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Read and critically examine the article entitled Population-Level Intervention Strategies and Examples for Obesity Prevention in Childre by Foltz et al (2012). File is attached

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Answer ALL of the following questions in your post:

-Select and describe (in your own words) at least two of the intervention strategies outlined by the author that you think would work the best in your community.

-Why did you pick those specific intervention strategies?

-What do you predict would be barriers to the two intervention strategies you selected? Why?

-How could the use of technology such as novel electronic approaches, social media, etc. be implemented in the intervention strategies you selected?

-How would you evaluate the success of the intervention strategies you selected?

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NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

Population-Level Interventio

Strategies and Example

for Obesity Prevention
in Children∗

Jennifer L. Foltz,1 Ashleigh L. May,1 Brook Belay,1

Allison J. Nihiser,2 Carrie A. Dooyema,1

and Heidi M. Blanck1
1Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity, 2Division of Population Health

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341; email: JFoltz@cdc.go

Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2012. 32:391–415

First published online as a Review in Advance on
April 23, 2012

The Annual Review of Nutrition is online at
nutr.annualreviews.or

This article’s doi:
10.1146/annurev-nutr-071811-150646

0199-9885/12/0821-0391$20.00

∗This is a work of the U.S. Government and is
not subject to copyright protection in th

United States

Keywords

obesity prevention, children, nutrition, physical activity, interventions

Abstract

With obesity affecting approximately 12.5 million American youth,
population-level interventions are indicated to help support healthy
behaviors. The purpose of this review is to provide a summary of
population-level intervention strategies and specific intervention exam-
ples that illustrate ways to help prevent and control obesity in children
through improving nutrition and physical activity behaviors. Informa-
tion is summarized within the settings where children live, learn, and
play (early care and education, school, community, health care, home).
Intervention strategies are activities or changes intended to promote
healthful behaviors in children. They were identified from (a) systematic
reviews; (b) evidence- and expert consensus–based recommendations,
guidelines, or standards from nongovernmental or federal agencies;
and finally (c) peer-reviewed synthesis reviews. Intervention examples
illustrate how at least one of the strategies was used in a particular
setting. To identify interventions examples, we considered (a) peer-
reviewed literature as well as (b) additional sources with research-tested
and practice-based initiatives. Researchers and practitioners may use
this review as they set priorities and promote integration across settings
and to find research- and practice-tested intervention examples that can
be replicated in their communities for childhood obesity prevention.

391

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IOM: Institute of
Medicine

Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
INTERVENTIONS BY

SETTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Early Care and Education . . . . . . . . . . 394
School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Home and Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Multiple Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

FUTURE DIRECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

INTRODUCTION

Poor nutrition and inactivity contribute to
childhood obesity, which currently affects ap-
proximately 12.5 million American youth (86).
Children who are obese are more likely to have
adverse health conditions such as hypertension,
dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, asthma, and non-
alcoholic fatty liver disease. In addition to phys-
ical health issues, children who are obese have a
greater risk of social and psychosocial problems,
such as discrimination and poor self-esteem
(31, 44, 109). Childhood obesity is also asso-
ciated with increased school absenteeism and
poorer school performance (45, 111). In addi-
tion to these immediate consequences, obese
children are also more likely to become obese
adults (101), which is associated with serious
health conditions including heart disease, di-
abetes, and some cancers. Estimates of health
care costs associated with adult obesity were ap-
proximately $147 billion in 2008 dollars (40).

Intervention strategies that can improve
nutrition target behaviors to help prevent
childhood obesity include increasing fruit and
vegetable intake and decreasing calories from
added sugars and solid fats (119). The National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
findings indicate that American children and
youth consume too many calories from solid
fats, added sugars, and refined grains (119). A
healthy eating pattern limits intake of these
items and emphasizes nutrient-dense foods

such as vegetables and fruits, whole grains, and
low-fat/non-fat dairy sources (119).

Additional obesity intervention strategies
address activity behaviors and include increas-
ing physical activity and decreasing sedentary
and screen time. According to the 2008 Physi-
cal Activity Guidelines for Americans, children
and adolescents ages 6–17 years old should take
part in one hour or more of physical activity ev-
ery day, with the majority of time spent in either
moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic phys-
ical activity (120). As part of their daily phys-
ical activity, children and adolescents should
do vigorous-intensity activity as well as muscle-
and bone-strengthening activity each on at least
three days per week. Evidence suggests that
physical activity results in a favorable body com-
position in children (120).

A number of organizations and high-level
officials have put forward recommendations for
childhood obesity prevention, including the
U.S. Surgeon General’s Vision for a Fit and
Healthy Nation and the President’s Childhood
Obesity Task Force (121, 126). In addition, the
National Physical Activity Plan and the Insti-
tute of Medicine (IOM) have put forward pub-
lications for decision makers and policy mak-
ers including the Local Government Actions
to Prevent Childhood Obesity and the Early
Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies that
move the field from research evidence to action
(http://iom.edu/Reports).

Efforts to address child obesity can span lev-
els and settings. As reviewed by Swinburn et al.
(110), the physiology of energy balance is de-
termined proximally by behaviors and distally
by environments. Population-wide reductions
in childhood obesity will require a compre-
hensive response where individual changes in
diet and activity behaviors supported by health-
ful environments in multiple settings have the
potential to collectively promote energy bal-
ance (61). Building upon the socioecological
model (107) and the 2007 prevention frame-
work for childhood obesity (61), the ecolog-
ical framework in Figure 1 shows that be-
havioral choices are influenced not only by
settings where children spend time (physical

392 Foltz et al.

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NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

environments such as early care and education,
school, health care, community, home) but also
by macrolevel sectors (e.g., agriculture poli-
cies, food systems, transportation), social net-
works (family, friends, peers), and individual
factors (e.g., skills, attitudes, preferences, de-
mographic characteristics.) As synthesized by
Brennan et al. (13), policies can be levers to al-
ter multiple environments, including the phys-
ical, economic, communication, and social en-
vironment. These systems, or environmental
changes, can alter social norms, attitudes, and
motivations as well as seek to improve equitab

access, resources, and supports for healthy eat-
ing and active living. Environments can also be
altered without the use of regulation or policy,
such as through organizational-level change.
Both policy and environmental changes may
also help to reduce disparities by improving ac-
cess to and the availability of healthy food and
physical activity outlets (13, 107). Behavioral
and social support interventions include those
that improve knowledge, attitudes, and skills,
through curricula or media venues, as well as
processes that use social relationships or so-
cial resources to promote health and well-being
(25).

Selecting which interventions to use for
childhood obesity prevention is a complex pro-
cess informed by many considerations. Various
approaches have been developed to look at
various intervention elements and quality of
evidence. Systematic reviews, such as those
published in Cochrane Reviews and The Guide
to Community Preventive Services (Commu-
nity Guide) (27), have looked at the body of
evidence for select obesity prevention topics to
identify all relevant studies, assess their quality,
and summarize the evidence. In addition to
evidence of intervention effectiveness, other
aspects to consider in order to address the
problem of obesity include reach and cost. A
number of groups have worked toward defining
elements of successful interventions, such as
RE-AIM (Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption,
Implementation, Maintenance) (47), and an
expansion of this model, Assessing the Cost-
Effectiveness of Obesity in children (ACE) (17).

While the evidence of what works to
improve nutrition and physical activity and
to ultimately reduce childhood obesity is
building, a number of groups are evaluating
the quality of evidence that appears promising.
The IOM acknowledges the need to consider
other forms of evidence in its report Bridging
the Evidence Gap in Obesity Prevention: A
Framework to Inform Decision Making and its
LEAD framework (short for Locate evidence,
Evaluate evidence, Assemble evidence, and
inform Decisions) for obesity prevention (66).
The framework helps to assemble the evidence
for childhood obesity prevention through steps
that identify and evaluate the best evidence
available and summarize it for use. Brennan
et al. (13) have created tiers of evidence to sum-
marize findings for individual interventions and
across policy and environmental interventions.

