, would
only have to administer the HLI instead of using a battery of measures, thereby saving
time while also assessing a wide range of constructs. In terms of applications to
transpersonal research topics, the HLI could be used to assess the relative impact of
psychotherapy (i.e., the differential effects of various therapies, including medita-
tion) or spiritual experience, on people’s level of functioning. The HLI may also be
used to show differential change in areas of optimal functioning in clients across
different therapeutic modalities (e.g., bioenergetics versus mindfulness meditation).

Death Transcendence Scale (DTS; Hood & Morris, 1983)

The DTS was constructed to assess a conception of death transcendence devised by
Hood and Morris (1983) which, in turn, is based on the work of Lifton (Lifton, 1976,
1979; Lifton & Olson, 1974). The primary motivation behind the construction of the
instrument was the perception of Hood and Morris that empirical work on death has
been hindered by a lack of an organizing principle or theory which lends itself to
fruitful scientific investigation. At that time, death research, especially those areas
focusing on attitudes toward death, appeared “to be influenced, directly or indirectly,
from denial theories that postulate a universal ‘death anxiety'” (Hood & Morris,
1983. p. 355), which continued to dominate the area “despite repeated failures of
investigators to identify such manifest concerns across diverse samples using a wide
variety of measures” (Hood & Morris, 1983, p. 355; Kastenbaum & Costa, 1977).
Hood and Morris wanted to devise a theory and empirical assessment tool which
allowed for a cognitive as opposed to attitudinal approach to the study of death and
death transcendence. The DTS is a 23-item paper and pencil measure which
operationalizes Lifton’s five modes of death transcendence. Four of these modes are
described by Hood and Morris (1983) as being primarily cognitive (i.e., beliefs) while
the fifth is said to be an experiential/mystical mode. The test constructors add that
“the experiential basis of the mystical mode in conjunction with one or more of the
basic cognitive modes gives it a special status in which death transcendence is
‘experienced’ and not merely ‘believed'” (Hood & Morris, 1983, p. 357). Altema-
tively, Hood and Morris (1983, p. 357) describe the cognitive modes as follows:

The four basic cognitive modes are biosocial, creative, religious and the nature modes. Each
of these modes provides symbols and meanings for a cognitive confrontation with and
hence transcendence of death. For instance, in the biosocial mode, we perceive ourselves to
be part of our children, family and other groups, and this provides a continuity to our lives
despite our own personal death. Similarly, the creative mode includes work and projects
with which one identifies, and this too provides continuities transcending the individual life.
The religious mode includes specific religious traditions that provide cognitively meaning-

214 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

ful orientations to death. . .. The nature mode involves an identification with natural
processesthat transcendthe particularindividual.

Items were writtento assess each of Lifton’s cognitivemodes of death transcendence
(i.e., nature,biosocial,religiousand creative)as well as his fifth experientialmode of
mysticism.The mysticismitems were taken from the factor assessinggeneralmysti-
cism on Hood’s (1975) M-Scale.Item responsesare providedon a four-pointLikert
scale ranging from I-strongly disagree to 4-strongly agree. Vandecreek and Nye
(1993) state that “scores on each subscaledescribethe level of investmentattributed
to them by the respondent”(p. 279).

Using a sampleof 587 people, Hood and Morris (1983) examinedthe reliabilityand
factorial validity of the DTS and found adequate support for both. In terms of
reliability, they obtained coefficientalphas ranging from .53 (nature mode) to .75
(religious mode) (average alpha= .62). Alternatively, the results of a principal
components analysis (using a quartimax rotation) produced a five-factor solution
which correspondsto each of the modes of death transcendence.In addition to the
above, Hood and Morris (1983) investigatedthe relationshipof the five subscalesof
the DTS to measuresof relatedconstructsincluding Spilka’s (Spilka, Stout, Minton
& Sizemore, 1977)Fear of Death and Death Perspectivescales and the measure of
intrinsicand extrinsicreligiositycreated by Allport and Ross (1967).In all cases, the
expected relationships were found (e.g., Intrinsic religiosity positively correlated
with the Religious, Mysticism and Biosocial subscales and negatively with the
Creative and Nature scales; Extrinsic religiosity correlated significantly with the
Creative, Nature and Biosocial subscales but not the Religious and Mysticism
modes).

In a follow-upstudy, Vandecreekand Nye (1993) administeredthe DTS (with three
itemsthey constructedwhichwere addedto the Biosocialscale)to two differentadult
samples for the purpose of complementingHood and Morris’ (1983) work with
college students.With the first sample,which consistedof 166subjects,Vandecreek
and Nye (1993) performed a principal components analysis using a quartimax
rotationto determineif the factor structureof the DTS was robust. An initial analysis
resultedin the extractionof eight factors,the last three of which were determinedto
be insubstantial(only two items loaded on each). Thereafter,the researchersreana-
lyzed the DTS item scoresusing a five-factorsolution.However,they foundthat only
the first three factorswere replicationsof those obtainedby Hood and Morris (1983);
the itemsbelongingto the Natureand Biosocialsubscalestendedto load on morethan
one factor.In addition,Vandecreekand Nye (1993)calculatedinter-itemconsistency
coefficients for the DTS scales and obtained Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .55
(Nature) to .84 (Mystical). The mean alpha was .79. Using a second sample of
consistingof 132individualsfroma tertiarycare hospitaland 141familymembersin
a surgery waiting room, Vandecreek and Nye (1993) performed a second factor
analysisusing the same proceduresand obtained a five-factorsolutionmore akin to
Hood and Morris (1983). Coefficient alphas were again calculated for the five
subscales(withthe threenew Biosocialitems being includedin the analysis).Alphas
ranged from .51 for theNaturemode to .79 for the Religiousmode(mean alpha=”.74).
Vandecreekand Nyc concludedthat the Religious,Mysticaland Creative subscales
appear to be reliable whereas the Biosocial and Nature modes are more fluid.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 215

Furthermore, they noted that subjects had difficulties understanding the mystical
subscale items (especially the negatively phrased ones). Consequently, many sub-
jects did not respond to these items. Alternatively, Vandecreekand Nye observed that
the subjects who did complete the mystical subscale items tended to obtain higher
mean scores on the DTS subscales, a finding interpreted by them as suggesting that
when “mystical experiences occur, they have a lasting effect that creates a strong
sense of death transcendence” (Vandecreek& Nye, 1993, p. 283).

TIle DTS is a relatively interesting measure in its claim on measuring a multifaceted
cognitive conception of death transcendence. Following from this, the instrument
seems to hold some potential for research focusing on such areas as death-perceptions
and near death experiences. However, the evidence in favor of the reliability and
validity of the measure appears to be equivocal at best. Thus, until additional
psychometric work is done on the scale, investigators should be cautious of their
interpretations of DTS subscale scores, especially those scores involving the Nature
and Biosocial modes.

Temperamentand CharacterInventory
(Tel; Cloninger,Svrakic & Przybeck;1993)

The TCl is an instrument designed to assess a seven-factor psychobiological model of
personality developed by Cloninger and his colleagues (e.g., Cloninger, 1987;
Cloninger, Svrakic & Przybeck, 1993).

This instrument, and the model of personality it is designed to operationalize, first
took the form of a three-factor model of temperament which was assessed with a 100-
item measure called the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ; Cloninger,
Svrakic & Przybeck, 1991). However, based upon the observed limitations of the
three-factor model (e.g., Cloninger, Sigvardsson & Bohman, 1988; Sigvardsson,
Bohman & Cloninger, 1987; Waller, Lilienfeld, Tellegen & Lykken, 1991), a more
comprehensive seven-factor model has been developed which “supersedes models
with fewer factors and is formulatedto allow differential diagnosis of personality
disorder subtypes from one another and from other psychiatric disorders” (Cloninger
et a1., 1993, p. 976).

The TCI is a 226 true-false item paper and pencil self-report inventory which
operationalizes the seven-factor model, Included amongst these items are 107 items
from the TPQ which are used to measure the four temperament dimensions of
Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence and Persistence. Moreover,
developed from an initial item pool of 195 items, the TCI includes 119 items used to
operationalize the three character dimensions of Self-directedness, Cooperativeness
and Self-Transcendence. (Note that the temperament dimensions are generally de-
scribed as biologically based components of personality which are said to be “inde-
pendently heritable, manifest early in life and involve preconceptual biases in percep-
tual memory and habit formation” [Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 975]. Conversely, the
character dimensions are consciously learned components of personality which
“mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight
learning about self-concepts” [Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 975]). All of the TCI

216 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

dimensions except Persistence (which was originally thought of as a component of
Reward Dependence and is defined as a temperament factor which is a heritable bias
that involves persistence despite frustration and fatigue), are comprised of several
subscales, Basic descriptions of the remaining six general personality dimensions
along with their component subscalesare as follows:

1) Novelty Seeking: This temperament dimension “is viewed as a heritable bias in the
activation or initiation of behaviors such as frequent exploratory activity in response
to novelty, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to cues of reward,
and quick loss of temper and active avoidance of frustration” (Cloninger et al., 1993,
p. 977). It is made up offour subscaleslabelled Exploratory Excitability vs. Rigidity,
Impulsiveness vs, Reflection, Extravagance vs. Reserve, and Disorderliness vs.
Regimentation; 2) Harm Avoidance: “is viewed as a heritable bias in the inhibition or
cessation of behaviors, such as pessimistic worry in anticipation of future problems,
passive avoidant behaviors such as fear of uncertainty and shyness of strangers, and
rapid fatigability” (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977). There are four subscales labelled
Anticipatory Worry vs. Optimism, Fear of Uncertainty vs. Confidence, Shyness vs.
Gregariousness, and Fatigability and Asthenia vs, Vigor; 3) Reward Dependence:
This temperament factor is conceived of as “a heritable bias in the maintenance or
continuation of ongoing behaviors, and is manifest as sentimentality, social attach-
ment, and dependence on approval of others” (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977). This
dimension is made up of three subscales called Sentimentality vs. Insensitivity,
Attachment vs. Detachment and Dependence vs. Independence; 4) Self-Directed-
ness: This is a character dimension which “refers to self-determination and ‘will-
power’ , or the ability of an individual to control, regulate, and adapt behavior to fit the
situation in accord with individually chosen goals and values” (Cloninger et al., 1993,
p, 979). This factor is comprised of five components labelled Responsibility vs.
Blaming, Purposeful vs, Goal-Undirected, Resourcefulness vs. Apathy, Self-Accep-
tance vs. Self-Striving and Congruent Second Nature; 5) Cooperativeness: This
concerns the “individual differences in identification with and acceptance of other
people” (Cloninger et al., 1993,p. 980).Cooperativenessis made up of five subscales
defined as Social Acceptance vs, Intolerance, Empathy vs, Social Disinterest, Help-
fulness vs, Unhelpfulness, Compassion vs. Revengefulness and Pure-Hearted vs.
Self-Serving; 6) Self-Transcendence: This character dimension “refers generally to
identification with everything conceived as essential and consequential parts of a
unified whole” (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 981). It is made up of three subscales
entitled Self-Forgetful vs, Self-Conscious Experience, Transpersonal Identification
vs, Self-Isolation and Spiritual Acceptance vs. Rational Materialism. In the case of
the three character dimensions, the suhscales are conceived as various aspects of
developmental processes which result in the manifestation of these personality traits.

