Using your problem solving and self and social awareness skills and what you have learned about personality traits and emotions, answer the questions below to help Gloria calm her anxiety and find a solution to her problem.
For each question, you should write a paragraph-length response (5–7 sentences) to receive credit for this assignment. You may use your Soomo webtext as a resource.
Question 1: From Chapter 3 in the webtext, what did you learn about the Big 5 personality traits? (Hint: Page 3.12 helps you learn about the Big 5 traits.)
Question 2: Consider Gloria and Lakeisha’s different approaches to the project. On which one of the Big 5 personality traits do they most differ? How do they differ?
Question 3: Chapter 6 in the webtext focused on emotions. Using what you learned, give advice to Gloria on how she can identify and regulate her own emotions so that she can stick with this project and be successful. (Hint: Pages 6.4 and 6.11 have resources to help with this question.)
Question 4: If you were in the situation that Gloria faces, how confident are you that you could successfully resolve this workplace conflict? What past experiences or knowledge influence your answer?
Sources
1. D. G. Myers & C. N. DeWall. 2019. Psychology (6th ed.). Soomo Learning. http://www.webtexts.com
As you continue to practice the psychological concepts you’re learning in this
course, you’re honing the problem solving and self and social awareness
skills that will help you navigate social situations in your life and career.
You’re discovering how to apply these skills to understand the behaviors of
others, improve your relationships, and make informed decisions based on
reliable information.
And no matter what kind of situation you encounter at school, home, or work,
you’re learning how to recognize and manage your emotions so they don’t get
the best of you!
Now, it’s time to practice the skills and concepts to help your friend Gloria
navigate a difficult workplace situation.
Gloria and Lakeisha are co-workers who are assigned to work on a project
together. Lakeisha is very organized and wants them to do really well on this
project. To help them get started, Lakeisha took some initiative and prepared
a list of to-do items along with due dates. She even color-coded the list to
indicate which partner will do each item and sends an email to Gloria with the
to-do list. Lakeisha wants her partner to know that she’s serious about their
success.
Gloria is happy her teammate has shown initiative but is surprised by
Lakeisha’s to-do list and feels a bit uncomfortable because she feels like
Lakeisha is micromanaging her. Gloria wants to do her part on the project but
is feeling anxious because she doesn’t know where she fits in, and it is
making her worried about working on this project. She wonders how she can
succeed on this project if Lakeisha is already the leader. When working for a
previous employer, Gloria felt anxious about her ability to successfully
complete a project and attempted to communicate her feelings with a co-
worker; however, her co-worker didn’t seem to understand Gloria’s concerns
and said that she should just ignore her feelings and get the work done.
As Gloria ponders having a conversation with Lakeisha, she starts to feel
overwhelmed and thinks it might just be easier to be removed from the
project. Using your problem solving and self and social awareness skills and
what you have learned about personality traits and emotions, answer the
questions below to help Gloria calm her anxiety and find a solution to her
problem:
1. From Chapter 3 in the webtext, what did you learn about the big 5
personality traits?
2. Consider Gloria and Lakeisha’s different approaches to the project. On
which one of the Big 5 personality traits do they most differ? How do they
differ?
3. Chapter 6 in the webtext focused on emotions. Using what you learned,
give advice to Gloria on how she can identify and regulate her own emotions
so that she can stick with this project, and be successful.
4. If you were in this situation, how confident are you that you could
successfully resolve a workplace conflict like the one that Gloria faced? What
past experiences or knowledge influence your answer
Use the Case Study #2 Assignment Template to record your responses. For
each question, you should write a paragraph-length response (5-7 sentences)
to receive credit for this assignment. You may use your Soomo webtext as a
resource. Once you have completed your work, save the file and upload it to
the assignment submission area.
Strayer University Writing Standards Note: Review the Strayer University
Writing Standards. These are provided as a brief set of user-friendly
guidelines that make it easier for you to learn the behaviors of appropriate
writing (i.e., clear, professional, and ethical writing). This is meant to support
the use of the template provided.
PREVIOUS NEXT
WEEK 7 SUBMITH
https://blackboard.strayer.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/PSY/PSY101/COURSE_FILES/cf_PSY101_Week7_CaseStudy_2_Template x
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.20 Conclusion
Conclusion
What did you learn about psychology and development this week, and how can it
contribute to your self and social awareness and problem solving skills?
Using Psychology to Make Good Decisions
You can use what you’ve learned about personality and development to make decisions
and solve problems. Consider how you might respond to an older co-worker when she
repeatedly asks for help with a seemingly simple computer task. You can use Piaget’s
concepts to understand that your co-worker is struggling to accommodate, or adjust,
her existing schemas to the new technology. You can use the Big Five traits to recognize
that she is conscientious but also easily frustrated; because she wants to do the task
perfectly, you will have to be patient.
This is where your self and social awareness can support your ability to solve problems.
You can also use your knowledge about memory and brain plasticity to be confident
that although your co-worker may take longer to complete the task, her brain is more
than capable of learning new information and adapting her schemas. In this sense,
understanding the personalities and tendencies of others can help you make the best
decisions, which is a key part of your problem solving skill.
Quick Chapter Review
In this chapter, you learned about personality traits as well as physical, cognitive, and
social development over the life span. You also connected these ideas to the two skills in
this course: self and social awareness and problem solving. This chapter built on the
foundations established in Chapter 2, further discussing how biological changes
influence psychological development. Let’s take a few minutes to review the key
concepts from this week:
Developmental psychology focuses on three major issues or debates about how
change occurs: nature and nurture, continuity and stages, and stability and change.
Jean Piaget identified stages of cognitive development that described how children
use increasingly sophisticated schemas, or mental categories and strategies, to
understand their world. When we encounter new information, Piaget said we
either assimilate the new information into our existing schemas, or we
accommodate our schemas to account for the new information.
The areas of the brain responsible for rational decision making are still developing
in adolescence. This ongoing development explains some of the characteristically
impulsive behavior of teenagers.
As adults age, they continue to develop, form relationships, and adjust to physical
changes and challenges.
As complex as personality seems, psychologists have narrowed personality down to
five basic traits: openness to new experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Social-cognitive theory describes how people’s behavior and decisions result from
a complex reciprocal interaction between their biological factors (such as traits or
brain development) and social context (such as the environment). Behavior,
biology, and context each influence and are influenced by one another.
In sum, understanding development and personality traits—both your own and those of
others—will almost always help you expand your self and social awareness.
Coming Up: Memory
As you have seen, your development and personality clearly influence your ability to
solve problems and make wise decisions. But your memory and related mental
processes also play a role. Next week, you’ll examine how your minds process and store
different types of memories, how you forget things, and how you can develop strategies
to improve your memory.
You’ve reached the end of Chapter 3. Before moving on, take a break and reflect on what
you’ve learned here. When you’re ready, use the Table of Contents menu in the upper
left corner of this screen to select the chapter you want to view next.
close
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.18 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
Investigation
Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
For this three-part investigation, you’ll apply concepts of brain function and
development to the issue of teen decision making.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.18 Investigation: Helping Teens Make
Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
On this page: 4 of 4 attempted (100%) | 4 of 4 correct (100%)
You have 1 reset remaining for the multiple-choice questions on this page.
Objective: Determine how the social environment affects teenagers’ decision making.
Peers are important for a teenager’s social development, but they can also affect an
individual’s ability to evaluate risky decisions.
Rob and Julie Campbell
Why Teenagers Make Risky Decisions
In this section, you will learn more about why teens make poor choices and how parents
can help them make better ones. Use the three article excerpts to answer the questions.
In this chapter, you’ve read about social-cognitive theory’s concept of reciprocal
determinism, which emphasizes that both personal and environmental factors influence
behavior. So although teenagers’ biology, personality, and goals (all internal factors)
affect their behaviors, so does the social situation. In the following article, which is split
into three sections, you’ll read about why teens are often around their friends when they
make bad decisions. Environmental factors and internal factors help shape teenagers’
risky behavior. More importantly, you will also read about the ways parents can help
construct teenagers’ environment.
Psychology Today
Why Are Teen Brains Designed for Risk-taking?
Here are four ways parents can reduce the danger
By Nina S. Mounts, Ph.D.
June 9, 2015
Adolescents and young adults take more risks than any other age groups (Steinberg,
2008). This risk-taking includes dangerous driving (e.g. texting), drug use, binge
drinking, and risky sexual behavior. Despite educational efforts to provide teens with
information about risky behavior, many adolescents continue to engage in risky
behavior (Kann, et al., 2014).
How do we explain the persistence of teens’ risky behavior, despite the large amount of
money being spent on prevention programs? What can we do to reduce the danger?
A growing of body of brain research is providing answers to these questions. People
often believe that teens engage in risky behavior because they are not very good at
evaluating risk. But early research in this area demonstrated that adolescents are just as
good as adults at evaluating risk across a broad range of risky behavior (Beyth-Marom,
Austin, Fischoff, Pamlgren, & Jacobs-Quadrel, 1993). So, teens know that the behaviors
are risky, but they still engage in them. Why?
Research on peer relationships and brain development during the adolescence period
may provide an answer.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the availability of magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Using these tools,
researchers have found several changes in the brain during puberty (Blakemore,
Burnett, & Dahl, 2010; see Blakemore, 2012 for review) that are important in explaining
risky behavior.
First, during the adolescence period, there is an increased interest in peer relationships
(Larson & Richards, 1991), and susceptibility to peer influence increases during the
early teen years and peaks at about age 14 (Berndt, 1979). Consistent with these readily
observable changes in peer relationships, brain imaging studies have shown that several
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.18 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
areas of the brain make adolescents more sensitive to the rewards of peer relationships
than adults (Albert, Chein, & Steinberg, 2013). This motivates teens to focus on their
peers in decision-making situations that involve risky behavior.
Second, adolescents are more distressed than adults when excluded by peers. A brain
region known as the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) might be important in
helping people cope with negative evaluation from peers by reducing distress. Research
shows that this brain region is used more heavily by adults when being socially excluded
than by adolescents (Sebestian, et al., 2011). When teens do use this area of the brain
during peer exclusion, they report lower levels of distress (Masten, et al., 2009).
During the adolescent years, however, this brain region is still developing (Blakemore &
Mills, 2014), so adolescents may not be as effective at controlling distress during peer
social exclusion. This likely contributes to engaging in risky behaviors to prevent being
excluded by their peers.
Multiple-Choice Question
The article states that teenagers are more likely to take risks when they are
with friends for which of the following reasons?
The teen brain is not developed enough to evaluate the consequences of any
behavior, no matter the context.
The teen brain is more sensitive to social rewards gained during risky
behaviors than the adult brain.
The teen brain is more capable of evaluating the consequences of risky
behavior when teens are around their friends.
The teen brain cannot evaluate risk without the presence of an adult.
Correct. The areas of the brain that respond to social rewards are hypersensitive during
adolescence and can cause teens to focus more on the social rewards of engaging in
risky behaviors than on the negative consequences.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Third, another area of the brain, the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), is responsible for
mature self-regulation and develops gradually over the adolescence period (Albert, et
al., 2013). In one study, early adolescents, late adolescents, and adults behaved
similarly on a computerized driving task when they were by themselves (Gardner &
Steinberg, 2005). However, when they were paired with two same-aged friends, clear
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.18 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
differences emerged. Early adolescents were more likely to engage in risky driving when
friends were present. Late adolescents were somewhat more risky in their driving when
they were with friends. The presence of friends had no impact on adults’ driving.
Using the computerized driving task in conjunction with an fMRI, researchers found
that, in contrast to adults, adolescents were more likely to engage in risky driving when
they knew that their friends were observing them than when they were alone (Chein,
Albert, O’Brien, Uckert, & Steinberg, 2011). The area of the brain that was used by the
adults, the PFC, helps with decision-making and self-regulation in tasks such as driving.
In contrast, adolescents used areas of the brain that are more closely associated with
rewards when completing the driving task.
So we have changes in the brain during early adolescence that make teens more focused
on the rewards of peers and being included in peer activities. This increased focus on
peers occurs during a time when the PFC is not yet ready to assist in mature self-
regulation. These factors provide a “perfect storm” of opportunities for risky behavior.
Multiple-Choice Question
According to the article, which teenager will experience more distress
when pressured by friends to engage in risky behavior?
a teenager who has a well-developed limbic system
a teenager who has a less-developed right prefrontal cortex
a teenager who has a well-developed right prefrontal cortex
a teenager who has a less-developed limbic system
Correct. According to the article, this region is important in helping adolescents cope
with social exclusion, so a teen with a less-developed right ventrolateral prefrontal
cortex would experience more distress when facing peer pressure.
Last saved 2 months ago.
If talking about the dangers of risky behaviors isn’t as effective in preventing them as
parents would like, what can parents do?
There are several approaches that parents can use to more effectively manage teens’
peer relationships (Mounts, 2004; 2008; Steinberg, 2010).
