Whether in a scholarly or practitioner setting, good research and data analysis should have the benefit of peer feedback. For this Discussion, you will perform an article critique on t tests. Be sure and remember that the goal is to obtain constructive feedback to improve the research and its interpretation, so please view this as an opportunity to learn from one another.

To prepare for this Discussion:

• Review the Learning Resources and the media programs related to t tests.
• Search for and select a quantitative article specific to your discipline and related to t tests. Help with this task may be found in the Course guide and assignment help linked in this week’s Learning Resources. Also, you can use as a guide the Research Design Alignment Table located in this week’s Learning Resources

 

Write a 3- to 5-paragraph critique of the article. In your critique, include responses to the following:

• Which is the research design used by the authors?
• Why did the authors use this t test?
• Do you think it’s the most appropriate choice? Why or why not?
• Did the authors display the data?
• Do the results stand alone? Why or why not?
• Did the authors report effect size? If yes, is this meaningful?  

Be sure to support your Main Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style.
 

Required Readings

Frankfort-Nachmias, C., Leon-Guerrero, A., & Davis, G. (2020). Social statistics for a diverse society (9th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chapter 8, “Testing Hypothesis” (pp. 243-279)
Wagner, III, W. E. (2020). Using IBM® SPSS® statistics for research methods and social science statistics (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Chapter 6, “Testing Hypotheses Using Means and Cross-Tabulation” (previously read in Week 5)
Chapter 11, “Editing Output” (previously read in Week 2, 3, and 4)

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/rsch8210r

Article is attached

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/rsch8210r

Rubric Detail – Blackboard Learn

file:///C/Users/bryants/Pictures/Camera Roll/Rubric Detail – Blackboard Learn.html[3/29/2021 10:17:23 AM]

Rubric Detail
Select Grid View or List View to change the rubric’s layout.

Excellent Good Fair Poor

Discussion
Posting Content

7.2 (36%) – 8 (40%)

Discussion posting
demonstrates an
excellent
understanding of
all of the concepts
and key points
presented in the
text(s) and
Learning
Resources.
Posting provides
significant detail
(including multiple
relevant
examples),
evidence from the
readings and other
scholarly sources,
and discerning
ideas.

6.4 (32%) – 7.1
(35.5%)

Discussion posting
demonstrates a
good
understanding of
most of the
concepts and key
points presented
in the text(s) and
Learning
Resources.
Posting provides
moderate detail
(including at least
one pertinent
example),
evidence from the
readings and other
scholarly sources,
and discerning
ideas.

5.6 (28%) – 6.3
(31.5%)

Discussion posting
demonstrates a
fair understanding
of the concepts
and key points as
presented in the
text(s) and
Learning
Resources.
Posting may be
lacking or
incorrect in some
area, or in detail
and specificity,
and/or may not
include sufficient
pertinent
examples or
provide sufficient
evidence from the
readings.

0 (0%) – 5.5
(27.5%)

Discussion posting
demonstrates poor
or no
understanding of
the concepts and
key points of the
text(s) and
Learning
Resources.
Posting is
incorrect and/or
shallow, and/or
does not include
any pertinent
examples or
provide sufficient
evidence from the
readings.

Peer Feedback
and Interaction

7.2 (36%) – 8 (40%)

Response posting
is excellent and
fully contributes to
the quality of
interaction by
offering
substantive

6.4 (32%) – 7.1
(35.5%)

Response posting
is good and
partially
contributes to the
quality of
interaction by

5.6 (28%) – 6.3
(31.5%)

Response posting
is fair and partially
contributes to the
quality of
interaction but
offers insufficient

0 (0%) – 5.5
(27.5%)

Student does not
interact with peers
(0 points) or the
response posting
does not
contribute to the

Name: RSCH_8210_Week6_Discussion_Rubric

Grid View List View

https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/bbgs-deep-links-BBLEARN/app/course/rubric?course_id=_16810844_1&rubric_id=_2228875_1#

https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/bbgs-deep-links-BBLEARN/app/course/rubric?course_id=_16810844_1&rubric_id=_2228875_1#

https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/bbgs-deep-links-BBLEARN/app/course/rubric?course_id=_16810844_1&rubric_id=_2228875_1#

Rubric Detail – Blackboard Learn
file:///C/Users/bryants/Pictures/Camera Roll/Rubric Detail – Blackboard Learn.html[3/29/2021 10:17:23 AM]

constructive
critiques,
suggestions, in-
depth questions,
additional
resources, and
stimulating
thoughts and/or
probes that draw
from the readings
and other
scholarly sources.

offering adequate
constructive
critiques,
suggestions, in-
depth questions,
additional
resources, and
stimulating
thoughts and/or
probes that draw
from the readings
and other
scholarly sources.

constructive
critiques or
suggestions,
shallow questions,
or provides poor
quality additional
resources.

quality of
interaction by
offering any
constructive
critiques,
suggestions,
questions, or
additional
resources.