An approach to expanding the base of
available evidence is to draw on interventions
developed not only in research settings but also
in practice (i.e., practice-based interventions

)

as described by Leeman et al. (71). The latter
may have the advantage of being more feasible
to implement and more compatible with
existing community efforts than researcher-
developed interventions. These interventions
add a source of “best available evidence” to
guide community-level practice (71). For this
purpose, the Center of Excellence for Training
and Research Translation (22) developed a
process to identify, review, translate, and
disseminate the evidence and guidance public
health practitioners need to implement effec-
tive interventions. Interventions are reviewed
according to whether they meet baseline
criteria in three areas: (a) potential public
health impact [guided by the RE-AIM frame-
work (47)]; (b) dissemination readiness (by
assessing the extent to which the intervention
is described sufficiently to allow replication and
materials/supporting documents are available
for download and of useable quality); and
(c) effectiveness [using criteria adapted from
the process used by the Community Guide (27)
to assess the strength of evidence of research-
tested interventions (127)]. After reviewing a

www.annualreviews.org • Population-Level Intervention Strategies 393

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NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

CDC: Centers for
Disease Control and
Prevention

ECE: early care and
education

practice-based intervention, an intervention
may be classified as “practice-tested,” which
meets all practice-based criteria, or “emerg-
ing,” which meets the first two criteria, and
although the later intervention may lack eval-
uation findings reporting effects on targeted
outcomes, the approach must be innovative and
its effectiveness considered highly plausible.

The purpose of this review is to provide
a summary of population-level intervention
strategies and specific examples that illustrate
ways to improve nutrition and physical activi

behaviors to prevent childhood obesity, includ-
ing educational, social support, policy, system,
and environmental approaches.

Intervention strategies and specific ex-
amples were selected through methods that
allowed the authors to compile available
evidence on research- and practice-based
interventions. Intervention strategies we

activities or changes intended to promote
healthful behaviors in children. They were
identified from (a) systematic reviews (e.g.,
Cochrane Reviews, The Community Guide);
(b) evidence- and expert consensus–based
recommendations, guidelines, or standards
from nongovernmental groups [e.g., the IOM’s
Early Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies:
Goals, Recommendations, and Potential
Actions (56)] or federal agencies [e.g., the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) School Health Guidelines to Promote
Healthy Eating and Physical Activity (20)]; and
(c) peer-reviewed synthesis reviews. Interven-
tion examples illustrate how at least one of
the strategies was used in a particular setting.
To identify interventions examples, we con-
sidered (a) peer-reviewed literature as well as
(b) sources with research-tested and practice-
based initiatives that have been examined
and found to have underlying logic and an
evidence-base and are ready for dissemination
[e.g., Center of Excellence for Training and
Research Translation (22), the Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration,
and the National Cancer Institute’s Research-
Tested Intervention Programs (108)]. In addi-
tion to these publicly available sources, we also

(c) spoke with experts about key emerging
and promising examples. Content experts for
each setting summarized available intervention
strategies and selected intervention examples
for inclusion in the review.

INTERVENTIONS BY SETTINGS

The following sections provide an overview
of setting-specific interventions across five set-
tings (early care and education, school, health
care, home, community). A summary of the in-
tervention examples provided in the review is
presented in Table 1.

Early Care and Education

A key setting for childhood obesity prevention
efforts is early care (i.e., child care) and edu-
cation (ECE). Over 11 million children under
the age of five spend an average of 36 hours in
any given week in ECE (76), and 61% of all
preschool children receive some form of non-
parental child care on a regular basis (38). In ad-
dition to the time spent in ECE during which
a large amount of activity and healthy eating
can occur, ECE also provides an opportunity
to shape healthy behaviors through education
and role modeling. Children aged 2 to 5 yea

in child care are more likely to eat a food when
an adult role model eats that food or one simi-
lar (1). Not only does this influence consump-
tion, but habits developed in early childhood
may potentially track into later life behaviors as
well, thus affecting a lifetime of healthy eating
and activity (102, 114). Although ECE settings
are important for obesity prevention, they are
often an untapped opportunity for supportive
nutrition and physical activity changes (64).

Strategies for the ECE setting can be drawn
from a variety of sources. A 2011 Cochrane
review of interventions for preventing child
obesity found that environments and cultural
practices supported children eating healthier
foods and being active throughout each day
(125). This finding is relevant to the ECE
setting along with other settings a child is
in throughout the day. Practices supporting

394 Foltz et al.

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

Table 1 Childhood obesity prevention intervention examples and settings for improved nutrition and physical activity

Intervention example Setting Target

ECE School

Community

Health

care Home Nutrition
Physical
activity

5-2-1-0 (74) X

X X

Baltimore Healthy Stores (22)a X X
Bienestar (108)d X

X X X

Brocodile the Crocodile (68) X X X
Campaign for a Commercial-Free
Childhood (16)

X X X

Child and Adolescent Trial for
Cardiovascular Health (108)d

X X X X

Color Me Healthy (22)b X X X
Eat Better, Eat Together (124) X X X
Eat Well Play Hard (22)c X X X
Eat Well, Keep Moving (108)d X X X X X
Fresh Food Financing Initiative
(22)b

X X

Health Bucks (22)c X X
Healthy Food Environments
Pricing Incentives (22)b

X X X

High 5 for Kids (51) X X
Hip-Hop to Health Jr. (41) X X X
Lifestyle Education for Activity
Program (88)

X X X X

Mind, Exercise, Nutrition . . . Do
It! (96)

X X X

Nutrition and Physical Activity
Self-Assessment for Child Care
(22)a

X X X

New York City child-care
regulations (22)c

X X X

Obesity Prevention Plus
Parenting Support (52)

X X X

PACE+ (89) X X X
Riverside Unified School District
Farmers’ Market Salad Bar
Program (22)b

X X

Safe Routes to School (104) X X X
School Nutrition Policy Initiative
(43)

X X X X

Shape Up Somerville (35) X X X X X X
Sports Play Active Recreation for
Kids (108)d

X X

Take 10! (106) X X
Team Up at Home (116) X X X

(Continued )

www.annualreviews.org • Population-Level Intervention Strategies 395

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

Table 1 (Continued )

Intervention example Setting Target
ECE School Community
Health
care Home Nutrition
Physical
activity

The National Gardening
Association, Kids Gardening
Program (115)

X X

Turnoff Week (23) X X X
VERB Campaign (54) X X
Ways to Enhance Children’s
Activity and Nutrition (78)

X X X

aStrength of evidence-level research-tested intervention per Center of Excellence for Training and Research Translation (TRT),
http://www.center-trt.org/index.cfm.
bStrength of evidence-level practice-tested intervention per Center TRT, http://www.center-trt.org/index.cfm.
cStrength of evidence-level emerging intervention per Center TRT, http://www.center-trt.org/index.cfm.
dStrength of evidence-level research-tested intervention per the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration and the National Cancer
Institute, http://rtips.cancer.gov/rtips/programSearch.do.
Abbreviation: ECE, early care and education.

healthier foods and being active are recom-
mended by the IOM (56). Strategies for pre-
venting childhood obesity specific to the ECE
setting have also been developed in partnership
with the American Academy of Pediatrics, the
American Public Health Association, the Na-
tional Resource Center for Health and Safety in
Child Care and Early Education, and the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (4).
These evidenced-based and expert consensus–
developed standards include recommendations
to make water available throughout the day,
limit 100% fruit juice to 4–6 ounces for 1- to
6-year-old children, avoid serving sweets, of-
fer nutrition education to children and parents,
promote active daily play, limit screen time,
and encourage caregivers to be role models of
healthy eating habits and physical activity (3).
Additionally, in a recent review of evidence for
obesity prevention in ECE center–based care,
strategies that were employed in interventions
that successfully improved nutrition or physi-
cal activity outcomes included modifying food-
service practices, providing classroom-based
nutrition education, integrating additional op-
portunities for physical activity into classroom
curriculum, and engaging parents through ed-
ucational newsletters or activities (68).