The reliability ofthe Tel factor scales and subscales has been shown to be adequate,
at least in terms of interitem consistency. The seven major TCI scales obtained
coefficient alphas ranging from .65 (Persistence) to .89 (Cooperativeness) with a
mean alpha of .81. The TCI subscalesproduced alphas ranging from .47 (Empathy vs.
Social Disinterest) to .86 (Compassion vs. Revengefulness). The mean alpha for the
subscales was .67 (Cloninger et al, 1993). Alphas of comparable magnitudes were
also obtained using a sample of 136 psychiatric patients (Svrakic, Whitehead,
Przybeck & Cloninger, 1993)

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 217

The validity of the TCI has been examined in terms of its factorial, convergent and
discriminant and criterion/predictive validity. In all three instances, support for the
instrument has been obtained. For example, in terms of the former, Cloninger et al.
(1993) performed two principal components analyses using promax rotation to first
examine the structure of the character scales and then to investigate the factor
structure of the entire TCI. The first analysis resulted in the extraction of three factors
which corresponded to the three character dimensions. In the second principal
components analysis, Cloninger et al. (1993) obtained a seven-factor solution which
confirmed their seven dimensional model of personality and supported the validity of
the seven TCI scales and their corresponding subscales. Turning to convergent and
discriminant validity, Svrakic, Whitehead, Przybeck and Cloninger (1993) report
data from an earlier unpublished work showing that the NEO-PI obtained strong
multiple correlations with all of the TCI factors (multiple correlations ranging from
.63 to .83) except for Persistence and Self-Transcendence (multiple r= .36 and .30,
respectively). This finding is supportive of the validity of the TCI and especially the
Self-Transcendence dimension since the five-factor model of personality does not
have any components which address the humanistic and transpersonal aspects of
personality (Cloninger et al., 1993). Lastly, as per expectation, Svrakic et al. (1993)
found that all of the dimensions of the TCI save Self-Transcendence could be
successfully utilized to differentiate between personality disorder clusters/subtypes.
Self-Transcendence was found only to negatively correlate with the presence of
symptomology for schizoid personality disorder (r= -.23, p<.05).

The TCI is the only major personality instrument currently in existence which
explicitly incorporates a transpersonal component. Though additional examinations
of its psychometric properties are needed, the measure readily lends itself to research
exploring the relationship of personality to spirituality and transpersonal states of
consciousness.

Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory
(PCI;Pekala, 1982; Pekala, Steinberg& Kumar, 1986)

The PCI is an instrument designed to assess various dimensions of phenomenological
experience. More specifically, the measure is a revision and refinement of the
Dimensions of Consciousness Questionnaire (DCQ; Pekala & Wenger, 1983) which
is used “to assess phenomenological state effects associated with specific stimulus
conditions (e.g., hypnosis, drugs, meditation)” (Pekala, Steinberg & Kumar, 1986, p,
983). The test constructors state that although the DCQ demonstrated satisfactory
reliability and validity, a shorter instrument was needed for research purposes.

The PCI is composed of fifty-three items that were taken from a version of the DCQ
which was modified to include the four primary emotions of anger, fear, sadness and
joy postulated by Plutchik (1980). Items which were retained were kept because they
significantly contributed to the homogeneity of the constructs assessed (i.e., they
enhanced the internal consistency of the measure). The items of the PCI encompass
twelve major dimensions of phenomenological experience including Positive Affect,
Negative Affect, Altered Experience, Visual Imagery, Attention, Self-awareness,

218 The Journal of TranspersonalPsychology; 1995, Vol. 27, No. 2

Altered Awareness, Internal Dialogue, Rationality, Volitional Control, Memory and
Arousal. Furthermore, the first five dimensions contain a number of minor aspects.
For Positive Affect these are Joy, Sexual Excitement and Love; Negative Affect
embodies Anger, Sadness and Fear; Altered Experience includes Body Image, Time
Sense, Perception, and Meaning; Visual Imagery incorporates Amount and Vivid-
ness; and, Attention contains Direction (Inward) and Absorption.

Pekala, Steinberg and Kumar (1986) report that two forms of the PCI were con-
structed using the identical items arranged in different sequences.

The reliability of the PCI has been shown to be satisfactory. For instance, before
creating the two forms of the PCI, Pekala et al, (1986) examined the internal
consistency of’the instrument and found coefficient alphas ranging from .70 to .90 for
all the major and minor dimensions (mean alpha for major dimensions> .80). They
also obtained an average reliability index of.85 across all subjects who completed the
measure. Thereafter, the internal consistency of the two forms was examined using
data gathered from subjects under different stimulus conditions who obtained reli-
ability index values of two or less; form 1 produced alphas ranging from .65 to .85
(mean= .76) for the major dimensions and form 2 obtained alpha coefficients ranging
between .74 and .85 (mean- .80).

The validity of the PCI has mostly been examined in terms of criterion validity (i.e.,
its ability to predict differences between stimulus conditions). Pekala, Steinberg and
Kumar (1986) found that significantly different PCl scores were obtained by groups
of subjects undergoing different stimulus conditions (eyes open, eyes closed and
hypnotic induction); similar findings were obtained in an earlier study by Pekala,
Wenger & Levine (1985). Moreover, Pekala and Kumar (1984) found that the PCI
could successfully predict hypnotic susceptibility. In general, these findings suggest
that the PCI is a valid measure which can adequately differentiate between phenom-
enological states.

Though the PCI could use additional psychometric investigation to provide a better
picture of its validity, this instrument seems to show promise for phenomenological
research. Walsh (1995) states that the development of quantitative measures such as
the PCI is the next step of research to provide a systematic empirical basis for making
distinctions between various transpersonal states of consciousness.

Spiritual Well Being Scale (SWBS; Ellison, 1983; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982)

The SWBS is a measure of spiritual well-being which was created in response to the
observation that little attention had been given to the impact of spirituality and
religiosity on well-being and quality of life. Based on Moberg’s (Moberg, 1971;
Moberg & Brusek, 197&)conception of spiritual well-being as a two dimensional
construct consisting of a vertical dimension (i.e., “our sense of well being in relation
to God”; Ellison, 1983, p. 331), and a horizontal dimension (i.e., “a sense of life
purpose and life satisfaction, with no reference to anything specifically religious,”
Ellison, 1983, p. 331), Paloutzian and Ellison (l982) constructed an instrument which

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 219

could be used to investigate empirically the spiritual component of well-being. As
Ellison (1983, p. 332) states, ” … Paloutzian and Ellison (1979) began development
of [the SWBS so as to] provide a general measure of spiritual well-being while not
getting bogged down in specific theological issues or a priori standards of well-being
which may vary from one religious belief system or denomination to another.”

The SWBS is a twenty-item paper and pencil measure which utilizes a six point
response scale ranging from 1- strongly disagree to 6-strongly agree. The instrument
is divided into two subscales consisting of ten items each which are used to
operationalize of Moberg’s dimensions of spiritual well-being. The first scale, called
Religious Well-Being (RWB), is used to assess Moberg’s vertical dimension whereas
the second subscale, Existential Well-Being (EWB), is used to measure the horizontal
dimension. In order to ensure adequate differentiation between the RWB and EWB
items, all of the RWB items contain references to God while the EWB items do not.
In addition, half of the items from both subscales are worded in positive and negative
directions so as to control response bias (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). Scores can be
obtained for RWB and EWB by reversing the response values for negatively worded
items and summing the item responses. A total Spiritual Well-Being (SWB) score is
obtained by summing the RWB and EWB scores.

The psychometric properties of the SWBS have been examined in a number of studies
and strong support for its reliability has been provided. The SWBS and its subscales
have produced test-retest correlations ranging from .73 to .99 for one, four, six and
ten-week retest intervals. Moreover, internal consistency coefficients (alpha) have
been obtained which range from .78 to .94 (Brinkman, 1989; Kirschling & Pittman,
1989; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982).

Alternatively, extensive empirical examination of the validity of the SWBS has
resulted in mixed support for the instrument. In support of the measure, Paloutzian
and Ellison (1982) claim that the SWBS has adequate face validity as can be
demonstrated by an inspection of item content. Evidence of construct validity has
been provided through the finding of significant correlations between the SWBS, its
subscales and a wide variety of instruments and criterion measures including the
Purpose in Life test (see Table 2) (r= .52, .28, .68, p<.OOl for total SWBS, RWB and EWB, respectively) and Allport and Ross' (1967) Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religious Moti- vation scale (r= .67, .79, p<.OOl, and .19, p<.Ol for SWBS, RWB and EWB with Intrinsic motivation; r= .26, .26, p<.Ol and .15, p<.05 for SWBS, RWB and EWB with Extrinsic motivation) (Ellison, 1983). Moreover, evidence supporting the SWBS as a measure of well-being has been impressive. The instrument and its subscales have been found to correlate positively with "several standard indicators of well-being, including a positive self-concept, finding meaning and purpose in life, high assertiveness and low aggressiveness, good physical health and good emotional adjustment. In contrast, SWBS is negatively correlated with indicators of ill health, emotional maladjustment, and dissatisfaction with life" (Bufford, Paloutzian & Ellison, 1991, p. 57-58).

Despite this supporting evidence, the validity of the SWBS has been seriously
challenged for at least two major reasons. First, there is a question as to its factorial

220 The Journal of’TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

validity. Paloutzian and Ellison (1982) report the findings of an item factor analysis
which resulted in the extraction of three factors (using a varimax rotation); the first
factor contained all the RWB items while the second and third factors contained the
EWB items and were described as reflecting life direction and life satisfaction.
Conversely, in detailing the results of the same analysis, Bufford, Paloutzian and
Ellison (1991) and Ellison (1983) indicate that three factors were found but report
that only two factors were retained, the first of which contained the RWB items and
the second which contained most of the EWB items. In all three articles, it is claimed
that the obtained results support the validity of the instrument. Ledbetter, Smith,
Fischer, Vosler-Hunter and Chew (1991) note that these findings are difficult to
interpret because each of the articles, most notably Ellison (1983), report them in an
ambiguous manner (e.g., how many factors actually were retained?). Also, Ledbetter,
Smith, Fischer et al. (1991) question why a varimax factor rotation was used when
Ellison (1983) has postulated that EWB and RWB may be components of a higher
order spiritual well-being construct. They argue that if RWB and EWB are indeed
aspects of a higher-order factor, then the factor analysis should have used an oblique
factor rotation. In light of their critique of the factor structure of the SWBS,
Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer et a1.(1991) performed two confirmatory factor analyses to
test the goodness of fit of both one- and two-factor models. Though they found that
the two-factor model explained the SWBS significantly better than the one-factor
model, Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer et a1. (1991) concluded “neither model provided a
good conceptualization of the factor structure of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale….
These results suggest that, contrary to Ellison’s two-factor conceptualization and a
postulated general factor model, the SWBS may be factorial complex. This complex-
ity makes interpretation of scores ambiguous” (p. 94).

