HIST318 – HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN AMERICAN CITIES

SPRING 2021

MIDTERM EXAMINATION

(UNITS 1-5)

DUE DATE: SATURDAY, MARCH 13, 2021

(NO EXCEPTIONS)

INSTRUCTIONS

(PLEASE READ CAREFULLY)

1. OPEN BOOK: This exam is “open book,” which means you are permitted to use the course PowerPoint slides for UNITS 1-5, your own class notes, the readings shared in class, and anything on the course’s Blackboard page.

2. UNACCOMPANIED: The exam must be taken completely alone. Showing it or discussing it with anyone is
forbidden
. You may not consult with any other person regarding the exam. You may not check your exam answers with any person.

3. NO EXTERNAL SOURCES: You may not consult any external resources. This means
no internet searches
, materials from other classes or books or any notes you have taken in other classes, etc. You MAY NOT use GOOGLE, BING or any other search engines for any reason. You may not use any shared Google documents.

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. PLAGIARISM: Copying and pasting answers from other students (past and present) or websites such as Wikipedia.com, History.com, Blackpast.org, Britannica.com or others will cause you to FAIL this exam.

5. TIME MANAGEMENT: Please take time to read each question carefully and avoid leaving blank answers. Giving yourself ample time to complete this exam is highly suggested. Waiting until the night before or the morning of to begin this exam in not recommended.

6. QUESTIONS: All questions regarding this exam should be directed to Dr. Dupree-Wilson at tdupree-wilson@coppin.edu only.

7. SUBMISSION: Your exam must be typed and submitted through the Exams Tab on Blackboard in Microsoft WORD format by Saturday, March 13, 2021 at 11:59 PM. IF THE BLACKBOARD SYSTEM IS DOWN, YOU MAY ALSO EMAIL YOUR EXAM TO DR. DUPREE-WILSON.

GOOD LUCK!!!

NAME: __________________________________

Part I. Short Answer. In 2-3 COMPLETE sentences, describe each of the individuals, terms or phrases listed below. You MAY NOT use GOOGLE, BING or any other search engines for any reason. (3 points each)

1. Plessy v. Ferguson –

2. The Convict Lease System –

3. The Grandfather Clause –

4. The Chicago Defender –

5. The film The Birth of a Nation –

6. Philip Anthony Payton, Jr. –

7. The Cotton Club –

8. Negrotarians –

9. The Black Chicago Renaissance –

10. “The Negro Movement” –

11. Adella Bond –

12. Chicago’s Negro Dance Group –

13. Palmer Hayden –

14. Red Summer –

15. The Greenwood Section of Tulsa, OK –

16. East St. Louis, IL Riots –

17. Archibald J. Motley, Jr. –

18. Dr. Ossain Sweet –

19.The New Orleans Riot of 1900 –

20. The Sharecropping System –

21. The Tenderloin in New York City –

22. Bedford–Stuyvesant –

23. The Second Wave of the Great Migration –

24. Belle Isle Amusement Park –

25. James Van Der Zee–

Part II. Image ID. Please write the correct name of the African American figures of the Harlem Renaissance below, on the line provided beneath their picture. (2 points each)

26._____________________________

27.___________________________

28.____________________________ 29._______________________________

30._______________________________

Part III. Essay. In 10-15 complete sentences, please answer ONE of the essay questions presented below (A OR B, NOT BOTH). DO NOT SIMPLY COPY AND PASTE BULLET POINTS FROM THE UNIT POWERPOINTS. YOU MUST WRITE A CLEAR AND CONCISE ESSAY. You MAY NOT use GOOGLE, BING or any other search engines to complete this essay. (15 points)

A. In 10-15 sentences, please discuss at least four (4) major “push factors” and societal conditions that led to mass African American migration out of the South during the twentieth century.

OR

B. During the second wave of the Great Migration, race riots emerged in various American cities. In 10-15 sentences, please discuss some of the major race riots that occurred between the years of 1964-1968. Please include the location, year and causes of those riots that you cite. You may also include your opinion on the common causes of these riots.

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HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN
AMERICAN CITIES

“PUSH FACTORS”: CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH PRIOR TO MIGRATION

HIST 318

THE ISSUE OF CIVIL RIGHTS
BLACKS IN PUBLIC SPACES
African Americans were victims of racial discrimination when they tried to use public transportations and accommodations
Many “whites only” businesses began to accept black patrons after blacks began to boycott and protest against their them
Proposed laws that would protect blacks from discrimination in public accommodations were blocked by most politicians

THE ISSUE OF CIVIL RIGHTS
THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT
Constitutional amendment, which was ratified in 1870
This amendment gave African American men the right to vote
Northern black men were the amendment’s immediate beneficiaries because before its adoption, black men could vote in only eight northern states
The amendment said nothing about women or outlawing poll taxes and literacy tests

DISFRANCHISEMENT
EVADING THE 15th AMENDMENT
Southern Democrats looked for “legal” ways to prevent black men from voting
They relied on literacy tests, poll taxes and property qualifications
They also used violence to deter the black vote

DISFRANCHISEMENT
MISSISSIPPI
Changed laws to do away with the black vote
Imposed poll taxes, proof of residency, etc.
“Black crimes” (stealing, arson, bigamy, etc.) convicts could not vote; “White crimes” (murder, rape, etc.) could vote;
SOUTH CAROLINA
Followed Mississippi’s lead on preventing black voting
Changed the state constitution

DISFRANCHISEMENT
THE GRANDFATHER CLAUSE
First enacted in Louisiana in 1898
Used in multiple southern states
Only men who were eligible to vote before 1867 or whose father or grandfather had been eligible to vote in 1867, would be qualified to vote
This law immediately suppressed almost all black voters