Only two ECE center–based interventions
examples have successfully demonstrated a pos-
itive effect on child weight status (68). These
interventions were Hip-Hop to Health Jr. (41),
with nutrition and exercise lessons and parental
assignments, and a preschool dietary/physical
activity intervention in Israel with classroom
nutrition education, exercise training, and en-
couragement to increase activity after school
(37). Both of these examples included multi-
ple components to address nutrition, physical
activity, and sedentary behaviors. Although a
number of center-based care (e.g., child-care
centers, preschools, Head Start programs) in-
terventions are under way, no published inter-
ventions have been designed for implementa-
tion in family child-care homes (68).

An example intervention that has a fo-
cus on behavioral change but also includes
an environmental component is Color Me
Healthy (22). Color Me Healthy is a practice-
tested intervention that has been shown to
improve fruit and vegetable intake and increase
physical activity among 4- and 5-year-old
children in ECE settings by addressing the
individual and interpersonal levels of the
socioecological model. It provides a highly
visual and interactive curriculum that increases

396 Foltz et al.

http://www.center-trt.org/index.cfm

http://rtips.cancer.gov/rtips/programSearch.do

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

exposure to nutrition education and physical
access opportunities for physical activity and
includes training of ECE providers, cur-
riculum and teaching materials for teachers,
developmentally appropriate lessons, the
Color Me Healthy music, and a reinforcing
classroom environment. This program used
ECE providers and parents as teachers and
role models to provide social support as well
as increased opportunities for physical activity
through various curriculum activities. As a
result, children increased fruit and vegetable
consumption, and ECE providers reported
increased physical activity of children while
in their care, increased willingness to try new
foods, and increased nutrition and physical
activity knowledge (22). Another example, Eat
Well Play Hard, is an emerging intervention
that seeks to increase self-efficacy and behav-
ioral capabilities of preschool-aged children
and their parents through skill-building activ-
ities related to nutrition and physical activity
behaviors and to improve social support by
creating a supportive environment to foster
behavior change. The program is designed
for centers serving low-income families. This
multicomponent intervention could produce
desired outcomes in the ECE setting since
similar interventions have been effective at
increasing fruit and vegetable consumption and
physical activity in schools (22). Additionally,
programs such as Brocodile the Crocodile,
which included classroom education and home
activities focused on reducing TV viewing,
have been useful in decreasing screen time (68).

Child-care policy interventions can include
standards, regulations, or legislation at the
provider level (i.e., in child-care centers or
homes), agencywide, across a county and/or
state to promote healthier foods and physical
activity. These policies affect the nutrition
and physical activity environment and can also
provide opportunities for health education,
behavior development, healthy food consump-
tion, and physical activity time. Currently, most
states lack strong regulations for ECE settings
related to healthy eating and physical activity;
child-care centers are the most regulated,

followed by large family and group child-care
homes, and then small child-care homes
(68). How each state meets select Caring for
Our Children childhood obesity prevention
standards was assessed for child-care centers,
large family child-care homes, and small fam

ily

child-care homes (83). Only 12% of U.S. state
regulations fully meet standards across all
child-care types and all components, 32% only
partially mention the standard, 52% do not
refer to the standard, and 1% contradict it. The
nutrition components were slightly more often
met (13%) than the physical activity standards
(9%). These results identify strengths and areas
for improvement, and the associated National
Resource Center’s Licensing Toolkit (83)
can be useful for caregivers, legislators, and
licensing agents to strengthen regulations. At
the city and state levels, examples of changed
ECE policy to improve child health include
New York City and Delaware. Amendments
in the New York City Health Code include
policies to institute stricter nutritional stan-
dards, establish minimum requirements on
indoor and outdoor play, provide structured
and guided physical activity, and establish
limits on sedentary TV viewing (22).

One policy and environmental example at
the provider level is the Nutrition and Physical
Activity Self-Assessment for Child Care (NAP
SACC), a research-tested intervention that is
designed to assess policies and best practices
and highlight areas where modifications would
be beneficial. It uses self-assessment of 14 areas
of nutrition and physical activity policy, prac-
tice, and environment to identify strengths and
weakness of the ECE facility; a health consul-
tant to set goals for change and develop plans
for practice improvement; and staff training
and technical assistance to promote organiza-
tion change. NAP SACC can be used to guide
adaptation of strategies for the ECE setting,
including social support for nutrition and
physical activity using ECE providers as role
models, increasing availability of healthy foods
through menu changes, increasing active play
while in ECE, and increasing access to places
for activity through changes in play space.

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NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

PE: physical
education

Intervention ECE centers have increased
their total ECE nutrition environment scores
by 16% (p < 0.01 compared with control centers); physical activity scores, though not statistically significant from controls, showed positive improvement (22). The Let’s Move! child-care initiative encourages ECE providers and parents to improve the quality of nutrition, physical activity, screen time, and infant feeding in child-care settings and is based upon the NAP SACC model.

School

Schools are another key setting for obesity
prevention because 95% of youth ages 5 to
17 years are enrolled in schools for approxi-
mately six hours each school day (103). School
health programs and policies can promote
a school environment that supports healthy
eating and physical activity and provides
opportunities for students to learn about and
practice these behaviors (20). Specifically,
physical education (PE) and health education
have historically been considered part of the
K–12 curriculum in the United States (75).
In addition, the federal school meal program,
which was established more than 60 years ago,
each school day feeds approximately 30 million
students who participate in the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture (USDA) National School
Lunch Program and approximately 10 million
students who participate in the School Break-
fast Program (117, 118). Many evidence-based
strategies exist to prevent obesity through
quality physical and health education and
school nutrition environments (20).

A number of promising school-based strate-
gies for preventing childhood obesity were
identified in a Cochrane systematic review:
Establish an environment that promotes
healthy eating and physical activity; incorporate
healthy eating, physical activity, and body im-
age topics into the school curriculum; add more
sessions for physical activity throughout the
school week; improve the nutrition quality of
the school food supply; and provide training for
teachers on implementing health-promotion

strategies (125) Additionally, certain school-
based strategies were found to be cost saving
in a recent cost-effectiveness review, including
education to reduce television viewing, educa-
tion to reduce sugar-sweetened drink consump-
tion, and multifaceted programs that include
nutrition and physical activity (50). The CDC’s
School Health Guidelines to Promote Healthy
Eating and Physical Activity synthesizes the re-
sults of a systematic literature review into guide-
lines for schools to help address and prevent
obesity through a coordinated approach. The
report includes evidence-based recommenda-
tions for teaching students about how to en-
gage in healthy eating and physical activity as
well as creating an environment that allows stu-
dents to witness and practice healthy behaviors
(20). For healthy eating strategies, the IOM rec-
ommends that schools offer foods and bever-
ages that comply with and promote the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans to address the nutri-
tional quality of the school food supply (57, 58).
The IOM provides dietary guidance for school
meals to increase the requirements for fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains; require only fat-
free and low-fat milk; and decrease the amount
of sodium and trans fat (57). In addition, the
IOM provides dietary guidance for foods sold
outside the federal school meal programs (i.e.,
competitive foods) through venues such as the
school cafeteria á la carte lines, vending ma-
chines, school stores, snack bars, concession
stands, classroom parties, and fundraisers on
school grounds, which offer and sell foods and
beverages to students across the school day (58).
Most competitive foods offered in these venues
are high in sugar, fat, and calories, includ-
ing high-fat salty snacks, high-fat baked goods,
and high-calorie sugar-sweetened beverages,
such as soft drinks, sport drinks, and fruit
drinks (20). The USDA released the new Nu-
trition Standards in the National School Lunch
and School Breakfast Programs to increase re-
quirements for fruits, vegetables, and whole
grains; require only nonfat and low-fat milk;
and update the age-appropriate calorie ranges
(85). The Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of
2010 required schools to provide free drinking