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.18 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 2 of 3)
1. For younger adolescents, parent(s) might design the environment to provide safe
activities that focus on young teens’ need for sensation-seeking (Mounts, 2004;
2008). For example, adult-supervised outdoor activities with peers, such as rock
climbing and zip-lining, can provide a great context for providing the excitement
and social relationships needed for young teens.
2. Supervising teens’ interactions with peers and providing rules for peer interactions
can limit opportunities for risky behavior (Mounts, 2002; 2004; 2008; Steinberg,
2010).
3. Parents also should know and enforce graduated driving laws. Very often these
laws limit the number of peers that are allowed in a vehicle when teens are driving.
4. For older adolescents, parents can consult with teens about peers. Consulting can
build on teens’ growing ability to self-regulate and encourage them to identify and
develop strategies for navigating peer situations where risky activity is likely to
occur (Mounts, 2004; 2008).
The article recommends that parents consult with teens about situations
with their peers, stating that this action helps “build on teens’ growing
ability to self-regulate.” What part of the developing teen brain is involved
in self-regulation?
motor cortex
somatosensory cortex
limbic system
prefrontal cortex
Correct. The prefrontal cortex is considered the CEO of the brain and is responsible for
regulating functions such as organization, planning, and decision making. Discussing
complex situations and decisions with teens will help this area of the brain develop and
will help teens self-regulate more easily in the future.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
According to the article, why should parents encourage teens to take risks
by participating in safe activities, such as supervised rock climbing?
Teens’ brains are designed to get a lot of emotional and social rewards from
taking risks, and they can meet this need through supervised activities.
Teens need to engage in risky activities with their parents more than with their
peers.
Teens who engage in risky activities like rock climbing feel less pressure from
their parents to make good decisions.
Engaging in sports like rock climbing reduces the activity of the right
ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.
Correct. These types of activities can satisfy a natural drive for excitement and
strengthen social relationships.
Last saved 2 months ago.
close
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.19 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
Investigation
Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
For this three-part investigation, you’ll apply concepts of brain function and
development to the issue of teen decision making.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.19 Investigation: Helping Teens Make
Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
On this page: 6 of 6 attempted (100%) | 6 of 6 correct (100%)
You have 1 reset remaining for the multiple-choice questions on this page.
Objective: Apply what you’ve learned about development and the brain to help teens
make decisions.
Teenagers still benefit from their parents’ guidance when faced with risky decisions.
Parents can help navigate this process if they understand teen psychology and
development.
Getty Images
Apply What You’ve Learned
Apply what you have learned about human development and the brain to answer the
questions on the case study below.
Ava is an outgoing and fun-loving 16-year-old who is generally a responsible student.
When she went to her first high-school party, which was hosted by a popular senior, she
expected it to be fun. But the party was more wild than she ever thought it would be.
Ava, who had never drunk any alcohol before this party, had learned about the dangers
of drinking too much alcohol from health class, her parents, and TV shows. Still,
although she is normally a “good kid,” she gave in to peer pressure to play a drinking
game that involved beer and multiple types of liquor. Although she got quite drunk, she
fortunately did not make any other risky decisions that night. The worst result of her
drinking was that her parents grounded her for 2 months. Now, 3 months later, Ava is
asking her parents if she can go to another party, and they are not sure what they
should do.
Multiple-Choice Question
We can partially explain Ava’s desire to fit in at the party by recognizing
that she is in which of the following psychosocial stages identified by Erik
Erikson?
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
integrity vs. despair
identity vs. role confusion
trust vs. mistrust
Correct. Erikson identified adolescence as a time when we seek to define our sense of
self—our identity—or risk becoming confused about our role in our own life. Because
Ava is 16, she is exploring her role as a “good kid” who also wants to have fun with her
peers.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Based on what you’ve learned about teen brain development, why did Ava
decide to participate in the drinking game even though she knew the risks?
Her brain is not capable of truly understanding the potential harm of
consuming so much alcohol.
Ava’s prefrontal cortex prevents her from making a voluntary decision.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.19 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
Her brain is very sensitive to the presence of her peers and the potential social
rewards.
Her brain is incapable of making rational decisions.
Correct. When they are in a social situation, teenagers give more weight to potential
rewards of risky behavior than they give to the negative consequences.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which area of Ava’s brain is still developing and can partially explain why
she drank at the party despite knowing the risks?
prefrontal cortex
motor cortex
occipital lobes
somatosensory cortex
Correct. The prefrontal cortex is considered the CEO of the brain and is responsible for
executive functions such as organization, planning, and decision making. Because Ava’s
prefrontal cortex is still developing, these skills are also still developing, making her
likely to still make risky decisions.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Based on the information in the case study, Ava would likely score high on
which Big Five personality trait? (Review page 3.12.)
heritability
extraversion
instability
neuroticism
Correct. People who score high on the Big Five trait of extraversion are very social,
outgoing, and fun-loving, which is how Ava is described.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.19 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
Ava is described as a “good kid” who is usually conscientious. Does her
behavior at the party indicate that her personality has now changed?
No—the situational factors influenced her behavior, and judgment of
personality cannot be made in one situation.
Yes—if she were to take a personality test, she would now score lower on
conscientiousness than the week before the party.
Yes—her behavior in this situation predicts a life of risk taking and
delinquency.
No—Ava’s personality traits will remain stable and unchanging for the rest of
her life no matter the situation.
Correct. Personality is relatively stable and consistent on average, and Ava will most
likely continue to be conscientious in most situations. However, our behavior can be
inconsistent across situations, especially when we face social demands such as peer
pressure.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Based on what you’ve learned about teenage brain development, which of
the following options would be the BEST way for Ava’s parents to approach
the current issue—whether they should let Ava attend the next party?
Remind Ava of how disappointed they are in most of her decisions before she
leaves for the party.
Help Ava develop some specific phrases and behaviors that she can use when
faced with risky decisions at parties.
Allow Ava to go to parties and make mistakes so that she can learn from them
and make better decisions next time.
Forbid Ava to attend any social events until her prefrontal cortex is fully
developed.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.19 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 3 of 3)
Correct. If teens already have an idea of what to do or say in a potentially risky
situation, they are more likely to feel confident in making a good decision. This type of
discussion also helps teens develop the ability to self-regulate.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.16 Assessing Behavior in Situations
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Assessing Behavior in Situations
To predict behavior, social-cognitive psychologists often observe behavior in realistic
situations. One ambitious example was the U.S. Army’s World War II strategy for
assessing candidates for spy missions. Rather than using paper-and-pencil tests, Army
psychologists subjected the candidates to simulated undercover conditions. They tested
their ability to handle stress, solve problems, maintain leadership, and withstand
intense interrogation without blowing their cover. Although time-consuming and
expensive, this assessment of behavior in a realistic situation helped predict later
success on actual spy missions (OSS Assessment Staff, 1948).
Military and educational organizations and many Fortune 500 companies have adopted
assessment center strategies (Bray et al., 1991, 1997; Eurich et al., 2009). AT&T has
observed prospective managers doing simulated managerial work. Many colleges assess
students’ potential via internships and student teaching, and assess potential faculty
members’ teaching abilities by observing them teach. Most American cities with
populations of 50,000 or more have used assessment centers in evaluating police
officers and firefighters (Lowry, 1997).
The point to rememberThe best means of predicting future behavior… is the person’s
past behavior patterns in similar situations.
Assessment center exercises have some limitations. They are more revealing of visible
dimensions, such as communication ability, than of others, such as inner achievement
drive (Bowler & Woehr, 2006). Nevertheless, these procedures exploit a valid principle:
The best means of predicting future behavior is neither a personality test nor an
interviewer’s intuition; rather, it is the person’s past behavior patterns in similar
situations (Lyons et al., 2011; Mischel, 1981; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). As long as the
situation and the person remain much the same, the best predictor of future job
performance is past job performance; the best predictor of future grades is past grades;
the best predictor of future aggressiveness is past aggressiveness. If you can’t check the
person’s past behavior, the next best thing is to create an assessment situation that
simulates the task so you can see how the person handles it (Lievens et al., 2009;
Meriac et al., 2008).
What criticisms have social-cognitive theorists faced?
Social-cognitive theories of personality sensitize researchers to how situations affect,
and are affected by, individuals. More than other personality theories (see
Table 5
), they
build from psychological research on learning and cognition.
Emotional
disorders spring
from unconscious
dynamics, such as
unresolved sexual
and other
childhood conflicts,
and fixation at
various
developmental
stages. Defense
mechanisms fend
off anxiety.
Personality consists
of pleasure-seeking
impulses (the id), a
reality-oriented
executive (the ego),
and an internalized
set of ideals (the
superego).
The unconscious
and conscious
minds interact.
Childhood
experiences and
defense
mechanisms are
important.
The dynamic
interplay of
conscious and
unconscious motives
and conflicts shape
our personality.
Projective tests,
therapy sessions
Humanistic Rogers,Maslow
Rather than
examine the
struggles of sick
people, it’s better to
focus on the ways
healthy people
strive for self-
realization.
If our basic human
needs are met, we
will strive toward
self-actualization. In
a climate of
unconditional
positive regard, we
can develop self-
awareness and a
more realistic and
positive self-concept.
Questionnaires,
therapy sessions
Trait
Allport,
Eysenck,
McCrae,
Costa
We have certain
stable and enduring
characteristics,
influenced by
genetic
predispositions.
Scientific study of
traits has isolated
important
dimensions of
personality, such as
the Big Five traits
(conscientiousness,
agreeableness,
neuroticism,
openness, and
extraversion).
Bandura Our traits and the
social context
interact to produce
our behaviors.
Conditioning and
observational
learning interact
with cognition to
create behavior
patterns.
Our behavior in
one situation is
best predicted by
considering our
past behavior in
similar
situations.
Critics charge that social-cognitive theories focus so much on the situation that they fail
to appreciate the person’s inner traits. Where is the person in this view of personality,
ask the dissenters, and where are human emotions? True, the situation does guide our
behavior. But, say the critics, in many instances our unconscious motives, our emotions,
and our pervasive traits shine through. Personality traits have been shown to predict
behavior at work, love, and play. Our biologically influenced traits really do matter.
Consider Percy Ray Pridgen and Charles Gill. Each faced the same situation: They had
jointly won a $90 million lottery jackpot (Harriston, 1993). When Pridgen learned of
the winning numbers, he began trembling uncontrollably, huddled with a friend behind
a bathroom door while confirming the win, then sobbed. When Gill heard the news, he
told his wife and then went to sleep.
Multiple-Choice Question
Imagine that you are in charge of hiring someone to fill a leadership
position at your workplace and must decide between two qualified
applicants. Which of the following would be the BEST way to predict the
applicants’ ability to lead a team?
Learn about their previous experiences in a leadership position.
Instruct them to write essays explaining their personal definitions of
leadership.
Ask for self-reported ratings on confidence and intelligence.
Give them a personality test that assesses the Big Five traits.
Correct. If a person and a situation remain mostly the same, the best way to predict
future behavior is to look at the person’s past behavior in similar situations. To
determine whether candidates can effectively lead a team, investigate whether they have
successfully led a team in the past.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.8 Adulthood
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Adulthood
The unfolding of our lives continues across the life span. It is, however, more difficult to
generalize about adulthood stages than about life’s early years. If you know that James
is a 1-year-old and Jamal is a 10-year-old, you could say a great deal about each child.
Not so with adults who differ by a similar number of years. The boss may be 30 or 60;
the marathon runner may be 20 or 50; the 19-year-old may be a parent who supports a
child or a child who receives an allowance. Yet our life courses are in some ways similar.
Physically, cognitively, and especially socially, we differ at age 50 from our 25-year-old
selves. In the discussion that follows, we recognize these differences and use three
terms: early adulthood (roughly twenties and thirties), middle adulthood (to age 65),
and late adulthood (the years after 65). Within each of these stages, people will vary
widely in physical, psychological, and social development.
Physical Development
What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?
Like the declining daylight after the summer solstice, our physical abilities—muscular
strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output—all begin an almost
imperceptible decline in our mid-twenties. Athletes are often the first to notice. World-
class sprinters and swimmers peak by their early twenties. Baseball players peak at
about age 27—with 60 percent of Most Valuable Player awardees since 1985 coming ±2
years of that (Silver, 2012). Women—who mature earlier than men—peak earlier. But
most of us—especially those of us whose daily lives do not require top physical
performance—hardly perceive the early signs of decline.
Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood
Athletes over age 40 know all too well that physical decline gradually accelerates.
During early and middle adulthood, physical vigor has less to do with age than with a
person’s health and exercise habits. Many of today’s physically fit 50-year-olds run 4
miles with ease, while sedentary 25-year-olds find themselves huffing and puffing up
two flights of stairs.