SEGREGATION
“JIM CROW”
The system of segregation that expanded in the South
Restricted blacks from using certain public facilities (stores, shops, parks, trains, hotels, etc.)
Some felt that segregation was better than exclusion
SEGREGATION ON THE RAILROADS
The first segregation laws involved passenger trains
Blacks had to ride in black passenger cars, which were dirty, and smoke filled

SEGREGATION
PLESSY V. FERGUSON (1896)
Homer Plessy, a black man who looked like a white man, was arrested after refusing to leave the “whites only” train car
Plessy sued arguing that his 14th Amendment (equal protection under the law) rights had been violated; Plessy lost his case
In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court legalized segregation by establishing the “separate but equal” doctrine

SEGREGATION
STREETCAR SEGREGATION
Main mode of public transportation in most cities
Streetcar segregation resulted in protests and boycotts by the black community
Most blacks refused to ride segregated cars and chose to walk or take horse-drawn hacks
SEGREGATION PROLIFERATES
“White” and “colored” signs began to appear in public spaces (railroad stations, restrooms, drinking fountains, theaters, cemeteries, etc.)
Black facilities were inferior to white facilities

RACIAL ETIQUETTE
WHAT WERE THE RULES OF “RACIAL ETIQUETTE”?
Blacks must act in an obedient and subservient manner
Blacks and whites did not shake hands
Blacks did not look whites directly in the eye
Black men removed their hats in the presence of whites
Blacks had to use the back door when entering white homes or businesses
A black man or boy was never to look at or smile at a white woman

RACIAL ETIQUETTE
MORE RULES OF “RACIAL ETIQUETTE”
White customers were always served first in a store
Black women could not try on clothing in white-owned stores
White people did not use titles when addressing blacks (Mr., Miss, etc.)
Whites addressed black adults by their first name, or “boy” or “girl,” or nigger
Older black men were called “uncle” and older black women were called “auntie”
Black people were expected to use Mr., Mrs. or Miss when addressing whites (even white children)

VIOLENCE
THE KU KLUX KLAN
The KKK was founded in Tennessee in 1866; originally a social club for Confederate veterans
The Klan and other terrorist organizations functioned mainly where black people were a large minority and where their votes could affect the outcome of elections
In the cause of white supremacy, the Klan usually attacked those who could not defend themselves

VIOLENCE
WASHINGTON COUNTY, TEXAS (1886)
Masked Democrats tried to steal ballot boxes from a black Republican precinct
Armed black men resisted and one of the white men was killed
8 black men were arrested and 3 of them were kidnapped from jail and lynched
THE PHOENIX RIOT (1898)
Phoenix, SC
Blacks complained about not being allowed to vote
Led to an argument and shots were fired
White men went on a rampage, killing several black men

VIOLENCE
THE WILMINGTON RIOT (1898)
Wilmington, NC; election-related violence by Democrats
Local black journalist, Alex Manly, wrote about black men being falsely accused of raping white women and how black women were victims of rape at the hands of white men
This led to a deadly reign of terror and violence by white citizens
THE NEW ORLEANS RIOT (1900)
Black man harassed by white police officers; cop attempts to shoot him, so he pulled out his gun and shot the cop and fled the scene
Authorities tracked him down and cornered him at a local boarding house
He was ultimately shot and stomped to death by an angry white mob
Riots ensued for 4 days, leaving many blacks injured or killed

VIOLENCE
LYNCHING
Death by hanging, by mob action, and without legal authority
Common in the South by the 1890s
Between 1889 and 1932, 3,745 people were lynched in the U.S.
Black men were usually the victims; usually accused of raping or touching a white woman
The people who carried out the lynchings were never apprehended, tried or convicted

LYNCHINGS

VIOLENCE
RAPE
White men routinely harassed and abused black women
Black men tried to keep their daughters and wives away from white men
Many white people believed that black women were promiscuous and “invited” white males to take advantage of them; no virtue
Men found guilty of raping black women were often pardoned
Black men who defended black women against white men were often injured or killed

ECONOMIC ISSUES
BLACK ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION AND SHARECROPPING
White landlords provided housing, horses/mules, tools and seeds and black farmers provided the labor
Most black farm families were sharecroppers
Sharecropping lent itself to cheating and exploitation
Black farmers who disputed landowners would be subjected to violence
Most contracts were verbal and landowners usually received ¾ of the profits

CROP LIENS
If black farmers owed a debt for food, clothing, tools and farm supplies, local merchants put a lien on the crop
The merchant would take all or part of the crop if repayment was not received
If a black farmer attempted to dispute a crop lien, he or she would be met with violence
PEONAGE
Punishment for leaving the land with debt
Farmers who were in debt could not leave the land until it was paid off
It they tried to leave, the sheriff pursued them; punishment was usually enslavement

ECONOMIC ISSUES

ECONOMIC ISSUES
WHITE RESENTMENT OF BLACK SUCCESS
Many white southerners could not tolerate black economic success
They resented black progress and lashed out with violence
Black-owned houses and cars were usually targeted
Successful blacks were often lynched, especially when they challenged white authority

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND SOUTHERN COURTS
SEGREGATED JUSTICE
All white police forces; police brutality against blacks
Blacks were rejected from jury duty in the South
Judges were white men and most lawyers were white
Blacks who used black lawyers were often found guilty and received longer sentences
Black plaintiffs, lawyers and witnesses were mistreated by court personnel
Blacks were charged with crimes more often than whites (almost always convicted)
Blacks received longer sentences for the same offense as whites
Whites were rarely found guilty for crimes against blacks

