PSY 220 – QUIZ 1

Q1) Does each example below best illustrate reliance on tenacity, authority, reason, empiricism, or systematic empiricism as a way of knowing?

1. Trevor wants to buy a new smartphone, so he reads phone reviews by experts on cnet.com and endgadget.com.

2. Four-year-old Shonda has a watercolor paint kit. She’s curious about what color she will get if she mixes red and green paint, so she does it a few times to find out.

3. Claire takes her first multiple-choice test in junior high. When the graded test is returned to her, she pays attention only to the items she got wrong. She notices three questions for which she had initially chosen the correct answer but, after reconsidering, switched to a wrong answer. She fails to notice even more items for which she initially picked the wrong answer but switched to the correct answer. She concludes that “on multiple-choice tests, you should always stick with your first instinct.”

4. In college, Claire learns that research consistently suggests the advice to “always stick with your first instinct on multiple-choice exams” is wrong. On average, when switching answers, students are more likely to change a wrong answer to a correct answer than vice versa. Claire rejects this and sticks with her “first-instinct” belief.

Q2) Describe two ways in which prediction is a goal of science. What are two ways in which control is a scientific goal?

Q3) In an experiment, what is the purpose of randomly assigning participants to conditions?

Q4) When researchers draw inductive conclusions from samples of data, what are two general types of error that can occur?

Q5) Describe several reasons why psychologists study nonhuman animals

Science
and
Psychology

Slides Prepared by Alison L. O’Malley

Passer Chapter 1

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Door 1
Door 2
Door 3

The Three-Door Problem
Stay or switch?

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Table 1.1 Feedback Sent to vos Savant Following Her “Switch” Solution to the Three-Door Problem
Passer: Research Methods, First Edition
© 2014 by Worth Publishers, Macmillan Higher Education

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Bases for Beliefs
Tenacity
Authority
Reason
Empiricism
Discuss the strengths
and weaknesses of each.

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Table 1.2 The Use of Reason: A Logical Analysis of All Possible Outcomes
in the Three-Door Problem, When Initially Selecting Door 1
Passer: Research Methods, First Edition
© 2014 by Worth Publishers, Macmillan Higher Education

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Empiricism: The Building Block of Science
Empiricism is essential, but imperfect.
Consider the confirmation bias:
We find what we want to
find and avoid the rest.
Yikes!

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How many licks does it take to get to the tootsie-roll center of a tootsie pop?
See also www.tootsie.com/gal_licks.php

Do Ghosts exist?

Goals of Science
Description
Explanation
Prediction
Control

How do theory and
hypothesis-testing fit
into each goal?

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“Let’s Test Our Theory…”
What’s wrong with the statement above?
People often misapply the terms “theory” and “hypothesis.”
Clarify the distinction between these two fundamental elements of science.

Explanation
Since explanation seeks to identify causes, can it be said that explanation is the most important goal of science?

What conditions are
necessary to make
causal inferences?

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Causal Inferences
Causal inferences are possible when three conditions have been met:
Covariation. As X changes, Y changes.
Temporal order. Change in X occurs before change in Y.
Absence of plausible alternative explanations. Other factors that could have driven the change in Y can be ruled out.
X has a causal effect on Y

Explanation
Draw a causal model depicting the hypothesized distal and proximal causes of ________.

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?

?

?

Three Questions:
Do men make better drivers than women?
Does personality influence career choice?
Are pet owners happier than non pet owners?

The Scientific Method
Assumes truth is discoverable
Is grounded in systematic empiricism
Addresses testable questions
Strives for accuracy and objectivity
Requires clear definitions and operationism

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Falsifiability
Can an assertion be disproven?

Operationism
What’s “inside” shouldn’t be a mystery…
Define concepts clearly
and carefully!

Operationism
What’s inside shouldn’t be a mystery…
Generate an operational
definition for
STRESS.

Table 1.3 Identifying Empirical and Nonempirical Questions
Passer: Research Methods, First Edition
© 2014 by Worth Publishers, Macmillan Higher Education

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Is science the key to everything?

Science also…
Involves public reporting
ideally in refereed journals
Is tentative, not absolute
theories are challenged and refined
Is self-correcting
operational definitions aid in replication
Is but one source of knowledge
restricted to empirical questions

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Characteristics of Science
Why isn’t it appropriate to describe the scientific method as a single method of conducting research?