Aging also brings a gradual decline in fertility, especially for women. For a 35- to 39-
year-old woman, the chances of getting pregnant after a single act of intercourse are
only half those of a woman 19 to 26 (Dunson et al., 2002). Men experience a gradual
decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation.
Women experience menopause, as menstrual cycles end, usually within a few years of
age 50. Expectations and attitudes influence the emotional impact of this event. Is it a
sign of lost femininity and growing old, or liberation from menstrual periods and fears
of pregnancy? For men, too, expectations can influence perceptions. Some experience
distress related to a perception of declining virility and physical capacities, but most age
without such problems.
With age, sexual activity lessens. Nevertheless, most men and women remain capable of
satisfying sexual activity, and most express satisfaction with their sex life. This was true
of 70 percent of Canadians surveyed (ages 40 to 64) and 75 percent of Finns (ages 65 to
74) (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 2009; Wright, 2006). In another survey, 75 percent of
respondents reported being sexually active into their eighties (Schick et al., 2010). And
in an American Association of Retired Persons sexuality survey, it was not until age 75
or older that most women and nearly half of men reported little sexual desire
(DeLamater, 2012; DeLamater & Sill, 2005). As Alex Comfort (1992, p. 240) jested,
“The things that stop you having sex with age are exactly the same as those that stop
you riding a bicycle (bad health, thinking it looks silly, no bicycle).”
Multiple-Choice Question
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output
begin to decline in the mid-twenties. Which of the following statements
BEST aligns with research about these effects of aging?
Techniques of genetic engineering can halt or even reverse the effects of aging.
Exercise and lifestyle changes can stop the effects of aging.
Nothing can halt the decline associated with aging.
Vitamins or antioxidants can stop the physical decline associated with aging.
Correct. Some things, like regular exercise and a healthy diet, may be able to slow the
effects of aging, but nothing can truly halt or reverse them.
Is old age “more to be feared than death” (Juvenal, The Satires)? Or is life “most
delightful when it is on the downward slope” (Seneca, Epistulae ad Lucilium)? What is
it like to grow old?
Sensory Abilities, Strength, and Stamina
Although physical decline begins in early adulthood, we are not usually acutely aware of
it until later in life, when the stairs get steeper, the print gets smaller, and other people
seem to mumble more. Muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina diminish in late
adulthood. As a lifelong basketball player, I [DM] find myself increasingly not racing for
that loose ball. But even diminished vigor is sufficient for normal activities.
With age, visual sharpness diminishes, as does distance perception and adaptation to
light-level changes. The eye’s pupil shrinks and its lens becomes less transparent,
reducing the amount of light reaching the retina: A 65-year-old retina receives only
about one-third as much light as its 20-year-old counterpart (Kline & Schieber, 1985).
Thus, to see as well as a 20-year-old when reading or driving, a 65-year-old needs three
times as much light—a reason for buying cars with untinted windshields. This also
explains why older people sometimes ask younger people, “Don’t you need better light
for reading?”
The senses of smell and hearing also diminish. In Wales, teens’ loitering around a
convenience store has been discouraged by a device that emits an aversive high-pitched
sound almost no one over 30 can hear (Lyall, 2005).
Health
As people age, they care less about what their bodies look like and more about how their
bodies function. For those growing older, there is both bad and good news about health.
The bad news: The body’s disease-fighting immune system weakens, making older
adults more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer and pneumonia. The
good news: Thanks partly to a lifetime’s accumulation of antibodies, people over 65
suffer fewer short-term ailments, such as common flu and cold viruses. One study
found they were half as likely as 20-year-olds and one-fifth as likely as preschoolers to
suffer upper respiratory flu each year (National Center for Health Statistics, 1990).
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.14 Using Traits To Predict Behavior
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Using Traits To Predict Behavior
Although our personality traits may be both stable and potent, the consistency of our
specific behaviors from one situation to the next is another matter. As Walter Mischel
(1968, 2009) has pointed out, people do not act with predictable consistency. Mischel’s
studies of college students’ conscientiousness revealed only a modest relationship
between a student’s being conscientious on one occasion (say, showing up for class on
time) and being similarly conscientious on another occasion (say, turning in
assignments on time). If you’ve noticed how outgoing you are in some situations and
how reserved you are in others, perhaps you’re not surprised.
The point to rememberAlthough our personality traits may be both stable and potent,
the consistency of our specific behaviors from one situation to the next is another
matter.
This inconsistency in behaviors also makes personality test scores weak predictors of
behaviors. People’s scores on an extraversion test, for example, do not neatly predict
how sociable they actually will be on any given occasion. If we remember this, says
Mischel, we will be more cautious about labeling and pigeonholing individuals. Years in
advance, science can tell us the phase of the Moon for any given date. A day in advance,
meteorologists can often predict the weather. But we are much further from being able
to predict how you will feel and act tomorrow.
However, people’s average outgoingness, happiness, or carelessness over many
situations is predictable (Epstein, 1983a,b). People who know someone well, therefore,
generally agree when rating that person’s shyness or agreeableness (Jackson et al.,
2015; Kenrick & Funder, 1988). The predictability of average behavior across many
situations was again confirmed when researchers collected snippets of people’s daily
experience via body-worn recording devices: Extraverts really do talk more (Mehl et al.,
2006). (I [DM] have repeatedly vowed to cut back on my jabbering and joking during
my noontime pickup basketball games with friends. Alas, moments later, the
irrepressible chatterbox inevitably reoccupies my body. And I [ND] have a similar
experience each time I try to stay quiet in taxis. Somehow, I always end up chatting with
the driver!) As our best friends can verify, we do have genetically influenced personality
traits. And those traits even lurk, report Samuel Gosling and his colleagues in a series of
studies, in our
music preferences. Your playlist says a lot about your personality. Classical,
jazz, blues, and folk music lovers tend to be open to experience and verbally
intelligent. Extraverts tend to prefer upbeat and energetic music. Country, pop,
and religious music lovers tend to be cheerful, outgoing, and conscientious
(Langmeyer et al., 2012; Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003, 2006).
online spaces. Is a personal website, social media profile, online avatar, or
instant messaging account also a canvas for self-expression? Or is it an opportunity
for people to present themselves in false or misleading ways? It’s more the former
(Back et al., 2010; Fong & Mar, 2015; Gosling et al., 2007). Viewers quickly gain
important clues to the creator’s extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to
experience.
written communications. If you have ever felt you could detect others’
personality from their writing voice, you are right!! (What a cool, exciting
finding!!!…if you know what we’re saying.) People’s ratings of others’ personality
based solely on their e-mails, blogs, and Facebook posts correlate with actual
personality scores on measures such as extraversion and neuroticism (Park et al.,
2015; Pennebaker, 2011; Yarkoni, 2010). Extraverts, for example, use more
adjectives.
In unfamiliar, formal situations—perhaps as a guest in the home of a person from
another culture—our traits remain hidden as we carefully attend to social cues. In
familiar, informal situations—just hanging out with friends—we feel less constrained,
allowing our traits to emerge (Buss, 1989). In these informal situations, our expressive
styles—our animation, manner of speaking, and gestures—are impressively consistent.
Viewing “thin slices” of someone’s behavior—such as seeing a photo for a mere fraction
of a second or seeing three, 2-second clips of a teacher in action—can tell us a lot about
the person’s basic personality traits (Ambady, 2010; Rule et al., 2009).
To sum up, we can say that at any moment the immediate situation powerfully
influences a person’s behavior. Social psychologists have learned that this is especially
so when a “strong situation” makes clear demands (Cooper & Withey, 2009). We can
better predict drivers’ behavior at traffic lights from knowing the color of the lights than
from knowing the drivers’ personalities. Averaging our behavior across many occasions
does, however, reveal distinct personality traits. Traits exist. We differ. And our
differences matter.
Multiple-Choice Question
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.14 – Using Traits To Predict Behavior
Which of the following BEST describes the relationship between
personality and behavior?
We can use personality traits to predict average behavior, but we cannot
predict behavior in any given situation.
Our behaviors are influenced by our personality traits and not by the situation
or context.
Personality traits may influence our actions, but they have no connection to
our interests.
We can use personality traits to predict only how we will act in a formal
setting, not how we will act in casual settings with friends.
Correct. Behavior varies depending on the situation, but if you observe people’s
behavior over multiple situations, you will be able to identify patterns consistent with
their personality traits.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.12 The Big Five Factors
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The Big Five Factors
Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
Today’s trait researchers believe that simple trait factors, such as the Eysencks’
introversion–extraversion and stability–instability dimensions, are important, but they
do not tell the whole story. A slightly expanded set of factors—dubbed the Big Five—
does a better job (Costa & McCrae, 2011). If a test specifies where you are on the five
dimensions (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and
extraversion; see
Table 4
), it has said much of what there is to say about your
personality. Around the world—across 56 nations and 29 languages in one study
(Schmitt et al., 2007)—people describe others in terms roughly consistent with this list.
The Big Five may not be the last word. Some researchers report that basic personality
dimensions can be described by only one or two or three factors (such as
conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion) (Block, 2010; De Raad et al., 2010).
But for now, at least, five is the winning number in the personality lottery (Heine &
Buchtel, 2009; McCrae, 2009).
The “Big Five” Personality Factors
(Memory tip: Picturing a CANOE will help you recall these.)
Disorganized
←Conscientiousness→
Organized
Careless Careful
Impulsive Disciplined
Ruthless
←Agreeableness→
Soft-hearted
Suspicious Trusting
Uncooperative Helpful
Calm
←Neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability)→
Anxious
Secure Insecure
Self-satisfied Self-pitying
Practical
←Openness→
Imaginative
Prefers routine Prefers variety
Conforming Independent
Retiring
←Extraversion→
Sociable
Sober Fun-loving
Reserved Affectionate
Source: Adapted from McCrae & Costa (1986, p. 1002).
Multiple-Choice Question
Which factors have provided researchers with the most useful information
about personality variation?
conscientiousness, disagreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and self-
actualization
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion
conscientiousness, disagreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and introversion
Correct. Researchers consider these five factors to be fairly comprehensive in defining
the core dimensions of our personality. People around the world generally describe
others in terms consistent with this list.
Last saved 2 months ago.
The Big Five is currently our best approximation of the basic trait dimensions. This
“common currency for personality psychology” (Funder, 2001) has been the most active
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.12 – The Big Five Factors
personality research topic since the early 1990s, as researchers have explored these
questions and more:
How stable are the Big Five traits? One research team analyzed 1.25 million
participants ages 10 to 65. They learned that personality continues to develop and
change through late childhood and adolescence. Up to age 40, we show signs of a
maturity principle: We become more conscientious and agreeable and less
neurotic (emotionally unstable) (Bleidorn, 2015; Roberts et al., 2008). Great apes
show similar personality maturation (Weiss & King, 2015). After age 40, our traits
stabilize.
How heritable are these traits? Heritability (the extent to which individual
differences are attributable to genes) generally runs about 40 percent for each
dimension (Vukasović & Bratko, 2015). Many genes, each having small effects,
combine to influence our traits (McCrae et al., 2010).
How do these traits reflect differing brain structure? The size of different
brain regions correlates with several Big Five traits (DeYoung et al., 2010; Grodin
& White, 2015). For example, those who score high on conscientiousness tend to
have a larger frontal lobe area that aids in planning and controlling behavior. Brain
connections also influence the Big Five traits (Adelstein et al., 2011). People high in
openness have brains that are wired to experience intense imagination, curiosity,
and fantasy.
Have levels of these traits changed over time? Cultures change over time,
which can influence shifts in personality. Within the United States and the
Netherlands, extraversion and conscientiousness have increased (Mroczek & Spiro,
2003; Smits et al., 2011; Twenge, 2001).
How well do these traits apply to various cultures? The Big Five
dimensions describe personality in various cultures reasonably well (Schmitt et al.,
2007; Vazsonyi et al., 2015; Yamagata et al., 2006). “Features of personality traits
are common to all human groups,” concluded Robert McCrae and 79 co-
researchers (2005) from their 50-culture study.
Do the Big Five traits predict our actual behaviors? Yes. If people report
being outgoing, conscientious, and agreeable, “they probably are telling the truth,”
reports McCrae (2011). For example, our traits appear in our language patterns. In
text messaging, extraversion predicts use of personal pronouns. Agreeableness
predicts positive-emotion words. Neuroticism (emotional instability) predicts
negative-emotion words (Holtgraves, 2011). (In the next section, we will see that
situations matter, too.)
By exploring such questions, Big Five research has sustained trait psychology and
renewed appreciation for the importance of personality. Traits matter.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.12 – The Big Five Factors
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.7 Parent and Peer Relationships
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Parent and Peer Relationships
How do parents and peers influence adolescents?