Writing 3.6 (18%) – 4 (20%)
Postings are well
organized, use
scholarly tone,
contain original
writing and proper
paraphrasing,
follow APA Style,
contain very few
or no writing
and/or spelling
errors, and are
fully consistent
with graduate-
level writing style.

3.2 (16%) – 3.5
(17.5%)

Postings are
mostly consistent
with graduate-
level writing style.
Postings may
have some small
organization,
scholarly tone,
writing, or APA
Style issues,
and/or may
contain a few
writing and
spelling errors.

2.8 (14%) – 3.1
(15.5%)

Postings are
somewhat below
graduate-level
writing style.
Postings may be
lacking in
organization,
scholarly tone,
APA Style, and/or
contain many
writing and/or
spelling errors, or
show moderate
reliance on
quoting versus
original writing and
paraphrasing.

0 (0%) – 2.7
(13.5%)

ostings are well
below graduate-
level writing style
expectations for
organization,
scholarly tone,
APA Style, and
writing, or show
heavy reliance on
quoting.

Total Points: 20

Name: RSCH_8210_Week6_Discussion_Rubric

• Local Disk

Rubric Detail – Blackboard Learn

1. Fja2JvYXJkJTIwTGVhcm4uaHRtbAA=:

bottom_Exit:
bottom_Exit_(1):

Student Name:       Date:      

Research Design Alignment Table | Using an alignment table can assist with ensuring the alignment of your research design.

Research Problem, Purpose, and Framework
Provide one sentence for each. These must align with all rows.

Research Question(s), Method, & Design
List one or more RQs, as needed; select method; identify design. Use a separate form for additional RQs.

Data Collection Tools & Data Sources
List the instrument(s) and people, artifacts, or records that will provide the data for each RQ.

Data Points
List the variables, specific interview questions, scales, etc. that will be used for each RQ.

Data Analysis
Briefly describe the statistical or qualitative analysis that will address each RQ.

Problem:      
Purpose:      
Framework:      

RQ1:      
Design:      

     

     

     

RQ2:      
Design:      

     

     

     

RQ3:      
Design:      

     

     

     

Note. The information in the first column must align with all rows, and each individual RQ row must show alignment across the columns for that row.

Once your Research Design Alignment Table is completed, reflect on your design alignment. Ask yourself:

1. Is there a logical progression from the research problem to the purpose of the study?

2. Does the identified framework ground the investigation into the stated problem?

3. Do the problem, purpose, and framework in the left-hand column align with the RQ(s) (all rows)?

4. Does each RQ address the problem and align with the purpose of the study?

5. Does the information across each individual row match/align with the RQ listed for that row?

· By row, will the variables listed address the RQ?

· By row, will the analysis address the RQ?

· By row, can the analysis be completed with the data points that will be collected?

The effect of positive psychology interventions on hope and well-
being of adolescents living in a child and youth care centre
Krysia Teodorczuka, Tharina Guse b and Graham A du Plessisa

aDepartment of Psychology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa; bDepartment of Psychology,
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT
This study evaluated the effect of positive psychology interventions (PPIs)
on hope and well-being among adolescents living in a child and youth
care centre (CYCC) in South Africa. Adolescents (n = 29) were allocated
to either the experimental or control group through matched sampling.
The experimental group engaged in one-hour intervention sessions
weekly for six weeks. Measures of well-being and hope were recorded at
three time intervals. Independent- and paired-sample t-tests were
conducted to establish group differences. There were no statistically
significant differences in well-being and hope between the two groups
after the interventions. We discuss moderating factors and offer a
qualitative reflection to better understand these outcomes. With this
understanding, preliminary guidelines are proposed for implementing
PPIs in CYCCs.

ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 18 June 2018
Accepted 9 July 2018

KEYWORDS
Vulnerable adolescents; child
and youth care centres;
residential care; positive
psychology interventions;
well-being; hope

Adolescence is a transitional period of life involving rapid physical, biological, cognitive and psy-
chosocial development (Berger, 2011; Santrock, 2010). These substantial changes contribute
towards a notoriously tumultuous and challenging decade of life (Santrock, 2010). Adolescents
living in Child and Youth Care Centres (CYCCs) experience stressors beyond those of their
family-nurtured peers. Because of a history of complex and frequently maladaptive home, school
and social environments, these youths are vulnerable to increased developmental challenges
and psychological malady.

Research has repeatedly revealed significantly higher levels of psychopathology (Kjelsberg &
Nygren, 2004; Richardson & Lelliott, 2003) and lower levels of well-being (Leslie, Gordon, Ganger,
& Gist, 2002; Zimmer & Panko, 2006) among residents of youth care facilities when compared to
their family-nurtured peers. Moreover, these vulnerable youths are also prone to low levels of self-
worth, self-esteem and hope towards positive outcomes for their future (Aguilar-Vafaie, Roshani, Has-
sanabadi, Masoudian, & Afruz, 2011; Milkman & Wanberg, 2012). In combination, increased psycho-
pathology, reduced well-being and low levels of hope reduce vulnerable youths’ prognosis for
optimal functioning.

Traditionally, research on mental health of youths in general and more specifically vulnerable
youths focussed almost exclusively on psychological disorder (Evans et al., 2005). However, interven-
tions associated with this framework gave no attention to individuals’ positive attributes or strengths
(Seligman, 2002; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Yet, it is equally important to promote mental
health and to encourage optimal functioning through a focus on that which is positive, adaptive and
whole (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Interventions grounded in positive psychology offer a manner in

© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

CONTACT Tharina Guse tharina.guse@up.ac.za Department of Psychology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield,
0028 Pretoria, South Africa

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING
2019, VOL. 47, NO. 2, 234–245
https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1504880

http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/03069885.2018.1504880&domain=pdf

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9541-0392

mailto:tharina.guse@up.ac.za

http://www.tandfonline.com

which to support and enhance positive growth through identification, utilisation and cultivation of
psychological strengths, and thus present a means to enable and empower young people.

Further, due to the maturation of cognitive capacities, adolescence offers a timeous opportunity to
introduce tools and exercises that may promote growth, cultivate strengths and enhance well-being
even in the presence of vulnerability. It is therefore valuable to implement and evaluate positive inter-
ventions among youth living in CYCCs.

The social contexts within which adolescents grow up play an important role in their develop-
ment. These environments and the associated circumstances contribute towards protective and
risk factors that promote or hinder the transition to adulthood. In particular, poverty, long-term
family disadvantage, domestic violence and abuse, maltreatment, neglect and abandonment, as
well as multiple placements in out of home facilities, and lack of family contact are among established
risk factors known to predict negative outcomes for developing adolescents (Berger, 2011; Cluver &
Gardner, 2007; Coleman & Hagell, 2007).

The high occurrence of individual, family and community risk factors that impact on looked-after
adolescents, place them at high risk for a poor prognosis involving social, psychological and behav-
ioural problems culminating in restricted life opportunities (Coleman & Hagell, 2007; Fergusson &
Horwood, 2003). However, some individuals display remarkable resilience and despite their exposure
to major adversity, appear to cope well and adapt positively. These resilient youths are able to draw
from various resources that may assist them to resist significant stress, trauma and adversity. The
reservoir of resources, including individual, family and community attributes are referred to as pro-
tective factors (Aguilar-Vafaie et al., 2011; Coleman & Hagell, 2007).