Science

Scientific Research: Basic and Applied
An industrial-organizational psychologist examines the relationship between CEO compensation and organizational performance.
Is this basic or applied research? Explain.

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Basic
vs
Applied Research

Value of Research Methods Training
Research methods are only useful if you want to be a researcher, right?
Let’s reconsider…
How could mastery of research methods help this recent graduate?

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Skepticism
Skepticism is an outlook that entails careful
evaluation of evidence rather than
blind acceptance of claims.

Ask critical thinking questions!

Ask Yourself…
What claim is being made?
What is the source of the claim?
Can I gather info about source credibility?
What supporting evidence is offered?
What is the quality of the evidence?
Are there plausible alternative explanations for the findings?
Are the interpretations of the findings reasonable?
What additional evidence is needed to reach a clearer conclusion?
Given the current state of the evidence, what conclusion is most reasonable?

63946.418

Conducting
Psychological
Research

Slides Prepared by Alison L. O’Malley

Passer Chapter 2

1

What is “good science”?
Jot down 3 characteristics…

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Origins of Research Questions
Personal experience and daily events
Prior research and theory
Real-world problems
Serendipity
Generate an example
associated with each
source.

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Conducting a Literature Search
Where
to
begin?

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Conducting a Literature Search
Online databases: PsycInfo, Google Scholar…
Boolean operators: AND, NOT, OR to narrow results
***Peer-reviewed articles***
Full text access?
If not, try authors’ personal websites
… or interlibrary loan (allow plenty of time!)

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Conducting a Literature Search
Research Question: Are pet owners happier than non pet owners?
What’s the optimal What’s the optimal
Way way to enter this question into a search
database?

In search database?

Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

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Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

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Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

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Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

10

Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

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Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find

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Manuscript component Brief description
Abstract Short summary of study
Introduction Background and rationale for hypotheses
Method Participants, procedure, materials/measures
Results Data analysis – statistical tests reveal support or lack thereof for hypotheses
Discussion Non-statistical review of findings, implications, limitations, avenues for future research
References List of all in-text citations formatted in APA style

Making Sense of What You Find
Note. Review papers (e.g., Annual Review of Psychology) will deviate from this format

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Forming a Hypothesis
Inductive: Specific facts  general conclusion
Data driven; “bottom up”
E.g., medical diagnosis based on symptoms
Deductive: General principle  specific conclusion
Theory driven; “top down”
E.g., All people have ___. Pat is a person. Therefore, Pat has ___.

Is one logical approach “better” than the other?

REMEMBER: Above all else, hypotheses must be TESTABLE!!
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Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Describe the characteristics of a recent happy episode in your life.
How happy are you?

Qualitative vs. Quantitative
1 2 3 4 5

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions

Research Scenario 1: Employees randomly assigned to receive cookies or not receive cookies while completing a job satisfaction questionnaire (Brief, Butcher, & Roberson, 1995)
Research Scenario 2: Employees complete a questionnaire containing questions about mood and job satisfaction
Experimental vs. Descriptive

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Research Scenario 1: Employees randomly assigned to receive or not receive cookies while completing a job satisfaction questionnaire (Brief, Butcher, & Roberson, 1995)
Research Scenario 2: Employees complete a questionnaire containing questions about mood and job satisfaction
Experimental vs. Descriptive
What can we conclude on the basis of each research scenario? Why?

Research Design: Mind Your Variables
Independent variable: Systematically manipulated by the researcher in experimental research
Dependent variable: Outcome of interest; what we design research to assess/measure

Research Design: Mind Your Variables

Identify the IV(s) and DV(s) in this scenario:
Employees randomly assigned to receive cookies or not receive cookies while completing a job satisfaction questionnaire

Mastering IVs and DVs
Generate and describe a good strategy for distinguishing independent variables from dependent variables in research scenarios.

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions

Did employees complete the job satisfaction questionnaire under the same conditions (i.e., in identical environments), or did they take the questionnaire online at a time and place of their choosing?
Laboratory vs. Field

Lab settings = CONTROL

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Field experiments still entail manipulation of an IV, but occur in a natural setting as opposed to a lab setting.

Researchers often mention the tradeoff between internal and external validity. What exactly does this mean, and why does such a tradeoff occur?
Laboratory vs. Field

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

20 year olds
40 year olds
60 year olds
If all three age groups are measured and
compared in summer 2013, the design
is cross-sectional.