Second, when used with certain subject populations, most notably religious samples,
the SWBS has been shown to be limited by ceiling effects such that its ability to
differentiate between individuals and samples high in spiritual well-being is compro-
mised (Ledbetter, Smith, Vosler-Hunter & Fischer, 1991). Ledbetter, Smith, Vosler-
Hunter and Fischer (1991) assert that “the psychometric implications [of these
findings] suggest that previously reported relationships between the SWBS and other
variables are underestimated for religious samples. In addition, these results indicate
that the clinical usefulness of the SWBS is limited to low scores” (p. 49).

Notwithstanding the problems surrounding the validity of the SWBS (which also
includes the problem of a confound between spirituality and religiosity), the instru-
ment has been employed in a relatively large number of studies utilizing subjects
from varied populations (i.e., not just religious samples; see Bufford, Paloutzian &
Ellison, 1991; Ellison & Smith, 1991) and has found much success. In consideration
of the strong connections that the SWBS has developed with the “nomological net” of
constructs, the instrument appears have some value to transpersonal research as an
“empirically anchored” measure of general spiritual well-being. However, we agree
with Bufford, Paloutzian and Ellison (1991) who state that “the scale [is] not useful in
distinguishing among individuals for purposes such as selection of spiritual leaders.
The scale is useful for research and as a global index of lack of well-being” (p. 56).
Thus, investigators using this SWBS should exercise caution in how they interpret its
scores, especially with subjects who are judged as being highly spiritual.

A Survey of Measuresof TranspersonalConstructs 221

TABLE 2
MEASURES OF RELEVANCE TO TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH NOT DISCUSSED

Name of Measure/ConstructAssessed

Mystical Experience

Mysticism Scale

Inclinationtoward Mysticism

Mystical Experience

Mystical Experience- Psychedelic
Experiences Questionnaire

Experiences of Transcendent Ecstasy

Birth Experiences Inventory

General Index of Reality

Life Change Inventory

Boutell’s Inventory for Identifying Nurses’
Assessmentof Patients SpiritualNeeds

Spiritualand Religious Concerns
Questionnaire

Spiritual Assessment Inventory

Armstrong Measure of

Spirituality

Spiritual Belief Scale

Spiritual Well-being Questionnaire

Spiritual Perspective Scale

SpiritualitySelf-AssessmentScale

Brown-PetersonRecovery Progress Inventory

Spiritual Gifts Inventory

Inventory of TranspersonalHealing

TranspersonalExperiences in Childhood

Dimensions of MeditativeExperience

ConsciousnessI, II and III Scales

Zen Scale

Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic
Susceptibility

Ego PermissivenessScale; Experience
Questionnaire

Absorption Scale

Non-doctrinalReligious Scale

Religious Experience Episodes Measure

Intrinsic-ExtrinsicReligious Orientation Scale

Intrinsic-ExtrinsicReligious Motivation

Religious/SpiritualBeliefs and Experiences

Levels of Attribution and Change Scale

Ways to Live Scale

ChristianLife Assessment Scale

Psychic Experiences

References (Note: First reference is primary)

Clark & Raskin (1967)

Davis & Smith (1985); Greeley (1974)

Heisler (1975);

Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Fulgosi (1979)

Hood (1973a)

Pahnke (1963, 1967, 1970);Pahnke & Richards (1969);
Richards (1978); Dahlin (1991); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Laski (1961); Lukoff& Lu (1988)

Vaughan & Maliszewski(1982); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Whiteman (1986); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Ring (1984, 1992);

Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Boutell & Bozett (1990); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Silber & Reilly (1985); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Hall & Edwards (1995)

Armstrong (1995)

Schaler(1995)

Moberg (1984);

Butman (1990)

Reed (1987); Howden (1992); Lukoff, Turner & Lu
(1993)

Whitfield (1984); Corrington (1989); Lukoff, Turner &
Lu (1993)

Brown & Peterson (1991); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Hocking (1975); Ledbetter & Foster (1989)

Cooperstein (1992)

Hunt, Gervais, Shearing-Johns& Travis (1992)

Osis, Bokert & Carlson (1973)

Krus & Tellegen (1975)

Krus & Krus (1978)

Shor & Orne (1962, 1963);Barrett (1989); Hood
(1973b)

Taft (1969, 1970)

Tellegen& Atkinson (1974)

Yinger (1969)

Hood (1970, 1973a, 1973b);Holm (1982); Lukoff & Lu
(1988)

Allport & Ross (1967); Genia(1993); Kahoe(1974)

Feagin (1964)

James (1904/1987)

Norcross, Prochaska & Hambrecht (1985); Norcross,
Prochaska, Guadagnoli & DiClemente (1984)

Monis(1951,1956)

Smith (1986)

Shafer (1982)

222 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Feelings, Reactions and Beliefs Survey

NEO PersonalityInventory-Revised’

Personal OrientationInventory’

Purpose in Life Test
(Note: the citations provided are only a
partial listingof studieswhich use or
evaluate the measure)

Myers-BriggsType Indicator’

Singer-LoomisInventoryof Personality’

Jungian Type Survey’

Jones, Russell& Nickel (1977)

Blum & Blum (1974)

Randall & Desrosiers(I 980)

Scheidt (1973)

Killen, Wildman & Wildman (1974)

Spilka, Stout, Minton & Sizemore(1977)

Florian& Kravetz (1983)

Nystul (1993)

Thauberger(1976); Thauberger& Sydiaha-Symor
(1977)

Crumbaugh& Maholick (1964, 1969);Crumbaugh
(1968, 1972, 1977); Dyck (1987); Meier & Edwards
(1974); Pearson& Shefield(1974, 1975);Reker (1977);
Sharpe& Viney (1973); Shean & Fechtmann(1971);
Shefield& Pearson (1974); Yarnell (1971)

Cartwright& Mori (1988); Cartwright,deBruin& Berg
(1991)

Briggs& Myers (1987); Myers & McCaulley(1985)

Singer & Loomis(1984); MacDonald& Holland (1993)

Wheelwright,Wheelwright& Buehler (1964); Mattoon
& Davis (1995)

Costa & McCrae (1992)

Shostrom(1964, 1968);Welch, Tate & Medeiros
(1987)

NOTE: The first reference given for each test is the primary citation providingeither the test or a means
of gettingthe test. Additionalcitations involvethe useof the test in research or make mention of the
measure in some evaluativecapacity.

5: Refer to end note number five.

ParanormalBeliefs

Paranormal Beliefs

ParanormalBeliefs
Paranormal Beliefs

Fear of Death and Death PerspectiveScales

Fear of Personal Death Scale

Nystul Turning Point Survey

Avoidanceof ExistentialConfrontationScale

TABLE 3
SOURCESOF ADDITIONALMEASURES AND/ORLITERATUREFOCUSINGON THEORETICALCONSIDERATIONS

OF TESTING OR EMPIRICALFINDINGSGENERATEDTHROUGHTHB USE OF TESTS

Reference

Stoll (1979)

Lukoff & Lu (1988)
Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Spilka,Hood & Gorsuch (1985)

Butman (1990)

Silverman (1983)

Wulff (1991)

Robinson & Shaver(1973)

Robinson,Shaver & Wrightsman(1990)

Chun, Cobb & French (1975)

Goldman & Osbourne (1985)

Buras (1974)

Mental MeasurementsYearbook

Anastasi (1988)

Cronbach (1990)

Messick (1995)

Type of Measures!AssessmentIssues Discussed

Spirituality
Mystical Experience
Spirituality

Religion/Mysticism

Religious Development

Religion/Religiosity/Mysticism

Religion/Religiosity/ReligiousExperience

General

General
General
General
General
General
General
General

General-Validity

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 223

NOTES

‘The authorswish to thank ClementinaIampietro,CatherineTsagarakis,JeffKuentzel and the anonymous
reviewer for their assistancein the completionof this project. The first author would also like to thank
MoriahR. A. MacDonaldfor her supportandenthusiasmduringthelatterstagesof manuscriptpreparation.

2However,wheneverwe rely on languageand languagedescriptorsto devise a theory,phenomenological
mapor self-reportinstrument,we mustkeep in mindthat word meaningsandusagevary as a functionof the
culturaland historicalcontextin which the words/descriptorsare being used (Collier,Minton & Reynolds,
199t ; Derrida, 1976;Gergen, 1985).Moreover,the sampleof descriptorsused in devisingany of the above
will directly influencethe form and completenessof the theory, map or test (e.g., if a phenomenological
map of an experientialstate is devisedfrom a sampleof 100child experientsvs, 100adults,it is reasonable
to assumethat the resultingmapswill differ tremendously.In turn, this differencecan be attributedin large
part to the mannerin whichsubjectsfromthe two samplesuse language).Consequently,it wouldseemthat
differencesobserved in languagedescriptorsused mayor may not reflect objective differencesbetween
theoriesand/or testing instruments.

lBy responsebias we are includingany and all identifiedresponsesets and/or styles which may have an
influenceoverthe validityof a psychometricmeasure.This wouldincludefakinggood, fakingbad, socially
desirableresponding,and deviation.The reader is referredto Anastasi (1988)and Cronbach(1990) for a
discussionof this topic.

4However,another stance can be taken to the apparent confound between religion and transperscnal
constructs in many psychometric instruments. Based on Cronbach and Meehl’s (1955) notion of
nomologicalnet has any merit, then it can be argued that the meaningof any giventest or questionnaireis
foundnot just from the theory on whichit was built but equally so from its establishedempiricalrelations
with other constructsand behaviorswhich are already a part of the nomologicalnet. Followingfrom this,
if a measure shows itself to have many robust relations with other instrumentsand behaviors,then the
meaningof that measurecan be reinterpretedin light of suchrelations.Thus,withinthe contextof this line
of reasoning,measuresof transpersonalconstructswhich appearto be confoundedwith religion/religiosity
can be viewedas being as valuablefor researchas instrumentswithout sucha confound,providedthat they
produce strong and reliable empiricalrelationshipswith other concepts,behavior and phenomenawhich
are of interestand relevanceto a given researchdomain.In considerationof this argumentand the apparent
importance of establishing a nomological net of constructs, we have made every effort to report the
correlationsbetween the measures discussedor mentioned in this article whenever the information was
available.

“Thesemeasureshave been includednot because they assess transpersonalconstructsper se, but because
they appear to have value for transpersonalresearch,especiallyin terms of the relationshipof personality
(Jungian Type Survey, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Singer-LoomisInventory of Personality, NED
PersonalityInventory-Revised)and self-actualization(PersonalOrientationInventory)to various trans-
personalpracticesand experiences.

REFERENCES

ADAIR,H. (1990). Therelationshipof theRorschachand IQ scoresto BoundaryQuestionnaire
scores. Unpublished manuscript, Tufts University School of Medicine.

ALLPORT,G. W. & Ross, J. M. (1967), Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journalof
Personalityand SocialPsychology,5(4),432-443.

ANASTASI,A. (1988). Psychologicaltesting (6th ed.), New York: Macmillan.
ARMSTRONG,T. D. (1995, August). Developmentof the ArmstrongMeasure of Spirituality

(AMOS).Paper presented at the 103rd AnnualConference of the American Psychological
Association, New York.

BARRE1T,D. (1989, April). The relationship of thin VB. thick boundaries to hypnotic susceptibil-
ity. Paper presented at the meetings of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston, MA.

BENSON,H. (1975). Therelaxationresponse.New York: Morrow.
BENSON,H. (1987). Yourmaximummind.New York: Random House.
BLUM,S. & BLUM,L. H. (1974). Do’s and dent’s: An informal study of some prevailing

superstitions. PsychologicalReports,35, 567-571.