THE CONVICT LEASE SYSTEM
Existed in a number of southern states (Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Texas, etc.)
Businesses and planters leased convicts from the state to build railroads, clear swaps, pick cotton, cut timber and work mines
Convicts endured appalling treatment and conditions
They were overworked, underfed, whipped, shackled and received no medical care
Planters found the cheap labor irresistible
Some prisoners felt it was worse than slavery
Outlawed in the early 1900s

AFRICAN AMERICANS AND SOUTHERN COURTS

HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN
AMERICAN CITIES

THE GREAT MIGRATION: THE FIRST WAVE

HIST 318

THE FIRST WAVE
BLACKS LEAVING THE SOUTH
In the late 19th century, over 90% of America’s black population lived in the South
During the first wave of the migration (from 1910 to the 1940s), the African American population increased by 40% in northern cities as a result of mass migration
Detroit, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, Baltimore, and New York City had the largest black population increases in the early part of the 20th century

THE FIRST WAVE
WORLD WAR I
When World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, industrialized urban areas in the North, Midwest and West faced a shortage of industrial laborers
With war production kicking into high gear, recruiters enticed African Americans to come the North, to the dismay of white Southerners
Black newspapers like the Chicago Defender, published advertisements touting the opportunities available in the cities of the North and West, along with first-person accounts of success

FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
“PULL FACTORS”
Blacks were “pulled” to cities by factors that attracted them
Wanted job opportunities, where they could earn a wage rather than be tied to a landlord
Men wanted a chance to vote without the threat of violence
Many lacked funds to move north, but factory owners and businesses that sought cheap labor assisted the migration
Men usually moved first then sent for their families once they settled
Racism and a lack of formal education relegated black workers to lower-paying unskilled or semi-skilled occupations

FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
INDUSTRIAL JOBS FOR BLACK MEN
Thousands of African Americans were recruited for industrial jobs
More than 80% of African American men worked menial jobs in steel mills, mines, construction, and meat packing
Many gained jobs related to the expansion of the Pennsylvania Railroad
In the railroad industry, they were often employed as porters or servants; in other businesses, they worked as janitors, waiters, or cooks

FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
JOBS FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN
Black women, who faced discrimination due to both their race and gender, found work in the North as well
Were employed in the garment industry, but were more often employed as maids and domestic servants
Black women reshaped modern domestic work
Instead of living with their employers, black domestic workers went home to their families at the end of the day
In many ways, this transformation of domestic work into a day job helped redefine domestic labor in the modern era as a visible form of labor, like factory work or sales work

FROM FIELD TO FACTORY
HIGHER WAGES
Regardless of the status of their jobs, African American men and women earned higher wages in the North than they did for the same occupations in the South
Many were able to save wages to help family members who remained in the South
African Americans typically found housing to be more available

RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
TENSION WITH EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS
In addition to blacks, major cities attracted millions of new European immigrants
Tension rose as blacks and whites competed for jobs and scarce housing
Tensions were often most severe between Irish immigrants, defending their recently gained jobs and neighborhood, and recent immigrants and African Americans
This tension often led to violent encounters between whites and blacks

RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
COMPETITION FOR LIVING SPACE
Aside from competition for jobs, there was also competition for housing in increasingly crowded cities
While segregation was not legalized in the North and West (as it was in the South), racism and prejudice were still widespread
After the U.S. Supreme Court declared racially based housing ordinances unconstitutional in 1917, some residential neighborhoods enacted covenants requiring white property owners to agree not to sell to blacks
These would remain legal until the Supreme Court struck them down in 1948
As a result of housing tensions, many Black residents ended up creating their own cities within big cities

RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST
THE KU KLUX KLAN REEMERGES
Although white supremacist violence never ceased in the South, the KKK disappeared after Reconstruction
The Klan reemerged in 1915, a few months after the film The Birth of a Nation was released
The film, which depicted the KKK as heroes, was shown by President Woodrow Wilson at the White House
By 1920s, it became a national organization with support in the North and West as well as South
Played on perceived threats from immigrants and African Americans
Terrorized African Americans and other ethnic communities; especially targeted black soldiers

THE KLAN AS A NATIONAL ORGANIZATION
The KKK had 5 million by the first wave of the Great Migration
Set up chapters in the North and the West
Businessmen, politicians, Protestant clergy, Woman’s Order, Junior Order for boys, Tri K Klub for girls
The Klan opposed: Immigrants, Blacks, Jews, Catholics
Beat, branded, and lynched
Burned synagogues, black and Catholic churches

RACISM IN THE NORTH AND WEST

EDUCATION
Greater educational opportunities and more expansive personal freedoms mattered greatly to the African Americans in the North during the Great Migration
State legislatures and local school districts allocated more funds for the education of both blacks and whites in the North, and also enforced school attendance laws more rigorously
NON-ECONOMIC GAINS

DEFERENCE TO WHITES NOT REQUIRED
Unlike in the South where a simple gesture or not following racial etiquette could result in physical harm to blacks, life in larger, crowded northern urban centers permitted a degree of anonymity
Blacks enjoyed more personal freedom, which enabled them to move, work, and speak without deferring to every white person with whom they crossed paths
Psychologically, these gains more than offset the continued economic challenges that black migrants faced
NON-ECONOMIC GAINS

FEAR OF A BLACK EXODUS
As the migration of African Americans out of the South picked up, white southern elites began to panic, fearing that a prolonged black exodus would bankrupt the South
White employers and planters eventually began expressing their fears
White southerners soon began trying to stop the flow of the migration to prevent the loss of their labor supply
Feared that many more blacks would leave the South
THE RESPONSE FROM WHITE SOUTHERNERS

