Purpose: To facilitate your understanding and application of Mission Analysis within the MDMP.

Assignment Instructions: Prepare a Mission Analysis briefing that shows your understanding of steps one and two of the MDMP ( See FM 6-0 attached) Brief the content and information involved in your presentation to a CSM/SGM. 

This is a military information briefing. See Rub attached for oral communication assessment.

Requirements: This is an information briefing, not a reading. Students will not read their slides.  The presentation will consist of 6 to 10 slides (including Title Slide, Agenda, Conclusion, & References). 

Students may use up to two other visual aids such as maps and diagrams if desired. The presentation will describe steps one and two of the MDMP. Students must display a clear understanding of key principles using real-world examples.

SMC-DL Form 1009S Oral Communication Assessment 2 of 3

Performance Level
Criteria Far Exceeded The

Standard
Exceeded the

Standard
Met the Standard Did not Meet

Standard

Unsatisfactory Score

20 Points 18 Points 14 Points 7 Points 2 Points
Introduction Attention step drew the

audience in. It was
exceptional and the purpose
of the briefing clearly
understood with the major
points being relevant to the
stated purpose.

Attention step was
effective and
appropriate. Purpose
was clearly stated,
focused, and relevant
to the presentation.
Stated appropriate
classification for
the presentation.
Stated appropriate
briefing type.
Clearly introduced
major points
(agenda) relevant
to the purpose.

Attention step was vague or
not tied to presentation.
Purpose was presented, but
not focused or completely
relevant. Stated inappropriate
classification or briefing type
for the task and purpose.
Vague or partial introduction
of major points.

No attention step.
No clear purpose.
No stated
classification. No
stated briefing
type. No
introduction of
major points
(agenda).

Development-
Purpose

Major points fully
support purpose
and are logically
briefed to support
position.

Major points fully
supported purpose.

Major points partially supported
purpose.

Major points are
disjointed and
does not logically
flow with purpose.

Topic lacks
relevance or focus;
presentation
contains multiple
fallacies or errors
Major points
did not support
purpose.

Development-
Points of View

Clearly presented
other points of
view into briefing
demonstrating
clear critical
thinking

Clearly and fairly
discussed all
viewpoints

Presented multiple viewpoints,
but did not completely
reason through them.

Demonstrated a
marginal
understanding of
how to
incorporate
different
viewpoints.

Student failed to
present any
viewpoints.
Appears
unprepared for the
brief.

Development-
Analysis

The analysis of the evidence
is thought out and presented
in a manner that fully
supports the purpose.
Presents an abundance of
accurate and relevant
evidence to support the
main points/ purpose.

Clear analysis
supported main
points/purpose.

Presents an adequate amount
of evidence to support the
main
points. Analysis partially
supported main
points/purpose.

Failed to show
how evidence
supports main
points/purpose.

Present evidence
that
is inaccurate or not
relevant to the
purpose/
main point.

10 Points 9 Points 8 Points 3.5 Points 2 points
Development-
Implications and
Consequences

Appeared enthusiastic about
presentation at all times.
Moderated level of
excitement to hold audience’s
attention.

Good volume and
energy; proper pace
and diction; avoidance
of distracting
gestures; professional
appearance; visual
aids used effectively

Adequate volume and energy;
generally good pace and
diction; few or no distracting
gestures; professional
appearance; visual aids used
adequately

More volume
/energy needed at
times; monotone
throughout; pace
too slow or fast;
some distracting
gestures or
posture; adequate
appearance;
visual aids could
be improved

Low volume or
energy; pace too
slow or fast; poor
diction; distracting
gestures or
posture;
unprofessional
appearance; visual
aids poorly used

2.5 2 Points 1.5 Points 1 Points .05 Points

Development
Transitions &

Fallacies

Excellent Transitions
between main points
(audience could easily follow
presenter) and the brief was
logic fallacy free.

Transitions were good
and the brief lacked
logic fallacies

Transitions at times were
awkward yet the presenter was
able to recover. Presentation
contained less than three logic
fallacies.

Presentation
lacked transitions
and contained
numerous logic
fallacies.

Presentation was
disjointed and
lacked logic and
reasoning.

Conclusion

Conclusion is clear and
reinforces the main points.

Conclusion is clear,
reinforces purpose
and major parts of

the briefing.
Conclusion was fully
justified by the
evidence and
reasoning and
it was concise.

Conclusion partially supported
purpose. Conclusion was
not strongly tied to the

evidence and reasoning or it
was not concise.

Conclusion did
not support
purpose or

connected to the
main points.
Slides have
numerous
spelling errors or
various font types
which distract
from briefing.

Failed to provide a
conclusion

Style &
Mechanics-

Dictation/Tone

Clearly articulated the
brief in a professional and
respectful manner using
good tone, voice control and
proper doctrinal terminology.

Diction and tone
were clear, articulate
and drew the
audience into the
presentation. Body
language enhanced
the presentation.

Diction and tone were
generally appropriate for
audience and purpose. Body
language did not always
enhance the presentation.

Diction or tone
was not
appropriate for
audience or
purpose. Body
language was
inappropriate or
unprofessional.

Displayed a
tremendous
amount of
nervousness
not expected of a
SMC-DL
graduate.

SMC-DL Form 1009S Oral Communication Assessment 3 of 3

Criteria
Far Exceeded The

Standard
Exceeded the

Standard
Met the Standard

Did not Meet
Standard

Unsatisfactory Score

2.5 Points 2 Points 1.5 Points 1 Points .05 Points

Style &
Mechanics-
Questions

Anticipated questions and
answered questions with
clarity, accuracy, and
precision. Completely
managed the setting,
classroom, and/or
equipment.

Anticipated questions
and answered
questions with clarity,
accuracy, and
precision. Completely
managed the setting,
classroom, and/or
equipment.

Did not fully answer the
questions that were asked.
Demonstrated some difficulty
managing the classroom, or
equipment.

Did not anticipate
or respond to
questions.
Inappropriate
setting,
classroom, or use
of equipment

Closed brief
and did not
respond to
questions

Subtract -10
for every two days late until –
40 points have been
assessed without an
approved extension.

Subtract –
31 Presentation
failed to meet the
requirements of the
assignment (i.e.
wrong topic, failed to
do the brief, failed to
meet time) -31

Sub

Total

Total

1. ScoreNo attention step No clear purpose No stated classification No stated briefing type No introduction of major points agenda:
2. ScoreTopic lacks relevance or focus presentation contains multiple fallacies or errors Major points did not support purpose:
3. ScoreStudent failed to present any viewpoints Appears unprepared for the brief:
4. ScorePresent evidence that is inaccurate or not relevant to the purpose main point:
5. ScoreLow volume or energy pace too slow or fast poor diction distracting gestures or posture unprofessional appearance visual aids poorly used:
6. ScorePresentation was disjointed and lacked logic and reasoning:
7. ScoreFailed to provide a conclusion:
8. ScoreDisplayed a tremendous amount of nervousness not expected of a SMCDL graduate:
9. ScoreClosed brief and did not respond to questions:
10. ScoreSub Total: 0
11. ScoreTotal:

22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-1

Chapter 9

The Military Decisionmaking Proces

s

The military decisionmaking process is one of the Army’s three planning
methodologies. Before beginning an iteration of the military decisionmaking process,
readers should review chapter 2 of ADRP 5-0 to understand the fundamentals of
planning. This chapter defines and describes the characteristics of the military
decisionmaking process. Next, it provides a detailed discussion of each step of the
military decisionmaking process. The chapter concludes by providing guidance for
conducting the military decisionmaking process in a time-constrained environment.
Effectively conducting the military decisionmaking process requires leaders who
understand the fundamentals of planning.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MILITARY DECISIONMAKING
PROCESS

9-1. The military decisionmaking process is an iterative planning methodology to understand the situation
and mission, develop a course of action, and produce an operation plan or order (ADP 5-0). The military
decisionmaking process (MDMP) helps leaders apply thoroughness, clarity, sound judgment, logic, an

d

professional knowledge to understand situations, develop options to solve problems, and reach decisions.
This process helps commanders, staffs, and others think critically and creatively while planning.

9-2. The MDMP facilitates collaborative planning. The higher headquarters solicits input and
continuously shares information concerning future operations through planning meetings, warning orders,
and other means. It shares information with subordinate and adjacent units, supporting and supported units,
and unified action partners. Commanders encourage active collaboration among all organizations affected
by pending operations to build a shared understanding of the situation, participate in course of action
development and decisionmaking, and resolve conflicts before publishing the plan or order.

9-3. During planning, assessment focuses on developing an understanding of the current situation and
determining what to assess and how to assess progress using measures of effectiveness and measures of
performance. Developing the unit’s assessment plan occurs during the MDMP—not after developing the
plan or order. (See chapter 15 for details on assessment plans.)

9-4. The MDMP also drives preparation. Since time is a factor in all operations, commanders and staffs
conduct a time analysis early in the planning process. This analysis helps them determine when to begin
certain actions to ensure forces are ready and in position before execution. This may require the
commander to direct subordinates to start necessary movements, conduct task organization changes, begin
information collection, and execute other preparation activities before completing the plan. As the
commander and staff conduct the MDMP, they direct preparation tasks in a series of warning orders
(WARNORDs).

9-5. Depending on the situation’s complexity, commanders can initiate the Army design methodology
before or in parallel with the MDMP. If the problem is hard to identify or the operation’s end state is
unclear, commanders may initiate Army design methodology before engaging in detailed planning. Army
design methodology can assist the commander and staff in understanding the operational environment,
framing the problem, and considering an operational approach to solve or manage the problem. The
understanding and products resulting from Army design methodology guide more detailed planning during
the MDMP. When used in parallel, the commander may direct some staff members to conduct mission
analysis while engaging others in Army design methodology activities prior to course of action
development. Results of both mission analysis and Army design methodology inform commanders in

Chapter 9

9-2 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

development of their commander’s intent and planning guidance. In time-constrained conditions, or when
the problem is not complex, commanders may conduct the MDMP without incorporating formal Army
design methodology efforts. During execution, the commander can use Army design methodology to help
refine understanding and visualization as well as assessing and adjusting the plan as required.

THE SEVEN STEPS OF THE MILITARY DECISIONMAKING PROCESS
9-6. The MDMP consists of seven steps, as shown in figure 9-1. Each step of the MDMP has various
inputs, a step to conduct, and outputs. Each step also has a series of processes that commanders and staffs
conduct to produce the outputs. The outputs lead to an increased understanding of the situation, facilitating
the next step of the MDMP. Commanders and staffs generally perform these steps sequentially; however,
they may revisit several steps in an iterative fashion as they learn more about the situation before producing
the plan or order.

9-7. Commanders initiate the MDMP upon receipt of, or in anticipation of, a mission. Commanders and
staffs often begin planning in the absence of a complete and approved higher headquarters’ operation plan
(OPLAN) or operation order (OPORD). In these instances, the headquarters begins a new planning effor

t

based on a WARNORD and other directives, such as a planning order or an alert order from its higher
headquarters. This requires active collaboration with the higher headquarters and parallel planning among
echelons as the plan or order is developed.

THE ROLE OF COMMANDERS AND STAFFS IN THE MILITARY DECISIONMAKING PROCESS
9-8. The commander is the most important participant in the MDMP. More than simply decisionmakers
in this process, commanders use their experience, knowledge, and judgment to guide staff planning efforts.
While unable to devote all their time to the MDMP, commanders follow the status of the planning effort,
participate during critical periods of the process, and make decisions based on the detailed work of the
staff. During the MDMP, commanders focus their activities on understanding, visualizing, and describing.

9-9. The MDMP stipulates several formal meetings and briefings between the commander and staff to
discuss, assess, and approve or disapprove planning efforts as they progress. However, experience has
shown that optimal planning results when the commander meets informally at frequent intervals with the
staff throughout the MDMP. Such informal interaction between the commander and staff can improve the
staff’s understanding of the situation and ensure their planning efforts adequately reflect the commander’s
visualization of the operation.

9-10. The chief of staff (COS) (executive officer [XO]) is a key participant in the MDMP. The COS (XO)
manages and coordinates the staff’s work and provides quality control during the MDMP. To effectively
supervise the entire process, this officer has to clearly understand the commander’s intent and guidance.
The COS (XO) provides timelines to the staff, establishes briefing times and locations, and provides any
instructions necessary to complete the plan.

9-11. The staff’s effort during the MDMP focuses on helping the commander understand the situation,
make decisions, and synchronize those decisions into a fully developed plan or order. Staff activities during
planning initially focus on mission analysis. The products the staff develops during mission analysis help
commanders understand the situation and develop the commander’s visualization. During course of action
(COA) development and COA comparison, the staff provides recommendations to support the commander
in selecting a COA. After the commander makes a decision, the staff prepares the plan or order that reflects
the commander’s intent, coordinating all necessary details. (See figure 9-1.)

The Military Decisionmaking Process

22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-3

Figure 9-1. The seven steps of the military decisionmaking process

Chapter 9

9-4 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

MODIFYING THE MILITARY DECISIONMAKING PROCESS
9-12. The MDMP can be as detailed as time, resources, experience, and the situation permit. Performing
all steps of the MDMP is detailed, deliberate, and time-consuming. Commanders use the full MDMP when
they have enough planning time and staff support to thoroughly examine two or more COAs and develop a
fully synchronized plan or order. This typically occurs when planning for an entirely new mission.

9-13. Commanders may alter the steps of the MDMP to fit time-constrained circumstances and produce a
satisfactory plan. In time-constrained conditions, commanders assess the situation, update the commander’s
visualization, and direct the staff to perform the MDMP activities that support the required decisions. In
extremely compressed situations, commanders rely on more intuitive decisionmaking techniques, such as
the rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process. (See paragraphs 9-205 through 9-210 for
information on planning in a time-constrained environment.)

STEPS OF THE MILITARY DECISIONMAKING PROCESS
9-14. The remainder of this chapter describes the methods for conducting each step of the MDMP. It
describes the key inputs and expected key outputs for each step. It also describes how the staff integrates
intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB), targeting, risk management, and information collection
throughout the MDMP.

STEP 1–RECEIPT OF MISSION
9-15. Commanders initiate the MDMP upon receipt or in anticipation of a mission. This step alerts all
participants of the pending planning requirements, enabling them to determine the amount of time available
for planning and preparation and decide on a planning approach, including guidance on using Army design
methodology and how to abbreviate the MDMP, if required. When commanders identify a new mission,
commanders and staffs perform the actions and produce the expected key outputs. (See figure 9-2.)

Figure 9-2. Step 1–receipt of the mission

Alert the Staff and Other Key Participants
9-16. As soon as a unit receives a new mission (or when the commander directs), the current operations
integration cell alerts the staff of the pending planning requirement. Unit standard operating procedures
(SOPs) should identify members of the planning staff who participate in mission analysis. In addition, the
current operations integration cell also notifies other military, civilian, and host-nation organizations of
pending planning events as required.

The Military Decisionmaking Proces

s

22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-5

Gather the Tools
9-17. Once notified of the new planning requirement, the staff prepares for mission analysis by gathering
the needed tools. These tools include, but are not limited to—

Appropriate publications, including ADRP 1-02.
All documents related to the mission and area of operations, including the higher headquarters’
OPLAN and OPORD, maps and terrain products, and operational graphics.
Higher headquarters’ and other organizations’ intelligence and assessment products.
Estimates and products of other military and civilian agencies and organizations.
Both their own and the higher headquarters’ SOPs.
Current running estimates.
Any Army design methodology products.

9-18. The gathering of knowledge products continues throughout the MDMP. Staff officers carefully
review the reference sections (located before paragraph 1. Situation) of the higher headquarters’ OPLANs
and OPORDs to identify documents (such as theater policies and memoranda) related to the upcoming
operation. If the MDMP occurs while in the process of replacing another unit, the staff begins collecting
relevant documents—such as the current OPORD, branch plans, current assessments, operations and
intelligence summaries, and SOPs—from that unit.

Update Running Estimates
9-19. While gathering the necessary tools for planning, each staff section begins updating its running
estimate—especially the status of friendly units and resources and key civil considerations that affect each
functional area. Running estimates not only compile critical facts and assumptions from the perspective of
each staff section, but also include information from other staff sections and other military and civilian
organizations. While listed at the beginning of the MDMP, this task of developing and updating running
estimates continues throughout the MDMP and the operations process. (See chapter 8 for more information
on running estimates.)

Conduct Initial Assessment
9-20. During receipt of mission, the commander and staff conduct an initial assessment of time and
resources available to plan, prepare, and begin execution of an operation. This initial assessment helps
commanders determine—

The time needed to plan and prepare for the mission for both headquarters and subordinate units.
Guidance on conducting the Army design methodology and abbreviating the MDMP, if
required.
Which outside agencies and organizations to contact and incorporate into the planning process.
The staff’s experience, cohesiveness, and level of rest or stress.

9-21. This assessment primarily identifies an initial allocation of available time. The commander and staff
balance the desire for detailed planning against the need for immediate action. The commander provides
guidance to subordinate units as early as possible to allow subordinates the maximum time for their own
planning and preparation of operations. As a rule, commanders allocate a minimum of two-thirds of
available time for subordinate units to conduct their planning and preparation. This leaves one-third of the
time for commanders and their staffs to do their planning. They use the other two-thirds for their own
preparation. Time, more than any other factor, determines the detail to which the commander and staff can
plan.

9-22. Based on the commander’s initial allocation of time, the COS (XO) develops a staff planning
timeline that outlines how long the headquarters can spend on each step of the MDMP. The staff planning
timeline indicates what products are due, who is responsible for them, and who receives them. It includes
times and locations for meetings and briefings. It serves as a benchmark for the commander and staff
throughout the MDMP.

Chapter 9

9-6 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

Issue the Commander’s Initial Guidance
9-23. Once time is allocated, the commander determines whether to initiate Army design methodology,
perform Army design methodology in parallel with the MDMP, or proceed directly into the MDMP
without the benefits of formal Army design methodology activities. In time-sensitive situations where
commanders decide to proceed directly into the MDMP, they may also issue guidance on how to abbreviate
the process. Having determined the time available together with the scope and scale of the planning effort,
commanders issue initial planning guidance. Although brief, the initial guidance includes, but is not limited
to—

Initial time allocations.
A decision to initiate Army design methodology or go straight into the MDMP.
How to abbreviate the MDMP, if required.
Necessary coordination to exchange liaison officers.
Authorized movements and initiation of information collection.
Collaborative planning times and locations.
Initial information requirements.
Additional staff tasks.

Issue the Initial Warning Order
9-24. The last task in receipt of mission is to issue a WARNORD to subordinate and supporting units. This
order includes at a minimum the type of operation, the general location of the operation, the initial timeline,
and any movement or information collection to initiate.

STEP 2–MISSION ANALYSIS
9-25. The MDMP continues with an assessment of the situation called mission analysis. Commanders
(supported by their staffs and informed by subordinate and adjacent commanders and by other partners)
gather, analyze, and synthesize information to orient themselves on the current conditions of the
operational environment. The commander and staff conduct mission analysis to better understand the
situation and problem, and identify what the command must accomplish, when and where it must be done,
and most importantly why—the purpose of the operation.

9-26. Since no amount of subsequent planning can solve an insufficiently understood problem, mission
analysis is the most important step in the MDMP. This understanding of the situation and the problem
allows commanders to visualize and describe how the operation may unfold in their initial commander’s
intent and planning guidance. During mission analysis, the commander and staff perform the process
actions and produce the outputs shown in figure 9-3.

9-27. Commanders and staffs also begin the development of evaluation criteria during this step. These
evaluation criteria are continually developed and refined throughout the MDMP and become a key input
during Step 5—Course of Action Comparison.

Analyze the Higher Headquarters’ Plan or Order
9-28. Commanders and staffs thoroughly analyze the higher headquarters’ plan or order. They determine
how their unit—by task and purpose—contributes to the mission, commander’s intent, and concept of
operations of the higher headquarters. The commander and staff seek to completely understand—

The higher headquarters’—
Commander’s intent.
Mission.
Concept of operations.
Available assets.
Timeline.

The Military Decisionmaking Process

22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-7

The missions of adjacent, supporting, and supported units and their relationships to the higher
headquarters’ plan.
The missions or goals of unified action partners that work in the operational areas.
Their assigned area of operations.

Figure 9-3. Step 2–mission analysis

9-29. If the commander misinterprets the higher headquarters’ plan, time is wasted. Additionally, when
analyzing the higher order, the commander and staff may identify difficulties and contradictions in the
higher order. Therefore, if confused by the higher headquarters’ order or guidance, commanders must seek
immediate clarification. Liaison officers familiar with the higher headquarters’ plan can help clarify issues.
Collaborative planning with the higher headquarters also facilitates this task. Staffs use requests for
information to clarify or obtain additional information from the higher headquarters.

Chapter 9

9-8 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

Perform Initial Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield
9-30. IPB is the systematic process of analyzing the mission variables of enemy, terrain, weather, and civil
considerations in an area of interest to determine their effect on operations. The IPB process identifies
critical gaps in the commander’s knowledge of an operational environment. As a part of the initial planning
guidance, commanders use these gaps as a guide to establish their initial intelligence requirements. IPB
products enable the commander to assess facts about the operational environment and make assumptions
about how friendly and threat forces will interact in the operational environment. The description of the
operational environment’s effects identifies constraints on potential friendly COAs. It also identifies key
aspects of the operational environment, such as avenues of approach, engagement areas, and landing zones,
which the staff integrates into potential friendly COAs and their running estimates. For mission analysis,
the intelligence staff, along with the other staff elements, will use IPB to develop detailed threat COA
models, which depict a COA available to the threat. The threat COA models provide a basis for formulating
friendly COAs and completing the intelligence estimate.

9-31. The intelligence staff, in collaboration with other staffs, develops other IPB products during mission
analysis. That collaboration should result in the drafting of initial priority intelligence requirements (PIRs),
the production of a complete modified combined obstacles overlay, a list of high value targets, and
unrefined event templates and matrices. IPB should provide an understanding of the threat’s center of
gravity, which then can be exploited by friendly forces.

Determine Specified, Implied, and Essential Tasks
9-32. The staff analyzes the higher headquarters’ order and the higher commander’s guidance to determine
their specified and implied tasks. In the context of operations, a task is a clearly defined and measurable
activity accomplished by Soldiers, units, and organizations that may support or be supported by other tasks.
The “what” of a mission statement is always a task. From the list of specified and implied tasks, the staff
determines essential tasks for inclusion in the recommended mission statement.

9-33. A specified task is a task specifically assigned to a unit by its higher headquarters. Paragraphs 2
and 3 of the higher headquarters’ order or plan state specified tasks. Some tasks may be in paragraphs 4
and 5. Specified tasks may be listed in annexes and overlays. They may also be assigned verbally during
collaborative planning sessions or in directives from the higher commander.

9-34. An implied task is a task that must be performed to accomplish a specified task or mission but
is not stated in the higher headquarters’ order. Implied tasks are derived from a detailed analysis of the
higher headquarters’ order, the enemy situation, the terrain, and civil considerations. Additionally, analysis
of doctrinal requirements for each specified task might disclose implied tasks.

9-35. When analyzing the higher order for specified and implied tasks, the staff also identifies any
be-prepared or on-order missions. A be-prepared mission is a mission assigned to a unit that might be
executed. Generally a contingency mission, commanders execute it because something planned has or has
not been successful. In planning priorities, commanders plan a be-prepared mission after any on-order
mission. An on-order mission is a mission to be executed at an unspecified time. A unit with an on-order
mission is a committed force. Commanders envision task execution in the concept of operations; however,
they may not know the exact time or place of execution. Subordinate commanders develop plans and orders
and allocate resources, task-organize, and position forces for execution.

9-36. Once staff members have identified specified and implied tasks, they ensure they understand each
task’s requirements and purpose. The staff then identifies essential tasks. An essential task is a specified
or implied task that must be executed to accomplish the mission. Essential tasks are always included in
the unit’s mission statement.

Review Available Assets and Identify Resource Shortfalls
9-37. The commander and staff examine additions to and deletions from the current task organization,
command and support relationships, and status (current capabilities and limitations) of all units. This
analysis also includes capabilities of civilian and military organizations (joint, special operations, and
multinational) that operate within their unit’s area of operations. They consider relationships among

The Military Decisionmaking Process

22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-9

specified, implied, and essential tasks, and between them and available assets. From this analysis, staffs
determine if they have the assets needed to complete all tasks. If shortages occur, they identify additional
resources needed for mission success to the higher headquarters. Staffs also identify any deviations from
the normal task organization and provide them to the commander to consider when developing the planning
guidance. A more detailed analysis of available assets occurs during COA development.

Determine Constraints
9-38. The commander and staff identify any constraints placed on their command. A constraint is a
restriction placed on the command by a higher command. A constraint dictates an action or inaction,
thus restricting the freedom of action of a subordinate commander. Constraints are found in
paragraph 3 of the OPLAN or OPORD. Annexes to the order may also include constraints. The operation
overlay, for example, may contain a restrictive fire line or a no fire area. Constraints may also be issued
verbally, in WARNORDs, or in policy memoranda.

9-39. Constraints may also be based on resource limitations within the command, such as organic fuel
transport capacity, or physical characteristics of the operational environment, such as the number of
vehicles that can cross a bridge in a specified time.

9-40. The commander and staff should coordinate with the staff judge advocate for a legal review of
perceived or obvious constraints, restraints, or limitations in the OPLAN, OPORD, or related documents.

Identify Critical Facts and Develop Assumptions
9-41. Plans and orders are based on facts and assumptions. Commanders and staffs gather facts and
develop assumptions as they build their plan. A fact is a statement of truth or a statement thought to be true
at the time. Facts concerning the operational and mission variables serve as the basis for developing
situational understanding, for continued planning, and when assessing progress during preparation and
execution.

9-42. An assumption is a supposition on the current situation or a presupposition on the future course of
events, either or both assumed to be true in the absence of positive proof, necessary to enable the
commander in the process of planning to complete an estimate of the situation and make a decision on the
course of action. In the absence of facts, the commander and staff consider assumptions from their higher
headquarters. They then develop their own assumptions necessary for continued planning.

9-43. Having assumptions requires commanders and staffs to continually attempt to replace those
assumptions with facts. The commander and staff should list and review the key assumptions on which
fundamental judgments rest throughout the MDMP. Rechecking assumptions is valuable at any time during
the operations process prior to rendering judgments and making decisions.

Begin Risk Management
9-44. Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and controlling risks arising from
operational factors and making decisions that balance risk cost with mission benefits (JP 3-0). During
mission analysis, the commander and staff focus on identifying and assessing hazards. Developing specific
control measures to mitigate those hazards occurs during course of action development.

9-45. The chief of protection (or operations staff officer [S-3] in units without a protection cell) in
coordination with the safety officer integrates risk management into the MDMP. All staff sections integrate
risk management for hazards within their functional areas. Units conduct the first four steps of risk
management in the MDMP. ATP 5-19 addresses the details for conducting risk management, including
products of each step.

Develop Initial Commander’s Critical Information Requirements and Essential Elements of
Friendly Information

9-46. The mission analysis process identifies gaps in information required for further planning and
decisionmaking during preparation and execution. During mission analysis, the staff develops information

Chapter 9

9-10 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

requirements. Some information requirements are of such importance to the commander that staffs
nominate them to the commander to become a commander’s critical information requirement (CCIR).

9-47. A commander’s critical information requirement is an information requirement identified by the
commander as being critical to facilitating timely decisionmaking. The two key elements are friendly force
information requirements and priority intelligence requirements. A CCIR directly influences
decisionmaking and facilitates the successful execution of military operations. A CCIR is—

Specified by a commander for a specific operation.
Applicable only to the commander who specifies it.
Situation dependent—directly linked to a current or future mission.
Time-sensitive.

9-48. Commanders consider staff input when determining their CCIRs. CCIRs are situation-dependent and
specified by the commander for each operation. Commanders continuously review CCIRs during the
planning process and adjust them as situations change. The initial CCIRs developed during mission
analysis normally focus on decisions the commander needs to make to focus planning. Once the
commander selects a COA, the CCIRs shift to information the commander needs in order to make decisions
during preparation and execution. Commanders designate CCIRs to inform the staff and subordinates what
they deem essential for making decisions. Typically, commanders identify ten or fewer CCIRs; minimizing
the number of CCIRs assists in prioritizing the allocation of limited resources. CCIR fall into one of two
categories: PIRs and friendly force information requirements (FFIRs).

9-49. A PIR is an intelligence requirement, stated as a priority for intelligence support, that the commander
and staff need to understand the adversary or the operational environment. PIRs identify the information
about the enemy and other aspects of the operational environment that the commander considers most
important. Lessons from recent operations show that intelligence about civil considerations may be as
critical as intelligence about the enemy. Thus, all staff sections may recommend information about civil
considerations as PIRs. The intelligence officer manages PIRs for the commander through planning
requirements and assessing collection.

9-50. An FFIR is information the commander and staff need to understand the status of friendly force and
supporting capabilities. FFIRs identify the information about the mission, troops and support available, and
time available for friendly forces that the commander considers most important. In coordination with the
staff, the operations officer manages FFIRs for the commander.

9-51. In addition to nominating CCIRs to the commander, the staff also identifies and nominates essential
elements of friendly information (EEFIs). An EEFI establishes an element of information to protect rather
than one to collect. EEFIs identify those elements of friendly force information that, if compromised,
would jeopardize mission success. Although EEFIs are not CCIRs, they have the same priority as CCIRs
and require approval by the commander. Like CCIRs, EEFIs change as an operation progresses.

9-52. Depending on the situation, the commander and selected staff members meet prior to the mission
analysis brief to approve the initial CCIRs and EEFIs. This is especially important if the commander
intends to conduct information collection early in the planning process. The approval of the initial CCIRs
early during planning assists the staff in developing the initial information collection plan. Approval of an
EEFI allows the staff to begin planning and implementing measures to protect friendly force information,
such as military deception and operations security.

Develop the Initial Information Collection Plan
9-53. The initial information collection plan is crucial to begin or adjust the information collection effort to
help answer information requirements necessary in developing effective plans. The initial information
collection plan sets reconnaissance, surveillance, and intelligence operations in motion. It may be issued as
part of a WARNORD, a fragmentary order (FRAGORD), or an OPORD. As more information becomes
available, it is incorporated into a complete information collection plan (Annex L) to the OPORD.

9-54. The intelligence staff creates the requirements management tools for the information collection plan.
The operations staff is responsible for the information collection plan. During this step, the operations and

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-11

intelligence staff work closely to ensure they fully synchronize and integrate information collection
activities into the overall plan.

9-55. The operations officer considers several factors when developing the initial information collection
plan, including:

Requirements for collection assets in subsequent missions.
The time available to develop and refine the initial information collection plan.
The risk the commander is willing to accept if information collection missions are begun before
the information collection plan is fully integrated into the scheme of maneuver.
Insertion and extraction methods for reconnaissance, security, surveillance, and intelligence
collection assets.
Contingencies for inclement weather to ensure coverage of key named areas of interest or target
areas of interest.
The communications plan for transmission of reports from assets to command posts.
The inclusion of collection asset locations and movements into the fire support plan.
The reconnaissance handover with higher or subordinate echelons.
The sustainment

support.

Legal support requirements.

FM 3-55 contains additional information on information collection, planning requirements, and assessing
collection.

Update Plan for the Use of Available Time
9-56. As more information becomes available, the commander and staff refine their initial plan for the use
of available time. They compare the time needed to accomplish tasks to the higher headquarters’ timeline to
ensure mission accomplishment is possible in the allotted time. They compare the timeline to the assumed
enemy timeline with how they anticipate conditions will unfold. From this, they determine windows of
opportunity for exploitation, times when the unit will be at risk for enemy activity, or when action to arrest
deterioration in the local civilian population may be required.

9-57. The commander and COS (XO) also refine the staff planning timeline. The refined timeline includes
the—

Subject, time, and location of briefings the commander requires.
Times of collaborative planning sessions and the medium over which they will take place.
Times, locations, and forms of rehearsals.