224 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

BOUTELL,K. A. & BOZETI,F. W. (1990).Nurses’ assessmentof patients’ spirituality:Continu-
ing education implications.Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 21(4), 172-176.

BOWBN,M., JUSTYN, J., KASS,J., MILLBR,M., ROGERS,C., ROGERS,N. & WOOD,1. (1978).
Evolving aspects of person-centeredworkshops. Self and society, 6(2), 43-49.

BRIGGS,K. C. & MYERS,I. B. (1987). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-Form G. Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting PsychologistsPress.

BRINKMAN,D. D. (1989). An evaluation of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale: Reliability and
response measurement Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 220m.

BROWN,H. P. & Peterson,1. H. (1991).Assessingspiritualityin addictiontreatmentand follow-
up: Developmentofthe Brown-PetersonRecovery Progress Inventory (B-PRPI). Alcohol-
ism Treatment Quarterly, 8(2), 21-50.

BUFFORD,R. K., PALOUTZIAN,R F. & ELLISON,C. W. (1991). Norms for the Spiritual Well-
Being Scale. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19{1),56-70.

BURKHARDT,M. A. (1989). Spirituality:An analysis of the concept. Holistic Nursing Practice,
3(3),69-77.

BUROS,O. K. (l974). Tests in print II. Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon.
BUTMAN,R E. (1990). The assessment of religious development: Some possible options.

Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 9(2), 14-26.
CAIRn,D. (1988).The structureof Hood’s mysticismscale: A factor analyticstudy.Journal for

the Scient~fic Study of Religion, 27(1), 122-127.
CAMPBELL,O. M. (1983). An investigation into the distinguishing personality correlates of

mysticism. Doctoral dissertation.University of Texas at Austin.
CARTWRIGHT,D. & MORI,C. (1988). Scalesfor assessingaspects of the person.Person Centered

Review, 3(2), 176-194.
CARTWRIGHT,D., DEBRUIN,J. & BERG,S. (1991). Somescales for assessingpersonalitybased on

Carl Rogers’ theory: Further evidence of validity. Personality and Individual Differences,
12(2), 151-156.

CELBNZA,A. (l986). Empathy, ego boundaries and deficits. Doctoral Dissertation. Boston
University.

CHO,1. H. & GILGEN,A. R. (1980).Performanceof Koreanmedical and nursing studentson the
East-West questionnaire.Psychological Reports, 47, 1093-1094.

CHUN,K., COBB,S. & FRENCH,J. R. P. JR.(L975).Measures for psychological assessment, Ann
Arbor,

MI: Institute for Social Research.

CLARK,W. H. & RASKIN,M. (L967).LSD as a means of expLoringthe nonrational conscious-
ness. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American PsychologicalAssociation.
Washington, DC., September.

CLONINGER,C. R (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of
personalityvariants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573-588.

CLONINGER,C. R., Sigvardsson, S. & Bohman, M. (1988). Childhood personality predicts
alcohol abuse in young adults. Alcoholism, 12,494-505.

CLONINGER,C. R., SVRAKJC,D. M. & PRZYBECK,T. R. (1991). The TridimensionalPersonality
Questionnaire:US normativedata. Psychological Reports, 69, 1047-1057.

CLONINGER,C. R, SVRAKJC,D. M. & PRZYBECK,T. R. (1993). A psychobiologicalmodel of
temperamentand character.Archives of General Psyoniatry, 50,975-990.

COLLIER,G., MINTON,H. L. & REYNOLDS,G. (1991). Currents of thought in American social
psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

COMREY,A. L. (1988).Factor-analyticmethods of scale developmentin personalityand clinical
psychology.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(5), 754-761.

COOPBRSTEIN,M. A. (1992). The myths of healing: A summary of research into transpersonal
healing experiences. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 86(2), 99-
133.

CORRINGTON,J. E. (L989),Spiritualityand recovery: Relationshipsbetween levels of spiritual-
ity, contentmentand stress during recovery from alcoholismin AA. Alcoholism Treatment
Quarterly, 6(3/4), 151-165.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 225

COSTA,P. T. JR.& MCCRAE,R R. (1992). NEO PI-R: Professional manual. Odessa, FI:
PsychologicalAssessment Resources.

CRONBACH,L. J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.), New York: Harper &
Row.

CRONBACH,L. J. & MEEHL,P. (1955). Construct validity in psychologicaltests. Psychological
Bulletin, 52, 281-302.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. (1968). Cross-validationof Purpose in Life test based on Frankl’s concepts.
Journal of Individual Psychology, 24, 74-81.

CRUMBAUOH,J. C. (1972). Aging and adjustment: The applicability of logotherapyand the
Purpose in Life test. Gerontologist, 12(4),418-420.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. (1977).The Seekingof Noetic Goalstest (SONG):A complementaryscale to
the Purpose in Life test (PIL). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33,900-907.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. & MAHOLICK,L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism:The
psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of neogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 20, 200-207.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. & MAHOLlCK,L. T. (1969). Manual for instructions for the Purpose in Life
test. Munster: PsychometricAffiliates.

DAVIES,M. F. (1988). Paranormal beliefs in British and southern USA college students.
Psychological Reports, 62(1), 163-166.

DAVIS,1. A. & SMITH,T, W. (1985). General social surveys, 1972-1985.Chicago: National
Opinion Research Center.

DEBARBENZA,C. M. CLARIBEL,M. & DE VILA,N. C. (I989). Belief in paranormalphenomena:
Socioculturalimplications.ArquivosBrasileirosde Psicologia, 41(3), 41-51.

DIlRR1DA,1.(1976). Of’grammatology. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.
DEWEY,J. (1934).A common faith. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.
DIGMAN,J. M. & INOUYE,J, (1986). Further specificationof the five robust factors of personal-

ity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 116-123.
DOBLIN,R. (1991). Pahnke’s “Good Friday experiment”:A long-term follow-upand method-

ological critique. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 23(1), 1-28.
DVCK,M. J. (1987). Assessing Logotherapeutic Constructs: Conceptual and psychometric

status of the Purposein Life and Seekingof Noetic Goals tests. Clinical Psychology Review,
7(4), 439-447.

ELIADE,M. (1959). The sacred and the profane. New York: Harper & Row.
ELKINS,D. N. (1988). The SpiritualOrientationInventory:An item delimitationstudy. Unpub-

lished manuscript.
ELKINS,D. N., HEDSTROM,L. J., HUGHIlS,L. L., LEAF,J. A. & SAUNDERS,C. (198&).Toward

phenomenologicalspirituality: Definition, description and measurement. Journal of Hu-
manistic Psychology, 28(4), 5-18.

ELLIS,J. B. & SMITH,P. C. (1991). Spiritual well-being, social desirability and reasons for
living: Is there a connection?International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 37(1), 57-63.

ELLISON,C. W. (1983). Spiritual well-being:Conceptualizationand measurement. Journal of
Psychology and Theology, 11(4),330-340.

ELLISON,C. W. & SMITH,J. (1991). Toward an integrativemeasure of health and well-being.
Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1),35-4&.

FEAGIN,1. R. (1964). Prejudice and religioustypes: A focused study of southern fundamental-
ists. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 4, 3-13,

FINNEY,1. & MALONEY,H. (1985). An empiricalstudy of contemplativeprayer as an adjunct to
psychotherapy.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 13(4), 284-290.

FISCHER,R. (1975). Cartographyof inner space. In R. Siegel& L. West (Eds.),Hallucinations:
Behavior, experience and theory (p. 197-239). New York: Wiley.

FITE,R. C. (1981). A psychological study of persons reporting mystical experience. Doctoral
Dissertation.Northwestern University.

226 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

FlITS, W, (1965). Manualfof TennesseeSelf Concept Scale. Nashville: Counselor Recordings
and Tests.

FLORIAN,V. & KRAVETZ,S. (1983).Fear of personaldeath: Attribution,structureand relationto
religiousbelief. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(3), 600-607.

FRANKL,V. E. (1963) Man’s searchfor meaning.New York: WashingtonSquare.
FRIEDMAN,H. L. (1983). The Self-ExpansivenessLevel Form: A conceptualizationand mea-

surementofa transpersonalconstruct Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 15(1),37-50.
FULGOSI,A. (1979). GSM-l: A questionnairefor investigatinginclinationtoward mysticism

and the factor structureof this inclination.(Srcr)Revija az Psihologiju;9(1-2), 21-31.
GAGNE,H. & McKELVIE,S. 1. (1990), Effects ofparanonnal beliefs on response bias and self-

assessment of performancein a signal detection task. Australian Journal q( Psychology,
42(2),187-195.

GALVIN,F. (1990).The boundarycharacteristicsof lucid dreamers,SixthAnnual International
Conferenceofthe Associationfor the Studyof Dreams (1989,London,England).Psychiat-
ric Journal of the Universityof Ottawa, 15(2),73-78.

GENIA,V. (1993). A psychometric evaluation of the Allport-RossliE Scales in a religiously
heterogeneoussample.Journalfor the Scient~fic Study of Religion, 32(3), 284-290.

GERGEN,K, J. (1985). The social constructionistmovementin modem psychology. American
Psychologist,40, 266-275,

GILGEN,A. R. & CHG,J. H. (1979a). Questionnaireto measure Eastern and Western thought.
PsychologicalReports, 44, 835-841.

GILGEN,A. R. & CHG,J. H. (1979b). Performanceof Eastern and Western-orientedcollege
studentson the value survey and ways of life scale. PsychologicalReports, 45, 263-268.

GILGEN,A. R. & Cac, J. H. (1980). Comparisonof performanceon the East-West Question-
naire,Zen-scaleand ConsciousnessI, II and III scales.PsychologicalReports, 47, 583-588.

GILGEN,A. R., CRO,J. H. & STENSRUD, R. (1980). Eastern and Western perspectives in
transpersonal belief systems. PsychologicalReports, 47, 1344-1346,

GOLDBERG,L. R. (1993).The structureof phenotypicpersonalitytraits.AmericanPsychologist,
48(1), 26-34.

GOLDMAN,B. A. & OSBORNE,W. L. (1985). Directory of unpublished experimental mental
measures. New York: Human Sciences Press.

GOWAN,J, C. (1978-1979).Altered states of coasciousness: A taxonomy. Journal of Altered
States of Consciousness,4, 141-156.

GREELEY,A (1974). Ecstasy: A way of knowing. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
GROF,S. (1985).Beyond the brain: Birth. death and transcendencein psychotherapy. Albany,

NY: State Universityof New York Press.
HALL,T. & EDWARDS,K. J. (1995, August). Development and psychometric analysis of’ the

Spiritual Assessment Inventory. Paper presented at 103rd Conference of the American
PsychologicalAssociation,New York.

HARTMANN,E. (I989). Boundariesof dreams,boundariesof dreamers:Thin and thick bound-
aries as a new personalitymeasure.PsychiatricJournal of the UniversityofOttawa. 14(4),
557-560.

HARTMANN,E. (1991).Boundaries in the mind. USA: Basic Books.
HAY,D. & MORISY,A. (1978). Reportsof ecstatic,paranormal,or religiousexperiencein Great

Britain and the United States: A comparisonof trends. Journalfor the Scientific Study of
Religion, 17(3),255-268.