COMPETING WITH THE NORTH
Some white Southerners even began attempting to address the poor living standards and racial oppression experienced by Southern blacks in order to induce them to stay
Southern employers increased their wages to match offers in the North
Some individual employers even opposed Jim Crow laws
When measures failed to stop mass migration, white southerners, in concert with federal officials who feared the rise of black nationalism, co-operated in attempting to stop migration out of the South (bus and train restrictions, failure to cash checks, diverting news coverage of life in the North, violence, etc.)
THE RESPONSE FROM WHITE SOUTHERNERS

DETROIT
During the first wave of the great migration, African Americans came to Detroit by the thousands from Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and South Carolina
The first major period of black growth in Detroit occurred from 1910 to 1930, during the economic expansion in the auto industry
Most blacks lived in mixed communities with recent European immigrants
Due to the war effort in World War I, many men enlisted in the armed forces, and employers needed workers
African Americans in the city established black churches, an NAACP branch and social organizations
WHERE DID THEY GO?

CHICAGO
To a number of southern blacks, Chicago was the “Promised Land”
Stories of big city life included jobs with good wages, homes with running water, and basic freedoms denied to blacks in the South attracted African Americans
Chicago’s reputation in the black press, made it a prime destination for blacks coming from the South
500,000 African Americans ultimately moved to Chicago during the first wave of migration
Between 1915 and 1940, Chicago’s black population more than doubled
WHERE DID THEY GO?

WHERE DID THEY GO?
THE BLACK CHICAGO RENAISSANCE
Black Chicago became the center of black culture during the 1930s and 1940s
Emergence of writers Arna Bontemps and Margaret Walker
Home to the most influential black newspaper, The Chicago Defender
Chicago’s South Side jazz scene was influential and included musical giants like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington
Dancer Katherine Dunham founded Chicago’s Negro Dance Group
It allowed black dancers to take instructional classes; there was no place for blacks to study dance in Chicago

CLEVELAND
Cleveland became the destination for people from Alabama, Tennessee and the Carolinas, seeking a better life than the South offered, including gainful employment
Cleveland’s population grew 60% between 1910 and 1930, rising to 900,429
Violent encounters between African Americans and whites occurred occasionally
Hardening racism, bolstered by discriminatory practices by landlords, real estate brokers, and banks, largely confined African Americans to the Cedar-Central neighborhood on Cleveland’s near east side
WHERE DID THEY GO?

PHILADELPHIA
The black population more than doubled, from 1910 to 1940
Most of the migrants came from the Georgia, the Carolinas and Virginia, and sought factory jobs
Other industrial cities in the area, such as Camden, Chester, and Norristown, also saw black population growth, but the bulk of black migrants moved to Philadelphia
The first wave changed the social and cultural complexion of West Philadelphia neighborhoods, leading to a housing crisis and racial conflict
Black migrant also clashed with “Old Philadelphians”(the black elite)
WHERE DID THEY GO?

BALTIMORE
During the first wave of the migration, thousands of blacks from the deep South moved to Baltimore in search of better jobs and freedom from segregationist Jim Crow laws, lynching, and other forms of anti-black racism
Baltimore was a major destination for African Americans coming from Alabama, Florida, Georgia and the Carolinas
Although Baltimore was often viewed as a northern city by blacks from the deep South, many encountered racist laws and practices that impacted housing, education and job opportunities
WHERE DID THEY GO?

NEW YORK CITY
The rise of violence in the Jim Crow South also led to the mass migration of African Americans to New York City
The arrival of black migrants coincided with the transition of the center of African-American power and demography in the city from other boroughs to Harlem
Black real estate entrepreneur Philip Anthony Payton, Jr., known as the “Father of Harlem”, began renting properties in Harlem, New York City, almost exclusively to African Americans
This demographic shift on the early 20th century, made Harlem the “Negro Capitol of the World”
WHERE DID THEY GO?
Philip Anthony Payton, Jr.

WHERE DID THEY GO?
ST. LOUIS, MO
Beginning in the 1930s, blacks began to migrate in large numbers to St. Louis, MO
St. Louis was responsible for producing several outstanding black jazz and classical musicians
Blacks churches, schools and media also thrived in St. Louis
Black churches also encouraged black children to pursue studying music and the arts

THE BLACK CHURCH
Remained a vital force in Black America during the early part of the 20th century
Helped hundreds of thousands of migrants adjust to urban life in northern cities
Fought for freedom, justice, equality and racial pride
Most active churches included the AME Church, the Baptist Church and the Church of God in Christ
Also fed and clothed blacks during the Great Depression and provided medical care to the sick
Many secular musicians in the jazz and blues arenas received their initial musical training in church
THE BLACK CHURCH AND THE FIRST WAVE

THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE

HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN
AMERICAN CITIES
HIST 318

THE “NEW NEGRO MOVEMENT”
THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual, social, and artistic explosion centered in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s
Explosion of creative arts
Known as the “New Negro Movement”
Harlem became known as the “Race Capital of the World

THE “NEW NEGRO MOVEMENT”
MIGRATION TO NEW YORK
Racial violence in the Jim Crow South led to the mass migration of African Americans to New York City
Black migrants in New York primarily came from the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida
The arrival of black migrants coincided with the transition of the center of black life in the city from other boroughs to Harlem