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

20 year olds
40 year olds
60 year olds
If all three age groups are measured and compared in summer 2013, the design
is cross-sectional.
Beware of cohort effects–different age groups
have different histories. Are observed
differences due to age differences or the groups’
different historical experiences?

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

20 years old Summer 2013
40 years old Summer 2033
60 years old Summer 2053
If a group of participants is measured repeatedly over time, the design is longitudinal.

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

20 years old Summer 2013
40 years old Summer 2033
60 years old Summer 2053
If a group of participants is measured repeatedly over time, the design is longitudinal.
Sequential research designs examine several age cohorts longitudinally.

Research Approaches: Key Distinctions
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal

20 years old Summer 2013
40 years old Summer 2033
60 years old Summer 2053
What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal and sequential
research designs?

Research Design: Mind Your Variables
Internal validity is compromised by the presence of confounds, a particularly pesky type of extraneous variable.

Research Design: Mind Your Variables
Example: Do participants prefer stimuli associated with the first letter of the English alphabet?

If random assignment is used such that half the participants see the object on the left and half see the object on the right, what’s the problem?

A
B

The Role of Sampling
What is a population?
The entire group of scores that a researcher desires to learn about (e.g., all U.S. college students)
What is a sample?
A subset of scores from the population (e.g., 1,000 college students from a variety of colleges)
Population vs. Sample

Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions
Quantitative and qualitative analysis

Descriptive Statistics
Measures of central tendency address the typicality of a score:
Mode: most frequent score
Median: middle score (of an ordered set)
Mean: mathematical center of distribution

Organize and summarize a set of data

Descriptive Statistics
Build a dataset comprised of how many siblings each of your classmates has.
Establish the mode, median, and mean for this dataset.

Central Tendency

Descriptive Statistics: Central Tendency
Is it more appropriate to report the mean or the median for men and women in this dataset? Why?

MD = median
SP = sexual partners
Apologies for the fuzzy image
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Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion address the spread (i.e., the variability) of a set of scores.

Organize and summarize a set of data
Sketch the distribution associated with each of the three parties.

Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion address the spread (i.e., the variability) of a set of scores.

Organize and summarize a set of data
Range: distance between highest and lowest score
Variance: spread of scores relative to mean
Standard deviation: square root of variance

Inferential Statistics
An oft heard question is whether research findings are “statistically significant.” Are our findings merely due to random error—to chance?
Inferential statistics reveal the probability that our findings are due to chance.

We use sample data to infer the nature of the population

Inferential Statistics
Psychological scientists traditionally maintain that findings are statistically significant if the probability is less than 5% that the results are due to random error.

We use sample data to infer the nature of the population
p < .05 =  Inferential Statistics: Drawing Conclusions Statistically significant findings mean that we’ve proven how the world works, right? We use sample data to infer the nature of the population Inferential Statistics: Drawing Conclusions Statistically significant findings mean that we’ve proven how the world works, right? WRONG. We use sample data to infer the nature of the population Inferential Statistics: Drawing Conclusions Our results may not be practically important… …or perhaps there were confounding variables at play. Good research design is critical! And even with solid research design, maybe our conclusion is downright wrong. We use sample data to infer the nature of the population Drawing Conclusions Two errors: False alarms and missed opportunities An innocent person is found guilty  False alarm (Type I error) In research terms, we mistakenly conclude that two variables are associated when they really have nothing to do with each other. Drawing Conclusions Two errors: False alarms and missed opportunities A guilty person is found innocent  Missed opportunity (Type II error) In research terms, we mistakenly conclude that two variables are not associated when they really are related. Drawing Conclusions Two errors: False alarms and missed opportunities Apply the false alarm and missed opportunity scenarios to the “cookie” experiment (Brief et al., 1995). How to Tell Your Research Story So we all speak the same language! Run, don’t walk, to access the 6th edition of the APA publication manual! http:// www.apastyle.org / Helpful for students to see this is the most recent version 45 Building Knowledge and Theories Contemplate the distinction between a theory and a hypothesis… Now, why does theory building matter? What Makes a Good Theory? Testability and specificity Does theory lend itself to testable hypotheses and specific predictions? Internal consistency and clarity Does theory avoid contradictory predictions? Can it be falsified? Is it clear to experts how components of the theory relate to each other? 47 What Makes a Good Theory? Empirical support Can theory be reconciled with current knowledge base? If not, can it debunk current “fact”? Does high quality research support new hypotheses derived from theory? Parsimony Law of parsimony: Explanations should use the minimum number of principles necessary to account for the maximum number of facts. 48 What Makes a Good Theory? Last, but not least: Does the theory have an impact on the field? Proof and Disproof Science values lively debate. There is no tolerance for the notion of “absolute proof.” It’s always possible that our results are due to chance. Similarly, a single set of results cannot “disprove” a hypothesis derived from a theory. Science is forward-moving, and theories are strengthened or weakened as supportive or unsupportive findings continually emerge. Research is more “probabilistic” than “absolute” (Baumeister, 2008) 63946.418