As adolescents in Western cultures seek to form their own identities, they begin to pull
away from their parents (Shanahan et al., 2007). The preschooler who can’t be close
enough to her mother, who loves to touch and cling to her, becomes the 14-year-old
who wouldn’t be caught dead holding hands with Mom. The transition occurs gradually,
but this period is typically a time of diminishing parental influence and growing peer
influence.
The point to remember Adolescence is typically a time of diminishing parental influence
and growing peer influence.
As Aristotle long ago recognized, we humans are “the social animal.” At all ages, but
especially during childhood and adolescence, we seek to fit in with our groups (Harris,
1998, 2002). Teens who start smoking typically have friends who model smoking,
suggest its pleasures, and offer cigarettes (J. S. Rose et al., 1999; R. J. Rose et al., 2003).
Part of this peer similarity may result from a selection effect, as kids seek out peers with
similar attitudes and interests. Those who smoke (or don’t) may select as friends those
who also smoke (or don’t). Put two teens together and their brains become
hypersensitive to reward (Albert et al., 2013). This increased activation helps explain
why teens take more driving risks when with friends than they do alone (Chein et al.,
2011).
By adolescence, parent-child arguments occur more often, usually over mundane things
—household chores, bedtime, homework (Tesser et al., 1989). Conflict during the
transition to adolescence tends to be greater with first-born than with second-born
children, and greater with mothers than with fathers (Burk et al., 2009; Shanahan et al.,
2007).
For a minority of parents and their adolescents, differences lead to real splits and great
stress (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). But most disagreements are at the level of harmless
bickering. With sons, the issues often are behavior problems, such as acting out or
hygiene; for daughters, the issues commonly involve relationships, such as dating and
friendships (Schlomer et al., 2011). Most adolescents—6000 of them in 10 countries,
from Australia to Bangladesh to Turkey—have said they like their parents (Offer et al.,
1988). “We usually get along but…,” adolescents often reported (Galambos, 1992;
Steinberg, 1987).
Positive parent-teen relations and positive peer relations often go hand in hand. High
school girls who had the most affectionate relationships with their mothers tended also
to enjoy the most intimate friendships with girlfriends (Gold & Yanof, 1985). And teens
who felt close to their parents have tended to be healthy and happy and to do well in
school (Resnick et al., 1997). Of course, we can state this correlation the other way:
Misbehaving teens are more likely to have tense relationships with parents and other
adults.
Although heredity does much of the heavy lifting in forming individual temperament
and personality differences, parents and peers influence teens’ behaviors and attitudes.
When with peers, teens discount the future and focus more on immediate rewards
(O’Brien et al., 2011). Most teens are herd animals, talking, dressing, and acting more
like their peers than their parents. What their friends are, they often become, and what
“everybody’s doing,” they often do.
Part of what everybody’s doing is networking—a lot. Teens rapidly adopt social media.
U.S. teens typically send 30 text messages daily and average 145 Facebook friends
(Lenhart, 2015). They tweet, post videos to Snapchat, and share pictures on Instagram.
Online communication stimulates intimate self-disclosure—both for better (support
groups) and for worse (online predators and extremist groups) (Subrahmanyam &
Greenfield, 2008; Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). Facebook, from a study of all its English-
language users, reports this: Among parents and children, 371 days elapse, on average,
before they include each other in their circle of self-disclosure (Burke et al., 2013).
For those who feel excluded by their peers, whether online or face-to-face, the pain is
acute. “The social atmosphere in most high schools is poisonously clique-driven and
exclusionary,” observed social psychologist Elliot Aronson (2001). Most excluded
“students suffer in silence. . . . A small number act out in violent ways against their
classmates.” Those who withdraw are vulnerable to loneliness, low self-esteem, and
depression (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Peer approval matters.
Parent approval may matter in other ways. Teens have seen their parents as influential
in shaping their religious faith and in thinking about college and career choices
(Emerging Trends, 1997). A Gallup Youth Survey revealed that most shared their
parents’ political views (Lyons, 2005).
Howard Gardner (1998) has concluded that parents and peers are complementary:
Parents are more important when it comes to education, discipline,
responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of interacting with
authority figures. Peers are more important for learning cooperation, for
finding the road to popularity, for inventing styles of interaction among
people of the same age. Youngsters may find their peers more interesting,
but they will look to their parents when contemplating their own futures.
Moreover, parents [often] choose the neighborhoods and schools that supply
the peers.
This power to select a child’s neighborhood and schools gives parents an ability to
influence the culture that shapes the child’s peer group. And because neighborhood
influences matter, parents may want to become involved in intervention programs that
aim at a whole school or neighborhood. If the vapors of a toxic climate are seeping into
a child’s life, that climate—not just the child—needs reforming.
Multiple-Choice Question
How can self-disclosure on social media affect adolescents’ peer
relationships?
It makes adolescents think more about the future than about the present.
It makes it easier to receive both approval and rejection from peers.
It increases adolescents’ nonverbal communication with their closest friends.
It makes adolescents feel closer to their parents than to their peers.
Correct. Social media increases opportunities for self-disclosure, making adolescents
more susceptible to the desire for peer approval and more vulnerable to criticism and
rejection.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.6 Social Development in Adolescence
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Social Development in Adolescence
What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?
Theorist Erik Erikson (1963) contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial
task, a crisis that needs resolution. Young children wrestle with issues of trust, then
autonomy (independence), then initiative. School-age children strive for competence,
feeling able and productive. The adolescent’s task is to synthesize past, present, and
future possibilities into a clearer sense of self (
Table 3
). Adolescents wonder, “Who am I
as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What
do I believe in?” Erikson called this quest the adolescent’s search for identity.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage
(Approximate
Age)
Issue Description of Task
Infancy (to 1
year)
Trust vs.
mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of
basic trust.
Toddlerhood (1
to 3 years)
Autonomy
vs. shame
and doubt
Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for
themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Preschool (3 to
6 years)
Initiative vs.
guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or
they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.
Elementary
school (6 years
to puberty)
Competence
vs.
inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks,
or they feel inferior.
Adolescence
(teen years into
20s)
Identity vs.
role
confusion
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles
and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they
become confused about who they are.
Young
adulthood (20s
to early 40s)
Intimacy vs.
isolation
Young adults struggle to form
close
relationships and to
gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially
isolated.
Middle
adulthood (40s
to 60s)
Generativity
vs.
stagnation
In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to
the world, usually through family and work, or they may
feel a lack of purpose.
Late adulthood
(late 60s and
up)
Integrity vs.
despair
Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of
satisfaction or failure.
Multiple-Choice Question
Jeremy is 16 years old and is trying different clothes and hairstyles. His
father is confused and sometimes shocked by the earrings, chains, hair
colors, and fashion choices. His mother, on the other hand, just laughs
because she knows that Jeremy is in which stage of development?
identity vs. role confusion
intimacy vs. isolation
initiative vs. guilt
generativity vs. stagnation
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.6 – Social Development in Adolescence
Correct. In this stage, teenagers try to define and hone their identity by “trying on”
many different roles or styles. Sometimes they are confused about who they are, but this
is a totally normal stage of development.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Forming an Identity
To refine their sense of identity, adolescents in individualist cultures usually try out
different “selves” in different situations. They may act out one self at home, another
with friends, and still another at school or online. If two situations overlap—as when a
teenager brings new friends home—the discomfort can be considerable (Klimstra et al.,
2015). The teen asks, “Which self should I be? Which is the real me?” The resolution is a
self-definition that unifies the various selves into a consistent and comfortable sense of
who one is—an identity.
For both adolescents and adults, group identities are often formed by how we differ
from those around us. When living in Britain, I [DM] become conscious of my
Americanness. When spending time with collaborators in Hong Kong, I [ND] become
conscious of my minority White race. When surrounded by women, we are both
mindful of our male gender identity. For international students, for those of a minority
ethnic group, for gay and transgender people, or for people with a disability, a social
identity often forms around their distinctiveness.
Erikson noticed that some adolescents forge their identity early, simply by adopting
their parents’ values and expectations. (Traditional, less individualist cultures teach
adolescents who they are, rather than encouraging them to decide on their own.) Other
adolescents may adopt the identity of a particular peer group—jocks, preps, geeks, band
kids, debaters.
Most young people do develop a sense of contentment with their lives. A question:
Which statement best describes you? “I would choose my life the way it is right now” or,
“I wish I were somebody else”? When American teens answered, 81 percent picked the
first, and 19 percent the second (Lyons, 2004). Reflecting on their existence, 75 percent
of American collegians say they “discuss religion/spirituality” with friends, “pray,” and
agree that “we are all spiritual beings” and “search for meaning/purpose in life” (Astin
et al., 2004; Bryant & Astin, 2008). This would not surprise Stanford psychologist
William Damon and his colleagues (2003), who have contended that a key task of
adolescence is to achieve a purpose—a desire to accomplish something personally
meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.6 – Social Development in Adolescence
Several nationwide studies indicate that young Americans’ self-esteem falls during the
early to mid-teen years, and, for girls, depression scores often increase. But then self-
image rebounds during the late teens and twenties (Chung et al., 2014; Orth et al., 2015;
Wagner et al., 2013). Late adolescence is also a time when agreeableness and emotional
stability scores increase (Klimstra et al., 2009).
These are the years when many people in industrialized countries begin exploring new
opportunities by attending college or working full time. Many college seniors have
achieved a clearer identity and a more positive self-concept than they had as first-year
students (Waterman, 1988). Collegians who have achieved a clear sense of identity are
less prone to alcohol misuse (Bishop et al., 2005).
Erikson contended that adolescent identity formation (which continues into adulthood)
is followed in young adulthood by a developing capacity for intimacy, the ability to form
emotionally close relationships. When Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [chick-SENT-me-hi]
and Jeremy Hunter (2003) used a beeper to sample the daily experiences of American
teens, they found them unhappiest when alone and happiest when with friends.
Romantic relationships, which tend to be emotionally intense, are reported by some two
in three North American 17-year-olds, but fewer among those in collectivist countries
such as China (Collins et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010). Those who enjoy high-quality
(intimate, supportive) relationships with family and friends tend also to enjoy similarly
high-quality romantic relationships in adolescence, which set the stage for healthy adult
relationships. Such relationships are, for most of us, a source of great pleasure.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.3 Cognitive Development in Childhood
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Cognitive Development in Childhood
From the perspectives of Piaget and today’s researchers, how does a child’s mind
develop?
Somewhere on your life journey, you became conscious. When was that? Jean Piaget
[pee-ah-ZHAY] was a pioneering developmental psychologist who spent his life
searching for the answers to such questions. He studied children’s cognitive
development—all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing,
remembering, and communicating. His interest began in 1920, when he was in Paris
developing questions for children’s intelligence tests. While administering the tests,
Piaget became intrigued by children’s wrong answers, which were often strikingly
similar among same-age children. Where others saw childish mistakes, Piaget saw
intelligence at work. Such accidental discoveries are among the fruits of psychological
science.
The point to remember Piaget’s core idea was that our intellectual progression reflects
an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.
A half-century spent with children convinced Piaget that a child’s mind is not a
miniature model of an adult’s. Thanks partly to his careful observations, we now
understand that children reason differently than adults, in “wildly illogical ways about
problems whose solutions are self-evident to adults” (Brainerd, 1996).
Piaget’s studies led him to believe that a child’s mind develops through a series of stages
(
Table 1
), in an upward march from the newborn’s simple reflexes to the adult’s abstract
reasoning power. Thus, an 8-year-old can comprehend things a toddler cannot, such as
the analogy that “getting an idea is like having a light turn on in your head,” or that a
miniature slide is too small for sliding, and a miniature car is much too small to get
into.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Typical Age
Range
Description of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2
years
Sensorimotor: Experiencing the world
through senses and actions (looking,
hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
-Object permanence
-Stranger anxiety
About 2 to about
6 or 7 years
Preoperational: Representing things with
words and images; using intuitive rather
than logical reasoning
-Pretend play
-Egocentrism
About 7 to 11
years
Concrete operational: Thinking logically
about concrete events; grasping concrete
analogies and performing arithmetical
operations
-Conservation
-Mathematical
transformations
About 12 through
adulthood
Formal operational: Abstract reasoning
-Abstract logic
-Potential for mature
moral reasoning
Piaget’s core idea was that our intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to
make sense of our experiences. To this end, the maturing brain builds schemas,
concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences. By adulthood we have
built countless schemas, ranging from cats and dogs to our concept of love.
To explain how we use and adjust our schemas, Piaget proposed two more concepts.
First, we assimilate new experiences—we interpret them in terms of our current
understandings (schemas). Having a simple schema for dog, for example, a toddler may
call all four-legged animals dogs. But as we interact with the world, we also adjust, or
accommodate, our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences.
Thus, the child soon learns that the original dog schema is too broad and
accommodates by refining the category. Many people whose schema of marriage was a
union between a man and a woman have now accommodated same-sex marriage, with a
broadened marriage concept.