THE TENDERLOIN
Roots of black artistic talent planted in Manhattan’s Tenderloin neighborhood
Home to most of city’s 60,000 black residents
By 1914, middle-class blacks from the area started moving to Harlem, which had been primarily white
THE MARSHALL HOTEL
Spot for black artists to network, mentor, and collaborate
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THE “NEW NEGRO MOVEMENT”

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THE “NEW NEGRO MOVEMENT”
PHILIP ANTHONY PAYTON, JR.
An African-American real estate entrepreneur
Known as the “Father of Harlem”, due to his work renting properties to African Americans in the Harlem section of Manhattan, New York
Payton founded the Philip A. Payton Jr. Company and bought and managed Harlem real estate for black tenants
His rental properties led to the “blackening” of Harlem, which laid the foundation for the Harlem Renaissance

BLACK WRITERS
Central Harlem Renaissance figures; bodies of work contain both racial and nonracial subject matter
Claude McKay
Alain Locke
Jean Toomer
Countee Cullen
McKay, Locke, Toomer and Cullen’s work became the gold standard for black literature

BLACKS IN THE ARTS

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LANGSTON HUGHES (POET)
Wrote in various genres; incorporated jazz and blues rhythms
Admired black vernacular culture; tackled politically charged and leftist themes
HARLEM RENAISSANCE WOMEN
Jessie Redmond Fauset – universal qualities among races
Nella Larsen – questioned “Talented Tenth”
Zora Neal Hurston – anthropologist and literary modernist

BLACKS IN THE ARTS

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THE NEGROTARIANS
WHITE PEOPLE AND THE HARLEM RENAISSANCE
Many whites took an interest in Harlem
Nicknamed “Negrotarians” by Zora Neale Hurston
Referred to Harlem as “Nigger Heaven”
White supporters; financial backing
Saw black culture as unsophisticated and primitive, but interesting
Harlem inhabitants – exotic, curious, and uncivilized

HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ
THE COTTON CLUB
Harlem’s most exclusive and fashionable nightspot
Opened during the era of Prohibition (18th Amendment); owned by Owney Madden, a white gangster and member of the mob
The club’s entertainers and waiters were black but black patrons were not permitted; white customers only
Performers included Cab Calloway and Duke Ellington

NATIONAL AND LIVE BROADCAST RADIO
Radio introduced black talent and eroded cultural and social isolation of southern blacks
White listeners given opportunity to hear black music; blacks who were otherwise excluded from white venues could listen via radio
Duke Ellington greatest beneficiary of live radio music
Came direct from Harlem’s Cotton Club
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HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ

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HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ
THE COTTON CLUB

DUKE ELLINGTON AND THE BIG BAND ERA
Influenced by Scott Joplin’s Ragtime jazz
By late 1920s, jazz was a national craze; and New York was the center of the jazz world
Duke Ellington central to New York’s big-band era
New Negro; racial pride and best interests of the race important to him
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HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ

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LOUIS ARMSTRONG TRANSFORMS BIG BAND JAZZ
Armstrong transformed New York’s big-band jazz
New rhythmic momentum and improvisational boldness
Recordings became template for post-1920s combo jazz
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HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ

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HARLEM AND THE AGE OF JAZZ
THE NICHOLAS BROTHERS

AFRICAN AMERICANS IN PARIS
FRENCH CONNECTIONS
Black artists got attention from international white audiences
1920s Paris resembled Harlem
The Vogue Negre
– Influence of African art and shapes seen in Pablo Picasso’s work
– Parisian diversity created linguistic and ethnic challenges

JOSEPHINE BAKER
Baker was a dancer and singer who became wildly popular in France
She also devoted much of her life to fighting racism
In the 1920s, she moved to France and soon became one of Europe’s most popular and highest-paid performers
Her costume, consisting of only a girdle of artificial bananas, became her most iconic image and a symbol of the Jazz Age and the 1920s
AFRICAN AMERICANS IN PARIS

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AFRICAN AMERICANS IN PARIS

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Josephine Baker’s
Iconic Banana Skirt, 1926
AFRICAN AMERICANS IN PARIS

BLACK THEATER IN HARLEM
African American theater flourished in Harlem
Lafayette Players
Black actors began appearing before wider audiences
Careers of Charles Gilpin and Paul Robeson thrived
Plays about black life by white authors
Porgy, The Green Pastures, etc.
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BLACK THEATER

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BLACK MUSICALS
Black-written and -produced musicals began to appear on Broadway
Shuffle Along; Put and Take
THE CHARLESTON
Theme music of the Roaring Twenties, “The Charleston,” written by James P. Johnson
Broadway introduced talents Josephine Baker and Florence Mills
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BLACK THEATER

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PAINTERS
Palmer Hayden
Experimented with variety of subjects and styles
Best known for scenes of urban black life
Archibald J. Motley, Jr.
Well known for paintings of black working-class neighborhoods
One of first black artists to gain critical and financial success
Sargent Johnson
Reserved sculptural aesthetic of African forms
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VISUAL ARTISTS

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Visual Artists

Palmer Hayden’s
Paintings

JAMES VAN DER ZEE
Photographs of black middle class and Harlem
Chronicled the emergence of the “New Negro”
AARON DOUGLAS
Preeminent visual artist of the period; stylized African-influenced aesthetic
Studied under Winold Reiss
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VISUAL ARTISTS
“The Negro in an African Setting” by Aaron Douglas

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James Van Der Zee Photography

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VISUAL ARTISTS

Couple wearing raccoon coats, with a Cadillac
James Van Der Zee Photography

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James Van Der Zee Photography

THE BLACK MIGRATION AND RACE RIOTS (1910-1945)

HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN AMERICAN CITIES

HIST 318

RACIAL TENSION IN NORTHERN CITIES
RACE RIOTS
During the Great Migration, cities across the North were reshaped by the presence of African Americans
By 1919, about 1 million African Americans had fled segregation and a lack of economic opportunities in the South for northern cities
During the first wave of the migration, the black population in Chicago grew by 148% and in Philadelphia by 500%, creating massive anxiety among white people in northern cities that black people were taking jobs, housing, and security from them
White fear of black migration led to race riots and violent attacks against blacks in northern cities

RACIAL TENSION IN NORTHERN CITIES
EAST ST. LOUIS, IL RIOTS (1917)
Black workers were hired to replace white workers who had gone on strike
Angry white mobs drove through black neighborhoods firing guns at random black citizens and burning black homes
Lynched random black people (men, women and children)

RACIAL TENSION IN NORTHERN CITIES
PHILADELPHIA RIOTS (1918)
Began on July 26, 1918, two days after an African American woman, Adella Bond, moved into her new home in a primarily white area of South Philadelphia
On the evening of the July 26, a large crowd of white people gathered outside Bond’s home to force her out
As tensions rose within the crowd, someone threw a rock through Bond’s window
Bond responded by firing a pistol into the air to call for help from the police but she unintentionally hit and injured a member of the Irish white mob outside her home
Led to four days of rioting and white violence against blacks

Adella Bond

RED SUMMER (1919)
RED SUMMER (1919)
Deadliest summer in American history
26 urban race riots in various American cities
Race relations tense due to continued black migration
African American migration from the South also resulted in competition with whites for jobs

RED SUMMER (1919)
ATTACKS ON BLACK SOLDIERS
The racist attacks in 1919 were widespread, and often indiscriminate
In many places, they were initiated by white servicemen and centered upon the 380,000 black veterans who had just returned from World War I
Because of their military service, black veterans were seen as a particular threat to Jim Crow and racial subordination

RED SUMMER (1919)
WASHINGTON, D.C. RIOTS
Mob violence against black individuals and businesses perpetrated by white men, in response to the rumored arrest of a black man for rape of a white woman
Led to 4 days of rioting; flames fueled by main stream press
White men rioted, randomly beat black people on the street, and pulled others off streetcars for attacks
When police refused to intervene, the black population fought back
The city closed saloons and theaters to discourage assemblies
After four days of police inaction, President Woodrow Wilson mobilized the National Guard to restore order

RED SUMMER (1919)
CHICAGO RIOTS
Most serious racial riot of Red Summer
Chicago’s beaches along Lake Michigan were segregated by custom; When Eugene Williams, a black youth, floated into an area on the South Side customarily used by whites, he was stoned and drowned
Chicago police refused to take action against the attackers, which angered black citizens
Violence lasted for 13 days with ongoing conflict between black youths and white mobs led by the ethnic Irish
White mobs destroyed hundreds of mostly black homes and businesses on the South Side of Chicago
Casualties of the riots include: 38 fatalities (23 blacks and 15 whites); 527 injured; and 1,000 black families left homeless

RED SUMMER (1919)
NEW YORK CITY RIOTS
Riots were caused by social tensions such as competition for jobs, politics, and racial tension stemming from the great migration
Tension grew as African Americans workers replaced striking white workers in various industries
Riots also grew after an argument between a black man and a white man regarding World War I led to shots fired
Racial tension led to days of civil unrest

RED SUMMER (1919)
SYRACUSE, NY RIOTS
Violent racial attack that occurred when the management of the Globe Malleable Iron Works pitted striking white unionized workers against black strikebreakers on July 31, 1919
During strikes, large companies often turned to black laborers as a source of cheaper labor, to avoid giving their white workers more money
Companies also hoped to weaken the labor movement by pitting black and white laborers against each other
Industry brought in as many black workers as strikebreakers to keep the factories running
The result was a series of violent attacks by white workers on black strikebreakers in the ironworks at Syracuse

RED SUMMER (1919)
OMAHA, NE RIOTS
Two days of non-stop violence
Erupted after a mob of over 10,000 ethnic whites attacked and burned the county courthouse to force the release of a black prisoner accused of raping a white woman
The mob lynched the suspect, Will Brown, hanging him and burning his body
The group then spread out, attacking black neighborhoods and stores on the north side, destroying property valued at more than a million dollars

RED SUMMER (1919)
PHILADELPHIA RIOTS
Black migration created very high tensions in South Philadelphia
A local Irish gang had been terrorizing the neighborhood’s new black tenants
A large mob of white people clashed with a large black group
The mob then broke open the doors of black-owned homes, including that of George Graham
White mob tried to eject Graham and his family who had moved there a week earlier
Led to days of civil unrest and a number of people were later arrested

TULSA, BLACK WALL STREET (1921)
Began on May 31, 1921 in the Greenwood section of Tulsa, OK, which was a thriving black community
White woman lies about being sexually assaulted by a black man (Dick Rowland) on an elevator
The black man was arrested and black men went to the jail to protect him from being kidnapped and lynched
White citizens burned and destroyed the most prosperous black neighborhood in Tulsa
As blacks fled burning buildings, they were shot
Over 300 black people lost their lives

MIDWEST VIOLENCE

VIOLENCE IN DETROIT
DETROIT RIOTS (1925)
Riots began after an African American doctor, Dr. Ossain Sweet, and his wife Gladys moved into an all white neighborhood in Detroit
A white mob surrounds his home and demands that he move out on consecutive nights
The mob repeatedly threw stones at his home
One of Dr. Sweet’s friends who was visiting fired a shot from the home and a white man was killed
Dr. Sweet, his wife and his friends were arrested, but were later acquitted after being represented by lawyers from the NAACP