Develop Initial Themes and Messages
9-58. Gaining and maintaining the trust of key actors is an important aspect of operations. Faced with the
many different actors (individuals, organizations, and the public) connected with the operation,
commanders identify and engage those actors who matter to operational success. These actors’ behaviors
can help solve or complicate the friendly forces’ challenges as commanders strive to accomplish missions.

9-59. Themes and messages support operations and military actions. Commanders and their units
coordinate what they do, say, and portray through themes and messages. A theme is a unifying or dominant
idea or image that expresses the purpose for military action. Themes tie to objectives, lines of effort, and
end state conditions. They are overarching and apply to capabilities of public affairs, military information
support operations, and Soldier and leader engagements. A message is a verbal, written, or electronic
communication that supports a theme focused on a specific actor or the public and in support of a specific
action (task). Units transmit themes and messages to those actors or the public whose perceptions, attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors matter to the success of an operation.

9-60. The public affairs officer adjusts and refines themes and messages received from higher headquarters
for use by the command. These themes and messages are designed to inform specific domestic and foreign
audiences about current or planned military operations. The military information support operations
element receives approved themes and messages. This element adjusts or refines depending on the
situation. It employs themes and messages as part of planned activities designed to influence specific

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9-12 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

foreign audiences for various purposes that support current or planned operations. The commander and the
chief of staff approve all themes and messages used to support operations. The information operations
officer assists the G-3 (S-3) and the commander to de-conflict and synchronize the use of
information-related capabilities used specifically to disseminate approved themes and messages during
operations.

Develop a Proposed Problem Statement
9-61. A problem is an issue or obstacle that makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal or objective. The
problem statement is the description of the primary issue or issues that may impede commanders from
achieving their desired end states.

Note: The commander, staff, and other partners develop the problem statement as part of Army
design methodology. During mission analysis, the commander and staff review the problem
statement and revise it as necessary based on the increased understanding of the situation. If
Army design methodology activities do not precede mission analysis, then the commander and
staff develop a problem statement prior to moving to Step 3—COA Development.

9-62. How the problem is formulated leads to particular solutions. It is important that commanders
dedicate the time to identify the right problem to solve and describe it clearly in a problem statement.
Ideally, the commander and staff meet to share their analysis of the situation. They talk with each other,
synthesize the results of the current mission analysis, and determine the problem. If the commander is not
available, the staff members talk among themselves.

9-63. As part of the discussion to help identify and understand the problem, the staff—
Compares the current situation to the desired end state.
Brainstorms and lists issues that impede the commander from achieving the desired end state.

9-64. Based on this analysis, the staff develops a proposed problem statement—a statement of the problem
or set of problems to be solved—for the commander’s approval.

Develop a Proposed Mission Statement
9-65. The COS (XO) or operations officer prepares a proposed mission statement for the unit based on the
mission analysis. The commander receives and approves the unit’s mission statement normally during the
mission analysis brief. A mission statement is a short sentence or paragraph that describes the
organization’s essential task(s), purpose, and action containing the elements of who, what, when, where,
and why (JP 5-0). The five elements of a mission statement answer these questions:

Who will execute the operation (unit or organization)?
What is the unit’s essential task (tactical mission task)?
When will the operation begin (by time or event) or what is the duration of the operation?
Where will the operation occur (area of operations, objective, grid coordinates)?
Why will the force conduct the operations (for what purpose)?

Example 1. Not later than 220400 Aug 09 (when), 1st Brigade (who) secures ROUTE SOUTH
DAKOTA (what/task) in AREA OF OPERATIONS JACKRABBIT (where) to enable the
movement of humanitarian assistance materials (why/purpose).

Example 2. 1-505th Parachute Infantry Regiment (who) seizes (what/task) JACKSON
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (where) not later than D-day, H+3 (when) to allow follow-on
forces to air-land into AREA OF OPERATIONS SPARTAN (why/purpose).

9-66. The mission statement may have more than one essential task. The following example shows a
mission statement for a phased operation with a different essential task for each phase.

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-13

Example. 1-509th Parachute Infantry Regiment (who) seizes (what/task) JACKSON
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (where) not later than D-day, H+3 (when) to allow follow-on
forces to air-land into AREA OF OPERATIONS SPARTAN (why/purpose). On order (when),
secures (what/task) OBJECTIVE GOLD (where) to prevent the 2nd Pandor Guards Brigade
from crossing the BLUE RIVER and disrupting operations in AREA OF OPERATIONS
SPARTAN (why/purpose).

9-67. The who, where, and when of a mission statement are straightforward. The what and why are more
challenging to write and can confuse subordinates if not stated clearly. The what is a task and is expressed
in terms of action verbs. These tasks are measurable and can be grouped as “actions by friendly forces” or
“effects on enemy forces.” The why puts the task into context by describing the reason for performing it.
The why provides the mission’s purpose—the reason the unit is to perform the task. It is extremely
important to mission command and mission orders.

9-68. Commanders should use tactical mission tasks or other doctrinally approved tasks contained in
combined arms field manuals or mission training plans in mission statements. These tasks have specific
military definitions that differ from standard dictionary definitions. A tactical mission task is a specific
activity performed by a unit while executing a form of tactical operation or form of maneuver. It may be
expressed as either an action by a friendly force or effects on an enemy force (ADRP 1-03). FM 3-90-1
describes each tactical task. FM 3-07 provides a list of primary stability tasks which military forces must be
prepared to execute. Commanders and planners should carefully choose the task that best describes the
commander’s intent and planning guidance.

Present the Mission Analysis Briefing
9-69. The mission analysis briefing informs the commander of the results of the staff’s analysis of the
situation. It helps the commander understand, visualize, and describe the operation. Throughout the mission
analysis briefing, the commander, staff, and other partners discuss the various facts and assumptions about
the situation. Staff officers present a summary of their running estimates from their specific functional area
and how their findings impact or are impacted by other areas. This helps the commander and staff as a
whole to focus on the interrelationships among the mission variables and to develop a deeper understanding
of the situation. The commander issues guidance to the staff for continued planning based on situational
understanding gained from the mission analysis briefing.

9-70. Ideally, the commander holds several informal meetings with key staff members before the mission
analysis briefing, including meetings to assist the commander in developing CCIRs, the mission statement,
and themes and messages. These meetings enable commanders to issue guidance for activities (such as
reconnaissance, surveillance, security, and intelligence operations) and develop their initial commander’s
intent and planning guidance.

9-71. A comprehensive mission analysis briefing helps the commander, staff, subordinates, and other
partners develop a shared understanding of the requirements of the upcoming operation. Time permitting,
the staff briefs the commander on its mission analysis using the following outline:

Mission and commander’s intent of the headquarters two echelons up.
Mission, commander’s intent, and concept of operations of the headquarters one echelon up.
A proposed problem statement.
A proposed mission statement.
Review of the commander’s initial guidance.
Initial IPB products, including civil considerations that impact the conduct of operations.
Specified, implied, and essential tasks.
Pertinent facts and assumptions.
Constraints.
Forces available and resource shortfalls.
Initial risk assessment.
Proposed themes and messages.

Chapter 9

9-14 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

Proposed CCIRs and EEFIs.
Initial information collection plan.
Recommended timeline.
Recommended collaborative planning sessions.
Proposed evaluation criteria.

9-72. During the mission analysis briefing or shortly thereafter, commanders approve the mission
statement and CCIRs. They then develop and issue their initial commander’s intent and planning guidance.

Develop and Issue Initial Commander’s Intent
9-73. The commander’s intent is a clear and concise expression of the purpose of the operation and the
desired military end state that supports mission command, provides focus to the staff, and helps subordinate
and supporting commanders act to achieve the commander’s desired results without further orders, even
when the operation does not unfold as planned (JP 3-0). The initial commander’s intent describes the
purpose of the operation, initial key tasks, and the desired end state (See ADRP 5-0 for more details on
commander’s intent).

9-74. The higher commander’s intent provides the basis for unity of effort throughout the force. Each
commander’s intent nests within the higher commander’s intent. The commander’s intent explains the
broader purpose of the operation beyond that of the mission statement. This explanation allows subordinate
commanders and Soldiers to gain insight into what is expected of them, what constraints apply, and most
importantly, why the mission is being conducted.

9-75. Based on their situational understanding, commanders summarize their visualization in their initial
commander’s intent statement. The initial commander’s intent links the operation’s purpose with conditions
that define the desired end state. Commanders may change their intent statement as planning progresses
and more information becomes available. The commander’s intent must be easy to remember and clearly
understood by leaders two echelons lower in the chain of command. The shorter the commander’s intent,
the better it serves these purposes. Typically, the commander’s intent statement is three to five sentences
long and contains the purpose, key tasks, and end state.

Develop and Issue Initial Planning Guidance
9-76. Commanders provide planning guidance along with their initial commander’s intent. Planning
guidance conveys the essence of the commander’s visualization. This guidance may be broad or detailed,
depending on the situation. The initial planning guidance outlines an operational approach—a description
of the broad actions the force must take to transform current conditions into those desired at end state
(JP 5-0). The initial planning guidance outlines specific COAs the commander desires the staff to look at as
well as rules out any COAs the commander will not accept. That clear guidance allows the staff to develop
several COAs without wasting effort on things that the commander will not consider. It reflects how the
commander sees the operation unfolding. It broadly describes when, where, and how the commander
intends to employ combat power to accomplish the mission within the higher commander’s intent.

9-77. Commanders use their experience and judgment to add depth and clarity to their planning guidance.
They ensure staffs understand the broad outline of their visualization while allowing the latitude necessary
to explore different options. This guidance provides the basis for a detailed concept of operations without
dictating the specifics of the final plan. As with their intent, commanders may modify planning guidance
based on staff and subordinate input and changing conditions.

9-78. Commanders issue planning guidance initially after mission analysis. They continue to consider
additional guidance throughout the MDMP including, but not limited, to the following:

Upon receipt of or in anticipation of a mission (initial planning guidance).
Following mission analysis (planning guidance for COA development).
Following COA development (revised planning guidance for COA improvements).
COA approval (revised planning guidance to complete the plan).

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-15

9-79. Table 9-1 lists commander’s planning guidance by warfighting function. This list is not intended to
meet the needs of all situations nor be all-inclusive, and providing guidance by warfighting function is not
the only method. Commanders tailor planning guidance to meet specific needs based on the situation rather
than address each item. Each item does not always fit neatly in a particular warfighting function, as it may
be shared by more than one warfighting function. For example, although rules of engagement fall under the
protection warfighting function, each other warfighting function chief has a vested interest in gaining
guidance on rules of engagement. (See table 9-1.)

Table 9-1. Examples of commander’s planning guidance by warfighting function

M
is

si
on

C
om

m
an

d Commander’s critical information
requirements

Rules of engagement
Command post positioning
Commander’s location
Initial themes and messages
Succession of command

Liaison officer guidance
Planning and operational guidance timeline
Type of order and rehearsal
Communications guidance
Civil affairs operations
Cyber electromagnetic considerations

In
te

lli
ge

nc
e Information collection guidance

Information gaps
Most likely and most dangerous enemy

courses of action
Priority intelligence requirements
Most critical terrain and weather factors

Most critical local environment and civil
considerations

Intelligence requests for information
Intelligence focus during phased operations
Desired enemy perception of friendly forces

M
ov

e

m
en

t a
nd

M
an

eu
ve

r Commander’s intent
Course of action development guidance
Number of courses of action to consider

or not consider
Critical events
Task organization
Task and purpose of subordinate units
Forms of maneuver
Reserve composition, mission, priorities,

and control measures

Security and counterreconnaissance
Friendly decision points
Branches and sequels
Task and direct collection
Military deception
Risk to friendly forces
Collateral damage or civilian casualties
Any condition that affects achievement of

end state
Information operations

Fi
re

s

Synchronization and focus of fires with
maneuver

Priority of fires
High priority targets
Special munitions
Target acquisition zones
Observer plan
Air and missile defense positioning
High-value targets

Task and purpose of fires
Scheme of fires
Suppression of enemy air defenses
Fire support coordination measures
Attack guidance
Branches and sequels
No strike list
Restricted target list

P
ro

te
ct

io
n

Protection priorities
Priorities for survivability assets
Terrain and weather factors
Intelligence focus and limitations for

security
Acceptable risk
Protected targets and areas

Vehicle and equipment safety or security
constraints

Environmental considerations
Unexploded ordnance
Operations security risk tolerance
Rules of engagement
Escalation of force and nonlethal weapons
Counterintelligence

S
us

ta
in

m
en

t Sustainment priorities—manning, fueling,
fixing, arming, moving the force, and
sustaining Soldiers and systems

Health system support
Sustainment of detainee and

resettlement operations

Construction and provision of facilities and
installations

Detainee movement
Anticipated requirements of Classes III, IV,

and V
Controlled supply rates

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9-16 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

◄ Develop Course of Action Evaluation Criteria
9-80. Evaluation criteria are standards the commander and staff will later use to measure the relative
effectiveness and efficiency of one COA relative to other COAs. Developing these criteria during mission
analysis helps to eliminate a source of bias prior to COA analysis and comparison. Evaluation criteria
address factors that affect success and those that can cause failure. Criteria change from mission to mission
and must be clearly defined and understood by all staff members before starting the war game to test the
proposed COAs. Normally, the COS (XO) initially determines each proposed criterion with weights based
on the assessment of its relative importance and the commander’s guidance. Commanders adjust criteria
selection and weighting according to their own experience and vision. Higher weights are assigned to more
important criteria. The staff member responsible for a functional area ranks each COA using those criteria.
The staff presents the proposed evaluation criteria to the commander at the mission analysis brief for
approval.

Issue a Warning Order
9-81. Immediately after the commander gives the planning guidance, the staff sends subordinate and
supporting units a WARNORD. (See appendix C for sample WARNORD.) It contains, at a minimum—

The approved mission statement.
The commander’s intent.
Changes to task organization.
The unit area of operations (sketch, overlay, or some other description).
CCIRs and EEFIs.
Risk guidance.
Priorities by warfighting functions.
Military deception guidance.
Essential stability tasks.
Initial information collection plan.
Specific priorities.
Updated operational timeline.
Movements.

STEP 3–COURSE OF ACTION DEVELOPMENT
9-82. A COA is a broad potential solution to an identified problem. The COA development step generates
options for subsequent analysis and comparison that satisfy the commander’s intent and planning guidance.
During COA development, planners use the problem statement, mission statement, commander’s intent,
planning guidance, and various knowledge products developed during mission analysis. (See figure 9-4.)

Figure 9-4. Step 3–course of action development

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-17

9-83. Embedded in COA development is the application of operational and tactical art. Planners develop
different COAs by varying combinations of the elements of operational art, such as phasing, lines of effort,
and tempo. (See ADRP 3-0 for more information on operational art.) Planners convert the approved COA
into the concept of operations.

9-84. The commander’s direct involvement in COA development greatly aids in producing comprehensive
and flexible COAs within the time available. To save time, the commander may also limit the number of
COAs staffs develop or specify particular COAs not to explore. Planners examine each prospective COA
for validity using the following screening criteria:

Feasible. The COA can accomplish the mission within the established time, space, and resource
limitations.
Acceptable. The COA must balance cost and risk with the advantage gained.
Suitable. The COA can accomplish the mission within the commander’s intent and planning
guidance.
Distinguishable. Each COA must differ significantly from the others (such as scheme of
maneuver, lines of effort, phasing, use of the reserve, and task organization).
Complete. A COA must incorporate—

How the decisive operation leads to mission accomplishment.
How shaping operations create and preserve conditions for success of the decisive operation
or effort.
How sustaining operations enable shaping and decisive operations or efforts.
How to account for offensive, defensive, and stability or defense support of civil authorities
tasks.
Tasks to be performed and conditions to be achieved.

9-85. It is important in COA development that commanders and staffs appreciate the unpredictable and
uncertain nature of the operational environment, and understand how to cope with ambiguity. Some
problems that commanders face are straightforward, as when clearly defined guidance is provided from
higher headquarters, or when resources required for a mission are available and can easily be allocated. In
such cases, the COA is often self-evident. However, for problems that are unfamiliar or ambiguous, Army
design methodology may assist commanders in better understanding the nature of the problem, and afford
both the commander and staff a level of comfort necessary to effectively advance through COA
development. Commanders and staffs that are comfortable with ambiguity will often find that the Army
design methodology provides flexibility in developing COAs that contain multiple options for dealing with
changing circumstances. Staffs tend to focus on specific COAs for specific sets of circumstances, when it is
usually best to focus on flexible COAs that provide the greatest options to account for the widest range of
circumstances.

9-86. Commanders and staffs must be cautious not to attempt to identify and resolve every possible
outcome to military operations. The interaction of multiple variables within an operational environment can
lead to countless possible options and outcomes. Commanders and staffs should focus their efforts around
known variables and analyze COAs that provide flexible options to the commander during execution. If
commanders and staffs focus on what is known about a situation, it often becomes clear that the known
information provides sufficient guidance to develop flexible COAs. It is important to clearly identify which
variables the unit can control, which it does not control, and the implications of those that it does not
control. Even when there are few facts available, it is often possible to reduce key issues to either an ability
to do “X”, or an inability to do “X” as a starting point. Such a reduction is preferred over trying to derive a
wide range of possibilities. It is just as important not to see facts as constraining flexibility, but seek to use
them to generate flexibility. Staffs work to confirm or deny facts before developing options. Staffs must
also determine what risks are associated with various COAs.

9-87. As an example, a commander may know with reasonable certainty that an enemy force is positioned
on the outskirts of a town. The commander may not be certain of the exact size of the enemy force, all the
resources available to the enemy force, or actions the enemy may take over time. Such unknowns are a
reality in an ambiguous operational environment. But, by focusing on the known information, that is, the
position of the enemy at a point in time, the staff can develop COAs that provide maximum flexibility for

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9-18 FM 6-0, C2 22 April 2016

the commander. Known information can also apply to friendly actions, such as an established time for
crossing a line of departure, or transition to a subsequent phase of an operation. COAs should allow for
variances in timelines and resources as additional information on the enemy, as well as friendly forces,
becomes available. Variances may also occur as changes in guidance from high headquarters arrives, or
significant national policy decisions are made. Staffs identify risks associated with both friendly and enemy
actions, as well as who is accepting the risk, and what resources should be allocated to mitigate the risks.

9-88. COA development should also identify decision points, the person responsible for making the
decision, and what measures may be taken to provide the commander with additional time before making a
decision. (See paragraph 9-127 for a discussion of decision points.) Good COAs provide commanders with
options they can take based on anticipated and unanticipated changes in the situation. (See Chapter 14 for
further discussion on decisionmaking in execution.) Staffs should highlight to the commander options that
may be critical to mission success. Staffs should also identify points in time when options may no longer be
viable, while working to keep options open to the commander as long as possible. In all cases, staffs
provide commanders with options that are flexible, while clearly identifying risks associated with
committing to options. Staffs also assess how possible options may impact on a commander’s options at a
higher echelon.

9-89. The unpredictable and uncertain nature of the operational environment should not in itself result in
paralysis or hesitancy in military operations. By focusing COA development around information that is
known to the staff, staffs can better steer their efforts toward developing COAs that provide maximum
flexibility and viable options for the commander in the execution of military operations.

Assess Relative Combat Power
9-90. Combat power is the total means of destructive, constructive, and information capabilities that a
military unit or formation can apply at a given time (ADRP 3-0). Combat power is the effect created by
combining the elements of intelligence, movement and maneuver, fires, sustainment, protection, mission
command, information, and leadership. The goal is to generate overwhelming combat power to accomplish
the mission at minimal cost.

9-91. To assess relative combat power, planners initially make a rough estimate of force ratios of maneuver
units two levels below their echelon. For example, at division level, planners compare all types of
maneuver battalions with enemy maneuver battalion equivalents. Planners then compare friendly strengths
against enemy weaknesses, and vice versa, for each element of combat power. From these comparisons,
they may deduce particular vulnerabilities for each force that may be exploited or may need protection.
These comparisons provide planners insight into effective force employment.

9-92. In troop-to-task analysis for stability and defense support of civil authorities, staffs determine relative
combat power by comparing available resources to specified or implied stability or defense support of civil
authorities tasks. This analysis provides insight as available options and needed resources. In such
operations, the elements of sustainment, movement and maneuver, nonlethal effects, and information may
dominate.

9-93. By analyzing force ratios and determining and comparing each force’s strengths and weaknesses as a
function of combat power, planners can gain insight into—

Friendly capabilities that pertain to the operation.
The types of operations possible from both friendly and enemy perspectives.
How and where the enemy may be vulnerable.
How and where friendly forces are vulnerable.
Additional resources needed to execute the mission.
How to allocate existing resources.

9-94. Planners must not develop and recommend COAs based solely on mathematical analysis of force
ratios. Although the process uses some numerical relationships, the estimate is largely subjective.
Assessing combat power requires assessing both tangible and intangible factors, such as morale and levels
of training. A relative combat power assessment identifies exploitable enemy weaknesses, identifies

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-19

unprotected friendly weaknesses, and determines the combat power necessary to conduct essential stability
or defense support of civil authorities tasks.

Generate Options

9-95. Based on the commander’s guidance and the initial results of the relative combat power assessment,
the staff generates options. A good COA can defeat all feasible enemy COAs while accounting for essential
stability tasks. In an unconstrained environment, planners aim to develop several possible COAs.
Depending on available time, commanders may limit the options in the commander’s guidance. Options
focus on enemy COAs arranged in order of their probable adoption or on those stability tasks that are most
essential to prevent the situation from deteriorating further.

9-96. Brainstorming can be used for generating options. It requires time, imagination, and creativity, but it
produces the widest range of choices. The staff (and members of organizations outside the headquarters)
remains unbiased and open-minded when developing proposed options.

9-97. In developing COAs, staff members determine the doctrinal requirements for each proposed
operation, including doctrinal tasks for subordinate units. For example, a deliberate breach requires a
breach force, a support force, and an assault force. Essential stability tasks require the ability to provide a
level of civil security, civil control, and certain essential services. In addition, the staff considers the
potential capabilities of attachments and other organizations and agencies outside military channels.

9-98. Army leaders are responsible for clearly articulating their visualization of operations in time, space,
purpose, and resources in order to generate options. ADRP 3-0 describes in detail three established
operational frameworks. Army leaders are not bound by any specific framework in organizing operations,
but three operational frameworks, mentioned below, have proven valuable in the past. The higher
headquarters will direct the specific framework or frameworks to be used by subordinate headquarters; the
frameworks should be consistent throughout all echelons. The three operational frameworks are—

Deep-close-security.
Main and supporting effort.
Decisive-shaping-sustaining.

9-99. For example, when generating options for a decisive-shaping-sustaining operation, the staff starts
with the decisive operation identified in the commander’s planning guidance. The staff checks that the
decisive operation nests within the higher headquarters’ concept of operations. The staff clarifies the
decisive operation’s purpose and considers ways to mass the effects (lethal and nonlethal) of overwhelming
combat power to achieve it.

9-100. Next, the staff considers shaping operations. The staff establishes a purpose for each shaping
operation tied to creating or preserving a condition for the decisive operation’s success. Shaping operations
may occur before, concurrently with, or after the decisive operation. A shaping operation may be
designated as the main effort if executed before or after the decisive operation.

9-101. The staff then determines sustaining operations necessary to create and maintain the combat power
required for the decisive operation and shaping operation. After developing the basic operational
organization for a given COA, the staff then determines the essential tasks for each decisive, shaping, and
sustaining operation.

9-102. Once staff members have explored possibilities for each COA, they examine each COA to
determine if it satisfies the screening criteria stated in paragraph 9-81. In doing so, they change, add, or
eliminate COAs as appropriate. During this process, staffs avoid focusing on the development of one good
COA among several throwaway COAs.

Array Forces
9-103. After determining the decisive and shaping operations and their related tasks and purposes,
planners determine the relative combat power required to accomplish each task. Often, planners use
minimum historical planning ratios as a starting point. For example, historically, defenders have over a 50
percent probability of defeating an attacking force approximately three times their equivalent strength.

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Therefore, as a starting point, commanders may defend on each avenue of approach with roughly a 1:3
force ratio. (See table 9-2.)

Table 9-2. Historical minimum planning ratios

Friendly Mission Position Friendly : Enemy
Delay 1:6
Defend Prepared or fortified 1:3
Defend Hasty 1:2.5
Attack Prepared or fortified 3:1
Attack Hasty 2.5:1
Counterattack Flank 1:1

9-104. Planners determine whether these and other intangibles increase the relative combat power of the
unit assigned the task to the point that it exceeds the historical planning ratio for that task. If it does not,
planners determine how to reinforce the unit. Combat power comparisons are provisional at best. Arraying
forces is tricky, inexact work, affected by factors that are difficult to gauge, such as impact of past
engagements, quality of leaders, morale, maintenance of equipment, and time in position. Levels of
electronic warfare support, fire support, close air support, civilian support, and many other factors also
affect arraying forces.

9-105. In counterinsurgency operations, planners can develop force requirements by gauging troop
density—the ratio of security forces (including host-nation military and police forces as well as foreign
counterinsurgents) to inhabitants. Most density recommendations fall within a range of 20 to 25
counterinsurgents for every 1,000 residents in an area of operations. A ratio of twenty counterinsurgents per
1,000 residents is often considered the minimum troop density required for effective counterinsurgency
operations; however, as with any fixed ratio, such calculations strongly depend on the situation. (See
FM 3-24 for more information on counterinsurgency planning.)

9-106. Planners also determine relative combat power with regard to civilian requirements and conditions
that require attention, and then they array forces and capabilities for stability tasks. For example, a COA
may require a follow-on force to establish civil security, maintain civil control, and restore essential
services in a densely populated urban area over an extended period. Planners conduct a troop-to-task
analysis to determine the type of units and capabilities needed to accomplish these tasks.

9-107. Planners then proceed to initially array friendly forces starting with the decisive operation and
continuing with all shaping and sustaining operations. Planners normally array ground forces two levels
below their echelon. The initial array focuses on generic ground maneuver units without regard to specific
type or task organization and then considers all appropriate intangible factors. For example, at corps level,
planners array generic brigades. During this step, planners do not assign missions to specific units; they
only consider which forces are necessary to accomplish their task. In this step, planners also array assets to
accomplish essential stability tasks.

9-108. The initial array identifies the total number of units needed and identifies possible methods of
dealing with the enemy and stability tasks. If the number arrayed is less than the number available, planners
place additional units in a pool for use when they develop the initial concept of the operation. (See
paragraph 9-106.) If the number of units arrayed exceeds the number available and the difference cannot be
compensated for with intangible factors, the staff determines whether the COA is feasible. Ways to make
up the shortfall include requesting additional resources, accepting risk in that portion of the area of
operations, or executing tasks required for the COA sequentially rather than simultaneously. Commanders
should also consider requirements to minimize and relieve civilian suffering. Establishing civil security and
providing essential services such as medical care, water, food, and shelter are implied tasks for
commanders during any combat operation. (See FM 3-07 for a full discussion on stability tasks.)

Develop a Broad Concept
9-109. In developing the broad concept of the operation, the commander describes how arrayed forces
will accomplish the mission within the commander’s intent. The broad concept concisely expresses the how

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-21

of the commander’s visualization and will eventually provide the framework for the concept of operations
and summarizes the contributions of all warfighting functions. The staff develops the initial concept of the
operation for each COA expressed in both narrative and graphic forms. A sound COA is more than the
arraying of forces. It presents an overall combined arms idea that will accomplish the mission. The initial
concept of the operation includes, but is not limited to, the following:

The purpose of the operation.
A statement of where the commander will accept risk.
Identification of critical friendly events and transitions between phases (if the operation is
phased).
Designation of the reserve, including its location and composition.
Information collection activities.
Essential stability tasks.
Identification of maneuver options that may develop during an operation.
Assignment of subordinate areas of operations.
Scheme of fires.
Themes, messages, and means of delivery.
Military deception operations (on a need to know basis).
Key control measures.
Designate the operational framework for this operation: deep-close-security, main and
supporting effort, or decisive-shaping-sustaining.
Designation of the decisive operation, along with its task and purpose, linked to how it supports
the higher headquarters’ concept.

NOTE: For the purpose of this section, the decisive-shaping-sustaining operational framework is
an example. Planners use the same process when analyzing the other two operational
frameworks—deep-close-security and main and supporting effort—to develop initial concepts of
the operation.

9-110. Planners select control measures, including graphics, to control subordinate units during an
operation. These establish responsibilities and limits that prevent subordinate units’ actions from impeding
one another. These measures also foster coordination and cooperation between forces without unnecessarily
restricting freedom of action. Good control measures foster decisionmaking and individual initiative. (See
FM 3-90-1 for a discussion of control measures associated with offensive and defensive tasks. See
ADRP 1-02 for doctrinally correct unit symbols, control measures, and rules for drawing control measures
on overlays and maps.)

9-111. Planners may use both lines of operations and lines of effort to build their broad concept. Lines of
operations portray the more traditional links among objectives, decisive points, and centers of gravity. A
line of effort, however, helps planners link multiple tasks with goals, objectives, and end state conditions.
Combining lines of operations with lines of effort allows planners to include nonmilitary activities in their
broad concept. This combination helps commanders incorporate stability or defense support of civil
authorities tasks that, when accomplished, help set end state conditions of an operation.

9-112. Based on the commander’s planning guidance (informed by the Army design methodology
concept if this preceded the MDMP), planners develop lines of effort by—

Confirming end state conditions from the initial commander’s intent and planning guidance.
Determining and describing each line of effort.
Identifying objectives (intermediate goals) and determining tasks along each line of effort.

9-113. During COA development, lines of effort are general and lack specifics, such as tasks to
subordinate units associated to objectives along each line of effort. Units develop and refine lines of effort,
including specific tasks to subordinate units, during war-gaming. (See ADRP 5-0 and FM 3-07 for
examples of operations depicted along lines of effort.)

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9-114. As planning progresses, commanders may modify lines of effort and add details while
war-gaming. Operations with other instruments of national power support a broader, comprehensive
approach to stability tasks. Each operation, however, differs. Commanders develop and modify lines of
effort to focus operations on achieving an end state, even as the situation evolves.

Assign Headquarters
9-115. After determining the broad concept, planners create a task organization by assigning headquarters
to groupings of forces. They consider the types of units to be assigned to a headquarters and the ability of
that headquarters to control those units. Generally, a headquarters controls at least two subordinate
maneuver units (but not more than five) for fast-paced offensive or defensive tasks. The number and type
of units assigned to a headquarters for stability tasks vary based on factors of the mission variables:
mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations
(METT-TC). If planners need additional headquarters, they note the shortage and resolve it later. Task
organization takes into account the entire operational organization. It also accounts for the special
command requirements for operations, such as a passage of lines, or air assault.

Develop Course of Action Statements and Sketches
9-116. The G-3 (S-3) prepares a COA statement and supporting sketch for each COA. The COA
statement clearly portrays how the unit will accomplish the mission. The COA statement briefly expresses
how the unit will conduct the combined arms concept. The sketch provides a picture of the movement and
maneuver aspects of the concept, including the positioning of forces. Together, the statement and sketch
cover the who (generic task organization), what (tasks), when, where, and why (purpose) for each
subordinate unit.

9-117. The COA sketch includes the array of generic forces and control measures, such as—
The unit and subordinate unit boundaries.
Unit movement formations (but not subordinate unit formations).
The line of departure or line of contact and phase lines, if used.
Information collection graphics.
Ground and air axes of advance.
Assembly areas, battle positions, strong points, engagement areas, and objectives.
Obstacle control measures and tactical mission graphics.
Fire support coordination and airspace coordinating measures.
Main effort.
Location of command posts and critical communications nodes.
Known or templated enemy locations.
Population concentrations.

9-118. Planners can include identifying features (such as cities, rivers, and roads) to help orient users. The
sketch may be on any medium. What it portrays is more important than its form. (See figure 9-5 on page
9-24 for a sample COA sketch and COA statement for a brigade combat team using the operational
framework of decisive-shaping-sustaining.)

◄ Conduct a Course of Action Briefing
9-119. After developing COAs, the staff briefs them to the commander. A collaborative session may
facilitate subordinate planning. The COA briefing includes—

An updated IPB (if there are significant changes).
As many threat COAs as necessary (or specified by the commander). At a minimum the most
likely and most dangerous threat COAs must be developed.
The approved problem statement and mission statement.
The commander’s and higher commander’s intents.
COA statements and sketches, including lines of effort if used.