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water during lunch meal times and required
the USDA to develop federal nutrition stan-
dards for competitive foods consistent with the
Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

In 2006, less than 8% of schools provided
daily PE for the entire school year for stu-
dents in all grades, and 21% of elementary
schools did not provide regularly scheduled re-
cess (70). A Cochrane systematic review con-
cluded that school-based physical activity inter-
ventions can have a positive impact on physical
activity, fitness, sedentary behavior, and blood
cholesterol levels (33). The Community Guide
recommends adding more time for PE and im-
plementing practices that increase the amount
of time students are engaged in moderate to
vigorous physical activity during PE (14, 63).
The National Physical Activity Plan (82) strate-
gies for schools include implementing state and
district policies requiring school accountability
for physical activity, linking youth with com-
munity opportunities, providing before- and
after-school opportunities, providing access to
physical activity opportunities, incorporating
population-focused physical activity promotion
training in degree and certificate programs, and
providing comprehensive school-based physi-
cal activity programs. For example, schools can
contribute to a substantial portion of child and
adolescent physical activity by providing stu-
dents with a comprehensive school-based phys-
ical activity program. A comprehensive school-
based physical activity program includes daily
PE, recess, and other physical activity breaks;
intramurals and physical activity clubs; inter-
scholastic sports; and walk- and bicycle-to-
school initiatives (20).

School-based examples that focus on behav-
ior change incorporate healthy eating, physical
activity, sedentary activity, and weight manage-
ment topics into health education (108). Health
education that incorporates these topics can
improve student dietary behaviors and physical
activity participation levels; reduce sedentary
behaviors; and improve serum cholesterol
levels, blood pressure, and body mass index
(BMI) (20). For example, Planet Health,

a research-tested intervention, integrated
classroom health topics (e.g., physical activity,
nutrition, and sedentary behaviors) into major
subject areas (e.g., language arts, math) and
physical education. The prevalence of obesity
among girls participating in the intervention
was reduced. Both boys and girls participating
in Planet Health watched fewer hours of
television, and girls consumed more fruits and
vegetables (49). Other examples of research-
tested interventions with a health education
component include Bienestar, the Eat Well
and Keep Moving Program, and the Child and
Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health
(CATCH) (108).

Nutrition environment interventions have
impacted the school nutrition environment by
changing the dietary quality of the foods and
beverages offered and restricting less healthy
options. One approach is to train nutrition
services staff to use healthy food preparation
techniques for school meals. One component
of CATCH focused on training food service
personnel to produce school meals that were
lower in total fat, saturated fat, and sodium,
resulting in decrease intake of saturated fat
and dietary cholesterol by students at inter-
vention schools (73, 108). When CATCH
was replicated in low-income schools, students
participating in the intervention experienced a
slower rate of increase in obesity (26). Another
school nutrition environment strategy is to
make fruits, nonfried vegetables, and free water
more accessible to students throughout the
school day and on the entire campus. Schools
might also consider implementing school gar-
den programs, farm-to-school programs, and
salad bars in the cafeteria (20). For example,
the Riverside Unified School District Farmers’
Market Salad Bar Program is a practice-based
intervention example wherein students had
access to a daily salad bar stocked with produce
provided by local farmers. The program
resulted in students consuming more servings
of fruits and vegetables for lunch (22). In
addition to changes in dietary habits, salad bar,
school garden, and farm-to-school programs

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OCCM: Obesity
Chronic Care Model

can increase student knowledge, awareness,
and preferences for fruits and vegetables (20).

Physical activity interventions play an im-
portant role in school-based obesity prevention
by adding more time for physical activity and in-
creasing the time students are engaged in mod-
erate to vigorous physical activity. The Sports,
Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)
program is a research-tested intervention that
used PE specialists to implement instructional
strategies to increase the amount of time stu-
dents spend in moderate to vigorous physical
activity in PE (99, 108). Students in the inter-
vention ultimately participated in more minutes
of moderate to vigorous physical activity and
expended more calories during PE. In addition,
SPARK demonstrated that having a trained PE
specialist was a key strategy to achieving this
effect (99). Examples of adding more time for
physical activity through PE and before, dur-
ing, and after school include Take 10!, which
incorporated activity into elementary academic
subjects (106), and the Lifestyle Education for
Activity Program, which addressed PE and
physical activity throughout the school day (88).

School-based obesity prevention has also
been addressed in local school wellness policy
examples. Each school district participating in
the federal school meal programs must have a
local school wellness policy with goals around
nutrition and physical activity. For example,
the policy must include goals for nutrition
promotion and education, physical activity,
and other school-based activities that promote
student wellness, and nutrition guidelines for
all foods available on each school campus
(93). The School Nutrition Policy Initiative
implemented a comprehensive intervention
to address school nutrition through self-
assessment using the CDC’s School Health
Index, staff training, nutrition education, nutri-
tion policy, social media, and family outreach.
Schools established nutrition standards based
on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans for
all foods served and sold in schools (21, 43).
After two years, significantly fewer children in
the intervention schools became overweight
than in the control schools (43).

Health Care

Health care providers, including primary care
physicians, nurse practitioners, nurses, and
others are positioned to help address childhood
obesity. With over 160 million health care
visits every year (90), providers have the oppor-
tunity to engage individuals in chronic disease
prevention, including children and families.
Practitioners can influence practices, policies,
systems, and environments where children
spend time by incorporating the Obesity
Chronic Care Model (OCCM) and obesity
prevention recommendations into practice, and
through advocacy, community involvement,
and collaborations with local and state health
departments, schools, recreation facilities, and
community organizations (32). The OCCM
framework highlights the ways in which health
care provider interventions play an important
role in reducing childhood obesity. In the
OCCM, health care for individuals with
obesity takes place in three overlapping arenas:
(a) the entire community and its resources and
policies, (b) the health care system and payment
structures, and (c) the health care provider
organization, from large delivery systems to
smaller clinics and practices (32, 62). The
OCCM centers on patient self-management
and links the health care system with the
environmental spheres, from the individual
and family through the community and society.