Multiple-Choice Question
The first time that 4-year-old Sarah saw her older brother play a flute, she
thought it was simply a large whistle. Sarah’s initial understanding of the
flute best illustrates which of the following processes?
conservation
maturation
assimilation
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.3 – Cognitive Development in Childhood
Correct. When children see something totally new and try to account for it by using a
current understanding (or schema), they are engaged in assimilation. This is why Sarah
thought the flute was a large whistle.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
What remains of Piaget’s ideas about the child’s mind? Plenty—enough to merit his
being singled out by Time magazine as one of the twentieth century’s 20 most
influential scientists and thinkers and his being rated in a survey of British
psychologists as the last century’s greatest psychologist (Psychologist, 2003). Piaget
identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulated worldwide interest in how the
mind develops. His emphasis was less on the ages at which children typically reach
specific milestones than on their sequence. Studies around the globe, from aboriginal
Australia to Algeria to North America, have confirmed that human cognition unfolds
basically in the sequence Piaget described (Lourenco & Machado, 1996; Segall et al.,
1990).
However, today’s researchers see development as more continuous than did Piaget. By
detecting the beginnings of each type of thinking at earlier ages, they have revealed
conceptual abilities Piaget missed. Moreover, they see formal logic as a smaller part of
cognition than he did. Piaget would not be surprised that today, as part of our own
cognitive development, we are adapting his ideas to accommodate new findings.
Implications for Parents and Teachers
Future parents and teachers, remember this: Young children are incapable of adult
logic. Preschoolers who block one’s view of the TV simply have not learned to take
another’s viewpoint. What seems simple and obvious to us—getting off a teeter-totter
will cause a friend on the other end to crash—may be incomprehensible to a 3-year-old.
Also remember that children are not passive receptacles waiting to be filled with
knowledge. Better to build on what they already know, engaging them in concrete
demonstrations and stimulating them to think for themselves. Finally, accept children’s
cognitive immaturity as adaptive. It is nature’s strategy for keeping children
close
to
protective adults and providing time for learning and socialization (Bjorklund & Green,
1992).
close
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
Investigation
Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
For this three-part investigation, you’ll apply concepts of brain function and
development to the issue of teen decision making.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.17 Investigation: Helping Teens Make
Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
On this page: 10 of 10 attempted (100%) | 10 of 10 correct (100%)
You can no longer reset the questions on this page.
Objective: Determine how adolescent brain development affects decision making.
Teenagers are capable of much more higher-order thinking than children, but their brains
still lag behind adults’ in their ability to make good decisions, like what media to watch.
Stocksy
How Can We Help Teens Make Good Decisions?
If your teenage daughter attends a party, will you know how to help her navigate the
decisions she’ll need to make? How do a complex social environment and the
development of the teenage brain influence her ability to consider risks? In this three-
part investigation, we’ll bring together the concepts from the last three chapters and
determine how to use them to help teens make good decisions. You’ll also have an
opportunity to practice your decision making by examining a problem and determining
evidence-based solutions—important parts of your problem solving skill.
In addition, you’ll learn why it’s often difficult for developing teenagers to make good
decisions. This knowledge will improve your self and social awareness, especially when
you’re interacting with teenagers.
Part 1: We’ll begin by reviewing psychological concepts from the last three
chapters and then gather more information about adolescent brain development
and how it affects decision making.
Part 2: On the next page, we’ll take a closer look at how teens’ social environment
and desire to take risks influence their decisions.
Part 3: On the last page, we’ll use all of this information to determine how to help
the teens in our lives make good decisions.
Take a Look Back
In this section, you will check your understanding of the psychological concepts
referenced in this investigation.
You’ve learned quite a lot in the first three chapters of this webtext. In Chapter 1, you
read about how psychologists think and how they study the mind and behavior. In
Chapter 2, you learned about the structure and function of the brain and neurons. And
in this chapter, you read about personality and development over the life span. You’ve
also come to understand how these concepts affect your problem solving skill and your
self and social awareness.
Over the next two pages, we will investigate how the concepts from these three chapters
can be applied to understand how teenagers make decisions. Before we do so, let’s
check your understanding of a few of these key concepts. If you’re unsure of the answer
to any of the following five questions, go back and review the page noted in the
question.
Multiple-Choice Question
What substance forms around the axons of neurons and results in faster
communication among brain regions? (Review page 2.2.)
lobes
testosterone
myelin
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
Correct. The development of myelin, a fatty tissue that surrounds and insulates axons,
allows for faster communication among brain cells and regions and is an integral part of
“brain development.”
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which area of the brain is linked to emotions such as fear or pleasure?
(Review pages 2.5–2.10.)
brainstem
parietal lobes
limbic system
cerebral cortex
Correct. The limbic system includes the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala
and is associated with the processing of emotions.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Someone who studies how social media use affects teenagers’ brain activity
is working from which perspective? (Review page 1.3.)
the psychodynamic perspective
the neuroscience perspective
the evolutionary perspective
the behavioral perspective
Correct. Because the neuroscience perspective studies how different parts of the brain
process information and produce reactions or behaviors, it would help someone
understand the brain activity of teenagers who use social media.
Last saved 2 months ago.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes how our behaviors result from
interactions between our personality traits and which of the following?
(Review page 3.15.)
biology
cerebral cortex
situations
limbic system
Correct. According to the social-cognitive theory of personality, our personality traits
and situations have reciprocal influences on our behavior and on each other.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Sixteen-year-old Brenda questions her parents’ values but does not fully
accept her friends’ standards either. According to Erikson’s stages of
development, Brenda’s confusion about what she really wants and values in
life suggests that she is struggling with which of the following issues?
(Review pages 3.4–3.6.)
integrity
autonomy
initiative
identity
Correct. Identity development is the main issue of adolescent emotional development,
according to Erikson. Adolescents must consider their different roles and eventually
determine their own identity.
Last saved 2 months ago.
The Teenage Brain
In this section, you will learn about the biology of adolescent brain development.
Preview the questions and then use the information in the video clips to answer them.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
The following video clips, taken from a longer TED Talk, offer insight into the biology of
the teenage brain. Thanks to powerful brain imaging technology that developed in the
last two decades, neuroscientists can now see the brain as it develops throughout
adolescence and can compare teen brain activity to adult brain activity. The speaker, Dr.
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, will use terms you learned in Chapters 2 and 3 as she discusses
specific areas of the brain that are still developing well into adolescence.
The Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain (Clip 1 of 2)
YouTube video clip (1:39–4:17). https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng. Uploaded September
17, 2012, by TED. To activate captions, first click the play button and then click the CC
button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the link below.
Read Text Transcript
Multiple-Choice Question
What kind of processing primarily occurs in the prefrontal cortex of the
brain?
planning and decision making
sensory touch
movement control
vision
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent brSarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent br……
https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.soomopublishing.com/courses/Psych/Sarah_Jayne_Blakemore_Mysterious_Adolescent_Brain_Transcript_Part1 x
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
Correct. The prefrontal cortex is considered the CEO of the brain and is responsible for
executive functions such as organization, planning, and decision making.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
What happens to the prefrontal cortex in early adolescence?
Neural communication slows.
Gray matter peaks in volume.
“Pruning” becomes impaired.
Gray matter is reduced.
Correct. Just before puberty, the volume of gray matter in the prefrontal cortex peaks.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which term describes the process by which unused or unwanted neurons
and synapses are eliminated?
Correct. Synaptic pruning is the process by which unused neurons and synapses are
eliminated.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Now watch another clip from the same speaker. In this clip, she describes an
experiment designed to study how adolescents and adults make decisions that involve
another person. This insight into social decision making, along with information
presented in Part 2 of this investigation, will help us understand why teens often make
poor decisions when they’re with their friends. Remember to preview the questions and
rewatch the clip as many times as you need to ensure you understand the experiment
described by the speaker.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
The Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain (Clip 2 of 2)
YouTube video clip (6:52–10:12). https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng. Uploaded September
17, 2012, by TED. To activate captions, first click the play button and then click the CC
button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the link below.
Read Text Transcript
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following conclusions BEST interprets the data in the bar
graph titled “Percentage Errors in Director and No-Director Tasks”?
Adolescents make significantly fewer errors than adults when they have to
keep the “director’s” perspective in mind.
Adolescents do not differ at all from adults in the ability to take someone else’s
perspective.
Adolescents make significantly more errors than adults when they have to
keep the “director’s” perspective in mind.
Adolescents make errors approximately 50 percent of the time, regardless of
the “director” or “no-direction” condition.
Correct. Although adolescents do better than 7- to 9-year-olds on this task, they still
make far more errors than adults do when required to take someone else’s perspective.
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent brSarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent br……
https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.soomopublishing.com/courses/Psych/Sarah_Jayne_Blakemore_Mysterious_Adolescent_Brain_Transcript_Part2 x
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.17 – Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
In the “no-director” condition of the experiment, adolescents can
remember the rule to not move objects with a dark gray background just as
well as adults can. What does Dr. Blakemore conclude about this fact?
Adolescents choose to ignore the rule when it is imposed by an authority
figure, such as in the “director” condition.
Adolescents’ ability to take other people’s perspectives into account does not
improve after age 13.
Adolescents are capable of knowing a rule, but they still struggle to make
decisions that require considering someone else’s perspective.
Adolescents are too distracted by the rule when they try to make decisions that
require considering someone else’s perspective.
Correct. While a 16-year-old will be better at considering another perspective than a 9-
year-old will be, teenagers make more errors than adults do when they view a problem
from someone else’s perspective.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.5 Cognitive Development in
Adolescence
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Cognitive Development in Adolescence
How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and
moral development?
During the early teen years, reasoning is often self-focused. Adolescents may think their
private experiences are unique, something parents just could not understand: “But,
Mom, you don’t really know how it feels to be in love” (Elkind, 1978). Capable of
thinking about their own thinking, and about other people’s thinking, they also begin
imagining what others are thinking about them. (They might worry less if they
understood their peers’ similar self-absorption.) Gradually, though, most begin to
reason more abstractly.
Developing Reasoning Power
When adolescents achieve the intellectual summit that Jean Piaget called formal
operations, they apply their new abstract reasoning tools to the world around them.
They may think about what is ideally possible and compare that with the imperfect
reality of their society, their parents, and themselves. They may debate human nature,
good and evil, truth and justice. Their sense of what’s fair changes from simple equality
to equity—to what’s proportional to merit (Almås et al., 2010). Having left behind the
concrete images of early childhood, they may now seek a deeper conception of God and
existence (Boyatzis, 2012; Elkind, 1970). Reasoning hypothetically and deducing
consequences also enables adolescents to detect inconsistencies and spot hypocrisy in
others’ reasoning, sometimes leading to heated debates with parents and silent vows
never to lose sight of their own ideals (Peterson et al., 1986).
Developing Morality
Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are discerning right from wrong and
developing character—the psychological muscles for controlling impulses. To be a
moral person is to think morally and act accordingly. Jean Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning guides moral actions. A more recent view
builds on psychology’s game-changing new recognition that much of our functioning
occurs not on the “high road” of deliberate, conscious thinking but on the “low road,”
unconscious and automatic. Our morality provides another demonstration of our two-
track mind.
Moral Reasoning
The point to remember A big part of moral development is the self-discipline needed to
restrain one’s own impulses.
Piaget (1932) believed that children’s moral judgments build on their cognitive
development. Agreeing with Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe
the development of moral reasoning, the thinking that occurs as we consider right and
wrong. Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas (for example, whether a person should steal
medicine to save a loved one’s life) and asked children, adolescents, and adults whether
the action was right or wrong. His analysis of their answers led him to propose three
basic levels of moral thinking: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
(Table 2). Kohlberg claimed these levels form a moral ladder. As with all stage theories,
the sequence is unvarying. We begin on the bottom rung and later ascend to varying
heights, where we may place others’ comfort above our own (Crockett et al., 2014).
Preschoolers, typically identifying with their cultural group, conform to and enforce its
moral norms (Haun et al., 2014; Schmidt & Tomasello, 2012). When those norms
reward kind actions, preschoolers help others (Carragan & Dweck, 2014). Kohlberg’s
critics have noted that his postconventional stage is culturally limited, appearing mostly
among people who prize individualism (Eckensberger, 1994; Miller & Bersoff, 1995).
Table 2
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking
Level (Approximate
Age) Focus Example
Preconventional
morality (before age 9)
Self-interest; obey rules to avoid
punishment or gain concrete
rewards.
“If you save your dying wife,
you’ll be a hero.”
Conventional morality
(early adolescence)
Uphold laws and rules to gain
social approval or maintain
social order.
“If you steal the drug for her,
everyone will think you’re a
criminal.”
Postconventional
morality (adolescence
and beyond)
Actions reflect belief in basic
rights and self-defined ethical
principles.
“People have a right to live.”