Research focussed on optimal youth development draws the distinction between protective
factors at an individual level as well as those at a social-contextual level that include family and com-
munity attributes (Aguilar-Vafaie et al., 2011; Coleman & Hagell, 2007). Cluver and Gardner (2007)
indicated that little research has been done regarding protective factors among looked-after adoles-
cents in the South African context. However, they reported that familial and social protective factors
including pro-social peer relationships, and positive activities including sport, dancing and reading
were associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression. International research has identified
individual protective factors in at-risk children including attributes such as hope (Hagen, Myers, &
Mackintosh, 2005; Herth, 1998), positive views of the self (Cicchetti, 2010; Coleman & Hagell, 2007;
Daniel, Wassell, & Gilligan, 1999; Fergusson & Horwood, 2003), goal-setting and achievement orien-
tation (Cicchetti, 2010; Coleman & Hagell, 2007), pro-social values, relationships and behaviours
(Aguilar-Vafaie et al., 2011; Cicchetti, 2010; Daniel et al., 1999; Milkman & Wanberg, 2012; Mullan &
Fitzsimons, 2006), the development of skills (Coleman & Hagell, 2007; Mullan & Fitzsimons, 2006),
as well as identification and use of character strengths (Moore, 2010; Park, 2004). Enhancing these
attributes may serve to buffer vulnerable youth against stressful and negative life circumstances.

One way to enhance such positive attributes is through implementing positive psychology inter-
ventions (PPIs). PPIs are intentional activities aimed to cultivate positive emotions, cognitions or
behaviours (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). These interventions are usually brief and easy to implement,
yet are theory-informed and evidence based (Parks & Biswas-Diener, 2013). In this study, we selected
PPIs that aimed to identify and build character strengths, and to cultivate positive emotions and
hope.

Character strength interventions are based on the premise that developing individuals’ strengths
rather than focussing on their weaknesses may produce greater benefits (Quinlan, Swain, & Vella-Bro-
drick, 2012). Character strengths are positive traits reflected in an individual’s thoughts, feelings and
behaviours (Park, Peterson, & Seligman, 2004). Engaging one’s character strengths allows individuals
to achieve optimal functioning while pursuing valued endeavours. As such, character strengths act as
protective factors that buffer youths against adverse life circumstances, and also support and
enhance well-being (Quinlan et al., 2012).

The maladaptive home and social environments from which adolescents residing in CYCCs hail,
often lack support and guidance, inhibiting them from identifying and developing character

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 235

strengths (Epstein, 2000). Research has shown that identifying, planning to develop, using and build-
ing character strengths may increase well-being and alleviate depression (Gander, Proyer, Ruch, &
Wyss, 2012; Proctor et al., 2011; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Therefore, it is important
to give these youths a general understanding of character strengths, and provide them with the
opportunity to identify, utilise and cultivate their strengths. Strengths-based interventions include
“you at your best” (Seligman et al., 2005), “strength spotting” (Proctor et al., 2011) and “using char-
acter strengths in a new way” (Seligman et al., 2005).

Activities that generate positive emotions give rise to an upward spiral of positive emotions, open
up new possibilities, potentially broaden behaviour and build psychological resources (Fredrickson,
2001). Gratitude activities can be good starter exercises to facilitate the experience of positive
emotions (Layous, Lee, Choi, & Lyubomirsky, 2013). Research indicated that gratitude interventions
enhance well-being, life satisfaction, and optimism as well as reduce negative affect and lower
levels of depression and anxiety (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008; Selig-
man et al., 2005).

Engaging in positive aspects of the present moment can also induce an upward spiral of emotions
that ultimately enriches life through enhancing well-being while presenting an opportunity to thrive
(Guse, 2014). Doing acts of kindness, savouring and loving-kindness meditation (LKM) are activities
that focus on enhancing positive emotions in the present moment. Evidence suggests that pro-
social activity, including acts of kindness, may buffer vulnerable adolescents from engaging in disrup-
tive and problem behaviours (Milkman & Wanberg, 2012). Further, such altruistic behaviour may
serve to build resilience, self-respect and hopefulness, which may protect vulnerable youths
against feelings of defeat and despair. Additionally, these well-intended behaviours can enhance
social relationships and increase well-being (Guse, 2014; Suldo & Michalowski, 2007).

Savouring is a process through which people “attend to, appreciate, and enhance the positive
experiences in their lives” (Bryant & Veroff, 2007, p. 2). Immersion in favourable experiences strength-
ens awareness of the positive and pleasurable, which simultaneously reduces negativity bias and
defends against negative emotions (Suldo & Michalowski, 2007). Intervention studies implementing
savouring exercises reported positive correlations with well-being (Bryant, Smart, & King, 2005; Jose,
Lim, & Bryant, 2012) self-esteem, positive affect and life satisfaction (Cafasso, 1994, 1998), as well as
negative correlations with negative affect and depressive symptoms (Cafasso, 1994, 1998; Hurley &
Kwon, 2012).