The evidence base for health care strategies
to address childhood obesity comes from
several key sources. A Cochrane Review of
lifestyle interventions for treating obesity
included 54 trials in children and adolescents
focusing on physical activity, diet, or com-
bined behavioral approaches in the health
care, school, or community setting. It found
reductions in overweight and obesity up to
12 months postintervention (87). The U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force conducted a
systematic review and recommended that for
children over 6 years of age, clinicians should
screen for obesity using BMI and provide them
or refer them to comprehensive moderate-
to high-intensity behavioral interventions

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to promote improvement in weight status
(123). This recommendation was based on the
assessment of a net moderate benefit for such
interventions as measured by reductions in
overweight and obesity at 12 months postin-
tervention. National organizations have also
recommended BMI assessment and behavioral
counseling by health care professionals: In
2007, the Expert Committee convened by the
American Medical Association, in collaboration
with the CDC and Health Research Services
Administration, provided recommendations on
the clinical prevention, assessment, and treat-
ment of childhood obesity (9). The committee
divided treatment into steps that include BMI
assessment, counseling, providing a struc-
tured weight-management plan, and using a
comprehensive intervention delivered by mul-
tidisciplinary teams. The American Academy
of Pediatrics (AAP) endorsed the committee’s
recommendations. Several federal organiza-
tions have also provided recommendations
that health care providers and systems support
BMI assessment and behavioral counseling for
children and adolescents (121, 122, 126). There
were no systematic reviews or studies of the
role of health care providers or systems in role
modeling healthy behaviors and lifestyles for
the prevention of childhood obesity. However,
the Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy
and Fit Nation recommended that health
systems help providers practice and model
healthy behaviors by providing and making
healthier choices within hospitals and health
care systems. Furthermore, at the population
level providers can be agents of broader systems
change, such as healthier food and physical
activity choices, within their own communities
and states (2, 69). The National Initiative for
Children’s Healthcare Quality profiles these
systems strategies through the Be Our Voice
campaign (79). Additionally, the AAP Expert
Committee on the prevention and treatment of
obese and overweight children recommended
that health care providers advocate for safe
parks and recreation centers, local initiatives
that support walking and bicycle paths to pro-
vide opportunities for physical activity, and for

other improvements to the built environment
in communities, including access to grocery
stores that offer low-cost healthy food (2, 9).

Interventions to improve behavioral out-
comes can involve counseling and referrals to
local resources. Use of counseling messages
along with motivational interviewing improves
some diet, physical activity, and sedentary be-
haviors (89, 112). Examples of nutrition mes-
sages that health care providers can incorporate
into practice include counseling on increasing
fruit and vegetable consumption and reducing
sugar beverage consumption (74). Most inves-
tigations in children have included these mes-
sages in a multicomponent intervention along
with physical activity and/or screen-time coun-
seling. One multicomponent intervention re-
structured primary care practices and provided
motivational interviewing by clinicians and ed-
ucational modules for families of young chil-
dren. Children in the intervention practices had
increases in fruit and vegetable consumption
and decreases in sugar beverage consumption,
although not statistically significant, by as much
0.12 servings/day and 0.22 drinks/day over one
year (112).

Younger children and their families should
be instructed on appropriate types of physi-
cal activity and play and duration based on
age. In young adolescents, interventions to in-
crease physical activity can incorporate other
modalities such as Web- or computer-based
programs, as in PACE+ (89). In the PACE+
study, there was a statistically significant in-
crease in physical activity in 11- to 13-year-olds
of 0.3 active days/week compared with standard
care (89). The AAP and several other groups
have disseminated targeted, multicomponent
behavioral counseling goals, such as the 5-2-1-0
toolkit (74). This toolkit includes daily recom-
mendations for five servings of fruits and veg-
etables, fewer than two hours of screen time,
one hour of physical activity, and no sugar
beverages. It can aid in the clinical encounter
and can be used to deliver consistent messages
across settings.

Another example of promoting the incor-
poration of systems change into practice is

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performance assessments, which can spur sys-
tems improvements in clinical care. The
Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information
Set, developed by the National Committee for
Quality Assurance, is a measure that health
plans can use as a tool to track performance
by providers and includes BMI assessment and
behavioral counseling (77).

Health care providers have helped promote
healthy nutrition and physical activity with
policy and environment changes within their
own clinics and hospitals. This approach can
increase healthy options for employees, visi-
tors, patients, and the neighboring community.
Foods served in health care settings not only
influence food choices on the day of the visit but
also influence patients’ perception of healthy
foods. A fast food chain on hospital grounds has
been associated with a four times higher rate of
consumption of fast food the day of the health
care visit, and respondents from the hospital
with fast food rated the fast food as healthier
than did respondents at other hospitals (98).
Furthermore, health care providers and insti-
tutions can send important messages as role
models for healthy food and physical activity.
Written policies can provide access to fruits
and vegetables, promote competitive pricing
of healthy options, increase the proportion of
healthy options in vending machines, and sup-
port physical activity breaks for employees. En-
vironment changes can place healthy beverages
at eye level or provide bike racks and safe and at-
tractive walking trails for activity. Some health
care facilities are increasing access to fruits and
vegetables by incorporating fresh, local produce
into health care food service (97) and hosting
farmers’ markets and community-supported
agriculture programs for patients, families,
employees, and the community (53). A compet-
itive pricing strategy, as part of a multipolicy
intervention in a hospital cafeteria, has been
shown to effectively change consumer choice
(22). The Healthy Food Environments Pricing
Incentives, a practice-tested intervention ex-
ample, can be used for children’s menus and to
encourage purchase (through a price decrease)

of healthier food choices such as fruits and
vegetables.

Some examples have improved the built en-
vironment to increase physical activity (14). Al-
though these studies have assessed only adults,
similar effects could be seen in the pediatric
population. For example, developing policies
for the use of stairs in health care facilities can
increase physical activity as well as promote a
culture of health.

Finally, health care providers are also in
a position to improve the health of their pa-
tients through working with their neighboring
communities. Education and support for policy
and environment change by health care pro-
fessionals is currently under way through the
National Initiative for Children’s Healthcare
Quality (80). Health care professionals who
provide information to school boards and city
councils can help make the case for nutrition
offerings and physical activity opportunities in
ECE and schools. In some instances, health
care providers’ efforts to improve policies and
environments can be a part of a coalition or food
council that addresses hospitals, clinics, schools,
and community-based settings.

Community

Community-based obesity intervention ap-
proaches can reach large sectors of the popula-
tion in an attempt to promote healthy nutrition
and physical activity choices for adults and chil-
dren. Communities are commonly referred to
as networks or groups of individuals who share
common beliefs, values, or culture (e.g., faith-
based community, social organizations, non-
profit organizations, residential communities)
but can also be individuals who reside and work
in common geographic locales and share a vari-
ety of common institutions (e.g., local govern-
ment) and resources (e.g., grocery stores).

A variety of strategies can be implemented
in the community setting. The 2011 Cochrane
review of interventions for preventing child
obesity found that environmental and cultural
practices that support children eating healthier

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foods and being more active throughout each
day, which includes their time in the commu-
nity, was a promising strategy (125). Although
a recent Cochrane Review of communitywide
interventions for physical activity in adults was
unable to support the hypothesis that mul-
ticomponent communitywide interventions
would increase population levels of physical
activity, it identified a clear need for well-
designed intervention studies to evaluate this
(8). Also relevant to the community setting are
the Community Guide (14) recommendations
on interventions aimed at increasing physical
activity, including community- and street-scale
urban design and land use policies, the cre-
ation or enhancement of places for physical
activity with informational outreach activities,
and community-wide campaigns to promote
physical activity. Community-based strategies
suggested in the Recommended Community
Strategies and Measurements to Prevent
Obesity in the Unites States include improving
access to outdoor recreation facilities, enhanc-
ing infrastructure for bicycling and walking,
locating schools within easy walking distance,
improving public transportation, and zoning
for mixed land use (65). Also, the community’s
built environment can influence residents’ ac-
cess to healthy affordable foods and beverages,
which can be increased through supportive
changes in food retail venues such as farmers’
markets, community gardens, and convenience
and grocery stores (67). The AAP Expert
Committee on the Prevention and Treatment
of Obese and Overweight Children stated that
efforts in the community can support obesity-
prevention behaviors through increased access
to healthy foods, media campaigns, and other
policy strategies that support healthy active
living (2, 9). Finally, the 2005 and 2007 IOM re-
ports (60, 61) outline broad recommendations
for communities and their partners, including
public health agencies, schools, and community
organizations, to encourage healthy eating and
physical activity. Specific strategies for com-
munities include programs aimed at promoting
healthy eating and expanding opportunities
for physical activity. As demonstrated by these

reviews of key literature, many recommenda-
tions include ways for children and adults to
access healthy foods and be active. Additional
strategies that can be implemented as part
of a communitywide intervention include
community-wide educational campaigns,
individual education, screening, counseling,
community events, and low-cost lifestyle
modifications (30, 36, 63). In addition, policy
and environmental strategies can be included
in organizations within the community
such as faith-based groups, public service
venues including government facilities (e.g.,
libraries, government workplaces), and park
and recreation facilities.