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-23

The rationale for each COA, including—
Considerations that might affect enemy COAs.
Critical events for each COA.
Deductions resulting from the relative combat power analysis.
The reason units are arrayed as shown on the sketch. (See ADRP 1-02 for doctrine on COA
sketches.)
The reason the staff used the selected control measures.
The impact on civilians.
How the COA accounts for minimum essential stability tasks.
New facts and new or updated assumptions.
Refined COA evaluation criteria.

Select or Modify Courses of Action for Continued Analysis
9-120. After the COA briefing, the commander selects or modifies those COAs for continued analysis.
The commander also issues planning guidance. If commanders reject all COAs, the staff begins again. If
commanders accept one or more of the COAs, staff members begin COA analysis. The commander may
create a new COA by incorporating elements of one or more COAs developed by the staff. The staff then
prepares to war-game this new COA. The staff incorporates those modifications and ensures all staff
members understand the changed COA.

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Figure 9-5. +Sample brigade course of action sketch

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-25

Figure 9-5. Sample brigade course of action sketch (continued)

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STEP 4–COURSE OF ACTION ANALYSIS AND WAR-GAMING
9-121. COA analysis enables commanders and staffs to identify difficulties or coordination problems as
well as probable consequences of planned actions for each COA being considered. It helps them think
through the tentative plan. COA analysis may require commanders and staffs to revisit parts of a COA as
discrepancies arise. COA analysis not only appraises the quality of each COA, but it also uncovers
potential execution problems, decisions, and contingencies. In addition, COA analysis influences how
commanders and staffs understand a problem and may require the planning process to restart. (See
figure 9-6.)

Figure 9-6. Step 4–course of action analysis and war-gaming

9-122. War-gaming is a disciplined process, with rules and steps that attempt to visualize the flow of the
operation, given the force’s strengths and dispositions, the enemy’s capabilities, and possible COAs; the
impact and requirements of civilians in the area of operations; and other aspects of the situation. The
simplest form of war-gaming is the manual method, often using a tabletop approach with blowups of
matrixes and templates. The most sophisticated form of war-gaming is computer-aided modeling and
simulation. Regardless of the form used, each critical event within a proposed COA should be war-gamed
using the action, reaction, and counteraction methods of friendly and enemy forces interaction. This basic
war-gaming method (modified to fit the specific mission and environment) applies to offensive, defensive,
and stability or defense support of civil authorities operations. When conducting COA analysis,
commanders and staffs perform the process actions and produce the outputs shown in figure 9-6.

9-123. War-gaming results in refined COAs, a completed synchronization matrix, and decision support
templates and matrixes for each COA. A synchronization matrix records the results of a war game. It
depicts how friendly forces for a particular COA are synchronized in time, space, and purpose in relation to
an enemy COA or other events in stability or defense support of civil authorities operations. The decision
support template and matrix portray key decisions and potential actions that are likely to arise during the
execution of each COA.

9-124. COA analysis allows the staff to synchronize the six warfighting functions for each COA. It also
helps the commander and staff to—

Determine how to maximize the effects of combat power while protecting friendly forces and
minimizing collateral damage.
Further develop a visualization of the operation.
Anticipate operational events.

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-27

Determine conditions and resources required for success.
Determine when and where to apply force capabilities.
Identify coordination needed to produce synchronized results.
Determine the most flexible COA.

9-125. During the war game, the staff takes each COA and begins to develop a detailed plan while
determining its strengths or weaknesses. War-gaming tests and improves COAs. The commander, staff, and
other available partners (and subordinate commanders and staffs if the war game is conducted
collaboratively) may change an existing COA or develop a new COA after identifying unforeseen events,
tasks, requirements, or problems.

Gather the Tools
9-126. The first task for COA analysis is to gather the necessary tools to conduct the war game. The COS
(XO) directs the staff to gather tools, materials, and data for the war game. Units war-game with maps,
sand tables, computer simulations, or other tools that accurately reflect the terrain. The staff posts the COA
on a map displaying the area of operations. Tools required include, but are not limited to—

Running estimates.
Threat templates and models.
Civil considerations overlays, databases, and data files.
Modified combined obstacle overlays and terrain effects matrices.
A recording method.
Completed COAs, including graphics.
A means to post or display enemy and friendly unit symbols and other organizations.
A map of the area of operations.

List All Friendly Forces
9-127. The commander and staff consider all units that can be committed to the operation, paying special
attention to support relationships and constraints. This list includes assets from all participants operating in
the area of operations. The friendly forces list remains constant for all COAs.

List Assumptions
9-128. The commander and staff review previous assumptions for continued validity and necessity. Any
changes resulting from this review are noted for record.

List Known Critical Events and Decision Points
9-129. A critical event is an event that directly influences mission accomplishment. Critical events
include events that trigger significant actions or decisions (such as commitment of an enemy reserve),
complicated actions requiring detailed study (such as a passage of lines), and essential tasks. The list of
critical events includes major events from the unit’s current position through mission accomplishment. It
includes reactions by civilians that potentially affect operations or require allocation of significant assets to
account for essential stability tasks.

9-130. A decision point is a point in space and time when the commander or staff anticipates making a
key decision concerning a specific course of action (JP 5-0). Decision points may be associated with the
friendly force, the status of ongoing operations, and with CCIRs that describe what information the
commander needs to make the anticipated decision. A decision point requires a decision by the commander.
It does not dictate what the decision is, only that the commander must make one, and when and where it
should be made to maximally impact friendly or enemy COAs or the accomplishment of stability tasks.

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Select the War-Gaming Method
9-131. Three recommended war-gaming methods exist: belt, avenue-in-depth, and box. Each considers
the area of interest and all enemy forces that can affect the outcome of the operation. Planners can use the
methods separately or in combination and modified for long-term operations dominated by stability.

9-132. The belt method divides the area of operations into belts (areas) running the width of the area of
operations. The shape of each belt is based on the factors of METT-TC. The belt method works best when
conducting offensive and defensive tasks on terrain divided into well-defined cross-compartments, during
phased operations (such as gap crossings, air assaults, or airborne operations), or when the enemy is
deployed in clearly defined belts or echelons. Belts can be adjacent to or overlap each other.

9-133. This war-gaming method is based on a sequential analysis of events in each belt. Commanders
prefer it because it focuses simultaneously on all forces affecting a particular event. A belt might include
more than one critical event. Under time-constrained conditions, the commander can use a modified belt
method. The modified belt method divides the area of operations into not more than three sequential belts.
These belts are not necessarily adjacent or overlapping but focus on the critical actions throughout the
depth of the area of operations. (See figure 9-7.)

Figure 9-7. Sample belt method

9-134. In stability tasks, the belt method can divide the COA by events, objectives (goals not geographic
locations), or events and objectives in a selected slice across all lines of effort. The belt method consists of
war-gaming relationships among events or objectives on all lines of effort in the belt. (See figure 9-8 on
page 9-29.)

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-29

Figure 9-8. Sample modified belt method using lines of effort

9-135. The avenue-in-depth method focuses on one avenue of approach at a time, beginning with the
decisive operation. This method is good for offensive COAs or in the defense when canalizing terrain
inhibits mutual support. (See figure 9-9.)

Figure 9-9. Sample avenue-in-depth method

9-136. In stability tasks, planners can modify the avenue-in-depth method. Instead of focusing on a
geographic avenue, the staff war-games a line of effort. This method focuses on one line of effort at a time,
beginning with the decisive line. The avenue-in-depth method includes not only war-gaming events and
objectives in the selected line, but also war-gaming relationships among events or objectives on all lines of
effort with respect to events in the selected line. (See figure 9-10 on page 9-30.)

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Figure 9-10. Sample modified avenue-in-depth method using lines of effort

9-137. The box method is a detailed analysis of a critical area, such as an engagement area, a wet gap
crossing site, or a landing zone. It works best in a time-constrained environment, such as a hasty attack.
The box method is particularly useful when planning operations in noncontiguous areas of operation. When
using this method, the staff isolates the area and focuses on critical events in it. Staff members assume that
friendly units can handle most situations in the area of operations and focus their attention on essential
tasks. (See figure 9-11.)

Figure 9-11. Sample box method

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-31

9-138. In stability tasks, the box method may focus analysis on a specific objective along a line of effort,
such as development of local security forces as part of improving civil security. (See figure 9-12.)

Figure 9-12. Sample modified box method using lines of effort

Select a Technique to Record and Display Results
9-139. The war-game results provide a record from which to build task organizations, synchronize
activities, develop decision support templates, confirm and refine event templates, prepare plans or orders,
and compare COAs. Two techniques are commonly used to record and display results: the synchronization
matrix technique and the sketch note technique. In both techniques, staff members record any remarks
regarding the strengths and weaknesses they discover. The amount of detail depends on the time available.
Unit SOPs address details and methods of recording and displaying war-gaming results.

9-140. The synchronization matrix is a tool the staff uses to record the results of war-gaming that helps
them synchronize a course of action across time, space, and purpose in relationship to potential enemy and
civil actions. The first entry in the left column is the time, event, or phase of the operation. The second
entry is the most likely enemy action. The third entry is the most likely civilian action. The fourth entry is
the decision points for the friendly COA. The remainder of the matrix focuses on selected warfighting
functions, their subordinate tasks, and the unit’s major subordinate commands. (See table 9-3 on page
9-32.)

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Table 9-3. Sample synchronization matrix tool

Time/Event/Phase H – 24 hours (or event or
phase)

H-hour (or event or
phase)

H + 24 (or event or
phase)

Enemy Action Initiates threat activities and
movements

Defends from security
zone

Commits reserve

Population or Civilian
Action

Orderly evacuation from
area continues

Decision Points Conduct aviation attack of
OBJ Irene

Control Measures

M
ov

em
en

t a
nd

M

an
eu

ve
r

1st ABCT Move on Route Irish Cross LD Seize on OBJ Irene
2d ABCT Move on Route Longstreet Cross LD Seize on OBJ Rose
3d ABCT FPOL with 1st BCT

Avn Bde Attack enemy reserve on OBJ Irene
BFSB

Reserve
Information
Collection
Fires Prep fires initiated at H-5

Suppression of enemy air
defense initiated

P
ro
te
ct

io
n

Engineer

PMO

CBRN

Sustainment
Mission Command Main CP with 1st BCT

Close Air Support
Electronic Warfare Enemy command and

control jammed
Nonlethal Effects Surrender broadcasts and

leaflets
Host Nation
Interagency
NGOs Begins refugee relief
Note: The first column is representative only and can be modified to fit formation needs.
AMD air and missile defense
Avn Bde aviation brigade
ABCT armored brigade combat team
CBRN chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
CP command post
FPOL forward passage of lines

H hour
LD line of departure
NGO nongovernmental organization
OBJ objective
PMO provost marshal office

9-141. The sketch note method uses brief notes concerning critical locations or tasks and purposes. These
notes refer to specific locations or relate to general considerations covering broad areas. The commander
and staff mark locations on the map and on a separate war-game work sheet. Staff members use sequential
numbers to link the notes to the corresponding locations on the map or overlay. Staff members also identify
actions by placing them in sequential action groups, giving each subtask a separate number. They use the
war-game work sheet to identify all pertinent data for a critical event. (See table 9-4.) They assign each
event a number and title and use the columns on the work sheet to identify and list in sequence—

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-33

Units and assigned tasks.
Expected enemy actions and reactions.
Friendly counteractions and assets.
Total assets needed for the task.
Estimated time to accomplish the task.
The decision point tied to executing the task.
CCIRs.
Control measures.
Remarks.

Table 9-4. Sample sketch note method

Critical Event Seize OBJ Sword
Sequence number 1
Action TF 3 attacks to destroy enemy company on OBJ

Sword
Reaction Enemy company on OBJ Club counterattacks
Counteraction TF 1 suppresses enemy company on OBJ Club
Assets TF 3, TF 1, and TF2
Time H+1 to H+4
Decision point DP 3a and 3b
Commander’s critical information
requirements

Location of enemy armor reserve west of PL Jaguar

Control measures Axis Zinc and support by fire position 1
Remarks none
DP decision point
OBJ objective

PL phase line
TF task force

War-Game the Operation and Assess the Results
9-142. War-gaming is a conscious attempt to visualize the flow of operations given the friendly force’s
strengths and dispositions, the enemy’s capabilities and possible COAs, and civilian locations and
activities. During the war game, the commander and staff try to foresee the actions, reactions, and
counteractions of all participants, including civilians. The staff analyzes each selected event. It identifies
tasks that the force one echelon below it must accomplish, using assets two echelons below the staff.
Identifying strengths and weaknesses of each COA allows the staff to adjust the COAs as necessary.

9-143. The war game focuses not so much on the tools used but on the people who participate. Staff
members who participate in war-gaming should be the individuals deeply involved in developing COAs.
Red team members (who can provide alternative points of view) provide insight on each COA. In stability
tasks, subject matter experts in areas such as economic or local governance can also help assess the
probable results of planned actions, including identifying possible unintended effects.

9-144. The war game follows an action-reaction-counteraction cycle. Actions are those events initiated by
the side with the initiative. Reactions are the opposing side’s actions in response. With regard to stability
tasks, the war game tests the effects of actions, including intended and unintended effects, as they stimulate
anticipated responses from civilians and civil institutions. Counteractions are the first side’s responses to
reactions. This sequence of action-reaction-counteraction continues until the critical event is completed or
until the commander decides to use another COA to accomplish the mission.

9-145. The staff considers all possible forces, including templated enemy forces outside the area of
operations, that can influence the operation. The staff also considers the actions of civilians in the area of
operations, the diverse kinds of coverage of unfolding events, and their consequences in the global media.

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The staff evaluates each friendly move to determine the assets and actions required to defeat the enemy at
that point or to accomplish stability tasks. The staff continually considers branches to the plan that promote
success against likely enemy counteractions or unexpected civilian reactions. Lastly, the staff lists assets
used in the appropriate columns of the work sheet and lists the totals in the assets column (not considering
any assets lower than two command levels below the staff).

9-146. The commander and staff examine many areas during the war game. These include, but are not
limited to—

All friendly capabilities.
All enemy capabilities and critical civil considerations that impact operations.
Global media responses to proposed actions.
Movement considerations.
Closure rates.
Lengths of columns.
Formation depths.
Ranges and capabilities of weapon systems.
Desired effects of fires.

9-147. The commander and staff consider how to create conditions for success, protect the force, and
shape the operational environment. Experience, historical data, SOPs, and doctrinal literature provide much
of the necessary information. During the war game, staff officers perform a risk assessment for their
functional areas for each COA. They then propose appropriate control measures. They continually assess
the risk of adverse reactions from population and media resulting from actions taken by all sides in the
operation. Staff officers develop ways to mitigate those risks.

9-148. The staff continually assesses the risk to friendly forces, balancing between mass and dispersion.
When assessing the risk of weapons of mass destruction to friendly forces, planners view the target that the
force presents through the eyes of an enemy target analyst. They consider ways to reduce vulnerability and
determine the appropriate level of mission-oriented protective posture consistent with mission
accomplishment.

9-149. The staff identifies the required assets of the warfighting functions to support the concept of
operations, including those needed to synchronize sustaining operations. If requirements exceed available
assets, the staff recommends priorities based on the situation, commander’s intent, and planning guidance.
To maintain flexibility, the commander may decide to create a reserve to maintain assets for unforeseen
tasks or opportunities.

9-150. The commander can modify any COA based on how things develop during the war game. When
doing this, the commander validates the composition and location of the decisive operation, shaping
operations, and reserve forces. Control measures are adjusted as necessary. The commander may also
identify situations, opportunities, or additional critical events that require more analysis. The staff performs
this analysis quickly and incorporates the results into the war-gaming record.

9-151. An effective war game results in the commander and staff refining, identifying, analyzing,
developing, and determining several effects. (See table 9-5.)

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Table 9-5. Effective war game results

The commander and staff refine (or modify)—
Each course of action, to include identifying branches and sequels that become on-order or be-prepared missions.
The locations and times of decisive points.
The enemy event template and matrix.
The task organization, including forces retained in general support.
Control requirements, including control measures and updated operational graphics.
Commander’s critical information requirements and other information requirements—including the latest time
information is of value—and incorporate them into the information collection plan.

The commander and staff identify—
Key or decisive terrain and determining how to use it.
Tasks the unit retains and tasks assigned to subordinates.
Likely times and areas for enemy use of weapons of mass destruction and friendly chemical, biological, radiological,
and nuclear defense requirements.
Potential times or locations for committing the reserve.
The most dangerous enemy course of action.
The most likely enemy course of action.
The most dangerous civilian reaction.
Locations for the commander and command posts.
Critical events.
Requirements for support of each warfighting function.
Effects of friendly and enemy actions on civilians and infrastructure and on military operations.
Or confirming the locations of named areas of interest, target areas of interest, decision points, and intelligence
requirements needed to support them.
Analyzing, and evaluating strengths and weaknesses of each course of action.
Hazards, assessing their risk, developing control measures for them, and determining residual risk.
The coordination required for integrating and synchronizing interagency, host-nation, and nongovernmental
organization involvement.

The commander and staff analyze—
Potential civilian reactions to operations.
Potential media reaction to operations.
Potential impacts on civil security, civil control, and essential services in the area of operations.

The commander and staff develop—
Decision points.
A synchronization matrix.
A decision support template and matrix.
Solutions to achieving minimum essential stability tasks in the area of operations.
The information collection plan and graphics.
Themes and messages.
Fires, protection, and sustainment plans and graphic control measures.

The commander and staff determine—
The requirements for military deception and surprise.
The timing for concentrating forces and starting the attack or counterattack.
The movement times and tables for critical assets, including information systems nodes.
The estimated the duration of the entire operation and each critical event.
The projected the percentage of enemy forces defeated in each critical event and overall.
The percentage of minimum essential tasks that the unit can or must accomplish.
The media coverage and impact on key audiences.
The targeting requirements in the operation, to include identifying or confirming high-payoff targets and establishing
attack guidance.
The allocation of assets to subordinate commanders to accomplish their missions.

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Conduct a War-Game Briefing (Optional)
9-152. Time permitting, the staff delivers a briefing to all affected elements to ensure everyone
understands the results of the war game. The staff uses the briefing for review and ensures that it captures
all relevant points of the war game for presentation to the commander, COS (XO), or deputy or assistant
commander. In a collaborative environment, the briefing may include selected subordinate staffs. A
war-game briefing format includes the following:

Higher headquarters’ mission, commander’s intent, and military deception plan.
Updated IPB.
Assumptions.
Friendly and enemy COAs that were war-gamed, including—

Critical events.
Possible enemy actions and reactions.
Possible impact on civilians.
Possible media impacts.
Modifications to the COAs.
Strengths and weaknesses.
Results of the war game.

War-gaming technique used.

General War-Gaming Rules and Responsibilities
9-153. War gamers need to—

Remain objective, not allowing personality or their sense of “what the commander wants” to
influence them.
Avoid defending a COA just because they personally developed it.
Record advantages and disadvantages of each COA accurately as they emerge.
Continually assess feasibility, acceptability, and suitability of each COA. If a COA fails any of
these tests, reject it.
Avoid drawing premature conclusions and gathering facts to support such conclusions.
Avoid comparing one COA with another during the war game. This occurs during Step 5—COA
Comparison.

Mission Command Responsibilities

9-154. The commander has overall responsibility for the war-gaming process, and the commander can
determine the staff members who are involved in war-gaming. Traditionally, certain staff members have
key and specific roles.

9-155. The COS (XO) coordinates actions of the staff during the war game. This officer is the unbiased
controller of the process, ensuring the staff stays on a timeline and achieves the goals of the war-gaming
session. In a time-constrained environment, this officer ensures that, at a minimum, the decisive operation
is war-gamed.

9-156. The G-3 (S-3) assists the commander with the rehearsal. The G-3 (S-3)—
Portrays the friendly scheme of maneuver, including the employment of information-related
capabilities.
Ensures subordinate unit actions comply with the commander’s intent.
Normally provides the recorder.

9-157. The assistant chief of staff, signal (G-6 [S-6]) assesses network operations, spectrum management
operations, network defense, and information protection feasibility of each war-gamed COA. The G-6 (S-6)
determines communications systems requirements and compares them to available assets, identifies
potential shortfalls, and recommends actions to eliminate or reduce their effects.

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-37

9-158. The information operations officer assesses the information operations concept of support against
the ability of information-related capabilities to execute tasks in support of each war-gamed COA and the
effectiveness of integrated information-related capabilities to impact various audiences and populations in
and outside the area of operations. The information operations officer, in coordination with the electronic
warfare officer, also integrates information operations with cyber electromagnetic activities.

9-159. The assistant chief of staff, civil affairs operations (G-9 [S-9]) ensures each war-gamed COA
effectively integrates civil considerations (the “C” of METT-TC). The civil affairs operations officer
considers not only tactical issues but also sustainment issues. This officer assesses how operations affect
civilians and estimates the requirements for essential stability tasks commanders might have to undertake
based on the ability of the unified action partners. Host-nation support and care of dislocated civilians are
of particular concern. The civil affairs operations officer’s analysis considers how operations affect public
order and safety, the potential for disaster relief requirements, noncombatant evacuation operations,
emergency services, and the protection of culturally significant sites. This officer provides feedback on
how the culture in the area of operations affects each COA. If the unit lacks an assigned civil affairs officer,
the commander assigns these responsibilities to another staff member.

9-160. The red team staff section provides the commander and assistant chief of staff, intelligence (G-2)
with an independent capability to fully explore alternatives. The staff looks at plans, operations, concepts,
organizations, and capabilities of the operational environment from the perspectives of enemies, unified
action partners, and others.

9-161. The electronic warfare officer provides information on the electronic warfare target list, electronic
attack taskings, electronic attack requests, and the electronic warfare portion of the collection matrix and
the attack guidance matrix. Additionally, the electronic warfare officer assesses threat vulnerabilities,
friendly electronic warfare capabilities, and friendly actions relative to electronic warfare activities and
other cyber electromagnetic activities not covered by the G-6 or G-2.

9-162. The staff judge advocate advises the commander on all matters pertaining to law, policy,
regulation, good order, and discipline for each war-gamed COA. This officer provides legal advice across
the range of military operations on law of war, rules of engagement, international agreements, Geneva
Conventions, treatment and disposition of noncombatants, and the legal aspects of targeting.

9-163. The operations research and systems analysis staff section provides analytic support to the
commander for planning and assessment of operations. Specific responsibilities include—

Providing quantitative analytic support, including regression and trend analysis, to planning and
assessment activities.
Assisting other staff members in developing customized analytical tools for specific
requirements, providing a quality control capability, and conducting assessments to measure the
effectiveness of operations.

9-164. The safety officer provides input to influence accident and incident reductions by implementing
risk management procedures throughout the mission planning and execution process.

9-165. The knowledge management officer assesses the effectiveness of the knowledge management plan
for each course of action.

9-166. The space operations officer provides and represents friendly, threat, and non-aligned space
capabilities.

Intelligence Responsibilities

9-167. During the war game the G-2 (S-2) role-plays the enemy commander, other threat organizations in
the area of operations, and critical civil considerations in the area of operations. This officer develops
critical enemy decision points in relation to the friendly COAs, projects enemy reactions to friendly actions,
and projects enemy losses. The intelligence officer assigns different responsibilities to available staff
members within the section (such as the enemy commander, friendly intelligence officer, and enemy
recorder) for war-gaming. The intelligence officer captures the results of each enemy, threat group, and
civil considerations action and counteraction as well as the corresponding friendly and enemy strengths and
vulnerabilities. By trying to realistically win the war game for the enemy, the intelligence officer ensures

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that the staff fully addresses friendly responses for each enemy COA. For the friendly force, the
intelligence officer—

Refines intelligence and information requirements and the planning requirements tools.
Refines the situation and event templates, including named areas of interest that support decision
points.
Refines the event template with corresponding decision points, target areas of interest, and
high-value targets.
Participates in targeting to select high-payoff targets from high-value targets identified during
IPB.
Recommends priority intelligence requirements that correspond to the decision points.
Refines civil considerations overlays, databases, and data files.
Refines the modified combined obstacle overlays and terrain effects matrices.
Refines weather products that outline the critical weather impacts on operations.

Movemenent and Maneuver Responsibilities

9-168. During the war game, the G-3 (S-3) and assistant chief of staff, plans (G-5 [S-5]) are responsible
for movement and maneuver. The G-3 (S-3) normally selects the technique for the war game and role-plays
the friendly maneuver commander. Various staff officers assist the G-3 (S-3), such as the aviation officer
and engineer officer. The G-3 (S-3) executes friendly maneuver as outlined in the COA sketch and COA
statement. The G-5 (S-5) assesses warfighting function requirements, solutions, and concepts for each
COA; develops plans and orders; and determines potential branches and sequels arising from various
war-gamed COAs. The G-5 (S-5) also coordinates and synchronizes warfighting functions in all plans and
orders. The planning staff ensures that the war game of each COA covers every operational aspect of the
mission. The members of the staff record each event’s strengths and weaknesses and the rationale for each
action. They complete the decision support template and matrix for each COA. They annotate the rationale
for actions during the war game and use it later with the commander’s guidance to compare COAs.

Fires Responsibilities

9-169. The chief of fires (fire support officer) assesses the fire support feasibility of each war-gamed
COA. This officer develops a proposed high-payoff target list, target selection standards, and attack
guidance matrix. The chief of fires works with the intelligence officer to identify named and target areas of
interest for enemy indirect fire weapon systems, and identifies high-payoff targets and additional events
that may influence the positioning of field artillery and air defense artillery assets. The chief of fires should
also offer a list of possible defended assets for air defense artillery forces and assist the commander in
making a final determination about asset

priority.

Protection Responsibilities

9-170. The chief of protection assesses protection element requirements, refines EEFIs, and develops a
scheme of protection for each war-gamed COA. The chief of protection—

Refines the critical asset list and the defended asset list.
Assesses hazards.
Develops risk control measures and mitigation measures of threats and hazards.
Establishes personnel recovery coordination measures.
Implements operational area security to include security of lines of communications,
antiterrorism measures, and law enforcement operations.
Ensures survivability measures reduce vulnerabilities.
Refines chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear operations.

Sustainment Responsibilities

9-171. During the war game, the assistant chief of staff, personnel (G-1 [S-1]) assesses the personnel
aspect of building and maintaining the combat power of units. This officer identifies potential shortfalls and

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-39

recommends COAs to ensure units maintain adequate manning to accomplish their mission. As the primary
staff officer assessing the human resources planning considerations to support sustainment operations, the
G-1 (S-1) provides human resources support for the operation.

9-172. The assistant chief of staff, logistics (G-4 [S-4]) assesses the logistics feasibility of each
war-gamed COA. This officer determines critical requirements for each logistics function (classes I through
VII, IX, and X) and identifies potential problems and deficiencies. The G-4 (S-4) assesses the status of all
logistics functions required to support the COA, including potential support required to provide essential
services to the civilians, and compares it to available assets. This officer identifies potential shortfalls and
recommends actions to eliminate or reduce their effects. While improvising can contribute to
responsiveness, only accurately predicting requirements for each logistics function can ensure continuous
sustainment. The logistics officer ensures that available movement times and assets support each COA.

9-173. During the war game, the assistant chief of staff, financial management (G-8) assesses the
commander’s area of operations to determine the best COA for use of resources. This assessment includes
both core functions of financial management: resource management and finance operations. This officer
determines partner relationships (joint, interagency, intergovernmental, and multinational), requirements
for special funding, and support to the procurement process.

9-174. The surgeon section coordinates, monitors, and synchronizes the execution of the health system
activities for the command for each war-gamed COA to ensure a fit and healthy force.

Recorders

9-175. The use of recorders is particularly important. Recorders capture coordinating instructions, subunit
tasks and purposes, and information required to synchronize the operation. Recorders allow the staff to
write part of the order before they complete the planning. Automated information systems enable recorders
to enter information into preformatted forms that represent either briefing charts or appendixes to orders.
Each staff section keeps formats available to facilitate networked orders production.

STEP 5–COURSE OF ACTION COMPARISON
9-176. COA comparison is an objective process to evaluate COAs independently and against set
evaluation criteria approved by the commander and staff. The goal is to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of COAs, enable selecting a COA with the highest probability of success, and further
developing it in an OPLAN or OPORD. The commander and staff perform certain actions and processes
that lead to key outputs. (See figure 9-13.)

Figure 9-13. Step 5–course of action comparison

◄ Conduct Advantages and Disadvantages Analysis
9-177. The COA comparison starts with all staff members analyzing and evaluating the advantages and
disadvantages of each COA from their perspectives. Staff members each present their findings for the
others’ consideration. Using the evaluation criteria developed during mission analysis and refined during

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course of action development, the staff outlines each COA, highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.
Comparing the strengths and weaknesses of the COAs identifies their advantages and disadvantages with
respect to each other. (See table 9-6.)

Table 9-6. Sample advantages and disadvantages

Course of Action Advantages Disadvantages

Course of action 1

Decisive operation avoids major terrain
obstacles. Adequate maneuver space
available for units conducting the
decisive operation and the reserve.

Units conducting the decisive
operation face stronger resistance at
the start of the operation.
Limited resources available to
establishing civil control to town X.

Course of action 2

Shaping operations provide excellent
flank protection of the decisive
operations.
Upon completion of decisive
operations, units conducting shaping
operations can quickly transition to
establish civil control and provide civil
security to the population in town X.

Operation may require the early
employment of the division’s reserve.

◄ Compare Courses of Action
9-178. Comparison of COAs is critical. The staff uses any technique that helps develop those key outputs
and recommendations and assists the commander to make the best decision. A common technique is the
decision matrix. This matrix uses evaluation criteria developed during mission analysis and refined during
COA development to help assess the effectiveness and efficiency of each COA. (See table 9-7.)

Table 9-7. Sample decision matrix

Weight1 1 2 1 1 2
Criteria2

Simplicity Maneuver Fires Civil control Mass TotalCourse of
Action

COA 13
2 2

(4)
2 1 1

(2)
8
(11)

COA 23 1 1
(2)

1 2 2
(4)

7
(10)

Notes:
1 The COS (XO) may emphasize one or more criteria by assigning weights to them based on a determination of their
relative importance. Higher weights correspond to emphasized or more important criteria.
2 Criteria are those approved by the commander during the mission analysis brief.
3 COAs selected for war-gaming have rankings assigned with regards to each criteria based on relative advantages
and disadvantages of each COA. For example, when compared for relative simplicity, COA 2 is simpler than COA 1
and is therefore ranked 1, with COA 1 ranked 2.

9-179. The decision matrix is a tool to compare and evaluate COAs thoroughly and logically. However,
the process may be based on highly subjective judgments that can change dramatically during the course of
evaluation. In table 9-7, the weights reflect the relative importance of each criterion as initially estimated
by a COS (XO) during mission analysis and adjusted or approved by the commander. During COA
comparison, rankings are assigned from 1 to however many COAs exist. Lower rankings are more
preferred. After assigning ranks to COAs, the staff adds the unweighted ranks in each row horizontally and
records the sum in the Total column on the far right of each COA. The staff then multiplies the same ranks
by the weights associated with each criterion and notes the product in parenthesis underneath the
unweighted rank. No notation is required if the weight is 1. The staff adds these weighted ranks
horizontally and records the sum in parenthesis underneath the unweighted total in the Total column to the
right of each COA. The staff then compares the totals to determine the most preferred (lowest total) COA

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-41

based on both unweighted and weighted ranks. Although the lowest total denotes a most preferred solution,
the process for estimating relative COA ranks and relative criteria weighting may be highly subjective.
Upon review and consideration, the commander—based on personal judgment—may accept the results of
the decision matrix or elect to execute one of the other COAs.

9-180. Commanders and staffs cannot solely rely on the outcome of a decision matrix, as it only provides
a partial basis for a solution. During the decision matrix process, planners carefully avoid reaching
conclusions from a quantitative analysis of subjective weights. Comparing and evaluating COAs by each
criterion is probably more useful than merely comparing totaled ranks. Judgments often change with regard
to the relative weighting of criteria during close analysis of COAs, which will change weighted rank totals
and possibly the most preferred COA.