HEATH,D. H. (1968), Growing up in college:Liberal education and maturity. San Francisco:
Jessey-Bass.

HEISLBR,G. (1975).The effects of vicariouslyexperiencingsupernaturalviolent events: A case
study of the Exorcist’s impact.Journal of Individual Psychology, 31(2),158-170.

HOCKING,D. L. (1975). Spiritualgifts. Long Beach, CA: Sounds of Grace Ministries,
HOGE,D. R. (1972). A validated intrinsicreligious motivationscale. Journaljar the Scientific

Study of Religion, 11,369-376.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 227

HOLM,N. (l982). Mysticism and intense experiences. Journal for the Scientific Study of
Religion, 21(3), 268-276.

HOOD,R. W. (1970). Religious orientationand the report of religious experience.Journal for
the Scientific Study of Religion, 9(4), 285-29L

HOOD,R. W (1973a). Forms of religious commitmentand intense religiousexperience.Review
of Religious Research, 15, 29-36.

HOOD,R. W. (1973b).Hypnoticsusceptibilityand reportedreligiousexperience.Psychological
Reports, 33(2), 549-550.

HOOD,R. W. (1975). The construction and preliminary validation of a measureof reported
mystical experience.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, J4, 29-41.

HOOD,R. W. (1977a). Differential triggering of mystical experience as a function of self-
actualization.Review of Religious Research, 18(3),264-270.

HOOD,R. W. (1977b). Eliciting mystical states of consciousnesswith semi-structurednature
experiences.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16(2), 155-163.

HOOD,R. W. (1978). Anticipatoryset and setting: Stress incongruitiesas elicitors of mystical
experiencein solitary nature situations.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 17(3),
279-287.

HOOD,R. W., HALL,J. R, WATSON,P. J. & BIDIlRMAN,M. (1979). Personalitycorrelatesof the
report of mystical experience.Psychological Reports, 44(3), 804-806.

HOOD,R. W. & MORRIS,R. J. (1983). Toward a theory of death transcendence.Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion, 22(4), 353-365.

HOOD, R. W., MORRIS,R. J. & WATSON,P. J. (1990). Quasi-experimentalelicitation of the
differenna!report of religiousexperienceamong intrinsicand indiscriminatelypro-reli-
gious types. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29(2), 164-172.

HOWDEN,1. W. (1992). Development and psychometric characteristics of the Spirituality
Assessment Scale. Doctoral Dissertation.Texas Women’s University.

HUNGELMANN,1., KENKEL-ROSSI,E., KLASSEN,L. & STOLLENWERK,R. M. (1985). Spiritualwell-
being in older adults: Harmoniousinterconnectedness.Journal of Religion and Health, 24,
147-153.

HUNT,H. T., GERVAIS,A., SHEARING-JOHNS,S. & TRAVIS,F. (1992). Transpersonalexperiences
in childhood: An exploratorystudy of selectedadult groups. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
75, 1135-1153.

HUNT,R. A. & KING,M. (1971). The intrinsic-extrinsicconcept: A review and evaluation.
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 10, 339-356.

HuOT,B., MAKAREC,K., & PERSINGER,M. A. (1989). Temporal lobe signs and Jungian
dimensionsof personality. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 841-842.

IRWIN, H. 1. (J 990). Parapsychologycourses and students’ belief in the paranormal, Journal of
the Society for Psychical Research, 56(821),266-272.

JACKSON,D. N. (1976). Jackson Personality Inventory, manual. Goshen, NY: Research Psy-
chologists Press.

JACKSON,G. (1980). Spirituality:A process theologyperspective.Studies in Formative Spiritu-
ality, 1(3),407-418.

JAMES,W. (1904/1987).Answers to a questionnaire.In W. James. Writings: 1902-1910.New
York: Library of America,p, 1183-1185. ‘

JAMES,W. (1958). The varieties of religious experience. New York: New American Library.
JONES,W., RUSSEI.L,D. & NICKEL,T. (1977). Belief in the paranormal scale: An objective

instrumentto measure belief in magical phenomena and causes. JSAS Catalog of Selected
Documents in Psychology, 7, 100. (Ms. No. 1577)

JUNG,C. G. (Ed.) (1964). Man and his symbols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
KAHOH,R. D. (1974).Personalityand achievementcorrelatesof intrinsicand extrinsicreligious

orientations.Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 29(6), 812-818.
KAss,J. D., FRIEDMAN,R., LESERMAN,1., CAUDILL,M., ZUTTERMEISTER,P. & BENSON,H. (1991).

An inventory of positive psychological attitudes with potential relevance to health out-
comes: Validationand preliminarytesting. Behavioral Medicine, Fall.

228 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Kxss, J. D., FRIEDMAN,R, LESERMAN,J., ZUITERMEISTER,P. C. & BENSON,H. (1991). Health
outcomes and a new index of spiritual experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of
Religion, 30(2), 203-211.

KASTENBAUM,R. & COSTA,P. T., JR. (1977). Psychologicalperspectives on death. Annual
Review ofPsychology, 28, 225-249.

KlERSEY, D. & BATES,M. (1978). Please understand me. Del Mar, CA: PrometheusNemesis.
KILLEN,P., WILDMAN,R. & WILDMAN,R. (1974). Superstitiousnessand intelligence. Psycho-

logical Reports, 34, 1158.
KlRSCHLING, 1. M. & PIITMAN,1. F. (1989). Measurement of spiritual well-being: A hospice

caregiversample. Hospice Joumal, 5(2), 1-1l.
KNOBLAucH,D. L. (1985). Applying Taoist thought to counselingand psychotherapy.Ameri-

can Mental Health Counselors Association Journal, 7,52-63.
KNOBLAUCH,D. L. (1988). A psychological component of women’s alcoholism. Alcoholism

Treatment Quarterly, 5(1-2), 219-229.
KNOBLAUCH,D. L. (1990). The theoreticaland treatmentimplicationsof high-risk variablesfor

adult children of alcoholics.Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 5(1), 87-10L
KNOBLAucH,D. L. & BOWERS,N. D. (1989). A therapeuticconceptualizationof adult childrenof

alcoholics,Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 4(1), 37-52.
KNOBLAUCH,D. L. & FALCONER,1. A. (1986),The relationshipof a measuredTaoist orientation

to Westernpersonalitydimensions.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 18(1), 73-83.
KOLB, D. A (1976). Learning Style Inventory. Boston, MA; McBer & Co.
Ksus, D. J. & Ksus, P. H. (1978). Contributionsto psychohistory:III. Measuringvalue systems

as related to societalchange. Psychological Reports, 43, 3-9.
Ksus, D. 1. & TULLEGEN,A. (1975).ConsciousnessIII: Fact or fiction?Psychological Reports,

36,23-30.
LASKI,M. (1961).Ecstasy: A study ofsome secular and religious experiences. London:Cresset

Press.
LAURI,S. & ELKINS,D. N. (1988, March). The Spiritual Orientation Inventory: Validity and

reliability studies to date. In D. N. Elkins (Chair), Humanistic perspectives on existential
issues: Death, dying, aging and spirituality. Symposiumconducted at the meeting of the
California State PsychologicalAssociation,San Diego.

LAWTON,M. P. (1972).The dimensionsof morale. In K. D. Kastenbaum & R Sherwood(Eds.),
Research planning and action for the elderly (p, 144-165). New York: BehavioralPublica-
tions.

LAWTON,M. P. (1975). The PhiladelphiaGeriatricCenter morale scale: A revision.Journal of
Gerontology, 30, 85-89.

LEDBEITER,M. F. & FOSTIlR,J. D, (1989). Measuring spiritual giftedness: A factor analytic
study of a spiritualgifts inventory.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 17(3), 274-283.

LEDBETTER,M.F.,SMITH,L. A., FISCHER,J. D.,VOSLER-HUNTER,W. L. & CHEW,G. P. (1991).An
evaluationof the construct validity ofthe Spiritual Well-BeingScale: A confirmatoryfactor
analyticapproach.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1), 94-102.

LEDBEITER,M. F., SMITH,L. A” VOSLER-HUNTER,W. L. & FISCHER,1. D. (1991).An evaluation
of the research and clinical usefulness of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Journal of
Psychology and Theology, 19(1),49-55.

LEE,J. R. & BAINUM,B. (1991). Spiritualorientation in hospital workers, crisis help workers
and college students.Unpublishedstudy. Northern Pacific Union College.

LESERMAN,J. (1983).The Medical Symptom Checklist. Developedat the Divisionof Behavioral
Medicine,Beth Israel Hospital, Boston,MA,

LEVIN,R. (1986). Ego boundary impairment and thought disorder in frequent nightmare
sufferers:Evidencefor a proposed pathognomonicrelationshipto schizophrenia.Doctoral
Dissertation.Universityof Buffalo.

LEVIN,R., GALIN,J. & ZYWIAK,B. (1991). Nightmares,boundaries and creativity. Dreaming
Journal of the Association for the Study of Dreams, 1(1), 63-74,

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 229

LIFTON,R. J. (1976). The life of the self: Toward a new psychology. New York: Simon and
Schuster.

LIFTON,R. J. (1979). The broken connection. New York: Simon and Schuster.
LIFTON,R. J. & OLSON,E. (1974). Living and dying. New York: Praeger,
LUDWIG,A. M. (1966). Altered states of consciousness.Archives of General Psychiatry, 15,

225-234.
LUKOFF, D. & Lu, F. (1988). Transpersonal psychology research review topic: Mystical

experience.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 20(2),161-184.
LUKOffI D,., TURNER,R. & Lu, F. G. (1993). Transpersonalpsychology research review:

Psychospiritualdimensionsof healing.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2S(l), 11-28.
MACDONALD,D. A & HOLLAND,C. J. (1993). Psychometricevaluation of the Singer-Loomis

Inventoryof Personality.Journal of Analytical Psychology, 38, 303-320.
MAcDONALD,D. A, TSAGARAKIS,C. L & HOLLAND,C. J. (1994). Validation of a measure of

transpersonal self-conceptand its relationshipto Jungianand five factor model conceptions
of personality.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 26(2}, 175-201.

MAHL.G. F., ROTHENBERG,A., DELGADO,J. M. R. & HAMLIN, H. (1964). Psychological
responsesin the humanto intracerebralelectricalstimulation.Psychosomatic Medicine, 26,
337-368.

MAKAREC,K. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1985). Temporal lobe signs: Electroencephalographic
validity and enhancedscoresin specialpopulations.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 1255-
1262.

MAKAREC,K. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1990). Electroencephalographicvalidation of a temporal
lobe signs inventory in a normal population.Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 323-
327.

MASLOW,A (1970). Religions, values and peak-experiences. New York: Viking.
MATHES,E. W., ZEVON,M. A, RaTER,P. M. & JOERGER,S. M. (1982}. Peak experience

tendencies: Scale development and theory testing. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
22(3),92-108.

MATTOON,M. & DAVIS,M. (1995). The Gray-WheelwrightsJungian Type Survey: Develop-
ment and history. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 40, 205-234.

McCRAE,R. R. & COSTA,P. T. JR. (1987). Validationof the five factor model of personality
across instrumentsand observers.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,81-90.