GREAT DEPRESSION ERA RACE RIOTS
HARLEM RACE RIOTS (1935)
Tension between the black community in Harlem and the New York City police remained high throughout the migration period
On March 19th, a white store owner in Harlem accused a black Puerto Rican boy, Lino Rivera, of shoplifting a knife and he was arrested
Rumors about the arrest and the police’s treatment of the boy spread throughout Harlem and some believed the police had beaten and killed Rivera
People began to riot, initially attacking the store where Rivera had been arrested; they caused an estimated $2 million worth of damage, mostly to white-owned property
By the end of the rioting, 3 black people were dead and over 200 wounded

WORLD WAR II ERA RACE RIOTS
DETROIT RIOTS (1943)
On June 20, a fist fight broke out between a black man and a white man at the Belle Isle Amusement Park
The brawl eventually grew into a confrontation between 100s of blacks and whites, and then spilled into the city
Stores were looted, and buildings were burned in the riot, most of which were located in a black neighborhood
During the riots, rumors spread that a black woman and her baby had been killed by whites and that a black man had raped a white woman
The riot was also fueled by the racial tension resulting from mass black migration from the South and the increased presence of black workers in the auto industry

THE GREAT MIGRATION: THE SECOND WAVE
(1940-1970)

HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN AMERICAN CITIES

HIST 318

THE SECOND WAVE OF
THE GREAT MIGRATION
THE SECOND WAVE
Much like the first wave of the Great Migration, the second wave had a major impact on the lives of African Americans
The second migration was much larger in scale
The effects of the second migration precipitated a more enduring transformation of American life, for both blacks and whites
The economy, jobs, and racial discrimination remained top factors for black migration to the North

THE SECOND WAVE OF
THE GREAT MIGRATION
EXODUS
The advent of World War II contributed to an exodus out of the South, with 1.5 million African Americans leaving during the 1940s
This pattern of migration would continue at that pace for the next twenty years
The result would be the increased urbanization of the African American population
Fewer blacks worked in agriculture or domestic labor; occupations by which the black race had previously, and solely, been characterized

THE SECOND WAVE OF
THE GREAT MIGRATION
THE WEST
During the Second Great Migration, not only the Northeast and Midwest continued to be the destination of more than 5 million African Americans, but also the West as well
Cities like Los Angeles, Oakland, Phoenix, Portland, and Seattle offered skilled jobs in the defense industry and attracted large black populations
Jobs in the West also offered higher pay, which, attracted even more migrants

ECONOMIC FACTORS
ECONOMIC DEPRIVATION
During the 1940s, many black southerners were still trapped in the predatory agricultural system of sharecropping
Because of segregation, black men were placed in unskilled jobs and women were placed in domestic services
The introduction of the mechanical cotton picker and other forms of farm mechanization reduced the demand for unskilled labor in southern agriculture
These conditions were a powerful incentive for African American southerners to leave and go look for opportunity elsewhere

THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II
WORLD WAR II
Resulted in labor shortages due to millions of people enlisting or being drafted into active military service
As a result of the labor shortage, northern and western employers began recruiting southern blacks to keep up with the country’s labor demands
Employers in the North and West offered competitive salaries to entice African Americans to help fill the labor shortage

THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II
THE WARTIME ECONOMY
The mobilization of the American wartime economy in 1942 produced more than $100 billion in government contracts in just 6 months
Created a plethora of new job opportunities in the North, the predominant area of manufacturing
Industrial hubs such as New York City, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, and Detroit were attractive due to the number of jobs available to blacks
During World War II, over 1 million African Americans would join the workforce

THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II
THE TRANSFORMATION OF BLACK SOLDIER
World War II transformed black soldiers
Serving in the armed forces first exposed them to a world outside of the segregated South
Many soldiers returned from the war and became civil rights activists and freedom fighters
Many black soldiers also chose to participate in the second wave of the Great Migration, after finding it difficult to transition back into a Jim Crow, southern society after enjoy social freedoms overseas
The Tuskegee Airmen

THE WEST
HEADING WEST
The African American populations of the Northeast and Midwest continued to grow at a rapid pace, but it was the African American migration West that distinguishes the second wave
In just 30 years, the populations of Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland grew ten times larger
The Los Angeles area needed labor to fill over $11 billion dollars in war contracts to produce automobiles and steel
The black population in San Francisco grew six times larger just from 1940 to 1945 due, in large part, to men coming to work on the naval shipyards

THE WEST
LOS ANGELES
During the second wave, tens of thousands of African American migrants, mostly from Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas and Texas, left the segregated South in search of better opportunities in Los Angeles
Black population significantly increased in Los Angeles as area factories received labor for the effort in World War II
As the black population in LA grew, black neighborhoods were often targeted by the Los Angeles Police Department, normally without provocation
Police Chief William Parker became police chief in 1952; he largely refused to hire Black police officers
Police Chief William Parker

THE WEST
OAKLAND AND SAN FRANCISCO
Blacks migrating North wanted to escape sharecropping and lynchings and unfortunately found discriminatory housing laws and meager weekly wages from jobs as cooks, dishwashers, maids, janitors and railroad porters
California’s Bay Area drew them to better paying unskilled and skilled jobs in the U.S. defense industry
The Bay Area’s housing discrimination against black residents received media attention when San Francisco Giants baseball legend Willie Mays attempted to buy a home in 1957, but was refused because of his race
In the 1960s many blacks with HBCU degrees found white-collar employment with companies like IBM