9-181. The staff compares feasible COAs to identify the one with the highest probability of success
against the most likely enemy COA, the most dangerous enemy COA, the most important stability task, or
the most damaging environmental impact. The selected COA should also—

Pose the minimum risk to the force and mission accomplishment.
Place the force in the best posture for future operations.
Provide maximum latitude for initiative by subordinates.
Provide the most flexibility to meet unexpected threats and opportunities.
Provide the most secure and stable environment for civilians in the area of operations.
Best facilitate information themes and messages.

9-182. Staff officers often use their own matrix to compare COAs with respect to their functional areas.
Matrixes use the evaluation criteria developed before the war game. Their greatest value is providing a
method to compare COAs against criteria that, when met, produce operational success. Staff officers use
these analytical tools to prepare recommendations. Commanders provide the solution by applying their
judgment to staff recommendations and making a decision.

Conduct a Course of Action Decision Briefing
9-183. After completing its analysis and comparison, the staff identifies its preferred COA and makes a
recommendation. If the staff cannot reach a decision, the COS (XO) decides which COA to recommend.
The staff then delivers a decision briefing to the commander. The COS (XO) highlights any changes to
each COA resulting from the war game. The decision briefing includes—

The commander’s intent of the higher and next higher commanders.
The status of the force and its components.
The current IPB.
The COAs considered, including—

Assumptions used.
Results of running estimates.
A summary of the war game for each COA, including critical events, modifications to any
COA, and war-game results.
Advantages and disadvantages (including risks) of each COA.
The recommended COA. If a significant disagreement exists, then the staff should inform
the commander and, if necessary, discuss the disagreement.

STEP 6–COURSE OF ACTION APPROVAL
9-184. After the decision briefing, the commander selects the COA to best accomplish the mission. If the
commander rejects all COAs, the staff starts COA development again. If the commander modifies a
proposed COA or gives the staff an entirely different one, the staff war-games the new COA and presents
the results to the commander with a recommendation. (See figure 9-14.)

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Figure 9-14. Step 6–course of action approval

9-185. After approving a COA, the commander issues the final planning guidance. The final planning
guidance includes a refined commander’s intent (if necessary) and new CCIRs to support execution. It also
includes any additional guidance on priorities for the warfighting functions, orders preparation, rehearsal,
and preparation. This guidance includes priorities for resources needed to preserve freedom of action and
ensure continuous sustainment.

9-186. Commanders include the risk they are willing to accept in the final planning guidance. If there is
time, commanders use a video teleconference to discuss acceptable risk with adjacent, subordinate, and
senior commanders. However, commanders still obtain the higher commander’s approval to accept any risk
that might imperil accomplishing the higher commander’s mission.

9-187. Based on the commander’s decision and final planning guidance, the staff issues a WARNORD to
subordinate headquarters. This WARNORD contains the information subordinate units need to refine their
plans. It confirms guidance issued in person or by video teleconference and expands on details not covered
by the commander personally. The WARNORD issued after COA approval normally contains—

The area of operations.
Mission.
Commander’s intent.
Updated CCIRs and EEFIs.
Concept of operations.
Principal tasks assigned to subordinate units.
Preparation and rehearsal instructions not included in the SOPs.
A final timeline for the operations.

STEP 7–ORDERS PRODUCTION, DISSEMINATION, AND TRANSITION
9-188. The staff prepares the order or plan by turning the selected COA into a clear, concise concept of
operations and the required supporting information. The COA statement becomes the concept of operations
for the plan. The COA sketch becomes the basis for the operation overlay. If time permits, the staff may
conduct a more detailed war game of the selected COA to more fully synchronize the operation and
complete the plan. (See figure 9-15 on page 9-42.) The staff writes the OPORD or OPLAN using the
Army’s operation order format. (See appendix C.)

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-43

Figure 9-15. Step 7–orders production, dissemination, and transition

9-189. Normally, the COS (XO) coordinates with staff principals to assist the G-3 (S-3) in developing the
plan or order. Based on the commander’s planning guidance, the COS (XO) dictates the type of order, sets
and enforces the time limits and development sequence, and determines which staff section publishes
which attachments.

9-190. Prior to the commander approving the plan or order, the staff ensures the plan or order is internally
consistent and is nested with the higher commander’s intent. They do this through—

Plans and orders reconciliation.
Plans and orders crosswalk.

Plans and Orders Reconciliation
9-191. Plans and orders reconciliation occurs internally as the staff conducts a detailed review of the
entire plan or order. This reconciliation ensures that the base plan or order and all attachments are complete
and in agreement. It identifies discrepancies or gaps in planning. If staff members find discrepancies or
gaps, they take corrective actions. Specifically, the staff compares the commander’s intent, mission, and
commander’s CCIRs against the concept of operations and the different schemes of support (such as
scheme of fires or scheme of sustainment). The staff ensures attachments are consistent with the
information in the base plan or order.

Plans and Orders Crosswalk
9-192. During the plans and orders crosswalk, the staff compares the plan or order with that of the higher
and adjacent commanders to achieve unity of effort and ensure the plan meets the superior commander’s
intent. The crosswalk identifies discrepancies or gaps in planning. If staff members find discrepancies or
gaps, they take corrective action.

Approving the Plan or Order
9-193. The final action in plan and order development is the approval of the plan or order by the
commander. Commanders normally do not sign attachments; however, they should review them before
signing the base plan or order.

9-194. Step 7 bridges the transition between planning and preparations. The plans-to-operations transition
is a preparation activity that occurs within the headquarters. It ensures members of the current operations
cell fully understand the plan before execution. During preparation, the responsibility for developing and
maintaining the plan shifts from the plans (or future operations) cell to the current operations cell. This
transition is the point at which the current operations cell becomes responsible for controlling execution of
the operation order. This responsibility includes answering requests for information concerning the order
and maintaining the order through fragmentary orders. This transition enables the plans cell to focus its
planning efforts on sequels, branches, and other planning requirements directed by the commander. (See

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ADRP 5-0 for information on the plans to operations handover and chapter 12 of this manual for
information on rehearsals.)

9-195. Commanders review and approve orders before the staff reproduces and disseminates them, unless
commanders have delegated that authority. Subordinates immediately acknowledge receipt of the higher
order. If possible, the higher commander and staff brief the order to subordinate commanders in person.
The commander and staff conduct confirmation briefings with subordinates immediately afterwards.
Confirmation briefings can be conducted collaboratively with several commanders at the same time or with
single commanders. These briefings may be conducted in person or by video teleconference.

PLANNING IN A TIME-CONSTRAINED ENVIRONMENT
9-196. Any planning process aims to quickly develop a flexible, sound, and fully integrated and
synchronized plan. However, any operation may “outrun” the initial plan. The most detailed estimates
cannot anticipate every possible branch or sequel, enemy action, threat action, or reaction from the local
population, unexpected opportunity, or change in mission directed from higher headquarters. Fleeting
opportunities or unexpected enemy action may require a quick decision to implement a new or modified
plan. When this occurs, units often find themselves pressed for time in developing a new plan.

9-197. Before a unit can effectively conduct planning in a time-constrained environment, it must master
the steps in the full MDMP. A unit can only shorten the process if it fully understands the role of each and
every step of the process and the requirements to produce the necessary products. Training on these steps
must be thorough and result in a series of staff battle drills that can be tailored to the time available.

9-198. Quality staffs produce simple, flexible, and tactically sound plans in time-constrained
environments. Any METT-TC factor, but especially limited time, may make it difficult to complete every
step of the MDMP in detail. Applying an inflexible process to all situations does not work. Anticipation,
organization, and prior preparation are the keys to successful planning under time-constrained conditions.

9-199. Staffs can use the time saved on any step of the MDMP to—
Refine the plan more thoroughly.
Conduct a more deliberate and detailed war game.
Consider potential branches and sequels in detail.
Focus more on rehearsing and preparing the plan.
Allow subordinate units more planning and preparation time.

THE COMMANDER’S RESPONSIBILITY
9-200. The commander decides how to adjust the MDMP, giving specific guidance to the staff to focus on
the process and save time. Commanders shorten the MDMP when they lack time to perform each step in
detail. The most significant factor to consider is time. It is the only nonrenewable, and often the most
critical, resource. Commanders (who have access to only a small portion of the staff or none at all) rely
even more than normal on their own expertise, intuition, and creativity as well as on their understanding of
the environment and of the art and science of war. They may have to select a COA, mentally war-game it,
and confirm their decision to the staff in a short time. If so, they base their decision more on experience
than on a formal, integrated staff process.

9-201. Effective commanders avoid changing their guidance unless a significantly changed situation
requires major revisions. Making frequent, minor changes to the guidance can easily result in lost time as
the staff constantly adjusts the plan with an adverse ripple effect throughout overall planning.

9-202. Commanders consult with subordinate commanders before making a decision, if possible.
Subordinate commanders are closer to the operation and can more accurately describe enemy, friendly, and
civilian situations. Additionally, consulting with subordinates gives commanders insights into the
upcoming operation and allows parallel planning. White boards and collaborative digital means of
communicating greatly enhance parallel planning.

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22 April 2016 FM 6-0, C2 9-45

9-203. In situations where commanders must decide quickly, they advise their higher headquarters of the
selected COA, if time is available. However, commanders do not let an opportunity pass just because they
cannot report their actions.

THE STAFF’S RESPONSIBILITY
9-204. Staff members keep their running estimates current. When time constraints exist, they can provide
accurate, up-to-date assessments quickly and move directly into COA development. Under
time-constrained conditions, commanders and staffs use as much of the previously analyzed information
and as many of the previously created products as possible. The importance of running estimates increases
as time decreases. Decisionmaking in a time-constrained environment usually occurs after a unit has
entered the area of operations and begun operations. This means that the IPB, an updated common
operational picture, and some portions of the running estimates should already exist. Civilian and military
joint and multinational organizations operating in the area of operations should have well-developed plans
and information to add insights to the operational environment. Detailed planning provides the basis for
information that the commander and staff need to make decisions during execution.

TIME-SAVING TECHNIQUES
9-205. Paragraphs 9-206 through 9-210 discuss time-saving techniques to speed the planning process.

Increase Commander’s Involvement
9-206. While commanders cannot spend all their time with their planning staffs, the greater the
commander’s involvement in planning, the faster the staff can plan. In time-constrained conditions,
commanders who participate in the planning process can make decisions (such as COA selection) without
waiting for a detailed briefing from the staff.

Limit the Number of Courses of Action to Develop
9-207. Limiting the number of COAs developed and war-gamed can save planning time. If time is
extremely short, the commander can direct development of only one COA. In this case, the goal is an
acceptable COA that meets mission requirements in the time available. This technique saves the most time.
The fastest way to develop a plan has the commander directing development of one COA with branches
against the most likely enemy COA or most damaging civil situation or condition. However, this technique
should be used only when time is severely limited. In such cases, this choice of COA is often intuitive,
relying on the commander’s experience and judgment. The commander determines which staff officers are
essential to assist in COA development. Normally commanders require the intelligence officer, operations
officer, plans officer, chief of fires (fire support officer), engineer officer, civil affairs operations officer,
information operations officer, military information support operations officer, electronic warfare officer,
and COS (XO). They may also include subordinate commanders, if available, either in person or by video
teleconference. This team quickly develops a flexible COA that it feels will accomplish the mission. The
commander mentally war-games this COA and gives it to the staff to refine.

Maximize Parallel Planning
9-208. Although parallel planning is the norm, maximizing its use in time-constrained environments is
critical. In a time-constrained environment, the importance of WARNORDs increases as available time
decreases. A verbal WARNORD now, followed by a written order later, saves more time than a written
order one hour from now. The staff issues the same WARNORDs used in the full MDMP when
abbreviating the process. In addition to WARNORDs, units must share all available information with
subordinates, especially IPB products, as early as possible. The staff uses every opportunity to perform
parallel planning with the higher headquarters and to share information with subordinates.

Increase Collaborative Planning
9-209. Planning in real time with higher headquarters and subordinates improves the overall planning
effort of the organization. Modern information systems and a common operational picture shared

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electronically allow collaboration with subordinates from distant locations, can increase information
sharing, and can improve the commander’s visualization. Additionally, taking advantage of subordinates’
input and knowledge of the situation in their areas of operations often results in developing better COAs
quickly.

Use Liaison Officers
9-210. Liaison officers posted to higher headquarters and unified action partners’ headquarters allow
commanders to have representation in their higher headquarters’ planning session. These officers assist in
passing timely information to their parent headquarters and directly to the commander. Effective liaison
officers have the commander’s full confidence and the necessary rank and experience for the mission.
Commanders may elect to use a single individual or a liaison team. As representatives, liaison officers
must—

Understand how their commander thinks and interpret verbal and written guidance.
Convey their commander’s intent, planning guidance, mission, and concept of operations.
Represent their commander’s position.
Know the unit’s mission; tactics, techniques, and procedures; organization; capabilities; and
communications equipment.
Observe the established channels of command and staff functions.
Be trained in their functional responsibilities.
Be tactful.
Possess the necessary language expertise.

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 10-1

Chapter 10

Troop Leading Procedures
Troop leading procedures provide small-unit leaders with a framework for planning
and preparing for operations. Leaders of company and smaller units use troop leading
procedures to develop plans and orders. This chapter describes the eight steps of
troop leading procedures and their relationship to the military decisionmaking
process (MDMP). While this chapter explains troop leading procedures from a
ground-maneuver perspective, it applies to all types of small units.

BACKGROUND AND COMPARISON TO THE MDMP
10-1. Troop leading procedures (TLP) extend the MDMP to the small-unit level. The MDMP and TLP are
similar but not identical. They are both linked by the basic Army problem-solving process (see chapter 4).
Commanders with a coordinating staff use the MDMP as their primary planning process. Company-level
and smaller units lack formal staffs and use TLP to plan and prepare for operations. This places the
responsibility for planning primarily on the commander or small-unit leader.

10-2. Troop leading procedures are a dynamic process used by small-unit leaders to analyze a mission,
develop a plan, and prepare for an operation (ADP 5-0). These procedures enable leaders to maximize
available planning time while developing effective plans and preparing their units for an operation. (See
paragraphs 10-10 to 10-41 for a discussion on the eight steps of TLP.)

10-3. Leaders use TLP when working alone or with a small group to solve problems. For example, a
company commander may use the executive officer, first sergeant, fire support officer, supply sergeant, and
communications sergeant to assist during TLP.

10-4. The type, amount, and timeliness of information passed from higher to lower headquarters directly
impact the lower unit leader’s TLP. Figure 10-1 on page 10-2 illustrates the parallel sequences of the
MDMP of a battalion with the TLP of a company and a platoon. The solid arrows depict when a higher
headquarters’ planning event could start the TLP of a subordinate unit. However, events do not always
occur in the order shown. For example, TLP may start with receipt of a warning order (WARNORD), or
they may not start until the higher headquarters has completed the MDMP and issued an operation order
(OPORD). WARNORDs from higher headquarters may arrive at any time during TLP. Leaders remain
flexible. They adapt TLP to fit the situation rather than try to alter the situation to fit a preconceived idea of
how events should flow.

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Figure 10-1. Parallel sequences of the MDMP and troop leading procedures
10-5. Normally, the first three steps (receive the mission, issue a WARNORD, and make a tentative plan)
of TLP occur in order. However, the sequence of subsequent steps is based on the situation. The tasks
involved in some steps (for example, initiate movement and conduct reconnaissance) may occur several
times. The last step, supervise and refine, occurs throughout.

10-6. A tension exists between executing current operations and planning for future operations. The
small-unit leader must balance both. If engaged in a current operation, leaders have less time for TLP. If in
a lull, transition, or an assembly area, leaders have more time to perform TLP thoroughly. In some
situations, time constraints or other factors may prevent leaders from performing each step of TLP as
thoroughly as they would like. For example, during the step make a tentative plan, small-unit leaders often
develop only one acceptable course of action (COA) instead of multiple COAs. If time permits, leaders
develop, compare, and analyze several COAs before deciding which one to execute.

10-7. Ideally, a battalion headquarters issues at least three WARNORDs to subordinates when conducting
the MDMP as depicted in figure 10-1. WARNORDs are issued upon receipt of mission, completion of
mission analysis, and when the commander approves a COA. However, the number of WARNORDs is not
fixed. WARNORDs serve a function in planning similar to that of fragmentary orders (FRAGORDs)
during execution. Commanders may issue a WARNORD whenever they need to disseminate additional
planning information or initiate necessary preparatory action, such as movement or reconnaissance.

10-8. Leaders begin TLP when they receive the initial WARNORD or receive a new mission. As each
subsequent order arrives, leaders modify their assessments, update tentative plans, and continue to
supervise and assess preparations. In some situations, the higher headquarters may not issue the full
sequence of WARNORDs; security considerations or tempo may make it impractical. Commanders
carefully consider decisions to eliminate WARNORDs. Subordinate units always need to have enough

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 10-3

information to plan and prepare for the operation. In other cases, leaders may initiate TLP before receiving
a WARNORD based on existing plans and orders and on their understanding of the situation.

10-9. Parallel planning hinges on distributing information as it is received or developed. Leaders cannot
complete their plans until they receive their unit mission. If each successive WARNORD contains enough
information, the higher headquarters’ final order will confirm what subordinate leaders have already
analyzed and put into their tentative plans. In other cases, the higher headquarters’ order may change or
modify the subordinate’s tasks enough that additional planning and reconnaissance are required.

STEPS OF TROOP LEADING PROCEDURES
10-10. TLP provide small-unit leaders a framework for planning and preparing for operations. TLP begin
when the leader receives a mission and continues throughout the operations process (plan, prepare, execute
and assess). TLP are a sequence of actions that assist leaders to effectively and efficiently use available
time to issue orders and execute tactical operations.

10-11. TLP consist of eight steps. TLP are also supported by risk management. (See FM 5-19 for more
information on risk management.) The sequence of the steps of TLP is not rigid. Leaders modify the
sequence to meet the mission, situation, and available time. Some steps are done concurrently, while others
may go on continuously throughout the operation:

Step 1–Receive the mission.
Step 2–Issue a warning order.
Step 3–Make a tentative plan.
Step 4–Initiate movement.
Step 5–Conduct reconnaissance.
Step 6–Complete the plan.
Step 7–Issue the order.
Step 8–Supervise and refine.

STEP 1–RECEIVE THE MISSION
10-12. Receive the mission may occur in several ways. It may begin when the initial WARNORD or
OPORD arrives from higher headquarters or when a leader anticipates a new mission. Frequently, leaders
receive a mission in a FRAGORD over the radio. Ideally, they receive a series of WARNORDs, the
OPORD, and a briefing from their commander. Normally, after receiving an OPORD leaders give a
confirmation brief to their higher commander to ensure they understand the higher commander’s intent and
concept of operations. The leader obtains clarification on any portions of the higher headquarters plan as
required.

10-13. When they receive the mission, leaders perform an initial assessment of the situation (mission
analysis) and allocate the time available for planning and preparation. (Preparation includes rehearsals and
movement.) When a higher headquarters assigns a mission, it provides small-unit leaders an analysis of its
operational environment. Often, higher headquarters will provide this assessment using the operational
variables (political, military, economic, social, information, infrastructure, physical environment, and time
[PMESII-PT]). From this higher level assessment, they can draw information relevant to their own
operational environments and supplement it with their own knowledge of local conditions. During mission
analysis, they filter relevant information into the categories of the mission variables (mission, enemy,
terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations [METT-TC]).
(See appendix A for a more detailed description of PMESII-PT and METT-TC). This initial assessment and
time allocation form the basis of their initial WARNORDs and addresses the factors of METT-TC. The
order and detail in which leaders analyze the factors of METT-TC is flexible. It depends on the amount of
information available and the relative importance of each factor. For example, leaders may concentrate on
the mission, enemy, and terrain, leaving weather and civil considerations until they receive more detailed
information.

10-14. Often, leaders do not receive their final unit mission until the WARNORD is disseminated after
COA approval or after the OPORD. Effective leaders do not wait until their higher headquarters completes

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planning to begin their planning. Using all information available, leaders develop their unit mission as
completely as they can. They focus on the mission, commander’s intent, and concept of operations of their
higher and next higher headquarters. They pick major tasks their unit will probably be assigned and
develop a mission statement based on information they have received. At this stage, the mission may be
incomplete. For example, an initial mission statement could be, “First platoon conducts an ambush in the
next 24 hours.” While not complete, this information allows subordinates to start preparations. Leaders
complete a formal mission statement during TLP step 3 (make a tentative plan) and step 6 (complete the
plan).

10-15. Based on what they know, leaders estimate the time available to plan and prepare for the mission.
They begin by identifying the times they must complete major planning and preparation events, including
rehearsals. Reverse planning helps them do this. Leaders identify critical times specified by higher
headquarters and work back from them, estimating how much time each event will consume. Critical times
might include times to load aircraft, the line of departure, or the start point for movement.

10-16. Leaders ensure that all subordinate echelons have sufficient time for their own planning and
preparation needs. Generally, leaders at all levels use no more than one-third of the available time for
planning and issuing the OPORD. Leaders allocate the remaining two-thirds of it to subordinates.
Figure 10-2 illustrates a possible time schedule for an infantry company. The company adjusts the tentative
schedule as necessary.

0600–Execute mission.
0530–Finalize or adjust the plan based on leader’s reconnaissance.
0400–Establish the objective rallying point; begin leader reconnaissance.
0200–Begin movement.
2100–Conduct platoon inspections.
1900–Conduct rehearsals.
1800–Eat meals.
1745–Hold backbriefs (squad leaders to platoon leaders).
1630–Issue platoon OPORDs.
1500–Hold backbriefs (platoon leaders to company commander).
1330–Issue company OPORD.
1045–Conduct reconnaissance.
1030–Update company WARNORD.
1000–Receive battalion OPORD.
0900–Receive battalion WARNORD; issue company WARNORD.

OPORD operation order WARNORD warning order

Figure 10-2. Sample schedule

STEP 2–ISSUE A WARNING ORDER
10-17. As soon as leaders finish their initial assessment of the situation and available time, they issue a
WARNORD. Leaders do not wait for more information. They issue the best WARNORD possible with the
information at hand and update it as needed with additional WARNORDs.

10-18. The WARNORD contains as much detail as possible. It informs subordinates of the unit mission
and gives them the leader’s timeline. Leaders may also pass on any other instructions or information they
think will help subordinates prepare for the new mission. This includes information on the enemy, the
nature of the higher headquarters’ plan, and any specific instructions for preparing their units. The most
important thing is that leaders not delay in issuing the initial WARNORD. As more information becomes
available, leaders can—and should—issue additional WARNORDs. By issuing the initial WARNORD as
quickly as possible, leaders enable their subordinates to begin their own planning and preparation.

10-19. WARNORDs follow the five-paragraph OPORD format. (See appendix C for the WARNORD
format.) Normally an initial WARNORD issued below battalion level includes—

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 10-5

The mission or nature of the operation.
The time and place for issuing the OPORD.
Units or elements participating in the operation.
Specific tasks not addressed by unit standard operating procedures (SOPs).
The timeline for the operation.

STEP 3–MAKE A TENTATIVE PLAN
10-20. Once they have issued the initial WARNORD, leaders develop a tentative plan. This step
combines the MDMP steps 2 through 6: mission analysis, COA development, COA analysis, COA
comparison, and COA approval. At levels below battalion, these steps are less structured than for units with
staffs. Often, leaders perform them mentally. They may include their principal subordinates—especially
during COA development, analysis, and comparison. However, leaders—not their subordinates—select the
COA on which to base the tentative plan.

Mission Analysis
10-21. To frame the tentative plan, leaders perform mission analysis. This mission analysis follows the
METT-TC format, continuing the initial assessment performed in TLP step 1. (See table 10-1 for a brief
description of the mission variables and appendix A for a more detailed description.)

Table 10-1. Mission variables

Variable Description
Mission Commanders and staffs view all of the mission variables in terms of their

impact on mission accomplishment. The mission is the task, together with
the purpose, that clearly indicates the action to be taken and the reason
therefore. It is always the first variable commanders consider during
decisionmaking. A mission statement contains the “who, what, when,
where, and why” of the operation.

Enemy The second variable to consider is the enemy—dispositions (including
organization, strength, location, and tactical mobility), doctrine, equipment,
capabilities, vulnerabilities, and probable courses of action.

Terrain and
weather

Terrain and weather analysis are inseparable and directly influence each
other’s impact on military operations. Terrain includes natural features (such
as rivers and mountains) and man-made features (such as cities, airfields,
and bridges). Commanders analyze terrain using the five military aspects of
terrain expressed in the memory aid OAKOC: observation and fields of fire,
avenues of approach, key and decisive terrain, obstacles, cover and
concealment. The military aspects of weather include visibility, wind,
precipitation, cloud cover, temperature, and humidity.

Troops and
support
available

This variable includes the number, type, capabilities, and condition of
available friendly troops and support. These include supplies, services, and
support available from joint, host nation, and unified action partners. They
also include support from civilians and contractors employed by military
organizations, such as the Defense Logistics Agency and the Army Materiel
Command.

Time available Commanders assess the time available for planning, preparing, and
executing tasks and operations. This includes the time required to
assemble, deploy, and maneuver units in relationship to the enemy and
conditions.

Civil
considerations

Civil considerations are the influence of man-made infrastructure, civilian
institutions, and activities of the civilian leaders, populations, and
organizations within an area of operations on the conduct of military
operations (ADRP 5-0). Civil considerations comprise six characteristics,
expressed in the memory aid ASCOPE: areas, structures, capabilities,
organizations, people, and events.

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Course of Action Development
10-22. Mission analysis provides information needed to develop COAs. COA development aims to
determine one or more ways to accomplish the mission. At lower echelons, the mission may be a single
task. Most missions and tasks can be accomplished in more than one way. Normally, leaders develop two
or more COAs. However, in a time-constrained environment, they may develop only one. Leaders do not
wait for a complete order before beginning COA development. Usable COAs are suitable, feasible,
acceptable, distinguishable, and complete. Leaders develop COAs as soon as they have enough information
to do so. To develop COAs, leaders focus on the actions the unit takes at the objective and conduct a
reverse plan to the starting point.

Analyze Relative Combat Power

10-23. During COA development, leaders determine whether the unit has enough combat power to defeat
the force (or accomplish a task in stability or defense support of civil authorities tasks) against which it is
arrayed by comparing the combat power of friendly and enemy forces. Leaders seek to determine where,
when, and how friendly combat power (the elements of intelligence, movement and maneuver, fires,
sustainment, protection, mission command, leadership, and information) can overwhelm the enemy. It is a
particularly difficult process if the unit is fighting a dissimilar unit, for example, if an infantry unit is
attacking or defending against an enemy mechanized force. Below battalion level, relative combat power
comparisons are rough and generally rely on professional judgment instead of numerical analysis. When an
enemy is not the object of a particular mission or tasks, leaders conduct a troop-to-task analysis to
determine if they have enough combat power to accomplish the tasks. For example, a company commander
assigned the task “establish civil control in town X” would need to determine if there were enough Soldiers
and equipment (including vehicles and barrier materials) to establish the necessary check points and
security stations within the town to control the population in town X.

Generate Options

10-24. Leaders brainstorm different ways to accomplish the mission. They determine the doctrinal
requirements for the operation, including the tactical tasks normally assigned to subordinates. Doctrinal
requirements give leaders a framework from which to develop COAs.

10-25. Next, leaders identify where and when the unit can mass overwhelming combat power to achieve
specific results (with respect to enemy, terrain, time, or civil considerations) that accomplish the mission.
Offensive and defensive tasks focus on the destructive effects of combat power. Stability tasks, on the other
hand, emphasize constructive effects. Leaders identify any decisive points and determine what result they
must achieve at the decisive points to accomplish the mission. This helps leaders determine the required
tasks and the amount of combat power to apply at a decisive point.

10-26. After identifying tasks, leaders next determine the purpose for each task. There is normally one
primary task for each mission. The unit assigned this task is the main effort. The other tasks should support
the accomplishment of the primary task.

Develop an Initial Concept of Operations

10-27. The concept of operations describes how the leader envisions the operation unfolding from its start
to its conclusion or end state. It determines how accomplishing each task leads to executing the next. It
identifies the best ways to use available terrain and to employ unit strengths against enemy weaknesses.
Fire support considerations make up an important part of the concept of operations. Planners identify
essential stability tasks. Leaders develop the graphic control measures necessary to convey and enhance the
understanding of the concept of operations, prevent fratricide, and clarify the task and purpose of the main
effort.

Assign Responsibilities

10-28. Leaders assign responsibility for each task to a subordinate. Whenever possible, they depend on
the existing chain of command. They avoid fracturing unit integrity unless the number of simultaneous

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 10-7

tasks exceeds the number of available elements. Different command and support arrangements may be the
distinguishing feature among COAs.

Prepare a Course of Action Statement and Sketch

10-29. Leaders base the COA statement on the concept of operations for that COA. The COA statement
focuses on all significant actions, from the start of the COA to its finish. Whenever possible, leaders
prepare a sketch showing each COA. It is useful to provide the amount of time it takes to achieve each
movement and task in the COA sketch. This helps subordinate leaders gain an appreciation for how much
time will pass as they execute each task of the COA. The COA contains the following information:

Form of movement or defense to be used.
Designation of the main effort.
Tasks and purposes of subordinate units.
Necessary sustaining operations.
Desired end state.

10-30. Table 10-2 provides a sample mission statement and COA statement for an infantry company in
the defense.

Table 10-2. Sample mission and course of action statements

Mission
Statement:

B Co/1-31 IN defends NLT (not later than) 281700(Z) AUG 2005 from
GL 375652 to GL 389650 to GL 394660 to GL 373665 to prevent the
envelopment of A Co, the battalion main effort.

COA Statement:

The company defends with two platoons (PLTs) forward and one PLT in
depth from PLT battle positions. The northern PLT (2 squads) destroys
enemy forces to prevent enemy bypass of the main effort PLT on Hill
657. The southern PLT (3 squads, 2 Javelins) destroys enemy forces to
prevent an organized company attack against the Co main effort on Hill
657. The main effort PLT (3 squads, 2 TOWS) retains Hill 657
(vicinity GL378659) to prevent the envelopment of Co A (battalion
main effort) from the south. The anti-armor section (1 squad, 4
Javelins) establishes ambush positions at the road junction (vicinity GL
377653) to destroy enemy recon to deny observation of friendly
defensive position and to prevent a concentration of combat power
against the main effort PLT. The company mortars establish a mortar
firing point vicinity GL 377664 to suppress enemy forces to protect
the main effort platoon.

Analyze Courses of Action (War-game)
10-31. For each COA, leaders think through the operation from start to finish. They compare each COA
with the enemy’s most probable COA. At the small-unit level, the enemy’s most probable COA is what the
enemy is most likely to do given what friendly forces are doing at that instant. The leader visualizes a set of
actions and reactions. The object is to determine what can go wrong and what decision the leader will likely
have to make as a result.

Course of Action Comparison and Selection
10-32. Leaders compare COAs by weighing the advantages, disadvantages, strengths, and weaknesses of
each, as noted during the war game. They decide which COA to execute based on this comparison and on
their professional judgment. They take into account—

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Mission accomplishment.
Time available to execute the operation.
Risks.
Results from unit reconnaissance.
Subordinate unit tasks and purposes.
Casualties incurred.
Posturing of the force for future operations.

STEP 4–INITIATE MOVEMENT
10-33. Leaders conduct any movement directed by higher headquarters or deemed necessary to continue
mission preparation or position the unit for execution. They do this as soon as they have enough
information to do so or the unit is required to move to position itself for a task. This is also essential when
time is short. Movements may be to an assembly area, a battle position, a new area of operations, or an
attack position. They may include movement of reconnaissance elements, guides, or quartering parties.

STEP 5–CONDUCT RECONNAISSANCE
10-34. Whenever time and circumstances allow, or as directed by higher headquarters, leaders personally
observe the area of operations for the mission prior to execution. No amount of information from higher
headquarters can substitute for firsthand assessment of the mission variables from within the area of
operations. Unfortunately, many factors can keep leaders from performing a personal reconnaissance. The
minimum action necessary is a thorough map reconnaissance supplemented by imagery and intelligence
products. As directed, subordinates or other elements (such as scouts) may conduct reconnaissance while
the leader completes other TLP steps.