MEIER,A. & EDWARDS,H. (1974). Purpose in Life test: Age and sex differences. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 30, 384-386.

MESSICK,S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from
persons’ responses and performancesas scientific inquiry into score meaning, American
Psychologist, 50(9),141-749.

MILLON,R. (1977). Millon Multiaxial Clinical Inventory Manual. Minneapolis: National
Computer Systems.

MOBERG,D. O. (1971). Spiritual well-being; Background and issues. Washington,DC: White
House Conferenceon Aging.

MOBBRG,D. O. (1984). Subjective measures of well-being. Review of Religious Research,
25(4),351-359.

MOBERG,D. O. & BRUSEK,P. M. (1978). Spiritualwell-being:A neglected subject in qualityof
life research. Social Indicators Research, 5, 303-323.

MORNEAU,D. M., MACDONALD,D. A, HOLLAND,Co 1. & HOLLAND,D. C. (in press). A
confirmatory study of the relation between self-reported complex partial epileptic signs,
peak experiencesand paranormalbeliefs. British Journal of Clinical Psychology.

MORRIS,C. (1951). Comparativestrength of life-idealsin Eastern and Western cultures, In C.
Moore (Ed.), Essays in East-West philosophy. Honolulu:Universityof Hawaii Press, 353-
370.

MORRIS,C. (1956). Varieties of human value. Chicago:Universityof Chicago Press.
MURPHY,M. (1993). The future of the body: Explorations into thefurlher evolution of human

nature. Los Angeles, CA: Jeremy Tarcher,

230 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

MYERS,L B. & MCCAULLEY,M. H. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: ConsultingPsychologists Press.

NEHER.A. (1990). The psychology of transcendence. Toronto, ON: Dover.
NEPPE,V. M. (1983). Temporal lobe symptomatology in subjective paranormal experiences.

Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 77, 1-31.
NOBLE,K. D. (1984). Psychological health and the experience of transcendence. Doctoral

Dissertation. University of Washington.
NORCROSS,J. C., PROCHASKA,J. 0., HAMBRECHT,M. (1985). Levels of Attribution and Change

(LAC) Scale: Developmentand measurement.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9(6), 631-
649.

NORCROSS,J. C., PROCHASKA,J. 0., GUAPAGNOLT,E. & DICLEMENTE,C. C. (1984). Factor
structure of the Levels of Attribution and Change (LAC) Scale in samples of psychothera-
pists and smokers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(2), 519-528.

NORMAN,W, T. (1963), Toward and adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated
factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 66,574-583.

NYSTUL,M. S. (1993), The Nystul Turning Point Survey:An assessmentinstrumentto analyze
Adlerian tasks in life, individual Psychology, 49(2), 185-198.

OSIS,K., BOKERT,E. & CARLSON,M. (1973). Dimensions of meditative experience.Journal of
Transpersonal Psychology, 5(2), 109-135.

OXMAN,T. E., ROSENBERG,S. D., SCIINURR,P.P., tuCKER,G, J. & GALA,G, (1988), The language
of altered states. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176(7), 401-408.

PALOUTZIAN,R. F. & ELLISON,C. W, (1979). Developinga measureof spiritualwell-being.In R.
F, Paloutzian (Chair),Spiritual well-being, loneliness and perceived quality of life. Sympo-
sium presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New
York.

PALOUTZIAN,R. F. & ELLISON,C. W. (1982). Loneliness,spiritual well-beingand the quality of
life. In Peplau & Perlman(Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and
therapy (p. 224-237). New York: John Wiley.

PAHNKlJ,W. (1963). Drugs and mysticism:An analysisofthe relationshipbetween psychedelic
drugs and the mystical consciousness.Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.

PAHNKE,W. (1967), LSD and religious experience.In R. DeBold & R. Leaf'(Eds.). LSD, man
and society. Middletown,CT: Wesleyan University Press, 60-85.

PAHNKE,W. (1970). Drugs and mysticism, In B. Asronson& H. Osmond (Eds.), Psychedelics:
The uses and implications of hallucinogenic drugs. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 145-164.

PA1INKE,W. & RICHARDS,W, (1969). Implicationsof LSD and experimentalmysticism,Journal
of’Transpersonal Psychology, 1(2),69-102.

PATRIK,L. E. (1994). Phenomenologicalmethod and meditation. Journal of Transpersonal
Psychology, 26(1), 37-54.

PEARSON,P. R, & SHEFIELD,B. F. (1974), Purpose in Life and the Eysenck Personality
Inventory.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 562-564.

PEARSON,P. R. & SHEI’lF.LD, B. F. (1975). Purpose in life and social attitudes in psychiatric
patients,Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31,330-332.

PEKALA,R. J. (1982). The Phenomenological of Consciousness Inventory (PCI). Thorndale,
PA: PsychophenomenologicalConcepts.

PEKALA,R. J. & KUMAR, V. K. (1984), Predicting hypnotic susceptibilityby a self-report of
phenomenologicalstate instrument.American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 27, 114-121.

PEKALAR. 1. & KUMAR, V. K. (1986). The differential organization of the structures of
consciousnessduring hypnosis and a baseline condition.Journal of Mind and Behavior, 7,
515-540.

PEKALA,R. J., STlllNBERG,1. & KUMAR, C. K. (1986). Measurement of phenomenological
experience: Phenomenologyof consciousnessinventory. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63,
983-989.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 231

PEKALA,R. J. & WENGER,C. F. (1983). Retrospectivephenomenologicalassessment:Mapping
consciousnessin reference to specific stimulus conditions. Journal of Mind and Behavior,
4,247-274.

PEKALA,R. J., WENGER,C. F. & LEVINE,R. L (1985). Individual differencesinphencmenolcgi-
cal experience: States of consciousnessas a function of absorption.Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 48, 125-132,

PERSINGER,M. A. (1983). Religious and mystical experiences as artifacts of temporal lobe
function: A general hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 1255-1262,

PERSINGER,M. A (1984a). Striking EEG profiles from single episodes of glossolalia and
transcendentalmeditation. Perceptualand Motor Skills, 58, 127-133.

PERSINGIlR,M. A. (1984b), Propensity to report paranormal experiences is correlated with
temporal lobe signs, Perceptualand Motor Skills, 59,583-586.

PERSINGIlR,M, A. (1984c). People who report religious experience may also display enhanced
temporal-lobesigns, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 963-975.

PIlRSINGER,M, A (1988), Temporal lobe signs and personality characteristics.Perceptualand
Motor Skills, 66, 49-50.

PERSINGER,M. A. (1991a), Subjective pseudocyesis (false pregnancy) and elevated temporal
lobe signs. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72,499-503.

PERSINGER,M. A. {l991b). Canonical correlation of temporal lobe signs with schizoid and
hypomania scales in a normal population: Men and women are similar but for different
reasons. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73,615-618.

PERSINGER,M. A. (1993). Transcendentalmeditationand general meditationare associatedwith
enhanced complex partial epileptic-like signs: Evidence for “cognitive” kindling? Percep-
tual and Motor Skills, 76, 80-82,

PERSINGER,M. A & MAKAREC,K. (1987). Temporal lobe epileptic signs and correlative
behaviors displayed by normal populations. Journal of GeneralPsychology, 114(2), 179-
195.

PERSINGER,M. A. & MAKAREC,K. (1993). Complex partial epileptic signs as a continuum from
normals to epileptics:Normative data and clinicalpopulations.Journal of ClinicalPsychol-
ogy, 49(1), 33-45.

PERSINGER,M. A. & VALLIANT,P, M. (1985). Temporal lobe signs and reports of subjective
paranormal experiencesin a normal population:A replication.Perceptualand Motor Skills,
60,903-909.

PILCH,J. (1981). Wellness:Your invitationto a/uillife. Minneapolis: Winston Press.
PLUTCHIK,R. (1980). Emotions:A psychoevolutionalJ’synthesis. New York: Harper and Row.
POWELL,F. C. & THORSON,J. A (1991). Constructions of death among those high in intrinsic

religious motivation: A factor analytic study. Death Studies, 15(2), 131-138,
PROPST,L. R. (1979). Effects of personality and loss of anonymity on aggression: A reevalua-

tion of deindividuation,Journal of Personality, 47(3), 531-545.
RANDALL,T. & DIlSROSIERS,M. (1980). Measurement of supernatural belief: Sex differences

and locus of control. Journal of PersonalityAssessment, 44, 493-498.
REED, P. G. (1987). Spiritualityand well-beingin terminallyill hospitalizedadults.Research in

Nursing and Health, 10, 335-344,
REKER,G, T. (1977). The Purpose in Life test in an inmate population:An empirical investiga-

tion. Journal of ClinicalPsychology, 33(3), 688~693.
RICHARDS,W. (1978). Mystical and archetypal experiencesof terminalpatients in DPT-assisted

psychotherapy.Journal of Religion and Health, 17(2), 117~126.
RICHARDS,P, & PERSINGER,M. A. (1991), Temporal lobe signs, the dissociative experiences

scale and hemisphericity, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 1139-1142.
RING,K. (1984), Heading toward omega. New York: William Morrow.
RING,K. (1992). The omega project: Near death experiences, UFO encounters and mind at

large. New York: William Morrow.
ROBINSON,J. P. & SHAVIlR,P. R. (1973).Measures of socialpsychologicalattitudes.Ann Arbor

MI: Institute for Social Research.

232 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology. 1995. Vol, 27, No.2

ROBINSON,J. P., SHAVER,P. R. &-WRIGHTSMAN,L. S. (Eds.). (1990).Measures of personality and
social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press Inc.

Ross, J. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1987). Positive correlations between temporal lobe signs and
hypnosis induction profiles: A replication. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 64, 828-830.

ROSSI,E. L. (1986). The psychobiology of mind-body healing. New York Norton.
RUFFINO-RAHAL,M. A. (1991). Initial psychometric evaluation of a qualitative well-being

measure: The Integration Inventory. Health Values, Health Behavior, Education and
Promotion, 15(2), 10-20.

SAMPSON,E. (1978). Personality and the location of identity. Journal of Personality, 46, 552-
568.

SCHALHR,J. A. (1995, August). Spiritual thinking in addiction treatment providers: The
Spiritual Beliefs Scale. Paper presented at the 103rd Annual Conference of the American
Psychological Association, New York.

SCHEIDT,R. (1973). Belief in supernatural phenomena and locus of control. Psychological
Reports, 32, 1159-1162.

SHAFER,M. G. (1982). Self-actualization, mysticism and psychic experience. Doctoral Disser-
tation, University of California, Irvine.

SHAPIRO,S. B. (1985). The development and validation of an instrument to measure student
orientation to humanistic instructional values. Educational and Psychological Measure-
ment, 45, 869·880.

SHAPIRO,S. B. & FITZGERALD,L. F. (1989). The development of an objective scale to measure a
transpersonalorientation to learning. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49,
375-384.

SHARPE,D. & VINEY,L. L. (1973). Weltanschauung and the Purpose in Life test. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 29, 489-491.

SHEAN,G. D. & FECHTMANN,F. (1971). Purpose in Life scores of student marihuana users.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 112-113.

SHEDLER,J., MAYMAN,M. & MANIS,M. (1993). The illusion of mental health. American
Psychologist, 48(11), 1117-1131.