Conducting
Ethical
Research

Slides Prepared by Alison L. O’Malley

Passer Chapter 3

1

Codes of Research Ethics
What is/are ethics?
Ethical concerns permeate every aspect of the research process.
Name and describe a historical event that influenced contemporary research ethics codes.

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The Nuremberg Code (1947)
Set of ethical principles essential for medical experiments to be “permissible” (also applies to behavioral research)
Voluntary consent with freedom to withdraw at any time
Information prior to giving consent about research purpose and potential risks
Avoidance of unnecessary risk
Results should be of sufficient value to outweigh risks to participants
Qualified scientists must conduct the research

The Belmont Report (1979)
Respect
Beneficence
Justice
Concerns for these ethical principles govern participant selection, consent, and risk-benefit assessment.
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APA Ethics Code (2010)
Beneficence and nonmaleficence (huh?)
Fidelity and responsibility
Integrity
Justice
Respect
How does each principle apply to the
conduction of psychological science?

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Institutional Review: The IRB
Who sits on your institution’s IRB?
How does your IRB assess the degree of risk to participants?
What’s the difference between anonymity and confidentiality?

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The IRB

Exempt
Expedited
Full Review
Describe each form of IRB review.

Types of Harm
Physical harm (e.g., pain)
Psychological harm (e.g., anxiety)
Social harm and loss of privacy (e.g., sensitive information disclosed)
Economic or legal harm (e.g., accident after research-induced sleep deprivation)

Considered in judging degree of risk to participants

Excerpt of Sample Informed Consent
I have been fully informed of the above-described procedure with its possible benefits and risks. I understand that I may view my responses at a later date and be fully de-briefed on them if I so desire. I also understand that my responses will be maintained in a confidential manner by the researcher. I voluntarily give permission for my participation in this study. I know that the investigator and her associates will be available to answer any questions I may have. I understand that I am free to withdraw this consent and discontinue participation in this project at any time without penalty. I am also aware that I will receive a copy of this Informed Consent form for my records at this time.
Participant Signature ________________________________________
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Informed Consent

What other elements must be reflected in an informed consent?
Is informed consent absolutely necessary?
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Basic Elements of Informed Consent
1. Purpose and nature of research
2. Anticipated risks, discomforts, adverse effects
3. Anticipated benefits
4. Alternative procedures or treatments
5. Confidentiality and limits to confidentiality
6. Incentives and compensation
7. Contact information
8. Voluntary participation and freedom to
discontinue participation

Informed Consent

How does assent come into play when working with vulnerable populations?
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Deception
Passive deception: Researchers withhold info that might influence participants’ decision to provide informed consent
Active deception: Researchers mislead participants about some aspect of a study
If participants receive bogus negative feedback about their task performance, what sort of deception is this? Is it justifiable?

Deception
How was deception employed in Milgram’s (1963, 1974) obedience studies?

Identify the
confederate(s)

Debriefing
Thanks.
Bye now.
What are the elements of a
thorough debriefing?

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Nonhuman Animal Research
Why is psychological research conducted on animals?
Animal Welfare Act regulates use of warm-blooded animals with exception of mice, rats, and birds

Institutional Review: The IRB
Who sits on your institution’s IACUC?
Ethical standards for animal research revolve around
Reduction
Refinement
Replacement

Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare

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Tell Your Story with Integrity
Represent yourself accurately
Report results ethically
Fabrication and falsification are FRAUD
…and what about questionable research practices (QRPs)?

Should data stay
or go?

Tell Your Story with Integrity
Does an idea belong to you, or did it originate with someone else?
Did you know it’s possible to plagiarize yourself?
Paraphrase and cite with care!

When it comes to research ethics, there are many shades of grey…
Ask critical questions. Seek advice from trusted teachers and mentors. You’re not in this alone!