10-35. Leaders use results of the war game to identify information requirements. Reconnaissance tasks
seek to confirm or deny information that supports the tentative plan. They focus first on information gaps
identified during mission analysis. Leaders ensure their leader’s reconnaissance complements the higher
headquarters’ information collection plan. The unit may conduct additional reconnaissance tasks as the
situation allows. This step may also precede making a tentative plan if commanders lack enough
information to begin planning. Reconnaissance may be the only way to develop the information required
for planning.

STEP 6–COMPLETE THE PLAN
10-36. During this step, leaders incorporate the results of reconnaissance into their selected COA to
complete the plan or order. This includes preparing overlays, refining the indirect fire target list,
coordinating sustainment with signal requirements, and updating the tentative plan because of
reconnaissance. At lower levels, this step may entail only confirming or updating information contained in
the tentative plan. If time allows, leaders make final coordination with adjacent units and higher
headquarters before issuing the order.

STEP 7–ISSUE THE ORDER
10-37. Small-unit orders are normally issued verbally and supplemented by graphics and other control
measures. An order follows the standard five-paragraph OPORD format. (See appendix C for the OPORD
format.) Typically, leaders below company level do not issue a commander’s intent. They reiterate the
intent of their higher and next higher commanders.

10-38. The ideal location for issuing the order is a point in the area of operations with a view of the
objective and other aspects of the terrain. The leader may perform a leader’s reconnaissance, complete the
order, and then summon subordinates to a specified location to receive it. Sometimes security or other
constraints make it impractical to issue the order on the terrain. Then leaders use a sand table, a detailed
sketch, maps, and other products to depict the area of operations and the situation.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 10-9

STEP 8–SUPERVISE AND REFINE
10-39. Throughout TLP, leaders monitor mission preparations, refine the plan, coordinate with adjacent
units, and supervise and assess preparations. Normally, unit SOPs state individual responsibilities and the
sequence of preparation activities. To ensure the unit is ready for the mission, leaders supervise
subordinates and inspect their personnel and equipment.

10-40. A crucial component of preparation is the rehearsal. Rehearsals allow leaders to assess their
subordinates’ preparations. They may identify areas that require more supervision. Leaders conduct
rehearsals to—

Practice essential tasks.
Identify weaknesses or problems in the plan.
Coordinate subordinate element actions.
Improve Soldier understanding of the concept of operations.
Foster confidence among Soldiers.

10-41. Company and smaller sized units use four types of rehearsals, and they are discussed in chapter 12:
Backbrief.
Combined arms rehearsal.
Support rehearsal.
Battle drill or SOP rehearsal.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 11-1

Chapter 11

Military Deception
This chapter provides information on military deception. Initially this chapter
addresses the principles of military deception. It then discusses how commanders use
military deception to shape the area of operations in support of decisive action. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of how to plan, prepare, execute, and assess
military deception.

MILITARY DECEPTION PROCESS AND CAPABILITY
11-1. Modern military deception is both a process and a capability. As a process, military deception is a
methodical, information-based strategy that systematically, deliberately, and cognitively targets individual
decisionmakers. The objective is the purposeful manipulation of decisionmaking. As a capability, military
deception is useful to a commander when integrated early in the planning process as a component of the
operation focused on causing an enemy to act or react in a desired manner. (See JP 3-13 for a discussion in
information operations and JP 3-13.4 for a more detailed discussion on military deception.)

PRINCIPLES OF MILITARY DECEPTION
11-2. Military deception is applicable during any phase of military operations in order to create conditions
to accomplish the commander’s intent. The Army echelon that plans a military deception often determines
its type. The levels of war define and clarify the relationship between strategic and tactical actions. The
levels have no finite limits or boundaries. They correlate to specific levels of responsibility and military
deception planning. They help organize thought and approaches to a problem. Decisions at one level
always affect other levels. Common to all levels of military deception is a set of guiding principles:

Focus on the target.
Motivating the target to act.
Centralized planning and control.
Security.
Conforming to the time available.
Integration.

FOCUS ON THE TARGET
11-3. Leaders determine which targeted decisionmaker has the authority to make the desired decision and
then can act or fail to act upon that decision. Many times it is one, key individual, or it could be a network
of decisionmakers who rely on each other for different aspects of their mission or operation.

MOTIVATING THE TARGET TO ACT
11-4. Leaders determine what motivates the targeted decisionmaker and which information-related
capabilities are capable of inducing the targeted decisionmaker to think a certain way. The desired result is
that the targeted decisionmaker acts or fails to act as intended. This result is favorable to friendly forces.
Often, the military objective is to manipulate the targeted decisionmaker’s thinking and subsequent actions.
This can be accomplished in a variety of ways. Leaders—

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Exploit target biases. Leaders provide the targeted decisionmakers with information that fulfills
their expectations. This reinforces the target’s preexisting perceptions and can be exceptionally
powerful.
Employ variety. The target should receive information, true and false, through multiple means
and methods, from many angles, throughout the information and operational environment.
Avoid windfalls. Important military information that is too easy to obtain is usually suspect.
Information that “falls” into the enemy’s hands must appear to be the result of legitimate
collection activities.
Leverage the truth. Any deception must conform to the target’s perception of reality. It is much
simpler to have the deception adhere to the target’s belief than to make the target accept an
unexpected reality as truth.

CENTRALIZED PLANNING AND CONTROL
11-5. Centralized planning and control ensures continuity. The assistant chief of staff, plans (G-5 [S-5])
usually leads the planning. However, there may be times when the commander designates a military
deception officer to assist the G-5 (S-5) throughout the planning, hand-off, and termination of the deception
operation. Centralizing the planning and control is imperative. It keeps the deception operation on track and
limits unintended leaks and compromises.

SECURITY
11-6. Successful military deception requires strict security and protection measures to prevent compromise
of both the deception and the actual operation. This includes counterintelligence, computer network
defense, operations security, camouflage, and concealment. (See FM 5-19 for a discussion on risk
management. See AR 530-1 for more detailed information and regulations on operations security.)

CONFORMING TO THE TIME AVAILABLE
11-7. Planning, preparing, executing, and assessing military deception must conform to the time available
for both sides to “play their parts” in the deception. The targeted decisionmaker requires time to see,
interpret, decide, and act upon the deception. Equally important, friendly forces require time to detect and
assess the targeted decisionmaker’s reaction to the deception.

INTEGRATION
11-8. A military deception is an integral part of the concept of an operation. It is not an afterthought or a
stand-alone operation. The military deception officer assists the staff in integrating the deception operation
throughout all phases of the operation. This begins with planning, the hand-off to current operations, and
eventually the termination of the deception. Integration involves the use of information-related capabilities
and activities. Military information support operations can contribute to the deception plan by providing a
means to disseminate both accurate and deceptive information to the targeted decisionmakers by discreetly
conveying approved tailored deception messages to selected target audiences. Therefore, the individual
assigned as the military deception officer is often well versed in the use and integration information-related
capabilities and activities.

MILITARY DECEPTION IN SUPPORT OF OPERATIONS
11-9. Military deception often relies on the basic understanding that the complexities and uncertainties of
combat make decisionmakers susceptible to deception. The basic mechanism for any deception is either to
increase or decrease the level of uncertainty, or ambiguity, in the mind of the deception target (or targeted
decisionmaker). Military deception and deception in support of operations security present false or
misleading information to the targeted decisionmaker with the deliberate intent to manipulate uncertainty.
The aim of deception is to either increase or decrease the targeted decisionmaker’s ambiguity in order to
manipulate the target to perceive friendly motives, intentions, capabilities, and vulnerabilities erroneously
and thereby alter the target’s perception of reality.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 11-3

AMBIGUITY-DECREASING DECEPTION
11-10. Ambiguity-decreasing deception reduces uncertainty and normally confirms the enemy
decisionmaker’s preconceived beliefs, so the decisionmaker becomes very certain about the selected course
of action (COA). This type of deception presents false information that shapes the enemy decisionmaker’s
thinking, so the enemy makes and executes a specific decision that can be exploited by friendly forces. By
making the wrong decision, which is the deception objective, the enemy could misemploy forces and
provide friendly forces an operational advantage. For example, ambiguity-decreasing deceptions can
present supporting elements of information concerning a specific enemy’s COA. These deceptions are
complex to plan and execute, but the potential rewards are often worth the increased effort and resources.

AMBIGUITY-INCREASING DECEPTION
11-11. Ambiguity-increasing deception presents false information aimed to confuse the enemy
decisionmaker, thereby increasing the decisionmaker’s uncertainty. This confusion can produce different
results. Ambiguity-increasing deceptions can challenge the enemy’s preconceived beliefs. These deceptions
draw enemy attention from one set of activities to another, create the illusion of strength where weakness
exists, create the illusion of weakness where strength exists, and accustom the enemy to particular patterns
of activity that are exploitable at a later time. For example, ambiguity-increasing deceptions can cause the
target to delay a decision until it is too late to prevent friendly mission success. They can place the target in
a dilemma for which there is no acceptable solution. They may even prevent the target from taking any
action at all. Deceptions in support of operations security (OPSEC) are typically executed as this type of
deception.

TACTICAL DECEPTION
11-12. Most often, Army commanders will be faced with deciding when and where to employ military
deception in support of tactical operations. The intent of tactical deception is to induce the enemy
decisionmakers to act in a manner prejudicial to their interests. This is accomplished by either increasing or
decreasing the ambiguity of the enemy decisionmaker through the manipulation, distortion, or falsification
of evidence. Military deception undertaken at the tactical level supports engagements, battles, and stability
tasks. This focus is what differentiates tactical deception from other forms of military deception. (See
JP 3-13.4 for more information on military deception.)

STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL MILITARY DECEPTION
11-13. Less frequently, Army commanders will employ strategic and operational military deception to
influence enemy strategic decisionmakers’ abilities to successfully oppose U.S. national interests and goals
or to influence enemy decisionmakers’ abilities to conduct operations. These deceptions are joint or
multinational efforts. In these cases, Army commanders usually opt to form a military deception cell to
plan, coordinate, integrate, assess, and terminate the deception.

11-14. On occasion, Army commanders will employ deception in support of OPSEC. This is a military
deception that protects friendly operations, personal, programs, equipment, and other assets against foreign
intelligence security services collection. The intent of deception in support of OPSEC is to create multiple
false indicators to confuse or make friendly intentions harder to interpret by foreign intelligence security
services and other enemy intelligence gathering apparatus. This deception limits the ability of foreign
intelligence security services to collect accurate intelligence on friendly forces. Deceptions in support of
OPSEC are general in nature, and are not specifically targeted against particular enemy decisionmakers.
Deceptions in support of OPSEC are instead used to protect friendly operations and forces by obscuring
friendly capabilities, intentions, or vulnerabilities. (See chapter 14 for information on risk management and
AR 530-1 for information and regulations on OPSEC.)

MILITARY DECEPTION TACTICS
11-15. The selection of military deception tactics and their use depends on an understanding of the current
situation as well as the desired military deception goal and objective. (See appendix A for a discussion of

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operational and mission variables.) As a rule, Army commanders should be familiar with planning and
conducting feints, ruses, demonstrations, and displays.

A feint, in military deception, is an offensive action involving contact with the adversary
conducted for the purpose of deceiving the adversary as to the location and/or time of the actual
main offensive action (JP 3-13.4).
A ruse, in military deception, is a trick of war designed to deceive the adversary, usually
involving the deliberate exposure of false information to the adversary’s intelligence collection
system (JP 3-13.4).
A demonstration, in military deception, is a show of force in an area where a decision is not
sought that is made to deceive an adversary. It is similar to a feint but no actual contact with the
adversary is intended (JP 3-13.4).
A display, in military deception, is a static portrayal of an activity, force, or equipment intended
to deceive the adversary’s visual observation (JP 3-13.4).

COMMON MILITARY DECEPTION MEANS
11-16. Army commanders should also be familiar with some of the more commonly available military
deception means that can be employed to support a given military deception. They cover the full scope of
units, forces, personnel, capabilities, and resources available to the commander for the conduct of decisive
action. In most cases, Army commanders have at their disposal the use of the following six
information-related capabilities and other activities to support a planned military deception:

Military information support operations.
OPSEC.
Camouflage, concealment and decoys.
Cyber electromagnetic activities.
Physical attack and destruction capabilities.
Presence, posture, and profile.

MILITARY INFORMATION SUPPORT OPERATIONS
11-17. Dedicated military information support operations (MISO) assets have the ability to discretely
convey intended information to the targeted decisionmaker via selected target audiences and appropriate
key communicators. MISO assets can add additional fidelity to ruses, demonstrations, and displays.

OPERATIONS SECURITY
11-18. Military deception and OPSEC are complementary. They both seek to control the information
available to the targeted decisionmaker. The intent is to protect indicators and deny information which
could reveal the true operation. OPSEC measures do not expose the military deception while promoting
and exposing those indicators and information supportive of the military deception. A deception in support
of OPSEC uses false information about friendly forces’ intentions, capabilities, or vulnerabilities to shape
the enemy’s perceptions. It targets the enemy’s intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities to
distract the enemy’s intelligence collection away from, or provide cover for, unit operations. A deception in
support of OPSEC is a relatively easy form of deception to use and is very appropriate for use at
battalion-level and below. To be successful, a balance must be achieved between OPSEC and military
deception requirements.

CAMOUFLAGE, CONCEALMENT, AND DECOYS
11-19. Camouflage, concealment, and decoy activities are normally individual or unit responsibilities and
governed by standard operating procedures (SOPs). They can also play a role in a larger military deception
or deception in support of OPSEC where camouflage, concealment, and decoys comprise just a few of
many elements that mislead the enemy’s intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. Merely
hiding forces may not be adequate, as the enemy may need to “see” these forces elsewhere. In such cases,

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 11-5

cover and concealment can hide the presence of friendly forces, but decoy placement should be coordinated
as part of the deception in support of OPSEC.

CYBER ELECTROMAGNETIC ACTIVITIES
11-20. Commanders exploit cyberspace and the electromagnetic spectrum for deception purposes. Cyber
electromagnetic activities can be used to show friendly intentions and to shape perceptions of friendly
actions. Cyber electromagnetic activities can add fidelity and believability to feints, ruses, demonstrations,
and displays.

PHYSICAL ATTACK AND DESTRUCTION CAPABILITIES
11-21. Nothing is perhaps more effective at shaping an enemy’ perceptions than the attack and destruction
of enemy assets, units, resources, and capabilities. When used to support a military deception, fires and
physical attacks (feints, demonstrations, and displays) can exploit perceptions and biases as to where the
enemy believes the friendly decisive operation will be committed.

SUSTAINMENT CAPABILITIES
11-22. Many times sustainment operations are much more visible than combat preparations, and become a
key indicator of when, where, and how combat operations will be conducted. When linked with fires and
physical attacks, sustainment operations used in support of military deception seek to confirm the targeted
decisionmaker’s perceptions and biases as to where friendly forces will commit decisive operations.

MILITARY DECEPTION IN THE OPERATIONS PROCESS
11-23. Military deception is considered in all activities of the operations process. Planning, preparing,
executing, and continually assessing military deception does not take place in isolation. It occurs
simultaneously with the operations process. If it does not, then the risk increases exponentially for the
military deception to be under resourced and not integrated into the larger operation as the military
deception evolves. It is unlikely that an under resourced and nonintegrated military deception will succeed.
Because military deception supports a range of missions, and to prevent one unit’s military deception from
compromising another unit’s operations, leaders coordinate military deceptions both laterally and
vertically. Deception operations are approved by the headquarters two operational echelons higher than the
originating command. Only two authorities can direct a military deception: a higher headquarters and the
originating unit commander.

PLANNING
11-24. Planning develops the information needed to prepare, execute, and assess a military deception. The
output of the military deception mission analysis is the running estimate, prepared by the military deception
officer. The running estimate identifies military deception opportunities, information and capability
requirements, and recommends feasible deception goals and objectives. The military deception officer
presents this estimate during the mission analysis briefing. The estimate considers current capabilities
based on enemy susceptibilities, preconceptions, and biases; available time; and available military
deception means. A key outcome of the running estimate is the determination of whether or not there is a
viable military deception opportunity. (See chapter 8 for more information on running estimates.) Military
deception may be a feasible option, if it is appropriate to the mission, and if there is a possibility of success.
Issues to consider when determining if military deception is a viable course of action include:

Availability of assets.
Understanding the military deception target.
Suitability.
Time.

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Availability of Assets
11-25. The commander determines if sufficient assets exist to support both the operation and the military
deception. There are few assets specifically designed and designated for military deception. This means the
commander must shift assets from the operation to support the military deception. Commanders must be
certain that shifting assets to support a military deception does not adversely affect the operation or prevent
mission success.

Understanding the Military Deception Target
11-26. The commander determines if sufficient information exists on how the military deception target
acquires information and makes decisions, what knowledge the target has of the situation, and how the
target views the friendly force. The commander also determines if sufficient information exists to reveal the
targeted decisionmaker’s biases, beliefs, and fears. If necessary, the staff can make assumptions about the
military deception target, but it must avoid mirror imaging its preconceptions onto the military deception’s
targeted decisionmaker.

Suitability
11-27. Some missions are better suited to military deception than others. When a unit has the initiative
and has some control over the area of operations, then military deception is more suitable.

Time
11-28. The commander determines if sufficient time exists to execute a military deception. Execution of
the military deception must provide sufficient time for the military deception target to observe the military
deception activities, form the desired perceptions, and act in a manner consistent with the deception
objective.

Military Deception Planning Steps
11-29. The basic steps of military deception planning come together during COA analysis, comparison,
and approval and are overseen by the military deception officer. (These are MDMP steps 2, 3, and 4. See
chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of the MDMP.) The G-5 (S-5)-developed COAs provide the basis for
military deception COAs. The military deception officer develops military deception COAs in conjunction
with the G-5 (S-5). Basing the military deception COAs on the operational COAs ensures deception COAs
are feasible, practical, and nested and effectively support the operational COAs.

11-30. The military deception officer and G-5(S-5) planners consider the military deception COAs as the
staff war-games the COAs. They analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each military deception COA
and compare it against the criteria established by the military deception officer for evaluating the military
deception COAs.

11-31. The military deception officer, working with the G-5 (S-5) planners, prepares the military
deception plan after the commander approves the military deception COA. Once the G-5 (S-5) planner
completes, coordinates, and reviews the military deception for consistency, it is presented to the
commander for tentative approval. To ensure synchronization of military deception at all levels, approval
authority for military deception resides two echelons above the originating command. After the approving
authority has approved the military deception plan, it becomes a part of the operation plan (OPLAN) or
operation order (OPORD). It is important that military deception plans are not widely distributed. In order
to ensure every opportunity to succeed and to protect the military deception from compromise, access to the
military deception operation is strictly limited to those with a need to know.

11-32. The military deception officer ensures that each military deception plan is properly constructed.
There are ten steps in military deception planning:

Step 1—Determine the military deception goal.
Step 2—Determine the deception objective.
Step 3—Identify the military deception target.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 11-7

Step 4—Identify required perceptions of the military deception target.
Step 5—Develop the military deception story.
Step 6—Identify the military deception means.
Step 7—Develop military deception events.
Step 8—Develop OPSEC and other protection

measures.

Step 9—Develop assessment criteria.
Step 10—Develop a termination plan.

Step 1—Determine the Military Deception Goal

11-33. The military deception goal is the desired contribution of the military deception to friendly mission
success. The military deception goal is often expressed in terms of the desired optimal situation under
which the commander wants to conduct the primary operation. The military deception goal is usually
recommended in the running estimate and confirmed by the commander’s planning guidance at the
conclusion of mission analysis. Alternatively, the commander can identify the military deception role and
leave it to the staff to identify desired military deception actions.

Step 2—Determine the Deception Objective

11-34. The military deception objective is the purpose of the military deception expressed in terms of
what the enemy is to do or not to do at the critical time and location. Like the military deception goal, the
military deception objective is also recommended in the running estimate and confirmed by the commander
in the commander’s planning guidance at the conclusion of mission analysis.

Step 3—Identify the Military Deception Target

11-35. The military deception target is the enemy decisionmaker or a select set of decisionmakers with the
authority to make the decision that will achieve the deception objective.

Step 4—Identify Required Perceptions of the Military Deception Target

11-36. The military deception target perceptions are what the military deception target must believe in
order to make the decision that will achieve the deception objective. This perception of friendly force
actions is based on the deception objective and exploits the military deception target’s information
processing cycle. This includes the supporting information and network enabled systems, decisionmaking
processes, beliefs, biases, and preconceptions regarding friendly forces and the situation. It is often more
effective to tell the military deception target what the target wants to believe than it is to convince the target
of something different.

Step 5—Develop the Military Deception Story

11-37. The military deception story is a plausible, but essentially false, view of the situation that leads the
military deception target to act in a manner that accomplishes the military deception objective. It weaves
military deception events together into a coherent whole that describes the situation that the commander
wants the military deception target to perceive. If the military deception target is to develop the desired
perceptions, the military deception story must be believable, verifiable, and consistent. The story must be
doctrinally correct for the situation. Ideally, the military deception target should form the exact mental
picture projected by the military deception story as the military deception unfolds. To develop the military
deception story, the military deception officer thinks about how the target sees the situation and then writes
the story from the target’s perspective. An example would be to write the story similar to the military
deception target’s own intelligence estimate. The military deception story is based upon what the military
deception target believes and understands already and the evidence or observables (friendly force actions,
units, and real or fake resources) that reinforce the military deception target’s beliefs and understanding.

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11-8 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

Step 6—Identify the Military Deception Means

11-38. The military deception means are the methods, resources, and techniques used to create required
observables (things the military deception target needs to see in order to deduce the desired perceptions)
and act out the military deception story. The nature of the desired perception, with the indicators needed to
convey the perception to the deception target, determines the deception means employed. Physical means
are observable physical activities of forces, systems, and individuals that present visual indicators.
Technical means could include cyber-based messaging and information sharing venues, smart phone and
mobile wireless communications, radio broadcasts, radar emissions, and electromagnetic deception.
Administrative means are used to convey oral, pictorial, documentary, or other material evidence to the
deception target. While there may be many means available, the means employed must be consistent.

Step 7—Develop Military Deception Events

11-39. The military deception events are the activities conducted through military deception means at a
specific time and location to convey the military deception story to the target. To convey the military
deception story, the events must be observed and sensed by the enemy. To determine this, the military
deception officer pairs up military deception means with the enemy’s intelligence collection system
capabilities. If the enemy intelligence system can “see” the military deception event, then it can collect the
information it needs to piece together the military deception story. The systematic, yet seemingly random,
projection of deception story elements by multiple means also makes the deception more believable. The
military deception officer must also take care to ensure that information reaching the enemy appears as
legitimately collected. Important military information that is too easy to obtain is usually suspect.

Step 8—Develop Operations Security and Other Protection Measures

11-40. OPSEC and other protection measures are employed with military deception in order to ensure that
only the desired military deception events reach the enemy and that actions in support of the supported
operations are concealed. False indicators are wrapped in significant amounts of factual information to
enhance their acceptance but not to compromise the supported operation. Without OPSEC, the deceptive
activities may not convince the enemy to believe the military deception story if the preparations for the
supported operation are also observable. Equally important is risk assessment. All military deception
involves risk and cost. Commanders base the decision to conduct a military deception on a deliberate
assessment that weighs costs against benefits. Risk can be mitigated by ensuring the success of the
supported operation does not hinge upon the success of the military deception, anticipating conditions that
could compromise the military deception, and developing responses in the event of unintended effects. (See
chapter 14 for information on risk management and a discussion on risk management and AR 530-1 for
information and regulations on operations security.)

Step 9—Develop Assessment Criteria

11-41. Commanders and staffs focus assessment efforts by developing criteria and feedback mechanisms
that they use to assess the progress of the military deception. In particular, early and frequent coordination
with the assistant chief of staff, intelligence (G-2 [S-2]) is important. The commander and staff monitor
feedback and compare it against the measures of effectiveness (MOEs) established for the operation.
Feedback comes in the form of information that reveals how the military deception target is responding to
the military deception story and if the plan is working. Assessment efforts focus on two types of military
deception feedback:

Target feedback—information, analytical determinations and evidence (MOEs) that the target is
receiving and acting on the military deception.
Conduit feedback—information and evidence (MOEs) that the conduits are receiving,
processing, and transmitting elements of the military deception.

Ideally, there will be indicators of whether the target is receiving the military deception story as planned,
and if the target is acting in accordance with the military deception objective. (See chapter 15 for more
information on assessment.)

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 11-9

Step 10—Develop a Termination Plan

11-42. Military deception does not just simply end. It must be guided by a commander-approved
termination plan that in essence represents a coherent, structured, and implementable exit strategy. This is
important because the commander terminates a military deception after it meets its objective. Like the
military deception story, the exit strategy must also be believable and consistent with friendly operational
profiles. Additionally, the enemy should not know what deception means, techniques, and events were
used. Otherwise, the next deception operation may not have the desired effect due to the enemy gaining
insights into friendly tactics, techniques, and procedures.

PREPARING
11-43. During preparation, commanders take every opportunity to refine the military deception plan based
on updated intelligence and friendly information. OPSEC activities also continue during preparation for the
military deception. OPSEC is a dynamic effort that anticipates and reacts to enemy collection efforts.

11-44. Military deception plans are not static and are continually adjusted. The military deception officer
normally moves with the military deception plan from the G-5 to the future operations integrating cell to
oversee the refinement of the plan and ensure it is fully integrated with the operation. As assumptions prove
true or false, enemy perceptions are confirmed, or the status of friendly units change, the military deception
officer adjusts the military deception for the commander, or recommends aborting it if the military
deception can no longer significantly influence the situation and achieve the military deception goal.

EXECUTING
11-45. Execution takes place in a dynamic environment and as part of the operation. The commander,
assisted by the military deception officer, continually assesses and refines the military deception as it
unfolds during execution. Consequently, the military deception officer must move from the future
operations integrating cell to the current operations integrating cell with the military deception plan in order
to direct the military deception operation and its termination.

11-46. Terminating a military deception is the final execution decision. When the decision to terminate is
made, the appropriate termination branch or sequel becomes the basis for execution of a deliberate series of
events designed to end the military deception while protecting its existence and the means and techniques
employed to execute it.

ASSESSING
11-47. Assessment is the continuous monitoring—throughout planning, preparation, and execution—and
evaluation of the current situation to measure the overall effectiveness of the operations (see ADRP 5-0 and
chapter 15). This involves receiving information about the implementation of the military deception and
evaluating it against established MOEs. It also includes continual reassessment of the military deception
objective, target, story, and events to ensure they are still important to the accomplishment of the mission
objectives. There are four types of assessments conducted during a military deception:

Monitoring and evaluating the military deception to ensure it continues to support the supported
operations.
Evaluating how the target is acting or not acting in response to the military deception story.
Monitoring for unintended consequences resulting from the military deception.
Determining when termination criteria are met.

11-48. Commanders continually assess military deception events. A military deception’s effectiveness is
directly related to the validity of the projected situation when the supported operation starts. Validating this
projection with updated information is essential to any assessment. Such assessment is necessary to
determine when to commence, modify, or terminate the military deception. (See chapter 15 for more
information on assessment.)

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-1

Chapter 12

Rehearsals
Rehearsing key actions before execution allows Soldiers to become familiar with the
operation and translate the abstract ideas of the written plan into concrete actions.
This chapter describes types of rehearsals. It then lists the responsibilities of those
involved. It also contains guidelines for conducting rehearsals.

REHEARSAL BASICS
12-1. Rehearsals allow leaders and their Soldiers to practice key aspects of the concept of operations.
These actions help Soldiers orient themselves to their environment and other units before executing the
operation. Rehearsals help Soldiers build a lasting mental picture of the sequence of key actions within the
operation.

12-2. Rehearsals are the commander’s tool to ensure staffs and subordinates understand the commander’s
intent and the concept of operations. They allow commanders and staffs to identify shortcomings in the
plan not previously recognized. Rehearsals also contribute to external and internal coordination, as the staff
identifies additional coordinating requirements.

12-3. Effective and efficient units habitually rehearse during training. Commanders at every level routinely
train and practice various rehearsal types. Local standard operating procedures (SOPs) identify appropriate
rehearsal types and standards for their execution. All leaders conduct periodic after action reviews to ensure
their units conduct rehearsals to standard and correct substandard performances. After action reviews also
enable leaders to incorporate lessons learned into existing plans and orders, or into subsequent rehearsals.

12-4. Adequate time is essential when conducting rehearsals. The time required varies with the complexity
of the mission, the type and technique of rehearsal, and the level of participation. Units conduct rehearsals
at the lowest possible level, using the most thorough technique possible, given the time available. Under
time-constrained conditions, leaders conduct abbreviated rehearsals, focusing on critical events determined
by reverse planning. Each unit will have different critical events based on the mission, unit readiness, and
the commander’s assessment.

12-5. The rehearsal is a coordination event, not an analysis. It does not replace war-gaming. Commanders
war-game during the military decisionmaking process (MDMP) to analyze different courses of action to
determine the optimal one. Rehearsals practice that selected course of action. Commanders avoid making
major changes to operation orders (OPORDs) during rehearsals. They make only those changes essential to
mission success and risk mitigation.

REHEARSAL TYPES
12-6. Each rehearsal type achieves a different result and has a specific place in the preparation timeline.
The four types of rehearsals are the—

Backbrief.
Combined arms rehearsal.
Support rehearsal.
Battle drill or SOP rehearsal.

BACKBRIEF
12-7. A backbrief is a briefing by subordinates to the commander to review how subordinates intend
to accomplish their mission. Normally, subordinates perform backbriefs throughout preparation. These

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briefs allow commanders to clarify the commander’s intent early in subordinate planning. Commanders use
the backbrief to identify any problems in the concept of operations.

12-8. The backbrief differs from the confirmation brief (a briefing subordinates give their higher
commander immediately following receipt of an order) in that subordinate leaders are given time to
complete their plan. Backbriefs require the fewest resources and are often the only option under
time-constrained conditions. Subordinate leaders explain their actions from the start to the finish of the
mission. Backbriefs are performed sequentially, with all leaders reviewing their tasks. When time is
available, backbriefs can be combined with other types of rehearsals. Doing this lets all subordinate leaders
coordinate their plans before performing more elaborate drills.

COMBINED ARMS REHEARSAL
12-9. A combined arms rehearsal is a rehearsal in which subordinate units synchronize their plans with
each other. A maneuver unit headquarters normally executes a combined arms rehearsal after subordinate
units issue their OPORD. This rehearsal type helps ensure that subordinate commanders’ plans achieve the
higher commander’s intent.

SUPPORT REHEARSAL
12-10. The support rehearsal helps synchronize each warfighting function with the overall operation. This
rehearsal supports the operation so units can accomplish their missions. Throughout preparation, units
conduct support rehearsals within the framework of a single or limited number of warfighting functions.
These rehearsals typically involve coordination and procedure drills for aviation, fires, engineer support, or
casualty evacuation. Support rehearsals and combined arms rehearsals complement preparations for the
operation. Units may conduct rehearsals separately and then combine them into full-dress rehearsals.
Although these rehearsals differ slightly by warfighting function, they achieve the same result.

BATTLE DRILL OR STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE REHEARSAL
12-11. A battle drill is a collective action rapidly executed without applying a deliberate decisionmaking
process. A battle drill or SOP rehearsal ensures that all participants understand a technique or a specific set
of procedures. Throughout preparation, units and staffs rehearse battle drills and SOPs. These rehearsals do
not need a completed order from higher headquarters. Leaders place priority on those drills or actions they
anticipate occurring during the operation. For example, a transportation platoon may rehearse a battle drill
on reacting to an ambush while waiting to begin movement.

12-12. All echelons use these rehearsal types; however, they are most common for platoons, squads, and
sections. They are conducted throughout preparation and are not limited to published battle drills. All
echelons can rehearse such actions as a command post shift change, an obstacle breach lane-marking SOP,
or a refuel-on-the-move site operation.