THE WEST
THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
World War II brought thousands of black newcomers to Washington state and Portland, Oregon to work in shipyards and airplane factories, to serve in the armed forces, and to work for government agencies
In 1950, Washington contained about 30,000 blacks, more than four times the figure from ten years before
Seattle’s black population had jumped from 3,800 in 1940 to 15,700 in 1950
Portland’s black population grew from 1,900 to 9,500 over a ten-year span
Many black jazz musicians also relocated to Seattle

THE NORTHEAST AND MIDWEST
CHICAGO
During the first wave of the migration many blacks from the deep South settled in Chicago, seeking better living conditions and job opportunities
During the second wave, this trend continued
At one point in the 1940s, 3,000 African Americans were arriving every week in Chicago—stepping off the trains from the South and making their ways to neighborhoods they had learned about from friends and the Chicago Defender
During the second wave, black migrants tended to be already urbanized, from southern cities and towns
They were better educated with more urban skills and highly ambitious

THE NORTHEAST AND MIDWEST
PHILADELPHIA
World War II would unleash a Second Great Migration far larger than the first
Philadelphia’s African American population soared from 250,000 in 1940, to 375,000 in 1950, then peaked at 655,000 residents in 1970
Despite Philadelphia’s reputation of workplace discrimination, the city attracted tens of thousands of migrants seeking jobs in the textile, metal manufacturing, and electronic production industries

THE NORTHEAST AND MIDWEST
BROOKLYN, NEW YORK
During World War II, the Brooklyn Navy Yard attracted many blacks to the neighborhood as an opportunity for employment
The prosperous war economy enabled many of Brooklyn’s Jewish and Italian residents moved to Queens and Long Island
By 1950, the number of blacks in Bedford–Stuyvesant had risen to 155,000, comprising about 55% of the population of Bed–Stuy
By 1960, 85% of the population was black

THE NORTHEAST AND MIDWEST
DETROIT
From 1940 to 1950, more than 66% of the African American population in Detroit had migrated from the South
Many blacks sought jobs in Detroit’s booming auto industry
The increase in population strained city schools and ushered in competition in employment and housing spheres
Mass black migration to Detroit also led to social tensions in the city among blacks and whites
Police brutality against black citizens also increased

THE NEW YORK RACE RIOTS (1964)
The riots began in Harlem, New York following the shooting of an unarmed 15-year-old James Powell by a white off-duty police officer on July 18, 1964
After this act of police brutality, an estimated 8,000 Harlem residents took to streets and launched a large-scale riot, breaking widows, setting fires and looting local businesses
The riot spread to the nearby neighborhood of Bedford-Stuyvesant and continued for 6 days; resulted in the death of 1 resident, over 100 injuries, and more than 450 arrests
Highlighted the racial injustice and growing civil unrest in northern cities and served as a powerful indicator of the tension that existed between black citizens and the police
18
BLACK MIGRANT COMMUNITIES
AND THE POLICE

PHILADELPHIA COLUMBIA AVENUE RIOTS (1964)
Began in August of 1964 after an argument between an African American husband and wife
Police arrive on the scene and assault woman
A bystander attempts to stop the police from assaulting her
Bystander and the woman are beaten and taken into police custody and a crowd began to form
Rumors spread stating that the woman had been killed
Led to 2 days of civil unrest
Looting white-owned shops where blacks were disrespected and exploited; some white businesses were protected
Demonstrations against the police and the evil tactics of Deputy Police Commissioner Frank Rizzo
19
BLACK MIGRANT COMMUNITIES
AND THE POLICE

WATTS RIOTS (1965)
Chain of violent confrontations between Los Angeles police and residents of Watts and other predominantly African American neighborhoods of South-Central L.A. that began August 11, 1965
Lasted for six days
Cause by the arrest and police beating of a black man by a white California Highway Patrol
Also caused by the use of excessive force by white police officers against black citizens
The riots resulted in the deaths of 34 people, while more than 1,000 were injured and more than $40 million worth of property was destroyed
BLACK MIGRANT COMMUNITIES
AND THE POLICE

CHICAGO RIOTS (WEST SIDE RIOTS) (1966)
The uprising began on July 12 after police and African American youth clashed over the youth opening fire hydrants and playing in the water
Outside of the incidents related to the hydrants, police habitually harassed and brutalized black citizens
African Americans complained that the police were singling them out while in the nearby Italian neighborhood, police did not interfere with open fire hydrants
Police continued to harass black citizens regarding the hydrants, which ultimately led to rioting and looting
Led to 3 days of civil unrest; Illinois Governor Otto Kerner Jr. ordered 1,500 National Guardsmen to Chicago’s West Side with orders to shot looters on sight
BLACK MIGRANT COMMUNITIES
AND THE POLICE

THE DETROIT RIOT (1967)
Series of violent confrontations between residents of predominantly black neighborhoods of Detroit and the police department that began on July 23, 1967
The immediate cause of the riot stemmed from illegal, frequent and random police raids of black neighborhoods and constant brutality by the police
Led to five days of civil unrest
The riot resulted in the deaths of 43 people, including 33 African Americans and 10 whites
The riot is considered one of the catalysts of the militant Black Power Movement
BLACK MIGRANT COMMUNITIES
AND THE POLICE

1970
The movement of Africa Americans to the cities of the North and the West did not decline until the early 1970
Due to the impact of the modern Civil Rights Movement, conditions began to improve in the South, which slowed down migration
The passage of desegregation laws including the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968 also reduced the number of African Americans seeking to leave their homes in the South
THE END OF THE SECOND WAVE