Interventions have increased healthy food
access in the community to support healthy
food choices by children and families. Examples
include policy and environmental changes that
increased access to corner and grocery stores,
community gardens, and farmers’ markets that
provide healthy food options as well as through
educational and behavioral interventions that
increase knowledge and decrease barriers to
their use. Interventions can aim to improve the
availability of nutritious foods in urban cor-
ner stores, as was the goal of the Baltimore
Healthy Stores (22) initiative. This research-
tested intervention provides low-income urban
community residents with increased knowledge
and access to healthy foods. It also helps store
owners with stocking and promoting health-
ier food options (22). State and local govern-
ments can take an active role in promoting
healthy nutrition through policy and environ-
mental changes. Pennsylvania’s practice-tested
Fresh Food Financing Initiative (22) focused on
providing access to healthy foods by giving gro-
cery stores and supermarkets financial incen-
tives in the form of grants and loans to operate
stores in underserved communities. In another
example, Health Bucks (22), funded by the New
York City Department of Health and Mental
Hygiene and other local government agencies,
aimed to increase access to fruits and vegetables
by directly providing low-income New York
City residents and recipients of the Women,
Infants, and Children program and the

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Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
with $2 coupons to redeem in local farm-
ers’ markets to purchase fruits and vegetables.
This emerging intervention has documented
increases in the distribution of Health Bucks
and their redemption rates, and the number of
farmers’ markets accepting Health Bucks has
increased annually from 2005 to 2009 (22). Fi-
nally, community gardens are a potential in-
tervention that may help to increase children’s
fruit and vegetable knowledge and intake and
impact tastes and preferences. Gardens may aid
in the promotion and knowledge of healthy
food consumption among youth by providing
multiple levels of exposure to fruits and vegeta-
bles, from planting to harvesting (95). Although
currently there is relatively little peer-reviewed
literature on the topic, garden-based nutrition
interventions have the potential to promote in-
creased intake and willingness to taste fruits and
vegetables. Many programs, such as the Na-
tional Gardening Association’s Kids Gardening
Program (115), have been implemented around
the country.

Creating task forces including those spe-
cific to the food system, such as food policy
councils or advisory coalitions, is an approach
to improving the nutritional environment of
communities outside of traditional government
leadership and is a recommended community
strategy to prevent obesity. The CDC’s Rec-
ommended Community Strategies for Obesity
Prevention encourage the organization of task
forces or councils at the state or community
level that can aid in the choice and implemen-
tation of strategies to increase access to and
availability of healthy foods and beverages (65).
Given the diversity of stakeholders in child-
hood obesity, sound leadership from a broad
cross-section of individuals who effectively
pool their influence, talents, and resources is
needed (61). Food policy councils typically
include in their membership local community
members from public, private, and nonprofit
sectors such as health, nutrition, agriculture,
policy, industry, and education. Many councils
are involved in activities that increase access
to and production and consumption of healthy

foods, including partnering with and encour-
aging farmers’ markets and stores to accept
food assistance benefits, and encouraging state
and local governments to consider policies to
enhance the nutrition environment (65).

Population-based built environment ap-
proaches that have potential to increase phys-
ical activity include complete streets, joint use
agreements, and opportunities for recreational
activity in parks and open spaces. Interventions
may increase access to sidewalks, bike paths, and
safe parks and recreational facilities and help
children become more physically active. For ex-
ample, Safe Routes to Schools, through which
states and local communities are awarded fed-
eral dollars to develop street crossing and pro-
mote walking and active commuting to school,
appears to be promising. Staunton and col-
leagues (104) found that youth who took part
in Safe Routes to Schools in Marin County,
California, reported an increase in walking
(64%) and biking (114%) to school.

Media interventions may help to support
environmental initiatives for obesity preven-
tion and appear to be cost-effective (50).
For healthy eating, these include counter-
advertising and/or reducing the marketing of
unhealthy foods to young children. Research
indicates that children who are exposed to high
levels of unhealthy food advertising are more
likely to request and consume such foods (59).
One example of a physical activity media inter-
vention is the VERBTM campaign (54), which
was a national social marketing campaign aimed
at encouraging daily physical activity for chil-
dren ages 9 to 13 years. Messages targeted chil-
dren in the home, school, and community set-
tings. The VERB campaign was found to pos-
itively influence physical activity outcomes in
children exposed to the campaign.

Other ways to promote community-based
obesity interventions include targeting specific
settings or community organizations within
high-risk communities. Overweight and obe-
sity is particularly high among certain racial
ethnic minority populations, including Mexi-
can American boys (40.5%) and non-Hispanic
black girls (41.3%) (86). Although many

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initiatives that include racial/ethnic minority
communities (42) have not been formally
evaluated, they warrant further investigation
because they provide an opportunity for cul-
turally targeted approaches to reduce obesity
in high-risk groups.

Home and Family

The most proximal setting that influences
childhood obesity is the home environment.
For children, the home environment represents
the first and primary socialization point for
healthy eating and adequate physical activity.
Interventions in home/family environment
at an early age may be important for obesity
prevention because eating habits and taste
preferences are established early in life and
track into adulthood (11, 28, 92, 105), and
older children begin to exercise more develop-
mentally appropriate control over their eating
and physical activity, and peers become more
important influences. Previous research indi-
cates that parents and other primary caregivers
influence children through various behaviors
including feeding practices (12) and modeling
of healthy eating (12) and physical activity (10,
34). Parental involvement is a critical aspect of
the short- and long-term success of obesity in-
terventions and has been used to develop child-
hood obesity prevention and intervention pro-
grams (60). Furthermore, there is evidence that
family-based interventions for youth who are
already overweight are effective and cost saving
(50).

Reports from the Cochrane Collaborative
(125), U.S. Surgeon General (121), IOM
(60), and AAP (29) underscore the role of
parents in preventing obesity and provide
recommendations to help aid them in this
effort. For example, the Cochrane review of
obesity prevention strategies recommends that
parents support home activities that encourage
children to be more active, eat more nutritious
foods, and spend less time in screen-based
activities (125). The Community Guide also
recommends behavioral interventions to
reduce screen time as a way to improve child

and adolescent weight status across a variety of
settings (19), including the home. Organi-
zations such as the IOM encourage obesity
prevention strategies such as limiting children’s
screen time and their exposure to food and
beverage marketing as well as the consistent
use of social marketing to promote obesity
prevention strategies (55). In addition to
limiting screen time and encouraging portion
control, the AAP recommends family meals and
authoritative parenting practices as strategies
to prevent childhood obesity (29). Federal rec-
ommendations mirror those recommendations
of national organizations. For example, the
Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy and Fit
Nation recommends that parents breastfeed
their infants, encourage their children to be
physically active, eat small portions, and be
role models by limiting their own television
viewing. The document also recommends that
parents talk to elected officials and law enforce-
ment about increasing neighborhood safety in
an effort to promote physical activity (121).