METHODS OF REHEARSAL
12-13. Methods for conducting rehearsals are limited only by the commander’s imagination and available
resources. Several methods are illustrated in figure 12-1. Resources required for each method range from
broad to narrow. As listed from left to right, each successive method takes more time and more resources.
Each rehearsal method also imparts a different level of understanding to participants.

12-14. Paragraphs 12-15 through 12-51 address these implications for each method:
Time—the amount of time required to conduct (plan, prepare, execute, and assess) the rehearsal.
Echelons involved—the number of echelons that can participate in the rehearsal.
Operations security (OPSEC) risks—the ease by which an enemy can exploit friendly actions
from the rehearsal.
Terrain—the amount of space needed for the rehearsal.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-3

Figure 12-1. Types of rehearsals

FULL-DRESS REHEARSAL
12-15. A full-dress rehearsal produces the most detailed understanding of the operation. It includes every
participating Soldier and system. Leaders conduct the rehearsal on terrain similar to the area of operations,
initially under good light conditions, and then in limited visibility. Leaders repeat small-unit actions until
units execute them to standard. A full-dress rehearsal helps Soldiers clearly understand what commanders
expect of them. It helps them gain confidence in their ability to accomplish the mission. Supporting
elements, such as aviation crews, meet and rehearse with Soldiers to synchronize the operation.

12-16. A unit may conduct full-dress rehearsals. The higher headquarters may conduct and support
full-dress rehearsals. The full-dress rehearsal is most difficult to accomplish at higher echelons. At those
levels, commanders may develop an alternate rehearsal plan that mirrors the actual plan but fits the terrain
available for the rehearsal.

12-17. Full-dress rehearsals consume more time than any other rehearsal type. For companies and smaller
units, full-dress rehearsals most effectively ensure all units in the operation understand their roles.
However, brigade and task force commanders consider how much time their subordinates need to plan and
prepare when deciding whether to conduct a full-dress rehearsal.

12-18. All echelons involved in the operation participate in the full-dress rehearsal.

12-19. Moving a large part of the force may create an OPSEC risk by attracting unwanted enemy
attention. Commanders develop a plan to protect the rehearsal from enemy information collection.
Sometimes they develop an alternate plan, including graphics and radio frequencies, that rehearses selected
actions without compromising the actual OPORD. Commanders take care not to confuse subordinates
when doing this.

12-20. Terrain management for a full-dress rehearsal is challenging. Units identify, secure, clear, and
maintain the rehearsal area throughout the rehearsal.

KEY LEADER REHEARSAL
12-21. Circumstances may prohibit a rehearsal with all members of the unit. A key leader rehearsal
involves only key leaders of the organization and its subordinate units. It normally takes fewer resources
than a full-dress rehearsal. Terrain requirements mirror those of a full-dress rehearsal, even though fewer

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Soldiers participate. The commander first decides the level of leader involvement. Then the selected leaders
rehearse the plan while traversing the actual or similar terrain. Often commanders use this technique to
rehearse fire control measures for an engagement area during defensive tasks. Commanders often use a key
leader rehearsal to prepare key leaders for a full-dress rehearsal. The key leader rehearsal may require
developing a rehearsal plan that mirrors the actual plan but fits the terrain of the rehearsal.

12-22. Often, small-scale replicas of terrain or buildings substitute for the actual area of operations.
Leaders not only explain their plans, but also walk through their actions or move replicas across the
rehearsal area or sand table. This is called a rock drill. It reinforces the backbrief given by subordinates,
since everyone can see the concept of operations and sequence of tasks.

12-23. A key leader rehearsal normally requires less time than a full-dress rehearsal. Commanders
consider how much time their subordinates need to plan and prepare when deciding whether to conduct a
reduced-force rehearsal.

12-24. A small unit from the echelons involved can perform a full-dress rehearsal as part of a larger
organization’s key leader rehearsal.

12-25. A key leader rehearsal is less likely to present OPSEC risks than a full-dress rehearsal because it
has fewer participants. However, it requires the same number of radio transmissions as for a full-dress
rehearsal.

12-26. Terrain management for the key leader rehearsal can be as difficult as for the full-dress rehearsal.
Units identify, secure, clear, and maintain the rehearsal area throughout the rehearsal.

TERRAIN-MODEL REHEARSAL
12-27. The terrain-model rehearsal is the most popular rehearsal method. It takes less time and fewer
resources than a full-dress or reduced-force rehearsal. An accurately constructed terrain model helps
subordinate leaders visualize the commander’s intent and concept of operations. When possible,
commanders place the terrain model where it overlooks the actual terrain of the area of operations. The
model’s orientation coincides with that of the terrain. The size of the terrain model can vary from small
(using markers to represent units) to large (on which the participants can walk). A large model helps
reinforce the participants’ perception of unit positions on the terrain.

12-28. Often, constructing the terrain model consumes the most time during this technique. Units require
a clear SOP that states how to build the model so it is accurate, large, and detailed enough to conduct the
rehearsal. A good SOP also establishes staff responsibility for building the terrain model and a timeline for
its completion.

12-29. Because a terrain model is geared to the echelon conducting the rehearsal, multi-echelon rehearsals
using this technique are difficult.

12-30. This rehearsal can present OPSEC risks if the area around the rehearsal site is not secured.
Assembled commanders and their vehicles can draw enemy attention. Units must sanitize the terrain model
after completing the rehearsal.

12-31. Terrain management is less difficult than with the previous rehearsal types. A good site is easy for
participants to find, yet it is concealed from the enemy. An optimal location overlooks the terrain where the
unit will execute the operation.

DIGITAL TERRAIN-MODEL REHEARSAL
12-32. Digital terrain models are virtual representations of the area of operations. Units drape
high-resolution imagery over elevation data thereby creating a fly-through or walk-through. Holographic
imagery produces the view in three dimensions. Often, the model hot links graphics, detailed information,
unmanned aircraft systems, and ground imagery to key points providing more insight into the plan. The
unit geospatial engineers or imagery analysts can assist in digital model creation. Detailed city models
already exist for many world cities.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-5

12-33. The time it takes to create the digital three-dimensional model depends on the amount of available
data on the terrain being modeled.

12-34. Of all the echelons involved, this type of rehearsal best suits small units, although with a good
local area network, a wider audience can view the graphics. All echelons may be provided copies of the
digital model to take back to their headquarters for a more detailed examination.

12-35. If not placed on a computer network, there is limited OPSEC risk because it does not use a large
physical site that requires securing and leaders can conduct the rehearsal under cover. However, if placed
on a computer network, digital terrain models can be subject to enemy exploitation due to inherent
vulnerabilities of networks.

12-36. This space requires the least terrain of all rehearsals. Using tents or enclosed areas conceals the
rehearsal from the enemy.

SKETCH-MAP REHEARSAL
12-37. Commanders can use the sketch-map technique almost anywhere, day or night. The procedures are
the same as for a terrain-model rehearsal except the commander uses a sketch map in place of a terrain
model. Large sketches ensure all participants can see as each participant walks through execution of the
operation. Participants move markers on the sketch to represent unit locations and maneuvers.

12-38. Sketch-map rehearsals take less time than terrain-model rehearsals and more time than map
rehearsals.

12-39. Units tailor a sketch map to the echelon conducting the rehearsal. Multi-echelon rehearsals using
this technique are difficult.

12-40. This rehearsal can present OPSEC risks, if the area around the rehearsal site is not secured.
Assembled commanders and their vehicles can draw enemy attention. Units must sanitize, secure, or
destroy the sketch map after use.

12-41. This technique requires less terrain than a terrain-model rehearsal. A good site ensures participants
can easily find it yet stay concealed from the enemy. An optimal location overlooks the terrain where the
unit will execute the operation.

MAP REHEARSAL
12-42. A map rehearsal is similar to a sketch-map rehearsal except the commander uses a map and
operation overlay of the same scale used to plan the operation.

12-43. The map rehearsal itself consumes the most time. A map rehearsal is normally the easiest
technique to set up since it requires only maps and graphics for current operations.

12-44. Units tailor a map rehearsal’s operation overlay to the echelon conducting the rehearsal.
Multi-echelon rehearsals using this technique are difficult.

12-45. This rehearsal can present OPSEC risks, if the area around the rehearsal site is not secured.
Assembled commanders and their vehicles can draw enemy attention.

12-46. This technique requires the least terrain of all rehearsals. A good site ensures participants can
easily find it yet stay concealed from the enemy. An optimal location overlooks the terrain where the unit
will execute the operation.

NETWORK REHEARSAL
12-47. Units conduct network rehearsals over wide-area networks or local area networks. Commanders
and staffs practice these rehearsals by talking through critical portions of the operation over
communications networks in a sequence the commander establishes. The organization rehearses only the
critical parts of the operation. These rehearsals require all information systems needed to execute that
portion of the operation. All participants require working information systems, the OPORD, and graphics.
Command posts can rehearse battle tracking during network rehearsals.

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12-48. This technique can be time efficient, if units provide clear SOPs. However, if the organization has
unclear SOPs, has units not operating on the network, or has units without working communications, this
technique can be time-consuming.

12-49. This technique lends itself to multi-echelon rehearsals. Participation is limited only by the
commander’s intent and the capabilities of the command’s information systems.

12-50. If a unit executes a network rehearsal from current unit locations, the OPSEC risk may increase.
The enemy may monitor the increased volume of transmissions and potentially compromise information.
To avoid such compromise, organizations use different frequencies from those planned for the operation.
Using wire systems is an option, but this does not exercise the network systems, which is the strong point
of this technique.

12-51. If a network rehearsal is executed from unit locations, terrain considerations are minimal. If a
separate rehearsal area is required, considerations are similar to those of a reduced-force rehearsal.

REHEARSAL RESPONSIBILITIES
12-52. This discussion addresses responsibilities for conducting rehearsals based on the combined arms
rehearsal. Responsibilities are similar for other types of rehearsals.

REHEARSAL PLANNING
12-53. Commanders and chiefs of staff (executive officers at lower echelons) plan rehearsals.

Commander
12-54. Commanders provide certain information as part of the commander’s guidance during the initial
mission analysis. They may revise the following information when they select a course of action:

Rehearsal type.
Rehearsal technique.
Location.
Attendees.
Enemy course of action to be portrayed.

Chief of Staff (Executive Officer)
12-55. The chief of staff (executive officer) (COS [XO]) ensures all rehearsals are included in the
organization’s time-management SOP. The COS (XO) responsibilities include—

Publishing the rehearsal time and location in the OPORD or warning order (WARNORD).
Conducting staff rehearsals.
Determining rehearsal products, based on type, technique, and mission variables.
Coordinating liaison officer attendance from adjacent units.

REHEARSAL PREPARATION
12-56. Everyone involved in executing or supporting the rehearsal has responsibilities during preparation.

Commander
12-57. Commanders prepare to rehearse operations with events phased in proper order, from start to
finish. Under time-constrained conditions, this often proves difficult. Commanders—

Identify and prioritize key events to rehearse.
Allocate time for each event.
Perform personal preparation, including reviews of—

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-7

Task organization completeness.
Personnel and materiel readiness.
Organizational level of preparation.

Chief of Staff (Executive Officer)
12-58. The COS (XO) through war-gaming and coordination with the commander—

Prepares to serve as the rehearsal director.
Coordinates time for key events requiring rehearsal.
Establishes rehearsal time limits per the commander’s guidance and mission variables.
Verifies rehearsal site preparation. A separate rehearsal site may be required for some events,
such as a possible obstacle site. A good rehearsal site includes—

Appropriate markings and associated training aids.
Parking areas.
Local security.

Determines the method for controlling the rehearsal and ensuring its logical flow, such as a
script.

Subordinate Leaders
12-59. Subordinate leaders complete their planning. This planning includes—

Completing unit OPORDs.
Identifying issues derived from the higher headquarters’ OPORD.
Providing a copy of their unit OPORD with graphics to the higher headquarters.
Performing personal preparation similar to that of the commander.
Ensuring they and their subordinates bring all necessary equipment.

Conducting Headquarters Staff
12-60. Conducting headquarters staff members—

Develop an OPORD with necessary overlays.
Deconflict all subordinate unit graphics. Composite overlays are the first step for leaders to
visualize the organization’s overall plan.
Publish composite overlays at the rehearsal, including, at a minimum—

Movement and maneuver.
Intelligence.
Fires.
Sustainment.
Signal operations.
Protection.

REHEARSAL EXECUTION
12-61. During the rehearsal execution, the commander, COS (XO), assistants, subordinate leaders,
recorder, and staff from the conducting headquarters have specific responsibilities.

Commander
12-62. Commanders command the rehearsal just as they will command the operation. They maintain the
focus and level of intensity, allowing no potential for subordinate confusion. Although the staff refines the
OPORD, it belongs to the commander. The commander uses the order to conduct operations. An effective
rehearsal is not a commander’s brief to subordinates. It validates synchronization—the what, when, and

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where—of tasks that subordinate units will perform to execute the operation and achieve the commander’s
intent.

Chief of Staff (Executive Officer)
12-63. Normally, the COS (XO) serves as the rehearsal director. This officer ensures each unit will
accomplish its tasks at the right time and cues the commander to upcoming decisions. The chief of staff’s
(executive officer’s) script is the execution matrix and the decision support template. The COS (XO) as the
rehearsal director—

Starts the rehearsal on time.
Has a formal roll call.
Ensures everyone brings the necessary equipment, including organizational graphics and
previously issued orders.
Validates the task organization. Linkups must be complete or on schedule, and required materiel
and personnel must be on hand. The importance of this simple check cannot be overemphasized.
Ensures synchronization of the operational framework being used—deep-close-security,
decisive-shaping-sustaining, or main and supporting efforts. (See ADRP 3-0 for more
information on the three operational frameworks.)
Rehearses the synchronization of combat power from flank and higher organizations. These
organizations often exceed the communications range of the commander and assistant chief of
staff, operations (G-3 [S-3]) when they are away from the command post.
Synchronizes the timing and contribution of each warfighting function.
For each decisive point, defines conditions required to—

Commit the reserve or striking forces.
Move a unit.
Close or emplace an obstacle.
Fire at planned targets.
Move a medical unit, change a supply route, and alert specific observation posts.

Disciplines leader movements, enforces brevity, and ensures completeness.
Keeps within time constraints.
Ensures that the most important events receive the most attention.
Ensures that absentees and flank units receive changes to the OPORD and transmits changes to
them as soon as practical.
Communicates the key civil considerations of the operation.

Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3 (S-3)
12-64. The G-3 (S-3) assists the commander with the rehearsal. The G-3 (S-3)—

Portrays the friendly scheme of maneuver.
Ensures subordinate unit actions comply with the commander’s intent.
Normally provides the recorder.

Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2 (S-2)
12-65. The assistant chief of staff, intelligence (G-2 [S-2]) portrays the enemy forces and other variables
of the operational environment during rehearsals. The G-2 (S-2) bases actions on the enemy course of
action that the commander selected during the MDMP. The G-2 (S-2)—

Provides participants with current intelligence.
Portrays the best possible assessment of the enemy course of action.
Communicates the enemy’s presumed concept of operations, desired effects, and end state.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-9

Explains other factors of the operational environment that may hinder or complicate friendly
actions.
Communicates the key civil considerations of the operation.

Subordinate Leaders
12-66. Subordinate unit leaders, using an established format, effectively articulate their units’ actions and
responsibilities as well as record changes on their copies of the graphics or OPORD.

Recorder
12-67. The recorder is normally a representative from the G-3 (S-3). During the rehearsal, the recorder
captures all coordination made during execution and notes unresolved problems. At the end of the
rehearsal, the recorder—

Presents any unresolved problems to the commander for resolution.
Restates any changes, coordination, or clarifications directed by the commander.
Estimates when a written fragmentary order (FRAGORD) codifying the changes will follow.

Conducting Headquarters Staff
12-68. The staff updates the OPORD, decision support template, and execution matrix based on the
decisions of the commander.

REHEARSAL ASSESSMENT
12-69. The commander establishes the standard for a successful rehearsal. A properly executed rehearsal
validates each leader’s role and how each unit contributes to the overall operation—what each unit does,
when each unit does it relative to times and events, and where each unit does it to achieve desired effects.
An effective rehearsal ensures commanders have a common vision of the enemy, their own forces, the
terrain, and the relationships among them. It identifies specific actions requiring immediate staff resolution
and informs the higher commander of critical issues or locations that the commander, COS (XO), or
G-3 (S-3) must personally oversee.

12-70. The commander (or rehearsal director in the commander’s absence) assesses and critiques all parts
of the rehearsal. Critiques center on how well the operation achieves the commander’s intent and on the
coordination necessary to accomplish that end. Usually, commanders leave the internal execution of tasks
within the rehearsal to the subordinate unit commander’s judgment and discretion.

REHEARSAL DETAILS
12-71. All participants have responsibilities before, during, and after a rehearsal. Before a rehearsal, the
rehearsal director states the commander’s expectations and orients the other participants on details of the
rehearsal, as necessary. During a rehearsal, all participants rehearse their roles in the operation. They make
sure they understand how their actions support the overall operation and note any additional coordination
required. After a rehearsal, participants ensure they understand any changes to the OPORD and
coordination requirements, and they receive all updated staff products.

12-72. Commanders do not normally address small problems that arise during rehearsals. Instead, the
G-3 (S-3) recorder keeps a record of these problems. This ensures the commander does not interrupt the
rehearsal’s flow. If the problem remains at the end of the rehearsal, the commander resolves it then. If the
problem jeopardizes mission accomplishment, the staff accomplishes the coordination necessary to resolve
it before the participants disperse. Identifying and solving such problems is a major reason for conducting
rehearsals. If commanders do not make corrections while participants are assembled, they may lose the
opportunity to do so. Coordinating among dispersed participants and disseminating changes to them often
proves more difficult than accomplishing these actions in person.

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BEFORE THE REHEARSAL
12-73. Before the rehearsal, the rehearsal director calls the roll and briefs participants on information
needed for execution. The briefing begins with an introduction, overview, and orientation. It includes a
discussion of the rehearsal script and ground rules. The detail of this discussion is based on participants’
familiarity with the rehearsal SOP.

12-74. Before the rehearsal, the staff develops an OPORD with at least the basic five paragraphs and
necessary overlays. The staff may not publish annexes; however, responsible staff officers should know
their content.

Introduction

and Overview
12-75. Before the rehearsal, the rehearsal director introduces all participants as needed. Then, the
rehearsal director (normally the COS [XO]) gives an overview of the briefing topics, rehearsal subjects and
sequence, and timeline, specifying the no-later-than ending time. The rehearsal director explains after
action reviews, describes how and when they occur, and discusses how to incorporate changes into the
OPORD. The director explains any constraints, such as pyrotechnics use, light discipline, weapons firing,
or radio silence. For safety, the rehearsal director ensures all participants understand safety precautions and
enforces their use. Last, the director emphasizes results and states the commander’s standard for a
successful rehearsal. Subordinate leaders state any results of planning or preparation (including rehearsals)
they have already conducted. If a subordinate recommends a change to the OPORD, the rehearsal director
acts on the recommendation before the rehearsal begins, if possible. If not, the commander resolves the
recommendation with a decision before the rehearsal ends.

Orientation
12-76. The rehearsal director orients the participants to the terrain or rehearsal medium. The rehearsal
director identifies orientation using magnetic north on the rehearsal medium and symbols representing
actual terrain features. After explaining any graphic control measures, obstacles, and targets, the rehearsal
director issues supplemental materials, if needed.

Rehearsal Script
12-77. An effective means for the rehearsal director to control rehearsals is the use of a script. It keeps the
rehearsal on track. The script provides a checklist so the organization addresses all warfighting functions
and outstanding issues. It has two major parts: the agenda and response sequence.

Agenda

12-78. An effective rehearsal follows a prescribed agenda that everyone knows and understands. This
agenda includes, but is not limited to—

Roll call.
Participant orientation to the terrain.
Location of local civilians.
Enemy situation brief.
Friendly situation brief.
Description of expected enemy actions.
Discussion of friendly unit actions.
A review of notes made by the recorder.

12-79. The execution matrix, decision support template, and OPORD outline the rehearsal agenda. These
tools, especially the execution matrix, both drive and focus the rehearsal. The commander and staff use
them to control the operation’s execution. Any templates, matrixes, or tools developed within each of the
warfighting functions should tie directly to the supported unit’s execution matrix and decision support
template. Examples include an intelligence synchronization matrix or fires execution matrix.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-11

12-80. An effective rehearsal realistically and quickly portrays the enemy force and other variables of the
operational environment without distracting from the rehearsal. One technique for doing this has the
G-2 (S-2) preparing an actions checklist. It lists a sequence of events much like the one for friendly units
but from the enemy or civilian perspective.

Response Sequence

12-81. Participants respond in a logical sequence: either by warfighting function or by unit as the
organization deploys, from front to rear. The commander determines the sequence before the rehearsal. The
staff posts the sequence at the rehearsal site, and the rehearsal director may restate it.

12-82. Effective rehearsals allow participants to visualize and synchronize the concept of operations. As
the rehearsal proceeds, participants talk through the concept of operations. They focus on key events and
the synchronization required to achieve the desired effects. The commander leads the rehearsal and gives
orders during the operation. Subordinate commanders enter and leave the discussion at the time they expect
to begin and end their tasks or activities during the operation. This practice helps the commander assess the
adequacy of synchronization. Commanders do not “re-war-game” unless absolutely necessary to ensure
subordinate unit commanders understand the plan.

12-83. The rehearsal director emphasizes integrating fires, events that trigger different branch actions, and
actions on contact. The chief of fires (fire support officer) or firing unit commander states when to initiate
fires, who to fire them, from where the firing comes, the ammunition available, and the desired target
effect. Subordinate commanders state when they initiate fires per their fire support plans. The rehearsal
director speaks for any absent staff section and ensures the rehearsal addresses all actions on the
synchronization matrix and decision support template at the proper time or event.

12-84. The rehearsal director ensures that the rehearsal includes key sustainment and protection actions at
the appropriate times. Failure to do so reduces the value of the rehearsal as a coordination tool. The staff
officer with coordinating staff responsibility inserts these items into the rehearsal. Special staff officers
should brief by exception when a friendly or enemy event occurs within their area of expertise.
Summarizing these actions at the end of the rehearsal can reinforce coordination requirements identified
during the rehearsal. The staff updates the decision support template and gives a copy to each participant.
Under time-constrained conditions, the conducting headquarters staff may provide copies before the
rehearsal and rely on participants to update them with pen-and-ink changes. (See table 12-1.)

Table 12-1. Example sustainment and protection actions for rehearsals

Casualty evacuation routes.
Ambulance exchange point

locations.
Refuel-on-the-move points.
Class IV and Class V resupply

points.
Logistics release points.

Support area displacement times and locations.
Detainee collection points.
Aviation support.
Military police actions.

Ground Rules
12-85. After discussing the rehearsal script, the rehearsal director—

States the standard (what the commander will accept) for a successful rehearsal.
Ensures everyone understands the parts of the OPORD to rehearse. If the unit will not rehearse
the entire operation, the rehearsal director states the events to be rehearsed.
Quickly reviews the rehearsal SOP if all participants are not familiar with it. An effective
rehearsal SOP states—

Who controls the rehearsal.
Who approves the rehearsal venue and its construction.

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When special staff officers brief the commander.
The relationship between how the execution matrix portrays events and how units rehearse

events.
Establishes the timeline that designates the rehearsal starting time in relation to H-hour. For
example, begin the rehearsal by depicting the anticipated situation one hour before H-hour. One
event executed before rehearsing the first event is deployment of forces.
Establishes the time interval to begin and track the rehearsal. For example, the rehearsal director
may specify that a ten-minute interval equates to one hour of actual time.
Updates friendly and enemy activities as necessary. For example, the rehearsal director describes
any ongoing reconnaissance.

The rehearsal director concludes the orientation with a call for questions.

DURING THE REHEARSAL
12-86. Once the rehearsal director finishes discussing the ground rules and answering questions, the
G-3 (S-3) reads the mission statement, the commander reads the commander’s intent, and the G-3 (S-3)
establishes the current friendly situation. The rehearsal then begins, following the rehearsal script.

12-87. Paragraphs 12-88 through 12-101 outline a generic set of rehearsal steps developed for combined
arms rehearsals. However, with a few modifications, these steps support any rehearsal technique. The
products depend on the rehearsal type.

Step 1–Enemy Forces Deployed
12-88. The G-2 (S-2) briefs the current enemy situation and operational environment and places markers
on the map or terrain board (as applicable) indicating where enemy forces and other operationally
significant groups or activities would be before the first rehearsal event. The G-2 (S-2) then briefs the most
likely enemy course of action and operational context. The G-2 (S-2) also briefs the status of information
collection operations (for example, citing any patrols still out or any observation post positions).

Step 2–Friendly Forces Deployed
12-89. The G-3 (S-3) briefs friendly maneuver unit dispositions, including security forces, as they are
arrayed at the start of the operation. Subordinate commanders and other staff officers brief their unit
positions at the starting time and any particular points of emphasis. For example, the chemical, biological,
radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) officer states the mission-oriented protective posture level, and the chief
of fires (fire support officer) or fires unit commander states the range of friendly and enemy artillery. Other
participants place markers for friendly forces, including adjacent units, at the positions they will occupy at
the start of the operation. As participants place markers, they state their task and purpose, task organization,
and strength.

12-90. Sustainment and protection units brief positions, plans, and actions at the starting time and at
points of emphasis the rehearsal director designates. Subordinate units may include forward arming and
refueling points, refuel-on-the-move points, communications checkpoints, security points, or operations
security procedures that differ for any period during the operation. The rehearsal director restates the
commander’s intent, if necessary.

Step 3–Initiate Action
12-91. The rehearsal director states the first event on the execution matrix. Normally this involves the
G-2 (S-2) moving enemy markers according to the most likely course of action. The depiction must tie
enemy actions to specific terrain or to friendly unit actions. The G-2 (S-2) portrays enemy actions based on
the situational template developed for staff war-gaming.

12-92. As the rehearsal proceeds, the G-2 (S-2) portrays the enemy and other operational factors and
walks through the most likely enemy course of action (per the situational template). The G-2 (S-2) stresses
reconnaissance routes, objectives, security force composition and locations, initial contact, initial fires

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 12-13

(artillery, air, and attack helicopters), probable main force objectives or engagement areas, and likely
commitment of reserve forces.

Step 4–Decision Point
12-93. When the rehearsal director determines that a particular enemy movement or reaction is complete,
the commander assesses the situation to determine if a decision point has been reached. Decision points are
taken directly from the decision support template.

12-94. If the commander determines the unit is not at a decision point and not at the end state, the
commander directs the rehearsal director to continue to the next event on the execution matrix. Participants
use the response sequence (see paragraphs 12-81 through 12-84) and continue to act out and describe their
units’ actions.

12-95. When the rehearsal reaches conditions that establish a decision point, the commander decides
whether to continue with the current course of action or select a branching course of action. If electing the
current course of action, the commander directs the rehearsal director to move to the next event in the
execution matrix. If selecting a branch, the commander states the reason for selecting that branch, states the
first event of that branch, and continues the rehearsal until the organization has rehearsed all events of that
branch. As the unit reaches decisive points, the rehearsal director states the conditions required for success.

12-96. When it becomes obvious that the operation requires additional coordination to ensure success,
participants immediately begin coordinating. This is one of the key reasons for rehearsals. The rehearsal
director ensures that the recorder captures the coordination and any changes and all participants understand
the coordination.

Step 5–End State Reached
12-97. Achieving the desired end state completes that phase of the rehearsal. In an attack, this will usually
be when the unit is on the objective and has finished consolidation and casualty evacuation. In the defense,
this will usually be after the decisive action (such as committing the reserve or striking force), the final
destruction or withdrawal of the enemy, and casualty evacuation is complete. In stability tasks, this usually
occurs when a unit achieves the targeted progress within a designated line of effort.

Step 6–Reset
12-98. At this point, the commander states the next branch to rehearse. The rehearsal director resets the
situation to the decision point where that branch begins and states the criteria for a decision to execute that
branch. Participants assume those criteria have been met and then refight the operation along that branch
until they attain the desired end state. They complete any coordination needed to ensure all participants
understand and can meet any requirements. The recorder records any changes to the branch.

12-99. The commander then states the next branch to rehearse. The rehearsal director again resets the
situation to the decision point where that branch begins, and participants repeat the process. This continues
until the rehearsal has addressed all decision points and branches that the commander wants to rehearse.

12-100. If the standard is not met and time permits, the commander directs participants to repeat the
rehearsal. The rehearsal continues until participants are prepared or until the time available expires.
(Commanders may allocate more time for a rehearsal but must assess the effects on subordinate
commanders’ preparation time.) Successive rehearsals, if conducted, should be more complex and realistic.

12-101. At the end of the rehearsal, the recorder restates any changes, coordination, or clarifications that
the commander directed and estimates how long it will take to codify changes in a written FRAGORD.

AFTER THE REHEARSAL
12-102. After the rehearsal, the commander leads an after action review. The commander reviews lessons
learned and makes the minimum required modifications to the existing plan. (Normally, a FRAGORD
effects these changes.) Changes should be refinements to the OPORD; they should not be radical or
significant. Changes not critical to the operation’s execution may confuse subordinates and hinder the

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synchronization of the plan. The commander issues any last minute instructions or reminders and reiterates
the commander’s intent.

12-103. Based on the commander’s instructions, the staff makes any necessary changes to the OPORD,
decision support template, and execution matrix based on the rehearsal results. Subordinate commanders
incorporate these changes into their units’ OPORDs. The COS (XO) ensures the changes are briefed to all
leaders or liaison officers who did not participate in the rehearsal.

12-104. A rehearsal provides the final opportunity for subordinates to identify and fix unresolved
problems. The staff ensures that all participants understand any changes to the OPORD and that the
recorder captures all coordination done at the rehearsal. All changes to the published OPORD are, in effect,
verbal FRAGORDs. As soon as possible, the staff publishes these verbal FRAGORDs as a written
FRAGORD that changes the operation order.

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 13-1

Chapter 13

Liaison
This chapter discusses responsibilities of liaison officers and teams. It addresses
requirements distinct to Army operations and unified action. It includes liaison
checklists and an example outline for a liaison officer handbook.

ROLE OF LIAISON
13-1. Liaison is that contact or intercommunication maintained between elements of military forces or
other agencies to ensure mutual understanding and unity of purpose and action (JP 3-08). Most commonly
used for establishing and maintaining close communications, liaison continuously enables direct, physical
communications between commands and with unified action partners. Commanders use liaison during
operations and normal daily activities to help facilitate a shared understanding and purpose among
organizations, preserve freedom of action, and maintain flexibility. Liaison provides commanders with
relevant information and answers to operational questions, thus enhancing the commander’s situational
understanding.

13-2. Liaison activities augment the commander’s ability to synchronize and focus combat power. They
include establishing and maintaining physical contact and communications between elements of military
forces and nonmilitary agencies during unified action. Liaison activities ensure—

Cooperation and understanding among commanders and staffs of different headquarters.
Coordination on tactical matters to achieve unity of effort.
Synchronization of lethal and nonlethal effects.
Understanding of implied or inferred coordination measures to achieve synchronized results.

LIAISON OFFICER
13-3. A liaison officer (LNO) represents a commander or staff officer. LNOs transmit information directly,
bypassing headquarters and staff layers. A trained, competent, trusted, and informed LNO (either a
commissioned or a noncommissioned officer [NCO]) is the key to effective liaison. LNOs must have the
commander’s full confidence and experience for the mission. At higher echelons, the complexity of
operations often requires an increase in the rank required for LNOs. (See table 13-1.)

Table 13-1. Senior liaison officer rank by echelon

Senior liaison officer rank by echelon Recommended rank
Multinational or joint force commander1 Colonel
Corps Lieutenant Colonel
Division Major
Brigade, regiment, or group Captain
Battalion Lieutenant
1These include joint force commanders and functional component commanders and may also include major
interagency and international organizations.

13-4. The LNO’s parent unit or unit of assignment is the sending unit. The unit or activity that the LNO is
sent to is the receiving unit, which may be a host nation. An LNO normally remains at the receiving unit
until recalled. LNOs represent the commander and they—

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13-2 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

Understand how the commander thinks and interpret the commander’s messages.
Convey the commander’s intent, guidance, mission, and concept of operations.
Represent the commander’s position.