Like savouring, LKM also offers an opportunity for enhancing positive emotions in the present
moment. This meditative practice has its origins in Buddhist traditions of emphasising and cultivating
connectedness, whilst expressing positive and loving intentions towards others (Hutcherson,
Seppala, & Gross, 2008). Studies that implemented LKM in the context of social and interpersonal
relationships demonstrated enhanced positive affect, compassion and empathy, promoted optimism
and reduced negative affect (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008; Garland et al., 2010;
Hutcherson et al., 2008; Kristeller & Johnson, 2005).

Hope-based interventions focus on generating positive future expectations. Increasing levels of
hope through specific activities may enhance well-being, positive affect and goal-directed activity
whilst reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety (Cheavens, Feldman, Gum, Michael, &
Snyder, 2006; Feldman & Dreher, 2012; King, 2001; Layous, Nelson, & Lyubomirsky, 2013; Marques,
Lopez, & Pais-Ribeiro, 2011). Additionally, enhanced levels of hope may serve to buffer individuals
against negative and stressful life events (Suldo & Michalowski, 2007).

Hope-based interventions have mostly conceptualised hope as a cognitive-motivational construct,
as put forward by Snyder, Lopez, Shorey, Rand, and Feldman (2003). “The best possible future self”
(King, 2001) and “goal mapping” (Feldman & Dreher, 2012) have been implemented successfully in
adult, adolescent and child populations.

Against this backdrop, the aim of our study was to implement and evaluate the effect of a series of
PPIs on the well-being and hope of a group of adolescents living in a CYCC. We conceptualised well-
being broadly in terms of Keyes (2005) complete model of mental health, evaluating both the

236 K. TEODORCZUK ET AL.

presence of positive mental health and the absence of depression and anxiety. Additionally, we
viewed hope in cognitive-motivational terms, as described by Snyder et al. (2003). We expected
that the PPIs would increase well-being and hope in this vulnerable population, whilst also decreas-
ing depression and anxiety.

Method

Design

We implemented a non-randomised, quasi-experimental design. Due to the small sample size, we
implemented non-random assignment to the experimental or control group. A matched-groups
design was employed to control for potential selection effects (Morling, 2012). In order to mitigate
potential third variable influences regarding age, gender and ethnicity, participants were allotted
to the experimental or control group in as parsimonious a match as possible (Wilson & MacLean,
2011).

Participants

The sample comprised of 29 adolescents within a single care facility according to availability and
accessibility. Their ages ranged between 14 and 18 years (M = 16.31; SD = 1.37). The majority of
the sample were female (59%) and of African ethnicity (62%).

Procedure

The intervention was implemented by the first author and consisted of six structured, one-hour ses-
sions conducted over a six-week period. The programme drew from research and interventions con-
ducted by, among others, Suldo and Michalowski (2007), Proctor et al. (2011) and Feldman and
Dreher (2012). Specific activities included counting blessings, engaging in acts of kindness, as well
as identifying and using character strengths. To enhance hope, the “best possible self” (King, 2001)
and goal mapping (Feldman & Dreher, 2012) exercises were implemented. In addition to these exer-
cises, LKM and a savouring exercise were practiced in each session.

All but the first intervention session opened with a recapitulation of the previous week’s interven-
tion and a reflection on homework exercises if given (e.g. to continue counting blessings). The week’s
review was followed by a brief savouring exercise to facilitate focussing the group’s attention to the
present moment. Thereafter, group discussions centred on the specific topic (e.g. gratitude) took
place. These discussions were followed by an activity associated with the topic of discussion. Each
session closed with a five-minute LKM.

The two groups completed measures of well-being and hope before the study commenced, and
again at one week after the conclusion of the intervention. Another follow-up measure was included
five weeks later. The control group received the same intervention after collection of all data.

Ethical considerations

The Faculty of Humanities Research Ethics Committee provided ethical approval to conduct the
research. The participating CYCCs Childcare Services Manager also provided permission to conduct
the study. Further to this, the Childcare Services Manager acted as guardian to provide informed
consent for each participant. Additionally, the participants provided assent to partake in the interven-
tion. They were advised that all information provided would remain anonymous and confidential,
that the study was not compulsory, and that they were allowed to withdraw from the programme
at any time without any consequences.