Caretakers can be a key focus of interven-
tions in the home, addressing parenting skills
and education, modeling practices, and chang-
ing the home environment. Research evidence
to date suggests that obesity interventions in
the home environment focusing exclusively on
parents are effective (48). One example that
has a parent-only focus is an add-on to the
Parents as Teachers program, a national parent
education program that uses in-home visitation
to help parents develop the skills needed to
promote health and developmental readiness
for children. An extension of the base program
is High 5 for Kids, a nutrition intervention
example through which parents of preschool
children, ages 2 to 5 years, receive instruction
from parent educators through four in-home
visits during which they are provided with
information about how to teach their children
about fruits and vegetables and how to change
the home environment and their own feeding
practices in ways that promote healthy eating.
Results indicate that parents of normal-weight
children and their children who took part in
the High 5 intervention were more likely to

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consume fruits and vegetables than were par-
ticipants in the control group with no nutrition
intervention (51). Similarly, a randomized
control trial of the Obesity Prevention Plus
Parenting Support (OPPS) intervention for
American Indian mothers with preschool-age
children (ages 9 months to 3 years) used home
visits to provide support in making changes in
lifestyle behaviors including nutrition, physical
activity, and parenting. Mothers who were
in the intervention group engaged in less-
restrictive child feeding practices over time, and
their children consumed fewer calories (52).

Multicomponent family-based interven-
tions that include behavioral and educational
strategies such as behavioral counseling,
promotion of physical activity, parent training/
modeling, dietary counseling, and nutrition ed-
ucation are successful in helping youth between
the ages of 5 and 12 (94). One example, the
Mind, Exercise, Nutrition . . . Do It! (MEND)
Program is an obesity prevention program that
promotes healthy lifestyles for children ages 2
to 4 years regardless of weight status and chil-
dren 5 to 13 years who are overweight. Parents
and children attend the sessions together in
various community settings (e.g., recreation
centers, schools), where they are provided with
developmentally appropriate methods for pre-
venting or treating obesity through workshops,
discussion groups, and physical activity time.
The MEND program efforts for youth 7 to
13 years are associated with the achievement
of healthier weight status and improvement
in physical activity levels, cardiovascular
fitness, sedentary behaviors, and self-esteem
(96). Hip-Hop to Health Jr. is a program for
younger children with similar components
including parental involvement through parent
newsletters, aerobics, and incentives such as
coupons. Hip-Hop to Health Jr. was evaluated
in a randomized control trial that focused on
healthy eating and physical activity among low-
income, predominantly African American, 3-
to 5-year-old children enrolled in Head Start.
Children in the intervention group had smaller
BMI increases than their peers in the control
group at one- and two-year follow-ups (41).

The family meal is another setting in which
healthy eating can be promoted. Children who
eat regular meals with their families are more
likely to eat fruits and vegetables (46) and less
likely to be overweight (113). Although much of
the research in this area has focused on adoles-
cents, obesity interventions have incorporated
family meals into their messaging. For exam-
ple, the USDA’s Team Up at Home (116) and
Eat Better, Eat Together (124) initiatives have
incorporated family meals into their messag-
ing through various means including toolkits
and helpful tips for parents. Other organiza-
tions such as the Nemours Foundation provide
online tips to help parents promote family meals
(84).

Social marketing campaigns can provide an
additional intervention to prevent childhood
obesity by educating families to reduce screen
time, take part in physical activity together, and
provide other opportunities for caregivers to
model and introduce various forms of physi-
cal activity to children. These campaigns have
increased physical activity among children.
Examples of social marketing campaigns in-
clude Turnoff Week, sponsored annually by the
Center for Screen-Time Awareness (23), and
the Campaign for a Commercial-Free Child-
hood (16), encouraging communities, espe-
cially families, to turn off their electronic media
(e.g., televisions, computers) for one week, re-
place screen time with physical activities, and
consider establishing rules limiting screen time
for the family. In some instances, entire com-
munities take part in the campaign and engage
in various activities in lieu of screen time.

Not only is family and parent involvement
part of interventions in the home setting, but
often it is embedded in obesity interventions
that address multiple settings. Most frequently,
family-based programs that encourage healthy
nutrition and physical activity are integrated
with interventions in the school setting, such
as CATCH (73). Other settings are also in-
tegrated with family-based programs. For ex-
ample, We Can! (Ways to Enhance Children’s
Activity & Nutrition) is a national obesity pre-
vention initiative that targets parents and youth

406 Foltz et al.

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

(ages 8 to 14 years) (78). The program, which
was developed as a result of a collaborative effort
of four institutes of the National Institutes of
Health, provides parents with tools and meth-
ods for promoting healthy eating and physical
activity and decreasing screen time among the
entire family. The program has three compo-
nents: community outreach, community part-
nership development with national organiza-
tions, and media messaging. Results indicate
that there were improvements in knowledge,
behaviors, and attitudes related to nutrition,
physical activity, and screen time for both par-
ents and children (81).

Multiple Settings

Interventions do not need to be limited to a
single setting but instead can span multiple set-
tings. Strong evidence exists that child obesity
prevention programs have beneficial effects on
BMI. Synthesis of this literature indicates that
supporting children’s healthy eating and activ-
ity throughout each day (thus a multi-setting
strategy) was a component of the intervention
programs that contributed most to beneficial
effects on weight status (125). The IOM rec-
ommends a comprehensive approach, and all
the environments of the socioecological model
have the potential to collectively promote en-
ergy balance (61). Additionally, as another strat-
egy that spans settings and provides linkages
between the settings, community health work-
ers (lay health workers who are widely used
to provide care for a broad range of health
issues including those that intend to improve
child health) can aid in cross-setting childhood
obesity prevention. A recent Cochrane review
found that community health workers provided
promising benefits in promoting the evaluated
interventions when compared with usual care
(72). A policy statement by the American Pub-
lic Health Association also supported commu-
nity health workers as a way to increase health
access and reduce health inequities (5). Link-
ages can be formed between community part-
ners (e.g., community coalitions), families and
care, or health care and community resources.

Promising findings are emerging from
multi-setting, multi-level interventions for
childhood obesity such as Shape Up Somerville
(35) and the California Healthy Eating Active
Communities Initiative (24, 100). Shape Up
Somerville (35), a multi-setting intervention ex-
ample, focused on environmental and policy
change to help children increase physical activ-
ity and improve nutrition through the integra-
tion of initiatives in numerous settings includ-
ing homes, schools, after-school programs, and
the wider community. Results of this study in-
dicated a reduction in children’s BMI z-scores
in comparison with control communities and
illustrates that a multifaceted intervention in-
volving multiple environments encountered by
young children can successfully prevent obesity
(35).

A final intervention, effective in other areas
of chronic disease management, is utilizing
community health workers (CHWs) to provide
education on obesity risk factors and to link
families to resources in multiple settings.
CHWs are individuals with additional training
whose services can be incorporated into health
care or community interventions to help
reach low-income, minority, or hard-to-reach
populations. CHWs, also known as lay health
workers, community health advisors, outreach
workers, or promotoras, typically share similar
ethnic, socioeconomic, and geographic charac-
teristics of the patients and families they serve.
CHWs have effectively worked within commu-
nities to reduce health disparities and improve
health outcomes associated with chronic
diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular
disease (7, 15, 39, 91). CHWs can provide
home-based counseling and education, serve
as the bridge between families and the health
care system, and engage different sectors of the
community (e.g., in faith-based centers) (15).
Families with young elementary school-aged
children receiving a promotora intervention
focusing on child nutrition and physical activity
were more likely than were control families
to exhibit improvements in parental behaviors
such as closer monitoring of their child’s
nutrition and physical activity, use of positive

www.annualreviews.org • Population-Level Intervention Strategies 407

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

reinforcement, and support for physical activity
(6). Other parenting changes in the interven-
tion group included less use of controlling
strategies, reduced television viewing during
evening mealtime, and less eating outside of
the home (6). CHW interventions have the
potential to reduce health care costs by linking
patients and families to community resources,
promoting healthy behaviors, and helping
patients manage chronic diseases, possibly
averting other expensive health care services
or unnecessary hospitalizations (15, 18).