SUEFIIJLD,B. F. & PEARSON,P. R. (1974). Purpose in life in a sample of British psychiatric
patients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 459.

SHOR,R. E. & ORNE,E. C. (1962). The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Palo
Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

SHOR,R. E. & ORNE,E. C. (1963). Norms on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibil-
ity, Form A.fnternational Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11(1),39-47.

SHOSTROM,E. L. (1964). An inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Educational
and Psychological Measurement, 24(2), 207-218.

SHOSTROM,E. L. (1968). EfTS manual for the Personal Orientation Inventory. San Diego, CA:
Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

SILBER,T. 1. & REILLY,M. (1985). Spiritual and religious concerns of the hospitalized
adolescent. Adolescence, 20{77), 217-224.

SIGVARDSSON,S., BOHMAN,M. & CLONINGER,C. R. (1987). Structure and stability of childhood
personality: Prediction of later social development. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 28, 929-946.

SILVERMAN,W. (1983). Bibliography of measurement techniques used in the social scientific
study of religion. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA Psycho-
logical Documents Ms. 2539).

SINGER,J. & LOOMIS,M. (1984). The Singer-Loomis Inventory of Personality: Experimental
Edition. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

SINNOTT,E. W. (1969). Spirit. In W. Burnett (Ed.), The spirit of man. New York: Books for
Libraries Press,

SMITJf,D. E. (1986). The Christian Life Assessment Scales: Christian self perception. Journal
of Psychology and Christianity, 5(3), 46-61.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 233

SMITHD. W. (1991). A study of power and spirituality in polio survivors using the nursing
model of Martha E. Rogers. Doctoral Dissertation,New York University.

SPlIlGEL,H. & SPIEGEL,D. (1978). Trance and treatment: Clinical uses of hypnosis. New York:
Basic Books.

SPILKA,B., HOOD,R. & GORSUCH,R. (1985). The psychology of religion: An empirical
approach. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

SPILKA,B., STOUT,L., MINTON,B. & SIZEMORE,D. (1977). Death and personal faith: A
psychometricinvestigation.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16, 169-178.

STACE,W. T. (1960). Mysticism and philosophy. Philadelphia:Lippincott.
STOLL,R. 1. (I979, Sept). Guidelines for spiritual assessment. American Journal ofNursing,

1574-1577.
STOUDENMIRE,1, BATMAN,D., PAVLOV,M. & TEMPLE,A. (1985). Validationof a holistic living

inventory. Psychological Reports, 57, 303-311.
STOUDENMIRE,J., BATMAN,D., PAVLOV,M. & TEMPLE,A. (1986). The holistic living inventory:

Correlationswith MMPI. Psychological Reports, 58, 577-578.
STOUDENMIRE,J., STEVENS,M. & CUMBEST,S. (1989). Personality factors in holistic living:

Improvementamong inpatientalcoholics.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4(4),
457-462.

STOUDENMIRE,J., TEMPLE,A., PAVLOV,M. & BATMAN,D. (1988). Modeling of holistic living
behaviorsin therapeuticsummer camps.Journalof SocialBehaviorand Personality, 3(1),
141-146.

SVRAKIC,D. M., WHITEHEAD,C., PRZYBECK,T. R. & CLONINGBR,C. R. (1993). Differential
diagnosis of personalitydisordersby the seven-factormodel of temperamentand character.
Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991-999.

TAFT,R. (1969). Peak experiences and ego permissiveness:An exploratoryfactor study of their
dimensions in a normal person. Acta Psychologico, 29, 35-64.

TAfT,R. (1970). The measurement of the dimensionsof ego permissiveness. Personality: An
International Journal, 1, 163~ 184.

TART,C. T. (1975). States of consciousness. New York: Dutton.
TART,C. T. (1977). Discrete states of consciousness.In P. R. Lee, R. E. Ornstein, D. Galin, A.

Deikman & C. T. Tart (Eds.), Symposium on consciousness (pp. 89-175). New York:
Penguin.

TELLHGEN,A. & ATKINSON,G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences
(“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility.Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
83,268-277.

THAUBERGER,P. C. (1976). The avoidance of existential confrontation: A psychometric re-
search scale. Unpublished manuscript.

THAUBERGER,P. C. & SVDlAIIA-SVMOR,D. (1977). The relationship between an avoidance of
existential confrontation and neuroticism: A psychometric test. Journal of Humanistic
Psychology, 17(1), 89-91.

TOBACYK,J. (1984). Paranormalbelief and college grade point average.Psychological Reports,
54(1),217-218.

TOBACYK,J. (1985a). Paranormal beliefs and identity achievement. Psychological Reports,
56(1),26.

TOBACYK,J. J. (1985b). The Paranormal Belief Scale and social desirability. Psychological
Reports, 57(2), 624.

TOBACYK,lJ. (1991). A revised paranormal belief scale. Unpublishedmanuscript.
TOBACYK,J. J. (1992). Self-monitoring and idealism moderate relationships between para-

normal beliefs and locus of control. Unpublishedmanuscript.
TOBACYK,1.& MILFORD,G. (1983). Belief in paranormal phenomena: Assessment instrument

development and implications for personality functioning. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 44(5), 1029·1037.

TOBACYK,1. & MILFORD,G. (1984). Superstitious belief and intensionality. Psychological
Reports, 55(2), 513-514.

234 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27. No.2

TOBACYK,1. J. & MILFORD,G. (1988). Beliefs about complexityand variability of human nature
and paranormal beliefs. Perceptual and MOUJt’Skills, 66(1), 226.

TOBACYK,J., MILFORD,G., SPRINGER,T. & TOBACYK,Z. (1988). Paranormal beliefs and the
Barnum effect. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(4), 737-739.

TOBACYK,J., MILLER,M. J., MURPHY,P. & MITCHELL,T. (1988). Comparisons of paranormal
beliefs of Black and White university students from the SouthernUnited States.Psychologi-
cal Reports, 63(2), 492-494.

TOBACYK,1.1. & WrLK[NSON,L. V. (1990). Magical thinking and paranormal beliefs.Journal of
Social Behavior and Personality, 5(4), 255-264.

TRUNGPA,C. (1973). Cutting through spiritual materialism. Boston: Shambhala.
VANDECREEK,L. & NYE,C. (1993). Testing the Death Transcendence scale. Journal for the

Scientific Study of Religion, 32(3), 279-283.
VANQUEKELBERGHE,R., ALTSTOTTER-GLElCH,C. & HERTWECK,E. (1991).AssessmentSchedulefor

Altered Statesof Consciousness:A brief report, Journal of Parapsychology,55, 377-390.
VAUGHAN,F. (1986). The inward arc. Boston: New Science Library.
VAUGHAN,B. & MALISZEWSKI,M. (1982).Ecstatic components of childbirth: A psychological

and phenomenologicalstudy. Birth Psychology Journal, 3{I), 2-15.
WALLER,N. G., LILIENFELD,S. 0., TELLEGP,N,A. & LYKKEN,D. T, (l991). The Tridimensional

Personality Questionnaire: Structural validity and comparison with the Multidimensional
Personality Questionnaire. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26, 1-23.

WAr~SH, R. (1995). Phenomenologicalmapping: A method for describingand comparing states
of consciousness.Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 27( I), 25-56.

WALSH,R. & VAUGHAN,F. (1993). On transpersonal definitions. Journal of Transpersonal
Psychology, 25(2), 199-207.

WASHBURN,M. (1988). The ego and the dynamic ground. Albany, NY: State University of New
York Press.

WELCH,I. D., TATE,G. A. & MEDEIROS,D. C. (1987). Self-actualization: An annotated
bibliography of theory and research. New York: Garland Publishing.

WHEELWRlGlIT,J., WHflELWRIGHT,J. & BUEHLER,J. (1964). Manual: Jungian Type Survey.
Sixteenth Revision.

WlIlTEMAN,J. (1986). The mystical way and habitualization of mystical states. In B. Wolman &
M. Ullman (Eds.), Handbook of states of consclousness(pp. 613-659). New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.

WHITFIIlLD,C. L. (1984). Stress management and spirituality during recovery: A transpersonal
approach. Part I: Becoming. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 1(1), 3-54.

WILBER,K. (1977). The spectrum of consciousness. Wheaton: Quest.
WILBHR,K. (1990). Eye to eye: The questfor the new paradigm. Boston: Shambhala,
WILLIAMS,R. N., TAYLOR,C. B. & HINTZE,W. J. (1989). The influence of religious orientation

on belief in science, religion and the paranormal. Journal and Psychology and Theology,
17(4), 352-359.

WILSON,S. C. & BARBER,T. X. (1978). The creative imaginationscale as a measure of hypnotic
responsiveness: Applications to experimental and clinical hypnosis. American Journal of
Clinical Hypnosis, 20, 235-249.

WULFI:’,D. (1991). Psychology of religion: Classic and contemporary views. New York: John
Wiley and Sons.

YARNELL,T. D. (1971). Purpose in Life test: Further correlates.Journal of Individual Psychol-
ogy, 27, 76-79.

YINGER,J. M. (1969). A structural examination of religion. Journalfor the Scientific Study of
Religion,8,88-89.

ZAINUDDlN,R. (1993). Needs as determinants of orientationtowards spirituality.Journal of the
Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 19(1-2), 31-38.

Requests for reprints to Douglas A. MacDonald, Department of Psychology, University of Windsor,
Windsor, Ontario N9B 3E2 Canada.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 235

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Spirituality and Self-Actualization: Considerations for 21st-Century Counselors
Gold, Joshua M
The Journal of Humanistic Counseling; Oct 2013; 52, 2; ProQuest Central
pg. 223

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Example 1

Methodological Design: Phenomenology

Research Question: What is the experience of “burnout” among direct support professionals (DSPs)?

Data Analysis Elements: Qualitative analysis is driven by guidance but does not have a strict formula regarding how data is synthesized into results (Patton, 2015). Vast amounts of data, like what would be collected by asking questions of 15 DSPs needs to be appropriately considered and filtered into what is significant to identify patterns (Patton, 2015). This process does not have a way to test its validity, instead the responsibility is on the researcher to fairly and thoroughly consider the data they have collected (Patton, 2015). This is especially important in phenomenology as the purpose is to come to commonalities while maintaining separation from the views of the group (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Data Analysis for this Study: Once my data is organized, I will use the data analysis spiral method to begin reading and memoing to become familiar with the details of the narratives (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Rapid reading is one way to review notes from a perspective other than the author’s and to not dwell on a more intricate step like coding (Creswell & Poth, 2018). After reviewing the answers to the questions regarding burnout, I can develop a coding system to identify themes and categories that I will be compiling across responses (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Beginning with a shortlist of codes (beginning with around 6 and expanding to no more than 20 or 30) makes thematic generation clearer later on (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Moustakas recommends for phenomenological research that these significant statements should be non-overlapping and used to craft descriptions of “what” and “how” (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The codebook and results then lead to interpretation, creation of a table, and in the case of phenomenology the generation of the final composite description of the experience that is being studied (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Strengths and Limitations: Strong qualitative analyses include the collection of data that is organized and purpose-driven (Patton, 2015). It is important to begin an analysis of patterns while data is being collected to understand how many more cases may need to be collected to test the theme (Patton, 2015). One concern that I could see regarding this method could be researcher bias affecting how data is collected. The researcher would need to work on establishing and maintaining bracketing of their own experience as to not sway the direction the study is moving in with their own outsider perspective (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

References

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Professor feedback.