13-5. As a representative, the LNO has access to the commander consistent with the duties involved.
However, for routine matters, LNOs work for and receive direction from the chief of staff or executive
officer (COS [XO]). Using one officer to perform a liaison mission conserves manpower while
guaranteeing a consistent, accurate flow of information. However, continuous operations may require a
liaison team or liaison detachment.

13-6. The professional capabilities and personal characteristics of an effective LNO encourage confidence
and cooperation with the commander and staff of the receiving unit. In addition to the discussion in
paragraph 13-4, effective LNOs—

Know the sending unit’s mission; current and future operations; logistics status; organization;
disposition; capabilities; and tactics, techniques, and procedures.
Appreciate and understand the receiving unit’s tactics, techniques, and procedures; organization;
capabilities; mission; doctrine; staff procedures; and customs.
Are familiar with—

Requirements for and purpose of liaison.
The liaison system and its reports, documents, and records.
Liaison team training.

Observe the established channels of command and staff functions.
Are tactful.
Possess familiarity with local culture and language, and have advanced regional expertise if
possible.

LIAISON ELEMENTS
13-7. Commanders organize liaison elements based on the mission variables (mission, enemy, terrain and
weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations [METT-TC]) and echelon of
command. (See appendix A for more details.) Two command liaison teams are authorized in division,
corps, and theater army headquarters. Common ways to organize liaison elements include, but are not
limited to—

A single LNO.
A liaison team consisting of one or two LNOs, or an LNO and a liaison NCO in charge, clerical
personnel, and communications personnel along with their equipment.
Couriers (messengers) responsible for the secure physical transmission and delivery of
documents and other materials.
A digital liaison detachment comprised of several teams with expertise and equipment in
specialized areas, such as intelligence, operations, fire support, air defense, and sustainment.

DIGITAL LIAISON DETACHMENTS
13-8. Digital liaison detachments provide Army commanders units to conduct liaison with major
subordinate or parallel headquarters. Digital liaison detachments consist of staff officers with a broad range
of expertise who are capable of analyzing the situation, facilitating coordination between multinational
forces, and assisting in cross-boundary information flow and operational support. These 30-Soldier teams
are essential not only for routine liaison, but also for advising and assisting multinational partners in
conducting planning and operations at intermediate tactical levels. These detachments can operate as a
single entity for liaison with a major multinational headquarters, or provide two smaller teams for digital
connectivity and liaison with smaller multinational headquarters. Commanders can also tailor digital liaison
detachments to match a given mission. The basis of digital liaison detachments allocation is five per
committed theater Army, one per corps and division serving as a joint task force headquarters, or as
approved by the Department of the Army. The support requirement for a coalition during

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 13-3

counterinsurgency or foreign internal defense is one digital liaison detachment for each multinational
headquarters (division or above) and one for the host-nation Ministry of Defense.

LIAISON PRACTICES
13-9. When possible, liaison is reciprocal among higher, lower, supporting, supported, and adjacent
organizations. Each organization sends a liaison element to the other. It must be reciprocal when U.S.
forces are placed under control of a headquarters of a different nationality and vice versa, or when
brigade-sized and larger formations of different nationalities are adjacent. When not reciprocal, the
following practices apply to liaison where applicable:

Higher-echelon units establish liaison with lower echelons.
In contiguous operations units on the left establish liaison with units on their right.
In contiguous operations units of the same echelon establish liaison with those to their front.
In noncontiguous operations units establish liaison with units within closest proximity.
Supporting units establish liaison with units they support.
Units not in contact with the enemy establish liaison with units in contact with the enemy.
During a passage of lines, the passing unit establishes liaison with the stationary unit.
During a relief in place, the relieving unit establishes liaison with the unit being relieved.

If liaison is broken, both units act to reestablish it. However, the primary responsibility rests with the unit
originally responsible for establishing liaison.

LIAISON RESPONSIBILITIES
13-10. Both sending and receiving units have liaison responsibilities before, during, and after operations.

SENDING UNIT
13-11. The sending unit’s most important tasks include selecting and training the best qualified Soldiers
for liaison duties. Liaison personnel should have the characteristics and qualifications discussed in
paragraphs 13-3 through 13-6. (See figure 13-1 for an example outline for an LNO handbook. See figure
13-2 on page 13-4 for sample questions that LNOs should be able to answer. See figure 13-3 on page 13-5
for a sample LNO packing list.)

Sample Liaison Officer Handbook Outline

Table of contents.

Sending unit’s tasking order.

Purpose statement.

Introduction statement.

Definitions.

Scope statement.

Responsibilities and guidelines for conduct.

Actions to take before departing from the sending unit.

Actions to take on arriving at the receiving unit.

Actions to take during liaison operations at the receiving unit.

Actions to take before departing from the receiving unit.

Actions to take upon returning to the sending unit.

Figure 13-1. Example liaison officer handbook outline

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13-4 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

Sample questions. Liaison officers should be able to answer the following questions:
Does the sending unit have a copy of the receiving unit’s latest operation plan, operation order, and
fragmentary order?

Does the receiving unit’s plan support the plan of the higher headquarters? This includes
sustainment as well as the tactical concept. Are main supply routes and required supply rates known?

Can the controlled supply rate support the receiving unit’s plan?

What are the receiving unit’s commander’s critical information requirements?

At what time, phase, or event are they expected to change? Are there any items the commander’s
critical information requirements do not contain with which the sending unit can help?

Which sending commander decisions are critical to executing the receiving unit operation?

What are the “no-later-than” times for those decisions?

What assets does the unit need to acquire to accomplish its mission? How would the unit use them?

How do they support attaining the more senior commander’s intent? From where can the unit obtain
them? Higher headquarters? Other Services? Multinational partners?

How do units use aviation assets?

How can the liaison officers communicate with the sending unit? Are telephones, radios, facsimile
machines, computers, and other information systems available? Where are they located? Which
communications are secure?

What terrain did the unit designate as key? Decisive?

What weather conditions would have a major impact on the operation?

What effect would a chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear environment have on the
operation?

What effect would large numbers of refugees or enemy prisoners of war have on the receiving unit’s
operations?

What is the worst thing that could happen during execution of the current operation?

How would a unit handle a passage of lines by other units through the force?

What conditions would cause the unit to request operational control of a multinational force?

If the unit is placed under operational control of a larger multinational force, or given operational
control of a smaller such force, what special problems would it present?

If going to a multinational force headquarters, how do the tactical principles and command concepts
of that force differ from those of U.S. forces?

What host-nation support is available to the sending unit?

What are the required reports from higher and sending units’ standard operating procedures?

Figure 13-2. Examples of liaison officer questions

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 13-5

Example recommended packing list:
Credentials (including courier card, permissive jump orders, if qualified). Blank forms as required.

References

.

Excerpts of higher and sending headquarters’ operation orders and plans.

Sending unit standard operating procedures.

Sending unit’s command diagrams and recapitulation of major

systems.

The unit modified table of equipment, unit status report (if its classification allows), and mission briefings.
The assistant chief of staff, operations (G-3 [S-3]) and the force modernization officer are excellent
sources of these.

Computers and other information systems required for information and data exchange (for example,
command post of the future, SECRET Internet Protocol Router Network, and Nonsecure Internet Protocol
Router Network devices.)

Automated network control device.

Communications equipment.

Sending unit telephone book.

List of commanders and staff officers.

Telephone calling (credit) card.

Cell phone.

Movement table.

Administrative equipment (for example, pens, paper, scissors, tape, and hole punch).

Map and chart equipment (for example, pens, pins, protractor, straight edge, scale, distance counter,
acetate, and unit markers).

Tent and accessories (camouflage net, cots, and stove, as appropriate).

Foreign phrase book and dictionary.

Local currency as required.

Rations and water.

Weapons and ammunition.

Night-vision device.

Figure 13-3. Example recommended packing list
13-12. The sending unit describes the liaison team to the receiving unit providing number and types of
vehicles and personnel, equipment, call signs, and frequencies. The LNO or liaison team also requires—

Point-to-point transportation, as required.
Identification and appropriate credentials for the receiving unit.
Appropriate security clearance, courier orders, and information systems accredited for use on the
receiving unit’s network.
The standard operating procedures (SOPs) outlining the missions, functions, procedures, and
duties of the sending unit’s liaison section.
If the receiving unit is multinational, it may provide communications equipment and personnel.

13-13. The movement from the sending unit to the receiving unit requires careful planning and
coordination. (See figure 13-4 on page 13-6 for a list of tasks for liaison personnel to perform before
departing the sending unit.)

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Example liaison checklist before departure from sending unit:
Understand what the sending commander wants the receiving commander to know.

Receive a briefing from operations, intelligence, and other staff elements on current and future
operations.

Receive and understand the tasks from the sending unit staff.

Obtain the correct maps, traces, and overlays.

Arrange for transport, communications and cryptographic equipment, codes, signal instructions, and
the challenge and password—including their protection and security. Arrange for replacement of
these items, as necessary.

Complete route-reconnaissance and time-management plans so the liaison team arrives at the
designated location on time.

Ensure that liaison team and interpreters have security clearances and access appropriate for the
mission.

Verify that the receiving unit received the liaison team’s security clearances and will grant access to
the level of information the mission requires.

Verify courier orders.

Know how to destroy classified information in case of an emergency during transit or at the receiving
unit.

Inform the sending unit of the liaison officer’s departure time, route, arrival time, and, when known,
the estimated time and route of return.

Pick up all correspondence designated for the receiving unit.

Conduct a radio check.

Know the impending moves of the sending and receiving units.

Bring accredited information systems needed to support liaison operations.

Pack adequate rations and water for use in transit.

Arrange for the liaison party’s departure.

Figure 13-4. Liaison checklist—before departing the sending unit

RECEIVING UNIT
13-14. The receiving unit—

Provides the sending unit with the LNO’s reporting time, place, point of contact, recognition
signal, and password.
Provides details of any tactical movement and logistics information relevant to the LNO’s
mission, especially while the LNO is in transit.
Ensures that the LNO has access to the commander, the COS (XO), and other officers, as
required.
Gives the LNO an initial briefing of the unit battle rhythm and allows the LNO access necessary
to remain informed of current operations.
Protects the LNO while at the receiving unit.
Publishes an SOP outlining the missions, functions, procedures to request information,
information release restrictions and clearance procedures, and duties of the LNO or team at the
receiving unit.
If possible, provides access to communications equipment (and operating instructions, as
needed) when the LNO needs to communicate using the receiving unit’s equipment.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 13-7

Provides adequate workspace for the LNO.
Provides administrative and logistic support, or agreed to host-nation support.

DURING THE TOUR
13-15. During the tour, LNOs have specific duties. LNOs inform the receiving unit’s commander or staff
of the sending unit’s needs or requirements. Due to the numbers of LNOs in the headquarters, sending units
guard against inundating the receiving unit with formal requests for information. By virtue of their location
in the headquarters and knowledge of the situation, LNOs can rapidly answer questions from the sending
unit and keep the receiving unit from wasting planning time answering requests for information. (See figure
13-5 on page 13-8 for a summary of LNO duties.) During the liaison tour, LNOs—

Arrive at the designated location on time.
Promote cooperation between the sending and receiving units.
Accomplish their mission without becoming overly involved in the receiving unit’s staff
procedures or actions; however, they may assist higher echelon staffs in war-gaming.
Follow the receiving unit’s communications procedures.
Actively obtain information without interfering with the receiving unit’s operations.
Facilitate understanding of the sending unit’s commander’s intent.
Help the sending unit’s commander assess current and future operations.
Remain informed of the sending unit’s current situation and provide that information to the
receiving unit’s commander and staff.
Quickly inform the sending unit of the receiving unit’s upcoming missions, tasks, and orders.
Ensure the sending unit has a copy of the receiving unit’s SOP.
Inform the receiving unit’s commander or COS (XO) of the content of reports transmitted to the
sending unit.
Keep a record of their reports, listing everyone met (including each person’s name, rank, duty
position, and telephone number) as well as key staff members and their telephone numbers.
Attempt to resolve issues within the receiving unit before involving the sending unit.
Notify the sending unit promptly if unable to accomplish the liaison mission.
Report their departure to the receiving unit’s commander at the end of their mission.

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Example liaison duties during the tour:
Arrive at least two hours before any scheduled briefings.

Check in with security and complete any required documentation.

Report to and present credentials to the chief of staff (executive officer) or supervisor, as appropriate.

Arrange for an office call with the commander.

Meet coordinating and special staff officers.

Notify the sending unit of arrival (use the liaison establishment report).

Visit staff elements, brief them on the sending unit’s situation, and collect information from them.

Deliver all correspondence designated for the receiving unit.

Annotate on all overlays the security classification, title, map scale, grid intersection points, and
effective date-time group, when received, and from whom received.

Pick up all correspondence for the sending unit when departing the receiving unit.

Inform the receiving unit of the liaison officer’s departure time, return route, and expected arrival time
at the sending unit.

Submit a liaison disestablishment report to the sending unit when departing.

Figure 13-5. Liaison duties—during the liaison tour
13-16. Once a deploying liaison team or detachment arrives and sets up communications at the receiving
unit, it submits a liaison establishment report to the sending unit. This report informs the sending unit’s
command that the detachment is ready to conduct liaison, and it establishes exactly what systems are
available. A re-deploying team or detachment submits a liaison disestablishment report to the sending unit
as its last action prior to disconnecting its digital devices. This report informs the command that the
element is leaving the network and is no longer capable of conducting liaison at any level beyond unsecure
voice. (See unit SOPs for the liaison establishment report and the liaison disestablishment report formats.)

AFTER THE TOUR
13-17. After returning to the sending unit, LNOs promptly transmit the receiving unit’s requests to the
sending unit’s commander or staff, as appropriate. (See figure 13-6 for a list of tasks to perform after
completing a liaison tour.)

Example liaison duties after the tour:
Deliver all correspondence.

Brief the chief of staff (executive officer) and appropriate staff elements.

Prepare the necessary reports.

Clearly state what they did and did not learn from the mission.

Figure 13-6. Liaison duties—after the liaison tour
13-18. Accuracy is important. Effective LNOs provide clear, concise, complete information. If the
accuracy of information is in doubt, they quote the source and include the source in the report. LNOs limit
their remarks to mission-related observations.

LIAISON CONSIDERATIONS
13-19. Joint, interagency, and multinational operations require greater liaison efforts than most other
operations.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 13-9

JOINT OPERATIONS
13-20. Current joint information systems do not meet all operational requirements. Few U.S. military
information systems are interoperable. Army liaison teams and detachments require information systems
that can rapidly exchange information between commands to ensure Army force operations are
synchronized with operations of the joint force and its Service components.

INTERAGENCY OPERATIONS
13-21. Army forces may participate in interagency operations across the range of military operations,
especially when conducting stability or defense support of civil authorities tasks. Frequently, Army forces
conduct operations in cooperation with or in support of civilian government agencies. Relations in these
operations are rarely based on standard military command and support relationships; rather, national laws
or specific agreements for each situation govern the specific relationships in interagency operations.
Defense support of civil authorities provides an excellent example. Federal military forces that respond to a
domestic disaster will support the Federal Emergency Management Agency, while National Guard forces
working in state active duty status (Title 32 United States Code) or conducting National Guard defense
support of civil authorities will support that state’s emergency management agency. National Guard forces
federalized under Title 10 United States Code will support the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
The goal is always unity of effort between military forces and civilian agencies, although unity of
command may not be possible. Effective liaison and continuous coordination become keys to mission
accomplishment. (See FM 3-28.)

13-22. Some missions require coordination with nongovernmental organizations. While no overarching
interagency doctrine delineates or dictates the relationships and procedures governing all agencies,
departments, and organizations in interagency operations, the National Response Framework provides
some guidance. Effective liaison elements work toward establishing mutual trust and confidence,
continuously coordinating actions to achieve cooperation and unity of effort. (See JP 3-08.) In these
situations, LNOs and their teams require a broader understanding of the interagency environment,
responsibilities, motivations, and limitations of nongovernmental organizations, and the relationships these
organizations have with the U.S. military.

MULTINATIONAL OPERATIONS
13-23. Army units often operate as part of a multinational force. Interoperability is an essential
requirement for multinational operations. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defines
interoperability as the ability to operate in synergy in the execution of assigned tasks. Interoperability is
also the condition achieved among communications-electronics systems or items of satisfactory
communication between them and their users. The degree of interoperability should be defined when
referring to specific cases. Examples of interoperability include the deployment of a computer network
(such as the Combined Enterprise Network Theater Information Exchange System) to facilitate inter-staff
communication. Nations whose forces are interoperable can operate together effectively in numerous ways.
Less interoperable forces have correspondingly fewer ways to work together. Although frequently
identified with technology, important areas of interoperability include doctrine, procedures,
communications, and training. Factors that enhance interoperability include planning for interoperability,
conducting multinational training exercises, staff visits to assess multinational capabilities, a command
atmosphere that rewards sharing information, and command emphasis on a constant effort to eliminate the
sources of confusion and misunderstanding.

13-24. The multinational forces with which the U.S. operates may not have information systems that are
compatible with U.S. or other systems. Some nations may lack computerized information systems.
Reciprocal liaison is especially important under these conditions. Mutual trust and confidence is the key to
making these multinational operations successful. Liaison during multinational operations includes explicit
coordination of doctrine as well as tactics, techniques, and procedures. Effective liaison requires patience
and tact during personal interactions. The liaison officer needs a thorough understanding of the strategic,
operational, and tactical aims of the international effort. Foreign disclosure limitations often require special
communications and liaison arrangements to address cultural differences and sensitivities as well as to

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13-10 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

ensure explicit understanding throughout the multinational force. Two structural enhancements that
improve the coordination of multinational forces are liaison networks and coordination centers.

13-25. A multinational coordination center or coalition coordination center is a means of increasing
multinational coordination. U.S. commanders routinely create such a center in the early stages of any
coalition effort, especially one that is operating under a parallel command structure. It is a proven means of
integrating the participating nations’ military forces into the coalition planning and operations processes,
enhancing coordination and cooperation, and supporting an open and full interaction within the coalition
structure. Normally, the multinational coordination center focuses upon coordination of coalition force
operations, which will most likely involve classified information. (See JP 3-16 for more information on
multinational operations.)

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 14-1

Chapter 14

Decisionmaking in Execution
This chapter describes the major activities of execution to include assessing,
decisionmaking, and directing action. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the
rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process.

ACTIVITIES OF EXECUTION
14-1. Planning and preparation accomplish nothing if the command does not execute effectively. Execution
is putting a plan into action by applying combat power to accomplish the mission (ADRP 5-0). In
execution, commanders, supported by their staffs, focus their efforts on translating decisions into actions.
Inherent in execution is deciding whether to execute planned actions, such as changing phases or executing
a branch plan. Execution also includes adjusting the plan based on changes in the situation and an
assessment of the operation’s progress. (See ADRP 5-0 for fundamentals of execution).

14-2. Throughout execution, commanders, supported by their staffs, assess the operation’s progress, make
decisions, and direct the application of combat power to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. Major
activities of execution include—

Assessment: Monitoring current operations and evaluating progress.
Decisionmaking: Making decisions to exploit opportunities or counter treats.
Directing action: Apply combat power at decisive points and times.

ASSESSMENT DURING EXECUTION
14-3. During execution, continuous assessment is essential. Assessment involves a deliberate comparison
of forecasted outcomes to actual events, using criteria to judge operational progress towards success. The
commander and staff assess the probable outcome of the operation to determine whether changes are
necessary to accomplish the mission, take advantage of opportunities, or react to unexpected threats.
Commanders also assess the probable outcome of current operations in terms of their impact on potential
future operations in order to develop concepts for these operations early. (See ADRP 5-0 for fundamentals
of assessment. See chapter 15 for details for building an assessment plan).

14-4. Assessment includes both monitoring the situation and evaluating progress. During monitoring,
commanders and staffs collect and use relevant information to develop a clear understanding of the
command’s current situation. Commanders and staffs also evaluate the operation’s progress in terms of
measures of performance (MOPs) and measures of effectiveness (MOEs). This evaluation helps
commanders assess progress and identify variances—the difference between the actual situation and what
the plan forecasted the situation would be at that time or event. Identifying variances and their significance
leads to determining if a decision is required during execution.

DECISIONMAKING DURING EXECUTION
14-5. When operations are progressing satisfactorily, variances are minor and within acceptable levels.
Commanders who make this evaluation—explicitly or implicitly—allow operations to continue according
to plan. This situation leads to execution decisions included in the plan. Execution decisions implement a
planned action under circumstances anticipated in the order. An execution decision is normally tied to a
decision point.

14-6. An assessment may determine that the operation as a whole, or one or more of its major actions, is
not progressing according to expectations. Variances of this magnitude present one of two situations:

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Significant, unforeseen opportunities to achieve the commander’s intent.
Significant threats to the operation’s success.

In either case, the commander makes an adjustment decision. An adjustment decision is the selection of a
course of action that modifies the order to respond to unanticipated opportunities or threats. An adjustment
decision may include a decision to reframe the problem and develop an entirely new plan.

14-7. Executing, adjusting, or abandoning the original operation is part of decisionmaking in execution. By
fighting the enemy and not the plan, successful commanders balance the tendency to abandon a
well-conceived plan too soon against persisting in a failing effort too long. Effective decisionmaking during
execution—

Relates all actions to the commander’s intent and concept of operations.
Is comprehensive, maintaining integration of combined arms rather than dealing with separate
functions.
Relies heavily on intuitive decisionmaking by commanders and staffs to make rapid adjustments.

DIRECTING ACTION
14-8. To implement execution or adjustment decisions, commanders direct actions that apply combat
power. Based on the commander’s decision and guidance, the staff resynchronizes the operation to mass
the maximum effects of combat power to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. This involves
synchronizing the operations in time, space, and purpose and issuing directives to subordinates. (See table
14-1 for a summary of a range of possible actions with respect to decisions made during execution.)

Table 14-1. Decision types and related actions

Decision types Actions

E
xe

cu
tio

n
de

ci
si

on
s

Minor variances from
the plan

Operation proceeding
according to plan. Variances
are within acceptable limits.

Execute planned actions
Commander or designee decides which planned actions

best meet the situation and directs their execution.
Staff issues fragmentary order.
Staff completes follow-up actions.

Anticipated situation
Operation encountering
variances within the limits for
one or more branches or
sequels anticipated in the plan.

Execute a branch or sequel
Commander or staff review branch or sequel plan.
Commander receives assessments and recommendations

for modifications to the plan, determines the time available
to refine it, and either issues guidance for further actions or
directs execution of a branch or sequel.

Staff issues fragmentary order.
Staff completes follow-up actions.

A
dj

us
tm

en
t d

ec
is

io
ns

Unanticipated situation—
friendly success

Significant, unanticipated
positive variances result in
opportunities to achieve the
end state in ways that differ
significantly from the plan.

Make an adjustment decision
Commander recognizes the opportunity or threat and

determines time available for decisionmaking.
Based on available planning time, commanders determine if

they want to reframe the problem and develop a new plan.
In these instances, the decision initiates planning.
Otherwise, the commander directs the staff to refine a single
course of action or directs actions by subordinates to exploit
the opportunity or counter the threat and exercise initiative
within the higher commander’s intent.

Commander normally does not attempt to restore the plan.
Commander issues a verbal warning or fragmentary order to

subordinate commanders.
Staff resynchronizes operation, modifies measures of

effectiveness, and begins assessing the operation for
progress using new measures of effectiveness.

Unanticipated situation—
enemy threat

Significant, unanticipated
negative variances impede
mission accomplishment.

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5 May 2014 FM 6-0 14-3

RAPID DECISIONMAKING AND SYNCHRONIZATION PROCESS
14-9. The rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process is a technique that commanders and staffs
commonly use during execution. While identified here with a specific name and method, the approach is
not new; its use in the Army is well established. Commanders and staffs develop this capability through
training and practice. When using this technique, the following considerations apply:

Rapid is often more important than process.
Much of it may be mental rather than written.
It should become a battle drill for the current operations integration cells, future operations cells,
or both.

14-10. While the military decisionmaking process (MDMP) seeks the optimal solution (see chapter 9), the
rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process seeks a timely and effective solution within the
commander’s intent, mission, and concept of operations. Using the rapid decisionmaking and
synchronization process lets leaders avoid the time-consuming requirements of developing decision criteria
and comparing courses of action (COAs). Operational and mission variables continually change during
execution. This often invalidates or weakens COAs and decision criteria before leaders can make a
decision. Under the rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process, leaders combine their experience
and intuition to quickly reach situational understanding. Based on this, they develop and refine workable
COAs.

14-11. The rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process facilitates continuously integrating and
synchronizing the warfighting functions to address ever-changing situations. It meets the following criteria
for making effective decisions during execution:

It is comprehensive, integrating all warfighting functions. It is not limited to any one warfighting
function.
It ensures all actions support the decisive operation by relating them to the commander’s intent
and concept of operations.
It allows rapid changes to the order or mission.
It is continuous, allowing commanders to react immediately to opportunities and threats.

14-12. The rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process is based on an existing order and the
commander’s priorities as expressed in the order. The most important of these control measures are the
commander’s intent, concept of operations, and commander’s critical information requirements (CCIRs).
The rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process includes five steps. The first two may be performed
in any order, including concurrently. The last three are performed interactively until commanders identify
an acceptable course of action. (See figure 14-1.)

Figure 14-1. Rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process

COMPARE THE CURRENT SITUATION TO THE ORDER
14-13. Commanders and staffs identify likely variances during planning and identify options that will be
present and actions that will be available when each variance occurs. During execution, commanders and
staffs monitor the situation to identify changes in conditions. Then they ask if these changes affect the
overall conduct of operations or their part in them and if the changes are significant. Finally, they identify

Chapter 14

14-4 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

if the changed conditions represent variances from the order—especially opportunities and risks. Staff
members use running estimates to look for indicators of variances that affect their areas of expertise. (See
table 14-2 for examples of indicators.)

14-14. Staff members are particularly alert for answers to CCIRs that support anticipated decisions. They
also watch for exceptional information—information that would have answered one of the CCIRs if the
requirement for it had been foreseen and stated as one of the CCIRs. Exceptional information usually
reveals a need for an adjustment decision.

14-15. When performing the rapid decisionmaking and synchronization process, the current operations
integration cell first compares the current situation to the one envisioned in the order. It may obtain
assistance from the assessment section or the red team section in this analysis. If the situation requires
greater analysis, the chief of staff or executive officer (COS [XO]) may task the future operations cell
(where authorized) or the plans cell to perform this analysis. At echelons with no future operations cell, the
plans cell or the current operations integration cell performs this function.

Table 14-2. Examples of change indicators

Types Indicators

G
en

er
al

Answer to a commander’s critical information
requirement.

Identification of an information requirement.
Change in mission.
Change in organization of unit.
Change in leadership of unit.
Signing or implementation of peace treaty or

other key political arrangement.

Change in capabilities of subordinate unit.
Change in role of host-nation military force.
Climate changes or natural disasters

impacting on the population, agriculture,
industry.

Upcoming local election.
Changes in key civilian leadership.

In
te
lli
ge

nc
e

Identification of enemy main effort.
Identification of enemy reserves or

counterattack.
Indications of unexpected enemy action or

preparation.
Increase in enemy solicitation of civilians for

intelligence operations.
Identification of an information requirement.
Insertion of manned surveillance teams.
Disruption of primary and secondary education

system.
Unexplained disappearance of key members of

intelligence community.

Enemy electronic attack use.
Indicators of illicit economic activity.
Identification of threats from within the

population.
Increased unemployment within the

population.
Interference with freedom of religious worship.
Identification of high-value targets.
Unmanned aircraft system launch.
Answer to a priority intelligence requirement.
Enemy rotary-wing or unmanned aircraft

system use.

M
ov
em
en
t a
nd

M
an
eu

ve
r

Success or failure in breaching or gap crossing
operations.

Capture of significant numbers of enemy
prisoners of war, enemy command posts,
supply points, or artillery units.

Establishment of road blocks along major
traffic routes.

Unexplained displacement of neighborhoods
within a given sector.

Success or failure of a subordinate unit task.
Modification of an airspace control measure.
Numbers of dislocated civilians sufficient to

affect friendly operations.
Damages to civilian infrastructure affecting

friendly mobility.
Loss of one or more critical transportation

systems.
Fi
re
s

Receipt of an air tasking order.
Battle damage assessment results.
Unplanned repositioning of firing units.
Identification of high-payoff targets.
Identification of an information requirement.

Execution of planned fires.
Modification of a fire support coordination

measure.
Effective enemy counter

fire.

Negative effects of fires on civilians.
Destruction of any place of worship by friendly

fire.

Decisionmaking in Execution

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 14-5

Table 14-2. Examples of change indicators (continued)

Types Indicators
P
ro
te
ct
io
n

Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear
report or other indicators of enemy
chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear
use.

Report or other indicators of enemy
improvised explosive device use.

Indicators of coordinated enemy actions
against civilians or friendly forces.

Increased criminal activity in a given sector.
Increase in organized protests or riots.

Identification of threats to communications
or computer systems.

Reports of enemy targeting critical
host-nation infrastructure.

Identification of threat to base or
sustainment facilities.

Escalation of force incidents.
Loss of border security.

S
us
ta
in
m
en
t

Significant loss of capability in any class of
supply.

Opening or closing of civilian businesses
within a given area.

Identification of significant incidences of
disease and nonbattle injury casualties.

Closing of major financial institutions.
Mass casualties.
Receipt of significant resupply.
Disruption of one or more essential civil

services (such as water or electricity).
Contact on a supply route.
Answer to a friendly force information

requirement.
Mass detainees.

Degradations to essential civilian
infrastructure by threat actions.

Civilian mass casualty event beyond
capability of host-nation resources.

Identification of significant shortage in any
class of supply.

Outbreak of epidemic or famine within the
civilian population.

Medical evacuation launch.
Dislocated civilian event beyond capability

of host-nation resources.
Disruption of key logistics lines of

communication.
Changes in availability of host-nation

support.
M
is
si
on
C
om
m
an
d

Impending changes in key military
leadership.

Interference with freedom of the press or
news media.

Receipt of a fragmentary order or warning
order from higher headquarters.

Effective adversary information efforts on
civilians.

Loss of civilian communications nodes.
Loss of contact with a command post or

commander.
Jamming or interference.

DETERMINE THE TYPE OF DECISION REQUIRED
14-16. When a variance is identified, the commander directs action while the chief of operations leads
chiefs of the current operations integration cell and selected functional cells in quickly comparing the
current situation to the expected situation. This assessment accomplishes the following:

Describes the variance.
Determines if the variance provides a significant opportunity or threat and examines the
potential of either.
Determines if a decision is needed by identifying if the variance:

Indicates an opportunity that can be exploited to accomplish the mission faster or with fewer
resources.

Directly threatens the decisive operation’s success.
Threatens a shaping operation such that it may threaten the decisive operation directly or in

the near future.
Can be addressed within the commander’s intent and concept of operations. (If so,

determine what execution decision is needed.)
Requires changing the concept of operations substantially. (If so, determine what adjustment

decision or new approach will best suit the circumstances.)

Chapter 14

14-6 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

14-17. For minor variances, the chief of operations works with other cell chiefs to determine whether
changes to control measures are needed. If so, they determine how those changes affect other warfighting
functions. They direct changes within their authority (execution decisions) and notify the COS (XO) and
the affected command post cells and staff elements.

14-18. Commanders intervene directly in cases that affect the overall direction of the unit. They describe
the situation, direct their subordinates to provide any additional information they need, and order either
implementation of planned responses or development of an order to redirect the force.

DEVELOP A COURSE OF ACTION
14-19. If the variance requires an adjustment decision, the designated integrating cell and affected
command post cell chiefs recommend implementation of a COA or obtain the commander’s guidance for
developing one. They use the following conditions to screen possible COAs:

Mission.
Commander’s intent.
Current dispositions and freedom of action.
CCIRs.
Limiting factors, such as supply constraints, boundaries, and combat strength.