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Future research directions include further
exploration of combining public health
and primary care interventions through
multi-setting, multi-level models to address
childhood obesity. A multi-level, multi-setting
framework for childhood obesity prevention is
depicted in Figure 2. Best available evidence
from interventions across various settings and
constructs can be applied in multiple settings
(ECE, school, health care, home, and com-
munity) and levels (through education, social
support, policy, systems, and environmental
change) to support nutrition and physical activ-
ity choices in a coordinated model for obesity
prevention. To date, the majority of research
and evaluation efforts have been a one-setting
analytic approach (e.g., in a school, without
ascertaining the role of the home environment,
the community, and the health care setting) de-
spite a general understanding that influences on
eating and activity across multiple settings are
part of the complex problem and solution for
obesity. As more initiatives are implemented
across multiple settings, examination of inter-
ventions for success in childhood obesity should
incorporate multiple settings in their design
to assess the attribution and/or contribution of
the other important settings that impact deci-
sions and behaviors. Along with this emerging
research involving multiple settings, levels,
and influences comes new decisions regarding
the choice of analytic approaches. These new
models can attempt to assess the synergy of

combining multiple approaches, try to tease out
which elements of these models are the most
successful, and attempt to determine factors af-
fecting generalizability so that effective models
can be applied in other diverse communities.
Also, research efforts should assess means of
providing linkages between and across settings;
for example, linkages among community
partners, community health workers, families
and institutions, and integrating consistent
messages across the settings. Given limited
resources, cost-effectiveness analyses and
impacts on health equity should be included as
well.

Future research priorities also may include
further assessment of tailored interventions for
high-risk populations that may be included in
population-level initiatives; the use of technol-
ogy such as novel electronic approaches, social
media, and electronic health records; examin-
ing healthy beginnings for infants and young
children (e.g., breastfeeding, introduction of
complementary foods, feeding styles and prac-
tices, sleep); identifying successful processes to
implement strategies such as in the formation
of community coalitions; and assessing sus-
tainability and long-term effects of interven-
tions. Additionally, new research in other dis-
ciplines such as behavioral economics can aid
our understanding of the interaction of the
environment and individual factors impacting
behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Creating supportive settings through policy,
system, and environmental interventions as
well as accompanying interventions that ad-
dress individual knowledge, decision making,
and social environments is recommended for
childhood obesity prevention. Each setting
documented here has a role to play in support-
ing children through their day. As the field
continues to move forward, this summary of
current population-level intervention strategies
and intervention examples for childhood obe-
sity prevention can aid stakeholders involved
in childhood obesity prevention efforts.

408 Foltz et al.

NU32CH19-Foltz ARI 9 July 2012 19:45

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review. The findings and conclusions in this
review are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the following individuals for their content expertise: David R.
Brown, William H. Dietz, Diane M. Harris, Caree J. Jackson, Terrence P. O’Toole, Meredith A.
Reynolds, Diane Thompson, and Holly R. Wethington.

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C-2 Foltz et al.

NU32-FrontMatter ARI 26 June 2012 13:26

Annual Review of
Nutrition

Volume 32, 2012Contents

An Unexpected Life in Nutrition
Malden C. Nesheim � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Michael J. Pagliassotti � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �17

Modeling Metabolic Adaptations and Energy Regulation in Humans
Kevin D. Hall � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �35

Hypomagnesemia and Inflammation: Clinical and Basic Aspects
William B. Weglicki � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �55

Selenoproteins and Cancer Prevention
Cindy D. Davis, Petra A. Tsuji, and John A. Milner � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �73

The Role of Vitamin D in Pregnancy and Lactation:
Insights from Animal Models and Clinical Studies
Christopher S. Kovacs � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �97

Vitamin A Metabolism in Rod and Cone Visual Cycles
John C. Saari � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 125

Lipoprotein Lipase in the Brain and Nervous System
Hong Wang and Robert H. Eckel � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 147

New Roles of HDL in Inflammation and Hematopoiesis
Xuewei Zhu and John S. Parks � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 161

Nutritional Metabolomics: Progress in Addressing Complexity
in Diet and Health
Dean P. Jones, Youngja Park, and Thomas R. Ziegler � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 183

Resolvins: Anti-Inflammatory and Proresolving Mediators Derived
from Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Michael J. Zhang and Matthew Spite � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 203

Visfatin/NAMPT: A Multifaceted Molecule with Diverse Roles
in Physiology and Pathophysiology
Tuva B. Dahl, Sverre Holm, Pål Aukrust, and Bente Halvorsen � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 229

Gene-Environment Interactions in the Development of Type 2
Diabetes: Recent Progress and Continuing Challenges
Marilyn C. Cornelis and Frank B. Hu � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 245

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NU32-FrontMatter ARI 26 June 2012 13:26

Mechanisms of Inflammatory Responses in Obese Adipose Tissue
Shengyi Sun, Yewei Ji, Sander Kersten, and Ling Qi � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 261

Bone Metabolism in Obesity and Weight Loss
Sue A. Shapses and Deeptha Sukumar � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 287

Obesity in Cancer Survival
Niyati Parekh, Urmila Chandran, and Elisa V. Bandera � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 311

Inflammation in Alcoholic Liver Disease
H. Joe Wang, Bin Gao, Samir Zakhari, and Laura E. Nagy � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 343

Lessons Learned from Randomized Clinical Trials of Micronutrient
Supplementation for Cancer Prevention
Susan T. Mayne, Leah M. Ferrucci, and Brenda Cartmel � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 369

Population-Level Intervention Strategies and Examples for Obesity
Prevention in Children
Jennifer L. Foltz, Ashleigh L. May, Brook Belay, Allison J. Nihiser,

Carrie A. Dooyema, and Heidi M. Blanck � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 391

Type 2 Diabetes in Asians: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Effectiveness
of Behavioral Intervention at Individual and Population Levels
Mary Beth Weber, Reena Oza-Frank, Lisa R. Staimez, Mohammed K. Ali,

and K.M. Venkat Narayan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 417

Indexes

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 28–32 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 441

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 28–32 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 444

Errata

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Nutrition articles may be found at
http://nutr.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml

vi Contents

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All Articles in the Annual Review of Nutrition, Vol. 32
An Unexpected Life in Nutrition
Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Modeling Metabolic Adaptations and Energy Regulation in Humans
Hypomagnesemia and Inflammation: Clinical and Basic Aspects
Selenoproteins and Cancer Prevention
The Role of Vitamin D in Pregnancy and Lactation: Insights from Animal Models and Clinical Studies
Vitamin A Metabolism in Rod and Cone Visual Cycles
Lipoprotein Lipase in the Brain and Nervous System
New Roles of HDL in Inflammation and Hematopoiesis
Nutritional Metabolomics: Progress in Addressing Complexity in Diet and Health
Resolvins: Anti-Inflammatory and Proresolving Mediators Derived from Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Visfatin/NAMPT : A Multifaceted Molecule with Diverse Rolesin Physiology and Pathophysiology
Gene-Environment Interactions in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes: Recent Progress and Continuing Challenges
Mechanisms of Inflammatory Responses in Obese Adipose Tissue
Bone Metabolism in Obesity and Weight Loss
Obesity in Cancer Survival
Inflammation in Alcoholic Liver Disease
Lessons Learned from Randomized Clinical Trials of Micronutrient Supplementation for Cancer Prevention
Population-Level Intervention Strategies and Examples for Obesity Prevention in Children
Type 2 Diabetes in Asians: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Effectiveness of Behavioral Intervention at Individual and Population Levels

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