Moral Action
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.5 – Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Our moral thinking and feeling surely affect our moral talk. But sometimes talk is cheap
and emotions are fleeting. Morality involves doing the right thing, and what we do also
depends on social influences. As political theorist Hannah Arendt (1963) observed,
many Nazi concentration camp guards during World War II were ordinary “moral”
people who were corrupted by a powerfully evil situation.
Today’s character education programs tend to focus on the whole moral package—
thinking, feeling, and doing the right thing. In service-learning programs, where teens
have tutored, cleaned up their neighborhoods, and assisted older adults, their sense of
competence and desire to serve has increased, and their school absenteeism and drop-
out rates have diminished (Andersen, 1998; Piliavin, 2003). Moral action feeds moral
attitudes.
A big part of moral development is the self-discipline needed to restrain one’s own
impulses—to delay small gratifications now to enable bigger rewards later. One of
psychology’s best-known experiments was inspired by Walter Mischel (1988, 1989,
2014) observing his three preschool daughters’ “remarkable progression” in self-
control. To explore this phenomenon, Mischel gave Stanford nursery school 4-year-olds
a choice between one marshmallow now, or two marshmallows when he returned a few
minutes later. The children who had the willpower to delay gratification went on to have
higher college completion rates and incomes, and less often suffered addiction
problems. Moreover, when a sample of Mischel’s marshmallow alums were retested on
a new willpower test 40 years later, their differences persisted (Casey et al., 2011).
Our capacity to delay gratification—to decline small rewards now for bigger rewards
later—is basic to our future academic, vocational, and social success. Teachers and
parents rate children who delay gratification on a marshmallow-like test as more self-
controlled (Duckworth et al., 2013). A preference for large-later rather than small-now
rewards minimizes one’s risk of problem gambling, smoking, and delinquency (Callan
et al., 2011; Ert et al., 2013; van Gelder et al., 2013). The moral of the story: Delaying
gratification—living with one eye on the future—fosters flourishing.
Multiple-Choice Question
How is Mischel’s marshmallow test related to moral development?
The marshmallow test measures whether children can think logically about
moral situations and act according to that logic.
The marshmallow test measures whether a child can hold another person’s
perspective in mind when deciding how to act.
3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 3.5 – Cognitive Development in Adolescence
The marshmallow test seems to measure impulse control and the ability to
delay gratification, both of which are important in moral action.
The marshmallow test measures whether a child is acting based on self-
defined ethical principles.
Correct. The children who were able to resist the temptation of the marshmallow went
on to have greater willpower and impulse control as adults and have fewer issues with
addiction or school attendance.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.1 Introduction
Introduction
How do personality and development influence decision making and problem
solving?
This week, Dr. Greenberg focused on how digital devices and platforms influence and
place pressures on teenagers’ social and emotional development.
Clark and Company/Getty Images
We’ll talk a lot about teenagers this week. Like many people, psychologists tend to
think teenagers are fascinating, if also a bit frustrating. Research in the field of
developmental psychology sheds some light on why teenagers are often impulsive and
moody—in part, it’s because they are still developing their self and social awareness.
In this week’s Talk, Dr. Barbara Greenberg focused on how cell phones and social
media influence and place pressures on teenagers’ social and emotional development.
How exactly are these digital experiences shaping teenagers’ development and
brains?
This chapter will build on the biological foundation of psychology established in
Chapter 2. You’ll examine how a person develops from childhood through adulthood
—not only how the brain changes but also how thinking and personality develop.
Reflecting on these concepts will give you a better understanding of your self and
social awareness skill. You’ll also explore the personality traits that describe each
person’s individuality and the development of the ability to make decisions, which is a
component of your problem solving skill. Specifically, you’ll learn about the following
topics:
Big issues in developmental psychology. You will consider the three major
issues in this branch of psychology: nature versus nurture, the continuity and
stages of development, and the stability of traits.
Cognitive development. Every decision you make is influenced by the
schemas, or mental categories, you use to understand the world. You will learn
about how these schemas develop starting in infancy.
The developing teen brain. In this chapter, and especially in the
investigation, you will examine how the brain is still developing in adolescence
and explore how that affects teenagers’ ability to make decisions and solve
problems.
Adulthood. You’ll also read about how development continues throughout
adulthood and how physical and mental abilities change with age. For example,
you can develop and use your self and social awareness throughout all stages of
your life.
Personality traits. You will examine the five basic personality traits that
influence who people are and what decisions they make in life.
Social-cognitive theories. In addition to focusing on traits, you’ll explore how
experience and context affect the way people choose to respond to their
environment.
Weekly Tip!
Near the end of this chapter, you’ll work on your first investigation! This is a three-
page assignment that reviews what you’ve learned over the past three weeks and gives
you a chance to apply your problem solving skill to a real-life situation. To do well on
this assignment, you’ll want to set aside additional time to preview the Investigation
pages and review the content from Chapters 1–3. Unlike the questions you’ve
completed in the webtext so far, the questions on Investigation pages can be reset
only once, so take your time and answer thoughtfully.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.2 Developmental Psychology’s Major
Issues
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Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues
What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?
Researchers find human development interesting for the same reasons most of the rest
of us do—they are eager to understand more about how we’ve become our current
selves, and how we may change in the years ahead. Developmental psychology
examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across the life span, with a
focus on three major issues:
1. Nature and nurture: How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact
with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development? How have your
nature and your nurture influenced your life story?
2. Continuity and stages: What parts of development are gradual and
continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate
stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
3. Stability and change: Which of our traits persist through life? How do we
change as we age?
Nature and Nurture
The unique gene combination created when our mother’s egg engulfed our father’s
sperm helped form us, as individuals. Genes predispose both our shared humanity and
our individual differences.
But our experiences also shape us. Our families and peer relationships teach us how to
think and act. Even differences initiated by our nature may be amplified by our nurture.
We are not formed by either nature or nurture, but by the interaction between them.
Biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces interact.
Mindful of how others differ from us, however, we often fail to notice the similarities
stemming from our shared biology. Regardless of our culture, we humans share the
same life cycle. We speak to our infants in similar ways and respond similarly to their
coos and cries (Bornstein et al., 1992a,b). All over the world, the children of warm and
supportive parents feel better about themselves and are less hostile than are the
children of punishing and rejecting parents (Rohner, 1986; Scott et al., 1991). Although
ethnic groups have differed in some ways, including average school achievement, the
differences are “no more than skin deep.” To the extent that family structure, peer
influences, and parental education predict behavior in one of these ethnic groups, they
do so for the others as well. Compared with the person-to-person differences within
groups, between-group differences are small.
Continuity and Stages
Do adults differ from infants as a giant redwood differs from its seedling—a difference
created by gradual, cumulative growth? Or do they differ as a butterfly differs from a
caterpillar—a difference of distinct stages?
Researchers who emphasize experience and learning typically see development as a
slow, continuous shaping process. Those who emphasize biological maturation tend to
see development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps: Although
progress through the various stages may be quick or slow, everyone passes through the
stages in the same order.
Are there clear-cut stages of psychological development, as there are physical stages
such as walking before running? The stage theories we will consider—of Jean Piaget on
cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg on moral development, and Erik Erikson on
psychosocial development—propose developmental stages (summarized in
Figure 1
).
But as we will also see, some research casts doubt on the idea that life proceeds through
neatly defined age-linked stages. Young children have some abilities Piaget attributed to
later stages. Kohlberg’s work reflected an individualist worldview and emphasized
thinking over acting. And adult life does not progress through a fixed, predictable series
of steps. Chance events can influence us in ways we would never have predicted.
Illustration of the stage theories of Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget.
Kohlberg’s theory contains three stages: preconventional morality, conventional morality,
and postconventional morality. Erikson’s theory contains eight stages: Basic trust,
autonomy, initiative, competence, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity. Piaget’s
theory contains four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. In the illustration, the stages of these theories are presented
sequentially on a timeline that starts at birth and ends at death.
(With thanks to Dr. Sandra Gibbs, Muskegon Community College, for inspiring this
illustration.)
Although many modern developmental psychologists do not identify as stage theorists,
the stage concept remains useful. The human brain does experience growth spurts
during childhood and puberty that correspond roughly to Piaget’s stages (Thatcher et
al., 1987). And stage theories contribute a developmental perspective on the whole life
span, by suggesting how people of one age think and act differently when they arrive at
a later age.
Stability and Change
As we follow lives through time, do we find more evidence for stability or change? If
reunited with a long-lost grade-school friend, do we instantly realize that “it’s the same
old Andy”? Or do people we befriend during one period of life seem like strangers at a
later period? (At least one acquaintance of mine [DM’s] would choose the second
option. He failed to recognize a former classmate at his 40-year college reunion. The
aghast classmate was his long-ago first wife.)
Research reveals that we experience both stability and change. Some of our
characteristics, such as temperament, are very stable:
One research team that studied 1000 people from ages 3 to 38 was struck by the
consistency of temperament and emotionality across time (Moffitt et al., 2013;
Slutske et al., 2012). Out-of-control 3-year-olds were the most likely to become
teen smokers or adult criminals or out-of-control gamblers.
Other studies have found that hyperactive, inattentive 5-year-olds required more
teacher effort at age 12 (Houts et al., 2010); that 6-year-old Canadian boys with
conduct problems were four times more likely than other boys to be convicted of a
violent crime by age 24 (Hodgins et al., 2013); and that extraversion among British
16-year-olds predicted their future happiness as 60-year-olds (Gale et al., 2013).
Another research team interviewed adults who, 40 years earlier, had their
talkativeness, impulsiveness, and humility rated by their elementary school
teachers (Nave et al., 2010). To a striking extent, their traits persisted.
“As at 7, so at 70,” says a Jewish proverb. People predict that they will not change much
in the future (Quoidbach et al., 2013). In some ways they are correct. The widest smilers
in childhood and college photos are, years later, the ones most likely to enjoy enduring
marriages (Hertenstein et al., 2009).
We cannot, however, predict all aspects of our future selves based on our early life. Our
social attitudes, for example, are much less stable than our temperament (Moss &
Susman, 1980). Older children and adolescents learn new ways of coping. Although
delinquent children have elevated rates of later problems, many confused and troubled
children blossom into mature, successful adults (Moffitt et al., 2002; Roberts et al.,
2013; Thomas & Chess, 1986). The struggles of the present may be laying a foundation
for a happier tomorrow. Life is a process of becoming.
In some ways, we all change with age. Most shy, fearful toddlers begin opening up by
age 4, and most people become more conscientious, stable, agreeable, and self-
confident in the years after adolescence (Lucas & Donnellan, 2009; Roberts & Mroczek,
2008; Shaw et al., 2010). Many irresponsible 18-year-olds have matured into 40-year-
old business or cultural leaders. (If you are the former, you aren’t done yet.) Openness,
self-esteem, and agreeableness often peak in midlife (Lucas & Donnellan, 2011; Orth et
al., 2012, 2015; Specht et al., 2011). Such changes can occur without changing a person’s
position relative to others of the same age. The hard-driving young adult may mellow
by later life, yet still be a relatively driven senior citizen.
Life requires both stability and change. Stability provides our identity. It enables us to
depend on others and be concerned about children’s healthy development. Our
potential for change gives us our hope for a brighter future. It motivates our concerns
about present influences and lets us adapt and grow with experience.
A research team is interviewing a man who, 40 years ago, was chatty,
proud, and spontaneous. What will they likely discover about the man’s
current temperament?
His temperament will be very similar to what it was 40 years ago.
His youthful pride will have increased with age and accomplishment.
His temperament will be very different from what it was 40 years ago.
Some of his youthful spontaneity will have diminished with age.
Correct. Temperament seems to be one of our most tenacious characteristics, changing
very little over time, so it’s highly likely that this man’s temperament will be the same or
similar after 40 years.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.13 Evaluating Trait Theories
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Evaluating Trait Theories
Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across
situations?
Are our personality traits stable and enduring? Or does our behavior depend on where
and with whom we find ourselves? In some ways, our personality seems stable.
Cheerful, friendly children tend to become cheerful, friendly adults. At a recent college
reunion, I [DM] was amazed to find that my jovial former classmates were still jovial,
the shy ones still shy, the happy-seeming people still smiling and laughing—50 years
later. But it’s also true that a fun-loving jokester can suddenly turn serious and
respectful at a job interview. And the personality traits we express can change from one
situation to another. Major life events, such as becoming unemployed, can shift our
personality from agreeable to slightly rude (Boyce et al., 2015).
The Person-Situation Controversy
Our behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner disposition with our
environment. Still, the question lingers: Which is more important? When we explore
this person-situation controversy, we look for genuine personality traits that persist
over time and across situations. Are some people dependably conscientious and others
unreliable? Some cheerful and others dour? Some friendly and outgoing and others
shy? If we are to consider friendliness a trait, friendly people must act friendly at
different times and places. Do they?