14-20. The new options must conform to the commander’s intent. Possible COAs may alter the concept of
operations and CCIRs, if they remain within the commander’s intent. However, the commander approves
changes to the CCIRs. Functional cell chiefs and other staff leaders identify areas that may be affected
within their areas of expertise by proposed changes to the order or mission. Course of action considerations
include, but are not limited to, those shown in table 14-3.

14-21. The commander is as likely as anyone else to detect the need for change and to sketch out the
options. Whether the commander, COS (XO), or chief of operations does this, the future operations cell is
often directed to further develop the concept and draft the order. The chief of operations and the current
operations integration cell normally lead this effort, especially if the response is needed promptly or the
situation is not complex. The commander or COS (XO) is usually the decisionmaking authority, depending
on the commander’s delegation of authority.

14-22. Commanders may delegate authority for execution decisions to their deputies, COSs (XOs), or
their operations officers. They retain personal responsibility for all decisions and normally retain the
authority for approving adjustment decisions.

14-23. When reallocating resources or priorities, commanders assign only minimum essential assets to
shaping operations. They use all other assets to weight the decisive operation. This applies when allocating
resources for the overall operation or within a warfighting function.

14-24. Commanders normally direct the future operations cell or the current operations integration cell to
prepare a fragmentary order (FRAGORD) setting conditions for executing a new COA. When lacking time
to perform the MDMP, or quickness of action is desirable, commanders make an immediate adjustment
decision—using intuitive decisionmaking—in the form of a focused COA. Developing the focused COA
often follows mental war-gaming by commanders until they reach an acceptable COA. If time is available,
commanders may direct the plans cell to develop a new COA using the MDMP, and the considerations for
planning become operative. (See table 14-3.)

Decisionmaking in Execution

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 14-7

Table 14-3. Course of action considerations

Types Actions

In
te
lli
ge
nc
e

Modifying priority intelligence
requirements and other intelligence
requirements.

Updating named areas of interest
and target areas of interest.

Updating the intelligence estimate.

Updating the enemy situation template
and enemy course of action
statements.

Modifying the information collection
plan.

Confirming or denying threat course of
action.

M
ov
em
en

t
an

d
M

an
eu
ve
r

Assigning new objectives.
Assigning new tasks to subordinate

units.
Adjusting terrain management.
Employing obscurants.

Modifying airspace control measures.
Making unit boundary changes.
Emplacing obstacles.
Clearing obstacles.
Establishing and enforcing movement

priority.
Fi
re
s

Delivering fires against targets or
target sets.

Modifying the high-payoff target list
and the attack guidance matrix.

Modifying radar zones.
Modifying the priority of fires.
Modifying fire support coordination

measures.
P
ro
te
ct
io
n

Moving air defense weapons
systems.

Establishing decontamination sites.
Conducting chemical, biological,

radiological, and nuclear
reconnaissance.

Establish movement corridors on
critical lines of communications.

Changing air defense weapons control
status.

Enhancing survivability through
engineer support.

Revising and updating personnel
recovery coordination.

Reassigning or repositioning response
forces.

S
us
ta
in
m
en

t Prioritizing medical evacuation
assets.

Repositioning logistics assets.
Positioning and prioritizing detainee

and resettlement assets.

Repositioning and prioritizing general
engineering assets.

Modifying priorities.
Modifying distribution.

M
is
si
on

C
om

m
an

d Moving communications nodes.
Moving command posts.
Modifying information priorities for employing information as combat power.
Adjusting themes and messages to support the new decision.
Adjusting measures for minimizing civilian interference with operations.
Revising recommended protected targets.
Recommending modifications of stability tasks, including employment of civil affairs

operations and other units, to perform civil affairs operations tasks.

REFINE AND VALIDATE THE COURSE OF ACTION
14-25. Once commanders describe the new COA, the current operations integration cell conducts an
analysis to validate its feasibility, suitability, and acceptability. If acceptable, the COA is refined to
resynchronize the warfighting functions enough to generate and apply the needed combat power. Staffs
with a future operations cell may assign that cell responsibility for developing the details of the new COA
and drafting a fragmentary order to implement it. The commander or COS (XO) may direct an “on-call”
operations synchronization meeting to perform this task and ensure rapid resynchronization.

14-26. Validation and refinement are done quickly. Normally, the commander and staff officers conduct a
mental war game of the new COA. They consider potential enemy reactions, the unit’s counteractions, and

Chapter 14

14-8 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

secondary effects that might affect the force’s synchronization. Each staff member considers the following
items:

Is the new COA feasible in terms of my area of expertise?
How will this action affect my area of expertise?
Does it require changing my information requirements?

Should any of the information requirements be nominated as a CCIR?
What actions within my area of expertise does this change require?
Will this COA require changing objectives or targets nominated by staff members?

What other command post cells and elements does this action affect?
What are potential enemy reactions?
What are the possible friendly counteractions?

Does this counteraction affect my area of expertise?
Will it require changing my information requirements?
Are any of my information requirements potential CCIRs?
What actions within my area of expertise does this counteraction require?
Will it require changing objectives or targets nominated by staff members?
What other command post cells and elements does this counteraction affect?

14-27. The validation and refinement will show if the COA will solve the problem adequately. If it does
not, the COS or chief of operations modifies it through additional analysis or develops a new COA. The
COS (XO) informs the commander of any changes made to the COA.

IMPLEMENT
14-28. When a COA is acceptable, the COS (XO) recommends implementation to the commander or
implements it directly, if the commander has delegated that authority. Implementation normally requires a
FRAGORD; in exceptional circumstances, it may require a new operation order (OPORD). That order
changes the concept of operations (in adjustment decisions), resynchronizes the warfighting functions, and
disseminates changes to control measures. The staff uses warning orders (WARNORDs) to alert
subordinates to a pending change. The staff also establishes sufficient time for the unit to implement the
change without losing integration or being exposed to unnecessary tactical risk.

14-29. Commanders often issue orders to subordinates verbally in situations requiring quick reactions. At
battalion and higher echelons, written FRAGORDs confirm verbal orders to ensure synchronization,
integration, and notification of all parts of the force. If time permits, leaders verify that subordinates
understand critical tasks. Verification methods include the confirmation brief and backbrief. These are
conducted both between commanders and within staff elements to ensure mutual understanding.

14-30. After the analysis is complete, the current operations integration cell and command post cell chiefs
update decision support templates and synchronization matrixes. When time is available, the operations
officer or chief of operations continues this analysis to the operation’s end to complete combat power
integration. Staff members begin the synchronization needed to implement the decision. This
synchronization involves collaboration with other command post cells and subordinate staffs. Staff
members determine how actions in their areas of expertise affect others. They coordinate those actions to
eliminate undesired effects that might cause friction. The cells provide results of this synchronization to the
current operations integration cell and the common operational picture.

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 15-1

Chapter 15

Assessment Plans
This chapter provides information on assessment and its role in the operations
process. Next, it describes the assessment process and defines key assessment terms.
This chapter concludes by describing a methodology for developing formal
assessment plans. (See ADRP 5-0 for more information on the fundamentals of
assessment.)

ASSESSMENT AND THE OPERATIONS PROCESS
15-1. Assessment is the determination of the progress toward accomplishing a task, creating a condition, or
achieving an objective (JP 3-0). Assessment precedes and guides the other activities of the operations
process. Assessment involves deliberately comparing forecasted outcomes with actual events to determine
the overall effectiveness of force employment. More specifically, assessment helps the commander
determine progress toward attaining the desired end state, achieving objectives, and performing tasks. It
also involves continuously monitoring and evaluating the operational environment to determine what
changes might affect the conduct of operations.

15-2. Throughout the operations process, commanders integrate their own assessments with those of the
staff, subordinate commanders, and other unified action partners. Primary tools for assessing progress of an
operation include the operation order (OPORD), the common operational picture, personal observations,
running estimates, and the assessment plan.

15-3. Assessment occurs at all echelons. The situation and echelon dictate the focus and methods leaders
use to assess. Normally, commanders assess those specific operations or tasks that they were directed to
accomplish. This properly focuses collection and assessment at each echelon, reduces redundancy, and
enhances the efficiency of the overall assessment process.

15-4. For units with a staff, assessment becomes more formal at each higher echelon. Assessment
resources (including staff officer expertise and time available) proportionally increase from battalion to
brigade, division, corps, and theater army. The analytic resources and level of expertise of staffs available
at higher echelon headquarters include a dedicated core group of analysts. This group specializes in
operations research and systems analysis, formal assessment plans, and various assessment products.
Division, corps, and theater army headquarters, for example, have fully resourced plans, future operations,
and current operations integration cells. They have larger intelligence staffs and more staff officers trained
in operations research and systems analysis. Assessment at brigade echelon and lower is usually less
formal, often relying on direct observations and the judgment of commanders and their staffs.

15-5. Often, time available for detailed analysis and assessment is shorter at lower echelons. Additionally,
lower echelon staffs are progressively smaller and have less analytic capability at each lower echelon. As
such, assessment at these echelons focuses on the near term and relies more on direct observation and
judgments than on detailed assessment plans and methods.

15-6. For small units (those without a staff), assessment is mostly informal. Small-unit leaders focus on
assessing their unit’s readiness—personnel, equipment, supplies, and morale—and their unit’s ability to
perform assigned tasks. Leaders also determine whether the unit has completed assigned tasks. If those
tasks have not produced the desired results, leaders explore why they have not and consider what
improvements could be made for unit operations. As they assess and learn, small units change their tactics,
techniques, and procedures based on their experiences. In this way, even the lowest echelons in the Army
follow the assessment process.

Chapter 15

15-2 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS
15-7. Assessment is continuous; it precedes and guides every operations process activity and concludes
each operation or phase of an operation. Broadly, assessment consists of, but is not limited to, the following
activities—

Monitoring the current situation to collect relevant information.
Evaluating progress toward attaining end state conditions, achieving objectives, and performing
tasks.
Recommending or directing action for improvement.

MONITORING
15-8. Monitoring is continuous observation of those conditions relevant to the current operation
(ADRP 5-0). Monitoring within the assessment process allows staffs to collect relevant information,
specifically that information about the current situation that can be compared to the forecasted situation
described in the commander’s intent and concept of operations. Progress cannot be judged, nor effective
decisions made, without an accurate understanding of the current situation.

15-9. Staff elements record relevant information in running estimates. Staff elements maintain a
continuous assessment of current operations to determine if they are proceeding according to the
commander’s intent, mission, and concept of operations. In their running estimates, staff elements use this
new information and these updated facts and assumptions as the basis for evaluation.

EVALUATING
15-10. The staff analyzes relevant information collected through monitoring to evaluate the operation’s
progress toward attaining end state conditions, achieving objectives, and performing tasks. Evaluating is
using criteria to judge progress toward desired conditions and determining why the current degree of
progress exists (ADRP 5-0). Evaluation is at the heart of the assessment process where most of the analysis
occurs. Evaluation helps commanders determine what is working and what is not working, and it helps
them gain insights into how to better accomplish the mission.

15-11. Criteria in the forms of measures of effectiveness (MOEs) and measures of performance (MOPs)
aid in evaluating progress. MOEs help determine if a task is achieving its intended results. MOPs help
determine if a task is completed properly. MOEs and MOPs are simply criteria—they do not represent the
assessment itself. MOEs and MOPs require relevant information in the form of indicators for evaluation.

15-12. A measure of effectiveness is a criterion used to assess changes in system behavior, capability, or
operational environment that is tied to measuring the attainment of an end state, achievement of an
objective, or creation of an effect (JP 3-0). MOEs help measure changes in conditions, both positive and
negative. MOEs are commonly found and tracked in formal assessment plans. MOEs help to answer the
question “Are we doing the right things?”

15-13. A measure of performance is a criterion used to assess friendly actions that is tied to measuring
task accomplishment (JP 3-0). MOPs help answer questions such as “Was the action taken?” or “Were the
tasks completed to standard?” A MOP confirms or denies that a task has been properly performed. MOPs
are commonly found and tracked at all echelons in execution matrixes. MOPs are also commonly used to
evaluate training. MOPs help to answer the question “Are we doing things right?” There is no direct
hierarchical relationship among MOPs to MOEs. Measures of performance do not feed MOEs, or combine
in any way to produce MOEs—MOPs simply measure the performance of a task.

15-14. In the context of assessment, an indicator is an item of information that provides insight into a
measure of effectiveness or measure of performance (ADRP 5-0). Indicators take the form of reports from
subordinates, surveys and polls, and information requirements. Indicators help to answer the question
“What is the current status of this MOE or MOP?” A single indicator can inform multiple MOPs and
MOEs. (See table 15-1 for additional information concerning MOEs, MOPs, and indicators.)

Assessment Plans

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 15-3

Table 15-1. Assessment measures and indicators

Measure of effectiveness
(MOE)

Measure of performance
(MOP)

Indicator

Used to measure
attainment of an end state
condition, achievement of
an objective, or creation of
an effect.

Used to measure task
accomplishment.

Used to provide insight into a MOE
or MOP.

Answers the question:
Are we doing the right
things?

Answers the question:
Are we doing things right?

Answers the question:
What is the status of this MOE or
MOP?

Measures why (purpose)
in the mission statement.

Measures what (task
completion) in the mission
statement.

Information used to make
measuring what or why possible.

No direct hierarchical
relationship to MOPs.

No direct hierarchical
relationship to MOEs.

Subordinate to MOEs and MOPs.

Often formally tracked in
formal assessment plans.

Often formally tracked in
execution matrixes.

Often formally tracked in formal
assessment plans.

Typically challenging to
choose the appropriate
ones.

Typically simple to choose
the appropriate ones.

Typically as challenging to select
appropriately as the supported
MOE or MOP.

RECOMMENDING OR DIRECTING ACTION
15-15. Monitoring and evaluating are critical activities; however, assessment is incomplete without
recommending or directing action. Assessment may diagnose problems, but unless it results in
recommended adjustments, its use to the commander is limited.

15-16. When developing recommendations, staffs draw from many sources and consider their
recommendations within the larger context of the operation. While several ways to improve a particular
aspect of the operation might exist, some recommendations could impact other aspects of the operation. As
with all recommendations, staffs should address any future implications.

ASSESSMENT PLAN DEVELOPMENT
15-17. Critical to the assessment process is developing an assessment plan. Units use assessment working
groups to develop assessment plans when appropriate. A critical element of the commander’s planning
guidance is determining which assessment plans to develop. An assessment plan focused on attainment of
end state conditions often works well. It is also possible, and may be desirable, to develop an entire formal
assessment plan for an intermediate objective, a named operation subordinate to the base operation plan, or
a named operation focused solely on a single line of operations or geographic area. The time, resources,
and added complexity involved in generating an assessment plan strictly limit the number of such efforts.

15-18. Commanders and staffs integrate and develop an assessment plan within the military
decisionmaking process (MDMP). As the commander and staff begin mission analysis, they also need to
determine how to measure progress towards the operation’s end state.

15-19. Effective assessment incorporates both quantitative (observation-based) and qualitative
(judgment-based) indicators. Human judgment is integral to assessment. A key aspect of any assessment is
the degree to which it relies upon human judgment and the degree to which it relies upon direct observation
and mathematical rigor. Rigor offsets the inevitable bias, while human judgment focuses rigor and
processes on intangibles that are often key to success. The appropriate balance depends on the situation—
particularly the nature of the operation and available resources for assessment—but rarely lies at the ends
of the scale.

Chapter 15

15-4 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

ASSESSMENT STEPS
15-20. During planning, the assessment working group develops an assessment plan using six steps:

Step 1—Gather tools and assessment data.
Step 2—Understand current and desired conditions.
Step 3—Develop an assessment framework.
Step 4—Develop the collection plan.
Step 5—Assign responsibilities for conducting analysis and generating recommendations.
Step 6—Identify feedback mechanisms.

Once the assessment working group develops the assessment plan, it applies the assessment process of
monitor, evaluate, and recommend or direct continuously throughout preparation and execution.

STEP 1—GATHER TOOLS AND ASSESSMENT DATA
15-21. Planning begins with receipt of mission. The receipt of mission alerts the staffs to begin updating
their running estimates and gather the tools necessary for mission analysis and continued planning. Specific
tools and information gathered regarding assessment include, but are not limited to—

The higher headquarters’ plan or order, including the assessment annex if available.
If replacing a unit, any current assessments and assessment products.
Relevant assessment products (classified or open-source) produced by civilian and military
organizations.
The identification of potential data sources, including academic institutions and civilian subject
matter experts.

STEP 2—UNDERSTAND CURRENT AND DESIRED CONDITIONS
15-22. Fundamentally, assessment is about measuring progress toward the desired end state. To do this,
commanders and staffs compare current conditions in the area of operations against desired conditions.
Army design methodology and the MDMP help commanders and staffs develop an understanding of the
current situation. As planning continues, the commander identifies desired conditions that represent the
operation’s end state.

15-23. Early in planning, commanders issue their initial commander’s intent, planning guidance, and
commander’s critical information requirements (CCIRs). The end state in the initial commander’s intent
describes the desired conditions the commander wants to achieve. The staff element responsible for the
assessment plan identifies each specific desired condition mentioned in the commander’s intent. These
specific desired conditions focus the overall assessment of the operation. Understanding current conditions
and desired conditions forms the basis for building the assessment framework.

STEP 3—DEVELOP AN ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
15-24. All plans and orders have a general logic. This logic links tasks to subordinate units to the
achievement of objectives, and the achievement of objectives to attainment of the operation’s end state. An
assessment framework incorporates the logic of the plan and uses measures (MOEs, MOPs, and indicators)
as tools to determine progress toward attaining desired end state conditions. (See figure 15-1.)

Assessment Plans

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 15-5

Figure 15-1. Assessment framework
15-25. Developing an assessment framework involves—

Selecting and writing measures (MOEs and MOPs).
Organizing the measures into an assessment framework.

Selecting and Writing Measures
15-26. Based on their understanding of the plan, members of the staff develop specific MOEs and MOPs
(with associated indicators) to evaluate the operations process. Measures of effectiveness are tools used to
help measure the attainment of end state conditions, achievement of objectives, or creation of effects.
Measures of performance are criteria used to assess friendly actions that are tied to measuring task
accomplishment.

Selecting and Writing Measures of Effectiveness
15-27. Guidelines for selecting and writing MOEs consist of the following:

Select only MOEs that measure the degree to which the desired outcome is achieved.
Choose distinct MOEs.
Include MOEs from different causal chains.
Use the same MOE to measure more than one condition when appropriate.
Avoid overburdening subordinates with additional reporting requirements.
Structure MOEs so that they have measurable, collectable, and relevant indicators.
Write MOEs as statements not questions.
Maximize clarity.

15-28. Commanders select only MOEs that measure the degree to which the desired outcome is achieved.
There must be an expectation that a given MOE will change as the conditions being measured change.

15-29. Commanders choose MOEs for each condition as distinct from each other as possible. Using
similar MOEs can skew the assessment by containing virtually the same MOE twice.

15-30. Commanders include MOEs from differing relevant causal chains for each condition whenever
possible. When MOEs have a cause and effect relationship with each other, either directly or indirectly, it
decreases their value in measuring a particular condition. Measuring progress towards a desired condition
by multiple means adds rigor to the assessment.

15-31. In the example in figure 15-2 on page 15-6 under condition 1, both MOE 1 and MOE 3 have no
apparent cause and effect relationship with each other, although both are valid measures of the condition.
This adds rigor and validity to the measurement of that condition. MOE 2 does have a cause and effect

Chapter 15

15-6 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

relationship with MOE 1 and MOE 3, but it is a worthwhile addition because of the direct relevancy and
mathematical rigor of that particular source of data. (See figure 15-2.)

End state condition 1: Enemy division X forces prevented from interfering with corps
decisive operation.
MOE 1: Enemy division X forces west of phase line blue are defeated.

Indicator 1: Friendly forces occupy objective SLAM (yes or no).
Indicator 2: Number of reports of squad-sized or larger enemy forces in the division area of
operations in the past 24 hours.
Indicator 3: Current G-2 assessment of number of enemy division X battalions west of phase
line blue.

MOE 2: Enemy division X forces indirect fire systems neutralized.
Indicator 1: Number of indirect fires originating from enemy division X’s integrated fires
command in the past 24 hours.
Indicator 2: Current G-2 assessment of number of operational 240mm rocket launchers within
enemy division X’s integrated fires command.

MOE 3: Enemy division X communications systems disrupted.
Indicator 1: Number of electronic transmissions from enemy division X detected in the past 24
hours.
Indicator 2: Number of enemy division X battalion and higher command posts destroyed.

G-2 assistant chief of staff, intelligence

MOE measure of effectiveness

mm millimeter

Figure 15-2. Example end state conditions for a defense
15-32. Commanders use the same MOE to measure more than one condition when appropriate. This sort
of duplication in the assessment framework does not introduce significant bias unless carried to the
extreme.

15-33. Commanders avoid or minimize additional reporting requirements for subordinate units. In many
cases, commanders use information requirements generated by other staff elements as MOEs and indicators
in the assessment plan. With careful consideration, commanders and staffs can often find viable alternative
MOEs without creating new reporting requirements. Excessive reporting requirements can render an
otherwise valid assessment plan onerous and untenable.

15-34. Commanders structure MOEs so that measurable, collectable, and relevant indicators exist for
them. A MOE is of no use if the staff cannot actually measure it.

15-35. Commanders write MOEs as statements, not questions. MOEs supply answers to questions rather
than the questions themselves.

15-36. Commanders maximize clarity. A MOE describes the sought information precisely, including
specifics on time, information, geography, or unit, if needed. Any staff member should be able to read the
MOE and understand exactly what information it describes.

Selecting and Writing Measures of Performance
15-37. MOPs are criteria used to assess friendly actions that are tied to measuring task accomplishment.
MOPs help to answer questions such as “Was the action taken?” or “Were the tasks completed to
standard?” A MOP confirms or denies that a task has been properly performed. MOPs are commonly found
and tracked at all levels in execution matrixes.

15-38. In general, operations consist of a series of collective tasks sequenced in time, space, and purpose
to accomplish missions. The current operations cells use MOPs in execution matrixes and running
estimates to track completed tasks. Evaluating task accomplishment using MOPs is relatively
straightforward and often results in a yes or no answer. Examples of MOPs include:

Route X cleared.
Generators delivered, are operational, and are secured at villages A, B, and C.

Assessment Plans

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 15-7

$15,000 spent for schoolhouse completion.
Aerial dissemination of 60,000 leaflets over village D.

Selecting and Writing Indicators
15-39. Staffs develop indicators that provide insights into MOEs and MOPs. Staffs can gauge a
measurable indicator either quantitatively or qualitatively. Imprecisely defined indicators often pose a
problem. For example, staffs cannot measure the indicator “Number of local nationals shopping.” The
information lacks clear parameters in time or geography. Staffs can measure the revised indicator “Average
daily number of local nationals visiting main street market in city X this month.” Additionally, staffs
should design the indicator to minimize bias. This particularly applies when staffs only have qualitative
indicators available for a given MOE. Many qualitative measures are easily biased, and Soldiers must use
safeguards to protect objectivity in the assessment process. (See figure 15-3.)

15-40. A collectable indicator has reasonably obtained data associated with the indicator. In some cases,
the data may not exist, or the data may be prohibitively difficult to collect. As an example, if condition 2
MOE 2 in figure 15-3 had the indicator “Host-nation medical care availability in city X this month” that
indicator is not likely collectable. This number exists, but unless a trusted source tracks and reports it,
Soldiers cannot collect it. The revised indicator “Battalion commander’s monthly estimate of host-nation
medical care availability in city X on a scale of 1 to 5” is collectable. In this case, the staff did not have a
quantitative indicator available, so they substituted a qualitative indicator.

End state condition 1: Enemy defeated in the brigade area of operations.
MOE 1: Enemy kidnapping activity in the brigade area of operations disrupted.

Indicator 1: Monthly reported dollars in ransom paid as a result of kidnapping operations.
Indicator 2: Monthly number of reported attempted kidnappings.
Indicator 3: Monthly poll question #23: “Have any kidnappings occurred in your neighborhood
in the past 30 days?” Results for provinces ABC only.

MOE 2: Public perception of security in the brigade area of operations improved.
Indicator 1: Monthly poll question #34: “Have you changed your normal activities in the past
month because of concerns about your safety and that of your family?” Results for provinces
ABC only.
Indicator 2: Monthly kindergarten through high school attendance in provinces ABC as
reported by the host-nation ministry of education.
Indicator 3: Monthly number of tips from local nationals reported to the brigade terrorism tips
hotline.

MOE 3: Sniper events in the brigade area of operations disrupted.
Indicator 1: Monthly decrease in reported sniper events in the brigade area of operations.
(Note: It is acceptable to have only one indicator that directly answers a given MOE. Avoid
complicating the assessment needlessly when a simple construct suffices.)

Condition 2: Role 1 medical care available to the population in city X.
MOE 1: Public perception of medical care availability improved in city X.

Indicator 1: Monthly poll question #42: “Are you and your family able to visit a doctor or health
clinic when you need to?” Results for provinces ABC only.
Indicator 2: Monthly poll question #8: “Do you and your family have important health needs that
are not being met?” Results for provinces ABC only.
Indicator 3: Monthly decrease in number of requests for medical care received from local
nationals by the brigade.

MOE 2: Battalion commander estimated monthly host-nation medical care availability in
battalion area of operations.

Indicator 1: Monthly average of reported battalion commander’s estimates (scale of 1 to 5) of
host-nation medical care availability in the battalion area of operation.

MOE measure of effectiveness

Figure 15-3. Example end state conditions for a stability operation

Chapter 15

15-8 FM 6-0 5 May 2014

15-41. An indicator is relevant if it provides insight into a supported MOE or MOP. Commanders must
ask pertinent questions, such as—

Does a change in this indicator actually indicate a change in the MOE?
What factors unrelated to the MOE could cause this indicator to change?
How reliable is the correlation between the indicator and the MOE?

15-42. For example, the indicator “Decrease in monthly weapons caches found and cleared in the division
area of operations” is not relevant to the MOE “Decrease in enemy activity in the division area of
operations.”

15-43. The indicator could plausibly increase or decrease with a decrease in enemy activity. An increase
in friendly patrols could result in greater numbers of caches found and cleared. Staffs may also have
difficulty determining when the enemy left the weapons, raising the question of when the enemy activity
actually occurred. These factors, unrelated to enemy activity, could artificially inflate the indicator, creating
a false impression of increased enemy activity within the assessment framework. In this example, staffs can
reliably measure enemy activity levels without considering weapons caches or using the indicator for this
MOE.

Organizing the Assessment Framework
15-44. When organizing the assessment framework, MOEs and MOPs can be applied to the logic of the
plan in different ways. The overall approach to using those measures is visually depicted in the assessment
framework. That overall approach may be more quantitative or more qualitative, although it rarely resides
at the extremes.

15-45. Regardless of the specific measures chosen and the specific ways they are used in the formal
assessment plan, it is imperative that the staff explicitly records the logic it uses to create the assessment
framework. Every measure used is chosen for a reason, and that reason must be recorded in a narrative
form in the formal assessment plan. Specific measures are combined (or not combined) in specific ways in
the formal assessment, and those reasons must be recorded explicitly in the formal assessment plan.
Lessons learned have shown that the rationale involved in creating a formal assessment plan can be rapidly
lost. Recording the logic in the assessment plan mitigates this risk.

15-46. One example of organizing an assessment framework is a hierarchical structure which begins with
end state conditions, followed by MOEs, and finally indicators. Commanders broadly describe the
operation’s end state in their commander’s intent. The assessment working group then identified specific
desired conditions from the commander’s intent. Staffs measure each condition by MOEs. The MOEs are
in turn informed by indicators.

15-47. Such a formal assessment framework is simply a tool to assist commanders with estimating
progress. Using a formal assessment framework does not imply that commanders mathematically determine
the outcomes of military operations. Commanders and staff officers apply judgment to results of
mathematical assessment to assess progress holistically. For example, commanders in an enduring
operation may receive a monthly formal assessment briefing from their staff. This briefing includes both
the products of the formal assessment process as well as the expert opinions of members of the staff,
subordinate commanders, and other partners. Commanders combine what they find useful in those two
viewpoints with their personal assessment of the operation, consider recommendations, and direct action as
needed.

15-48. A significant amount of human judgment goes into designing such an assessment framework.
Choosing MOEs and indicators that accurately measure progress toward each desired condition is an art.
Processing elements of the assessment framework requires establishing weights and thresholds for each
MOE and indicator. Setting proper weights and thresholds requires operational expertise and judgment.
Input from the relevant staff elements and subject matter experts is critical. Staffs record the logic of why
the commander chose each MOE and indicator. This facilitates personnel turnover as well as an
understanding of the assessment plan among all staff elements.

15-49. Another approach to organizing an assessment framework focuses on producing narrative
assessments for each end state condition, using measures (MOEs, MOPs, and indicators) to argue for or

Assessment Plans

5 May 2014 FM 6-0 15-9

against progress rather than combining the measures in one holistic mathematical model. Under this
approach, the assessment working group builds the most convincing arguments they can for and against the
achievement of a given end state condition. Significant mathematical rigor may be a part of these
arguments, but a holistic mathematical model is rejected. After the for and against arguments are produced,
the assessment working group applies judgment to that raw material to create the most plausible narrative
assessment for that end state condition. The chair of the assessment working group determines when the
collective judgment of the group is in dispute.

STEP 4—DEVELOP THE COLLECTION PLAN
15-50. Each indicator represents an information requirement. In some situations, staffs feed these
information requirements into the information collection synchronization process. Then, staffs task
information collection assets to collect on these information requirements. In other situations, reports in the
unit standard operating procedures (SOPs) may suffice. If not, the unit may develop a new report. Staffs
may collect the information requirement from organizations external to the unit. For example, a host
nation’s central bank may publish a consumer price index for that nation. The assessment plan identifies the
source for each indicator as well as the staff member who collects that information. Assessment
information requirements compete with other information requirements for resources. When an information
requirement is not resourced, staffs cannot collect the associated indicator and must remove it from the
plan. Staffs then adjust the assessment framework to ensure that the MOE or MOP is properly worded.

STEP 5—ASSIGN RESPONSIBILITIES FOR CONDUCTING ANALYSIS AND GENERATING
RECOMMENDATIONS

15-51. In addition to assigning responsibility for collection, commanders assign staff members to analyze
assessment data and develop recommendations. For example, the intelligence officer leads the assessment
of enemy forces. The engineer officer leads the effort on assessing infrastructure development. The civil
affairs operations officer leads assessment concerning the progress of local and provincial governments.
The chief of staff aggressively requires staff principals and subject matter experts to participate in
processing the formal assessment and in generating smart, actionable recommendations. The operations
research and analysis officer assists the commander and staff with developing both assessment frameworks
and the command’s assessment process.

STEP 6—IDENTIFY FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
15-52. A formal assessment with meaningful recommendations that is not presented to the appropriate
decisionmaker wastes time and energy. The assessment plan identifies the who, what, when, where, and
why of that presentation. The commander and staff discuss feedback leading up to and following that
presentation as well. Feedback might include which assessment working groups the commander requires
and how to act on and follow up on recommendations.

• Cover
• Change 2 Transmittal page
• Chnge 1 Transmittal page
• Contents
• Preface

Introduction

• Chapter 1 – Command Post Organization and Operations
• Chapter 2 – Staff Duties and Responsibilities
• Chapter 3 – Managing Knowledge and Information
• Chapter 4 – Problem Solving
• Chapter 5 – Staff Studies
• Chapter 6 – Decision Papers
• Chapter 7 – Military Briefings
• Chapter 8 – Running Estimates
• Chapter 9 – The Military Decisionmaking Process
• Chapter 10 – Troop Leading Procedures
• Chapter 11 – Military Deception
• Chapter 12 – Rehearsals
• Chapter 13 – Liaison
• Chapter 14 – Decisionmaking in Execution
• Chapter 15 – Assessment Plans
• Chapter 16 – After Action Reviews and Reports
• Appendix A – Operational and Mission Variables
• Appendix B – Command and Support Relationships
• Appendix C – Plans and Orders Formats
• Appendix D – Annex Formats
• Glossary

References

• Index

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