There are several alternatives with this method, Amanda. You can follow the method described by Giorgi in the attached document or Moustakas (the text is referenced in the syllabus). Another author is van Kaam. Within van Kaam’s approach you need to consider all of the data so that it is apparent that you weren’t biased in your selection of what was important within the experience (van Kaam, 1959). The next step is to separate the data into meaning units by marking where shifts in meaning occur. Look at each meaning unit to determine if it provides a description of the experience being explored. If it does, decide whether or not this meaning unit can be labeled in a way that does not alter but in fact preserves what is being communicated. If this meaning unit is relevant and can be labeled, it is retained and coded. Once the entire data set is coded, concepts (labels) that overlap or repeat can be explored to identify the expression (label/code) that is the most descriptive of this experience. Several meaning units may be identified with this expression (label/code). Ex. The code ‘feeling inadequate’ could be applied to several segments of text or meaning units. Related expressions, expressions that represent the same aspect of the experience, are then grouped together (clustered) and labeled with an abstract concept (expression framed in psychological terms) that represents that group. Several clusters may fall underneath this expression especially if each represents a portion of that particular aspect of the experience. Adrian L. van Kaam (1959) refers to these as moments within the experience. Several moments may be grouped together that describe one aspect of the experience. After all of the data are analyzed, the researcher has to make sure that the expressions identified as exemplifying this experience are communicated directly or indirectly within each data set and apply to the overall experience expressed by each individual.

Van Kaam, A (1959). Phenomenal Analysis: Exemplified by a Study of the Experience of “Really Feeling Understood”. Journal of Individual Psychology, 13, 66-72.

Example 2

Topic: Experience of adjusting to motherhood as a working BCBA.

Research Question and Methodological Design
My proposed research topic is on the experience of adjusting to motherhood as a working BCBA (Board Certified Behavior Analyst). This topic is relevant most to a Phenomenological study, as I wish to explore a specific population of interest and their personal experiences. The Phenomenological approach aims to collect data on the unique personal experiences of the target population to develop a broader understanding of the specific phenomena of that group in their adjustment to motherhood (Moustakas, 1994). Per recommendations by Creswell & Poth (2018), data collection would be primarily derived from an open-ended one on one interview and sampled at n = 1 of BCBA’s interviewed to provide an appropriate number of successful participant data collected.
Data Analysis for Methodology
Data collected will be prepared and then put through a process of phenomenological reduction. This would be done in conjunction with the five stages of analysis (Percy et al., 2015). As per Capella guidelines, an empirical Phenomenological approach would be chosen. Collected interviews would be transcribed to documents and analyzed for criteria that would be categorized into corresponding codes/themes identified. After this, interpretation and visual graphing would be designed to transfer the collected data to an observable and visual representation of the data (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The data will then be divided into meaning units and examined to determine the meaning of the experiences (Giorgi, 1997).
Effectiveness and Limitations of Data Analysis Strategy
Limitations of an empirical data analysis strategy are that it cannot utilize the ability to experiment with meanings or themes multi-directionally. Also, any discrimination between the textural or structural description of the interviews would not be possible. Finally, we are working with qualitative data, which is subjective in many ways. It could not be tested in a lab and replicated as such. The known effective traits of this data analysis strategy are that the data is categorized and analyzed in a systematic and inductive process.
Natasha Bouchillon

References:
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice, and evaluation of the phenomenological method as a qualitative research procedure. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 28(2), 235-281.
Moustakas, C.E., & SAGE Publications. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks Calif: Sage.
Percy, W.H., Kostere, K., & Kostere, S. (2015). Qualitative research approaches in psychology. Retrieved from

http://assets.capella.edu/campus/doctoral-programs/PsychologyQualitativeResearchApproaches

Professor feedback

There are several alternatives with this method, Natasha. You can follow the method described by Giorgi or Moustakas, both of which you referenced in your post. Another author is van Kaam. Within van Kaam’s approach you need to consider all of the data so that it is apparent that you weren’t biased in your selection of what was important within the experience (van Kaam, 1959). The next step is to separate the data into meaning units by marking where shifts in meaning occur. Look at each meaning unit to determine if it provides a description of the experience being explored. If it does, decide whether or not this meaning unit can be labeled in a way that does not alter but in fact preserves what is being communicated. If this meaning unit is relevant and can be labeled, it is retained and coded. Once the entire data set is coded, concepts (labels) that overlap or repeat can be explored to identify the expression (label/code) that is the most descriptive of this experience. Several meaning units may be identified with this expression (label/code). Ex. The code ‘feeling inadequate’ could be applied to several segments of text or meaning units. Related expressions, expressions that represent the same aspect of the experience, are then grouped together (clustered) and labeled with an abstract concept (expression framed in psychological terms) that represents that group. Several clusters may fall underneath this expression especially if each represents a portion of that particular aspect of the experience. Adrian L. van Kaam (1959) refers to these as moments within the experience. Several moments may be grouped together that describe one aspect of the experience. After all of the data are analyzed, the researcher has to make sure that the expressions identified as exemplifying this experience are communicated directly or indirectly within each data set and apply to the overall experience expressed by each individual.

Van Kaam, A (1959). Phenomenal Analysis: Exemplified by a Study of the Experience of “Really Feeling Understood”. Journal of Individual Psychology, 13, 66-72.

What Will You Get?

We provide professional writing services to help you score straight A’s by submitting custom written assignments that mirror your guidelines.

Premium Quality

Get result-oriented writing and never worry about grades anymore. We follow the highest quality standards to make sure that you get perfect assignments.

Experienced Writers

Our writers have experience in dealing with papers of every educational level. You can surely rely on the expertise of our qualified professionals.

On-Time Delivery

Your deadline is our threshold for success and we take it very seriously. We make sure you receive your papers before your predefined time.

24/7 Customer Support

Someone from our customer support team is always here to respond to your questions. So, hit us up if you have got any ambiguity or concern.

Complete Confidentiality

Sit back and relax while we help you out with writing your papers. We have an ultimate policy for keeping your personal and order-related details a secret.

Authentic Sources

We assure you that your document will be thoroughly checked for plagiarism and grammatical errors as we use highly authentic and licit sources.

Moneyback Guarantee

Still reluctant about placing an order? Our 100% Moneyback Guarantee backs you up on rare occasions where you aren’t satisfied with the writing.

Order Tracking

You don’t have to wait for an update for hours; you can track the progress of your order any time you want. We share the status after each step.

Order Now Talk to Us

Areas of Expertise

Although you can leverage our expertise for any writing task, we have a knack for creating flawless papers for the following document types.

Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Report

Case Study

Letter

Article

Coursework

Speech

Q & A

Critical Thinking

Areas of Expertise

Although you can leverage our expertise for any writing task, we have a knack for creating flawless papers for the following document types.

Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Report

Case Study

Letter

Article

Coursework

Speech

Q & A

Critical Thinking

Trusted Partner of 9650+ Students for Writing

From brainstorming your paper's outline to perfecting its grammar, we perform every step carefully to make your paper worthy of A grade.

Preferred Writer

Hire your preferred writer anytime. Simply specify if you want your preferred expert to write your paper and we’ll make that happen.

Grammar Check Report

Get an elaborate and authentic grammar check report with your work to have the grammar goodness sealed in your document.

One Page Summary

You can purchase this feature if you want our writers to sum up your paper in the form of a concise and well-articulated summary.

Plagiarism Report

You don’t have to worry about plagiarism anymore. Get a plagiarism report to certify the uniqueness of your work.

Free Features $66FREE

Most Qualified Writer $10FREE
Plagiarism Scan Report $10FREE
Unlimited Revisions $08FREE
Paper Formatting $05FREE
Cover Page $05FREE
Referencing & Bibliography $10FREE
Dedicated User Area $08FREE
24/7 Order Tracking $05FREE
Periodic Email Alerts $05FREE

Our Services

Join us for the best experience while seeking writing assistance in your college life. A good grade is all you need to boost up your academic excellence and we are all about it.

On-time Delivery
24/7 Order Tracking
Access to Authentic Sources

Academic Writing

We create perfect papers according to the guidelines.

Professional Editing

We seamlessly edit out errors from your papers.

Thorough Proofreading

We thoroughly read your final draft to identify errors.

Thorough Proofreading

We thoroughly read your final draft to identify errors.

Delegate Your Challenging Writing Tasks to Experienced Professionals

Work with ultimate peace of mind because we ensure that your academic work is our responsibility and your grades are a top concern for us!

Check Out Our Sample Work

Dedication. Quality. Commitment. Punctuality

It May Not Be Much, but It’s Honest Work!

Here is what we have achieved so far. These numbers are evidence that we go the extra mile to make your college journey successful.

0+

Happy Clients

0+

Words Written This Week

0+

Ongoing Orders

0%

Customer Satisfaction Rate

Process as Fine as Brewed Coffee

We have the most intuitive and minimalistic process so that you can easily place an order. Just follow a few steps to unlock success.

Call Us +1 (877) 657-8180 Discuss Order Details Now

See How We Helped 9000+ Students Achieve Success

We Analyze Your Problem and Offer Customized Writing

We understand your guidelines first before delivering any writing service. You can discuss your writing needs and we will have them evaluated by our dedicated team.

Clear elicitation of your requirements.
Customized writing as per your needs.

We Mirror Your Guidelines to Deliver Quality Services

We write your papers in a standardized way. We complete your work in such a way that it turns out to be a perfect description of your guidelines.

Proactive analysis of your writing.
Active communication to understand requirements.

We Handle Your Writing Tasks to Ensure Excellent Grades

We promise you excellent grades and academic excellence that you always longed for. Our writers stay in touch with you via email.

Thorough research and analysis for every order.
Deliverance of reliable writing service to improve your grades.

Place an Order Start Chat Now

Psychology

What Will You Get?

Premium Quality

Experienced Writers

On-Time Delivery

24/7 Customer Support

Complete Confidentiality

Authentic Sources

Moneyback Guarantee

Order Tracking

Areas of Expertise

Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Report

Case Study

Letter

Article

Coursework

Speech

Q & A

Critical Thinking

Areas of Expertise

Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Report

Case Study

Letter

Article

Coursework

Speech

Q & A

Critical Thinking

Trusted Partner of 9650+ Students for Writing

Preferred Writer

Grammar Check Report

One Page Summary

Plagiarism Report

Free Features $66FREE

Our Services

Academic Writing

Professional Editing

Thorough Proofreading

Thorough Proofreading

Delegate Your Challenging Writing Tasks to Experienced Professionals

Check Out Our Sample Work

It May Not Be Much, but It’s Honest Work!

0+

Happy Clients

0+

Words Written This Week

0+

Ongoing Orders

0%

Customer Satisfaction Rate

Process as Fine as Brewed Coffee

Share Your Requirements

Place Order & Deposit Funds

Release Payment to Your Writer

See How We Helped 9000+ Students Achieve Success

We Analyze Your Problem and Offer Customized Writing

We Mirror Your Guidelines to Deliver Quality Services

We Handle Your Writing Tasks to Ensure Excellent Grades