The point to remember As people grow older their personality stabilizes.
In considering research that has followed lives through time, some scholars (especially
those who study infants) are impressed with personality change; others are struck by
personality stability during adulthood. As Figure 7 illustrates, data from 152 long-term
studies reveal that personality trait scores are positively correlated with scores obtained
seven years later, and that as people grow older their personality stabilizes. Interests
may change—the avid tropical-fish collector may become an avid gardener. Careers may
change—the determined salesperson may become a determined social worker.
Relationships may change—the hostile spouse may start over with a new partner. But
most people recognize their traits as their own, as Robert McCrae and Paul Costa noted
(1994), “and it is well that they do. A person’s recognition of the inevitability of his or
her one and only personality is…the culminating wisdom of a lifetime.”
Figure 7
Personality stability
Chart depicting trait score correlations over seven years for children, collegians, 30-year-
olds, and 50- to 70-year-olds. Trait score correlation between children was about 0.3. For
collegians it was a little over 0.5; for 30-year-olds, it was a little over 0.6; and for 50- to
70-year-olds, it was a little over 0.7.
With age, personality traits become more stable, as reflected in the stronger correlation of
trait scores with follow-up scores 7 years later. (Data from Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000.)
So most people—including most psychologists—would probably presume the stability of
personality traits. Moreover, our traits are socially significant. They influence our
health, our thinking, and our job choices and performance (Deary & Matthews, 1993;
Hogan, 1998; Jackson et al., 2012; Sutin et al., 2011). Studies that follow lives through
time show that personality traits rival socioeconomic status and cognitive ability as
predictors of mortality, divorce, and occupational attainment (Roberts et al., 2007).
Any of these tendencies, taken to an extreme, become maladaptive. Agreeableness
ranges from cynical combativeness at its low extreme to gullible subservience at its high
extreme. Conscientiousness ranges from irresponsible negligence to workaholic
perfectionism (Widiger & Costa, 2012).
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.4 Adolescence
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Adolescence
How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?
Many psychologists once believed that childhood sets our traits. Today’s developmental
psychologists see development as lifelong. As this life-span perspective emerged,
psychologists began to look at how maturation and experience shape us not only in
infancy and childhood, but also in adolescence and beyond. Adolescence—the years
spent morphing from child to adult—starts with the physical beginnings of sexual
maturity and ends with the social achievement of independent adult status. In some
cultures, where teens are self-supporting, this means that adolescence hardly exists.
G. Stanley Hall (1904), one of the first psychologists to describe adolescence, believed
that the tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of
“storm and stress.” Indeed, after age 30, many who grow up in independence-fostering
Western cultures look back on their teenage years as a time they would not want to
relive, a time when their peers’ social approval was imperative, their sense of direction
in life was in flux, and their feeling of alienation from their parents was deepest (Arnett,
1999; Macfarlane, 1964).
But for many, adolescence is a time of vitality without the cares of adulthood, a time of
rewarding friendships, heightened idealism, and a growing sense of life’s exciting
possibilities.
Physical Development
Adolescence begins with puberty, the time when we mature sexually. Puberty follows a
surge of hormones, which may intensify moods and which trigger a series of bodily
changes.
Early Versus Late Maturing
Just as in the earlier life stages, the sequence of physical changes in puberty (for
example, breast buds and visible pubic hair before menarche—the first menstrual
period) is far more predictable than their timing. Some girls start their growth spurt at
9, some boys as late as age 16. Though such variations have little effect on height at
maturity, they may have psychological consequences: It is not only when we mature
that counts, but how people react to our physical development.
For boys, early maturation has mixed effects. Boys who are stronger and more athletic
during their early teen years tend to be more popular, self-assured, and independent,
though also more at risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and premature sexual activity
(Conley & Rudolph, 2009; Copeland et al., 2010; Lynne et al., 2007). For girls, early
maturation can be a challenge (Mendle et al., 2007). If a young girl’s body and
hormone-fed feelings are out of sync with her emotional maturity and her friends’
physical development and experiences, she may begin associating with older
adolescents or may suffer teasing or sexual harassment (Ge & Natsuaki, 2009). She may
also be somewhat more vulnerable to an anxiety disorder (Weingarden & Renshaw,
2012).
The Teenage Brain
An adolescent’s brain is also a work in progress. Until puberty, brain cells increase their
connections, like trees growing more roots and branches. Then, during adolescence,
comes a selective pruning of unused neurons and connections (Blakemore, 2008).
What we don’t use, we lose.
The point to remember Teens find rewards more exciting than adults do. So they seek
thrills and rewards, without a fully developed brake pedal controlling their impulses.
As teens mature, their frontal lobes also continue to develop. The growth of myelin, the
fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission, enables better
communication with other brain regions (Kuhn, 2006; Silveri et al., 2006). These
developments bring improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.
Maturation of the frontal lobes nevertheless lags behind that of the emotional limbic
system. Puberty’s hormonal surge and limbic system development help explain teens’
occasional impulsiveness, risky behaviors, and emotional storms—slamming doors and
turning up the music (Casey et al., 2008, 2013). No wonder younger teens (whose
unfinished frontal lobes aren’t yet fully equipped for making long-term plans and
curbing impulses) may succumb to the tobacco corporations, which most adult smokers
could tell them they will later regret. Teens actually don’t underestimate the risks of
smoking—or fast driving or unprotected sex. They just, when reasoning from their gut,
weigh the immediate benefits more heavily (Reyna & Farley, 2006; Steinberg, 2007,
2010). Teens find rewards more exciting than adults do. So they seek thrills and
rewards, without a fully developed brake pedal controlling their impulses (
National surveys of more than 7000 American 12- to 24-year-olds reveal that sensation
seeking peaks in the mid-teens, with impulse control developing more slowly as frontal
lobes mature. (National Longitudinal Study of Youth and Children and Young Adults
survey data presented by Steinberg, 2013.)
So, when Junior drives recklessly and struggles academically, should his parents
reassure themselves that “he can’t help it; his frontal cortex isn’t yet fully grown”? They
can take hope: Brain changes underlie teens’ new self-consciousness about what others
are thinking and their valuing of risky rewards (Barkley-Levenson & Galván, 2014;
Somerville et al., 2013). And the brain with which Junior begins his teens differs from
the brain with which he will end his teens. Unless he slows his brain development with
heavy drinking—leaving him prone to impulsivity and addiction—his frontal lobes will
continue maturing until about age 25 (Crews et al., 2007; Giedd, 2015). They will also
become better connected with the limbic system, enabling better emotion regulation
(Steinberg, 2012).
In 2004, the American Psychological Association (APA) joined seven other medical and
mental health associations in filing U.S. Supreme Court briefs arguing against the death
penalty for 16- and 17-year-olds. The briefs documented the teen brain’s immaturity “in
areas that bear upon adolescent decision making.” Brain scans of young teens reveal
that frontal lobe immaturity is most evident among juvenile offenders and drug users
(Shannon et al., 2011; Whelan et al., 2012). Thus, teens are “less guilty by reason of
adolescence,” suggested psychologist Laurence Steinberg and law professor Elizabeth
Scott (2003; Steinberg et al., 2009). In 2005, by a 5-to-4 margin, the Court concurred,
declaring juvenile death penalties unconstitutional. In 2012, the APA offered similar
arguments against sentencing juveniles to life without parole (Banville, 2012; Steinberg,
2013). Once again, the Court, by a narrow 5-to-4 vote, concurred.
Multiple-Choice Question
People develop improved judgment, impulse control, and the ability to plan
for the future during their teens and early twenties, largely as a result of
which of the following?
development of the parietal lobes of the brain
growth in the number of neurons and their connections
development of the frontal lobes of the brain
a surge of hormones beginning in puberty
Correct. Along with the myelin growth that speeds up our brain’s communications, the
development of our frontal lobes leads to a marked improvement in things like
judgment and long-term foresight.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.9 The Aging Brain
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The Aging Brain
Up to the teen years, we process information with greater and greater speed (Fry &
Hale, 1996; Kail, 1991). But compared with teens and young adults, older people take a
bit more time to react, to solve perceptual puzzles, even to remember names (Bashore et
al., 1997; Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997). The neural processing lag is greatest on
complex tasks (Cerella, 1985; Poon, 1987). At video games, most 70-year-olds are no
match for a 20-year-old.
Slower neural processing combined with diminished sensory abilities can increase
accident risks. As
Figure 3
indicates, fatal accident rates per mile driven increase
sharply after age 75. By age 85, they exceed the 16-year-old level. Older drivers appear
to focus well on the road ahead, but attend less to vehicles approaching from the side
(Pollatsek et al., 2012). Nevertheless, because older people drive less, they account for
fewer than 10 percent of crashes (Coughlin et al., 2004).
The point to remember The aging brain is plastic, and partly compensates for what it
loses by recruiting and reorganizing neural networks.
Brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy during aging (Fraser et al., 2015;
Schacter, 1996). The blood-brain barrier also breaks down beginning in the
hippocampus, which furthers cognitive decline (Montagne et al., 2015). No wonder
adults, after taking a memory test, feel older. “[It’s like] aging 5 years in 5 minutes,”
jested one research report (Hughes et al., 2013). In early adulthood, a small, gradual net
loss of brain cells begins, contributing by age 80 to a brain-weight reduction of 5
percent or so. Earlier, we noted that late-maturing frontal lobes help account for teen
impulsivity. Late in life, some of that impulsiveness seems to return as inhibition-
controlling frontal lobes begin to atrophy (von Hippel, 2007). This helps explain older
people’s occasional blunt questions and comments (“Have you put on weight?”). But
good news: The aging brain is plastic, and partly compensates for what it loses by
recruiting and reorganizing neural networks (Park & McDonough, 2013). During
memory tasks, for example, the left frontal lobes are especially active in young adult
brains, while older adult brains use both left and right frontal lobes.
Chart showing the rate of fatal accidents per 10,000 drivers and per 100 million miles.
Fatal accidents per 10,000 drivers start at about 6 at age 16 to 19, level off at about 2 from
roughly age 30 to 60, and increase to almost 4 from age 75 on. Fatal accidents per 100
million miles start at about 9 at age 16 to 19, drop to about 2 from roughly age 30 to 60,
and rise to about 5 for age 70 to 74 and then spike to almost 12 from age 75 on.
Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75 and older, and
their greater fragility increases their risk of death when accidents happen (NHTSA, 2000).
Would you favor driver exams based on performance, not age, to screen out those whose
slow reactions or sensory impairments indicate accident risk?
Exercise and Aging
Exercise helps counteract some effects of aging. Physical exercise not only enhances
muscles, bones, and energy and helps to prevent obesity and heart disease, it also
stimulates brain cell development and neural connections, thanks perhaps to increased
oxygen and nutrient flow (Erickson et al., 2013; Fleischman et al., 2015; Pereira et al.,
2007). Exercise aids memory by stimulating the development of neural connections and
by promoting neurogenesis, the birth of new hippocampus nerve cells. And it increases
the cellular mitochondria that help power both muscles and brain cells (Steiner et al.,
2011).
Sedentary older adults randomly assigned to aerobic exercise programs exhibit
enhanced memory, sharpened judgment, and reduced risk of significant cognitive
decline (DeFina et al., 2013; Liang et al., 2010; Nagamatsu et al., 2013). Exercise also
helps maintain the telomeres (Leslie, 2011). These tips of chromosomes wear down with
age, much as the end of a shoelace frays. Telomere wear and tear is accelerated by
smoking, obesity, and stress. Children who suffer frequent abuse or bullying exhibit
shortened telomeres as biological scars (Shalev et al., 2013). As telomeres shorten,
aging cells may die without being replaced by perfect genetic replicas (Epel, 2009).
The message is clear: We are more likely to rust from disuse than to wear out from
overuse. Fit bodies support fit minds.
Multiple-Choice Question
The aging brain partly compensates for a loss of brain cells by recruiting
and reorganizing existing neural networks. Which of the following BEST
illustrates this ability?
Correct. Plasticity refers to the ability of the brain to continue to grow new neural
networks or reorganize existing networks; it is one way that the aging brain
compensates for the loss of brain cells.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.10 Cognitive Development in
Adulthood
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Cognitive Development in Adulthood
Aging and Memory
How does memory change with age?
Among the most intriguing developmental psychology questions is whether adult
cognitive abilities, such as memory, intelligence, and creativity, parallel the gradually
accelerating decline of physical abilities.
As we age, we remember some things well. Looking back in later life, adults asked to
recall the one or two most important events over the last half-century tend to name
events from their teens or twenties (Conway et al., 2005; Rubin et al., 1998). They also
display this “reminiscence bump” when asked to name their all-time favorite music,
movies, and athletes (Janssen et al., 2011). Whatever people experience around this
time of life—the Vietnam War, the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the election of the first Black
U.S. president—becomes pivotal (Pillemer, 1998; Schuman & Scott, 1989). Our teens
and twenties hold so many memorable “firsts”—first kiss, first job, first day at college or
university, first meeting in-laws.
The point to remember If the information is meaningful, older people’s rich web of
existing knowledge will help them to hold it.
Early adulthood is indeed a peak time for some types of learning and remembering. In
one test of recall, people watched video clips as 14 strangers said their names, using a
common format: “Hi, I’m Larry” (Crook & West, 1990). Then those strangers
reappeared and gave additional details. For example, they said, “I’m from
Philadelphia,” providing more visual and voice cues for remembering the person’s
name. As Figure 4 shows, after a second and third replay of the introductions, everyone
remembered more names, but younger adults consistently surpassed older adults. How
well older people remember depends in part on the task. In another experiment, when
asked to recognize 24 words they had earlier tried to memorize, people showed only a
minimal decline in memory. When asked to recall that information without clues,
however, the decline was greater (
Chart showing the percentage of names recalled after one, two, and three introductions at
various ages. People who received three introductions recalled the most names, but all
three groups steadily declined as they grew older.
Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier for younger adults
than for older ones. (Data from Crook & West, 1990.)
Figure 5
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This chart shows that the number of words recognized is stable with age, but the number
of words recalled declines with age.
In this experiment, the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle
adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not. (Data from Schonfield &
Robertson, 1966.)
In our capacity to learn and remember, as in other areas of development, we show
individual differences. Younger adults vary in their abilities to learn and remember, but
70-year-olds vary much more. “Differences between the most and least able 70-year-
olds become much greater than between the most and least able 50-year-olds,” reports
Oxford researcher Patrick Rabbitt (2006). Some 70-year-olds perform below nearly all
20-year-olds; other 70-year-olds match or outdo the average 20-year-old.
No matter how quick or slow we are, remembering seems also to depend on the type of
information we are trying to retrieve. If the information is meaningless—nonsense
syllables or unimportant events—then the older we are, the more errors we are likely to
make. If the information is meaningful, older people’s rich web of existing knowledge
will help them to hold it. But they may take longer than younger adults to produce the
words and things they know. Older adults also more often experience tip-of-the-tongue
memories (Ossher et al., 2012). Quick-thinking game show winners are usually young
or middle-aged adults (Burke & Shafto, 2004).
Multiple-Choice Question
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A 20-year-old is MOST likely to outperform a 70-year-old on which of the
following tasks?
recognizing previously presented names of fruits and vegetables
recalling memorable personal experiences
recalling previously presented nonsense syllables
recognizing previously presented foreign-language words
Correct. The ability to recall nonsense syllables declines with age.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Sustaining Mental Abilities
Psychologists who study the aging mind debate whether “brain fitness” computer
training programs can build mental muscles and stave off cognitive decline. Our brains
remain plastic throughout life (Gutchess, 2014). So, can exercising our brains on a
“cognitive treadmill”—with memory, visual tracking, and problem-solving exercises—
avert losing our minds? “At every point in life, the brain’s natural plasticity gives us the
ability to improve…function,” said one neuroscientist-entrepreneur (Merzenich, 2007).
One 5-year study of nearly 3000 people found that 10 one-hour cognitive training
sessions, with follow-up booster sessions, led to improved cognitive scores on tests
related to their training (Boron et al., 2007; Willis et al., 2006). Other studies with
children and adults also found that brain-training exercises can sharpen the mind
(Anguera et al., 2013; Jonides et al., 2012; Karr et al., 2014).
Based on such findings, some computer game makers are marketing daily brain-
exercise programs for older adults. But other researchers, after reviewing all the
available studies, advise caution (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Redick et al., 2013;
Salthouse, 2010; Shipstead et al., 2012a,b). The available evidence, they argue, suggests
that brain training can produce short-term gains, but mostly on the trained tasks and
not for cognitive ability in general (Berkman et al., 2014; Harrison et al., 2013; Karbach
& Verhaeghen, 2014). A British study of 11,430 people, who for 6 weeks either
completed brain training activities or a control task, confirmed the limited benefits.
Although the training improved the practiced skills, it did not boost overall cognitive
fitness (Owen et al., 2010). “Play a video game and you’ll get better at that video game,
and maybe at very similar video games,” observes researcher David Hambrick (2014),
but not at driving a car or filling out your tax return.
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On this page, you’ll read about some additional concepts that you should note to
succeed in this course.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.11 Course Notes: Personality
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We recognize that biological factors and experience, together, shape our personality.
Earlier in this chapter, we learned how we all follow a similar path as we physically and
psychologically develop from infancy through adulthood. But how does our personality
interact with our development? Now we turn to descriptions of our differences and the
individual personalities that arise from our unique biological and situational
experiences. On this Course Notes page, we’ll learn about the historical and biological
foundations of the personality traits that will be discussed later in this chapter. In
addition, we’ll consider whether personality can change.
Assessing Personality Traits
Look around your personal spaces, such as your home, car, or social media profile. How
do these spaces reflect your personality? If a few strangers spent 10 minutes examining
one of these spaces, would they be able to develop a good sense of who you are? How
well would they be able to predict your behavior? What can we know about someone’s
personality through such a brief snapshot?
Psychologists describe personality in terms of fundamental traits—people’s
characteristic behaviors and conscious motives—rather than in terms of broad “types.”
Traits allow us to describe the multiple dimensions of our personalities. In the 1960s,
British psychologists Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck [EYE-zink] administered one of
the first large-scale personality tests. They used a statistical technique called factor
analysis to identify clusters (or factors) of test questions that essentially asked about
the same dimensions. For example, if the same people who say they enjoy reading for
pleasure also describe themselves as quiet and reserved, then these responses represent
a factor—introversion. Ultimately, the Eysencks’ factor analysis led them to propose
that our personality can be distilled down to two or three dimensions, including
extraversion–introversion and emotional stability–instability (
Circle divided into four sections along north-south and east-west axes, each section
containing personality traits that represent a combination of stability or instability and
extraversion or introversion. In the upper left quadrant, which represents instability and
introversion, the traits listed are: moody, anxious, rigid, sober, pessimistic, reserved,
unsociable, and quiet. The upper right quadrant, instability and extraversion, contains
these traits: touchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable, impulsive, optimistic, and
active. The lower left quadrant, introversion and stability, contains these traits: passive,
careful, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, even-tempered, and calm. The lower
right quadrant, extraversion and stability, contains these traits: sociable, outgoing,
talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, and leadership. To the left of this circle is
a photograph of Jane Goodall kissing a monkey on the head, and to the right of it is a
photograph of Bill Clinton laughing with two athletes.
Mapmakers can tell us a lot by using two axes (north–south and east–west). Two primary
personality factors (extraversion–introversion and stability–instability) are similarly
useful as axes for describing personality variation. Varying combinations define other,
more specific traits (from Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963). Those who are naturally introverted,
such as primatologist Jane Goodall, may be particularly gifted in field studies. Successful
politicians, including former U.S. President Bill Clinton, are often natural extraverts.
Jean-Marc Bouju/AP Photo; Andrew Innerarity/Reuters/Landov
Biological Influences on Personality Traits
Biology and physiology influence our personality traits. Infant temperament sets the
stage for the development of personality. Calm and social babies are more likely to grow
up to be emotionally stable; sensitive and intense babies who are difficult to soothe are
likely to grow up to experience greater anxiety. Studies have shown that differences in
children’s autonomic nervous systems’ response to stress can influence the amount of
shyness and fear that a child typically displays (Kagan, 2010). Brain scans, too, show
that compared with introverts, extraverts have low brain arousal—which may cause
them to seek out more stimulation—and that their dopamine levels and dopamine-
related activity tend to be higher (Kim et al., 2008; Wacker et al., 2006).
Psychologists define personality as our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and
acting. These patterns can be observed across multiple situations, but it is important to
note that situations can create changes in behavior that are not indicative of personality
trait change. We may be quite talkative when eating lunch with our close friends but
quiet and reserved when first meeting the parents of someone we just started dating.
This distinction does not mean that our personality has changed; it just means that we
have adjusted our behavior based on the setting or people.
Similarly, personality is distinct from moods. A mood is a temporary physiological and
emotional response. When we’re in a “bad mood,” we might not act like our
characteristic self, but our personality traits haven’t changed. When the bad mood ends,
our normal patterns of thinking and acting return. For these reasons, psychologists
would discourage you from trying to predict a classmate’s future behavior based on
what you observe in just one situation.
Although personality is a relatively stable pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior,
major life changes—such as becoming a parent or experiencing a religious conversion—
can change or create new behaviors. These events do not simply change our mood; they
change our habits and often our identities. A personality change happens over time, as
new patterns of behavior are established and our traits are revised.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST describes an individual’s characteristic
pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting?
mood
schema
self-esteem
personality
Correct. Psychologists define personality as our characteristic pattern of thinking,
feeling, and acting.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.15 Social-Cognitive Theories
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Social-Cognitive Theories
How do social-cognitive theorists view personality development, and how do they
explore behavior?
The social-cognitive perspective on personality, proposed by Albert Bandura (1986,
2006, 2008), emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations. Much as
nature and nurture always work together, so do individuals and their situations.
The point to remember Behavior emerges from the interplay of external and internal
influences.
Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our behaviors either through
conditioning or by observing and imitating others. (That’s the “social” part.) They also
emphasize the importance of mental processes: What we think about a situation affects
our behavior in that situation. (That’s the “cognitive” part.) Instead of focusing solely on
how our environment controls us (behaviorism), social-cognitive theorists focus on how
we and our environment interact: How do we interpret and respond to external events?
How do our schemas, our memories, and our expectations influence our behavior
patterns?
Reciprocal Influences
Bandura (1986, 2006) views the person-environment interaction as reciprocal
determinism. “Behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental influences,” he
said, “all operate as interlocking determinants of each other” (
Figure 8
). We can see this
interaction in people’s relationships. For example, Rosa’s romantic history (past
behavior) influences her attitudes toward new relationships (internal factor), which
affects how she now responds to Ryan (environmental factor).
Circular illustration of how internal personal factors, behavior, and environmental factors
interact. Illustration contains three text boxes forming a triangle, with two-sided arrows
pointing between each text box. The first box contains internal personal factors, like
thoughts and feelings about risky activities. The second box contains behavior, like
learning to rock climb, and the third box contains environmental factors, like rock-
climbing friends.
Courtesy of Joslyn Brugh
Multiple-Choice Question
How does the social-cognitive approach differ from the other perspectives
on personality discussed in this chapter?
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of internal dispositions to a
greater extent than do the other perspectives.
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of inner conflicts to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of the environment to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of the unconscious to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
Correct. More so than other personality perspectives, the social-cognitive view focuses
on how our environment interacts with our traits. It suggests that our behaviors are
influenced by social factors (like conditioning) and by cognitive factors (like what we
think about a situation).
Consider three specific ways in which individuals and environments interact:
1. Different people choose different environments. The schools we attend,
the reading we do, the movies we watch, the music we listen to, the friends we
associate with—all are part of an environment we have chosen, based partly on our
dispositions (Funder, 2009; Ickes et al., 1997). We choose our environment and it
then shapes us.
2. Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events. Anxious
people tend to attend and react strongly to relationship threats (Campbell &
Marshall, 2011). If we perceive the world as threatening, we will watch for threats
and be prepared to defend ourselves.
3. Our personalities help create situations to which we react. How we view
and treat people influences how they then treat us. If we expect that others will not
like us, our desperate attempts to seek their approval might cause them to reject
us. Depressed people often engage in this excessive reassurance seeking, which
may confirm their negative self-views (Coyne, 1976a,b).
In addition to the interaction of internal personal factors, the environment, and our
behaviors, we also experience gene-environment interaction. Our genetically
influenced traits evoke certain responses from others, which may nudge us in one
direction or another. In one classic study, those with the interacting factors of (1) having
a specific gene associated with aggression and (2) being raised in a difficult
environment were most likely to demonstrate adult antisocial behavior (Caspi et al.,
2002).
In such ways, we are both the products and the architects of our environments:
Behavior emerges from the interplay of external and internal influences. Boiling water
turns an egg hard and a potato soft. A threatening environment turns one person into a
hero, another into a scoundrel. Extraverts enjoy greater well-being in an extraverted
culture than in an introverted one (Fulmer et al., 2010). At every moment, our behavior
is influenced by our biology, our social and cultural experiences, and our cognition and
dispositions (
The Biopsychosocial Approach to the Study of Personality
Illustration depicting the biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences on
personality. Biological influences include genetically determined temperament, autonomic
nervous system reactivity, and brain activity. Psychological influences include learned
responses, unconscious thought processes, and expectations and interpretations. Social-
cultural influences include childhood experiences, influence of the situation, cultural
expectations, and social support.
As with other psychological phenomena, personality is fruitfully studied at multiple levels.
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