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 237

In accordance with the principle of beneficence, every effort and intention was made to provide
benefit to the adolescents involved in the study, moreover, each exercise and group session was con-
sidered with the core focus of doing no intentional or unintentional harm to the participants of the
study.

Measures

Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF; Keyes, 2009)
The MHC-SF measures positive mental health and consists of 14 items, comprising a three-factor
structure measuring emotional, psychological and social well-being, yielding a total well-being
score. Using a six-point Likert scale, the participants are asked to rate the frequency with which
they experienced symptoms of positive mental health over the past month. Multiple studies have
evidenced the MHC-SF to show high internal consistency (α > .80) among adults and adolescents
(Keyes, 2005, 2006, 2009; Keyes et al., 2008; Westerhof & Keyes, 2010). Cronbach’s alpha was also
high in our study (α = 86).

Children’s Hope Scale (CHS; Snyder et al., 1997)
The CHS is a six-item self-report questionnaire assessing dispositional hope among young people
aged 8–16 years. The six items are divided equally to measure the bi-faceted construct of hope;
the odd numbered items represent agentic thought, while the even numbered items represent path-
ways thinking. The CHS is hand-scored on a 6-point Likert scale, with total scores ranging between 6
(reflecting low levels of hope) and 36 (indicating high levels of hope). Snyder et al. (1997) reported
that the CHS showed temporal stability, and established convergent, discriminant, predictive and
incremental validity. The CHS also evidenced satisfactory psychometric properties among South
African adolescents (Guse, De Bruin, & Kok, 2016). In our study, Cronbach’s alpha was .71.

Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale – Short Version (RCADS-SV; Ebesutani et al., 2012)
The 25-item RCADS-SV is a brief measure of symptoms specific to pathological anxiety and depressive
disorders in children and adolescents. The self-report questionnaire is scored on a 4-point Likert scale
and is normed according to gender and grade level. Research revealed good internal consistency,
with the anxiety subscale yielding Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of .86 and .91 in non-referred and
clinical samples, respectively. The depression subscale advanced Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of
.79 in the non-referred sample and .80 in the clinical sample. Additionally, good convergent and
divergent, as well as acceptable concurrent validity was established with clinical diagnostic groups
(Ebesutani et al., 2012). In the current study, the internal consistency of the RCAFS-SV was α = .86.

Data analysis

We employed descriptive statistics for the scale scores and demographics of the sample. The means
of the dependent variables within and between the control and experimental groups before, as well
as one and five weeks after the intervention, were compared using independent-samples t-tests (for
between group comparisons) and paired-samples t-tests (for within-group comparisons). Parametric
assumptions were tested beforehand in order to determine the appropriate tests of difference.

Results

The results of between and within-group analysis are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The
baseline measures indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two
groups on all measures before the intervention (Table 1). After the intervention, there was a slight
decrease in hope in the experimental group and a marginal increase in the control group.
However, these differences were not statistically significant. At the five-week follow-up, there were

238 K. TEODORCZUK ET AL.

no statistically significant differences in levels of hope between the two groups. Likewise, measures of
the presence of positive functioning (MHC-SF) and absence of psychopathology (RCADS-SV) yielded
no significant differences between the experimental and control groups one and five weeks after the
intervention.

Within-group comparisons also showed no statistically significant changes in well-being and hope
before and after the intervention, as reflected in Table 2. Although the experimental group scores
showed a downward trend in depression and anxiety after the intervention, these results were not
statistically significant when compared to baseline scores.

Discussion

The aim of our study was to examine the effect of a series of PPIs on well-being and hope of a group
of adolescents living in a CYCC. Contrary to our expectations, the intervention did not lead to
increased well-being or hope, nor was there a reduction in their levels of anxiety and depression.
Our findings are similar to a few studies indicating that PPIs may not lead to improvements in
well-being (Dickens, 2017; Marques et al., 2011) and hope (Weis & Speridakos, 2011) among youth,
yet published research on non-significant findings of the effect of PPIs remain scarce. To gain a
better understanding of these outcomes, we considered baseline levels of well-being and hope as
well as moderating factors that may have contributed to the non-significant findings. We also
offer a qualitative reflection on implementing PPIs.

The mean scores obtained on measures of well-being and hope were, surprisingly, comparable to,
and generally better than those of referred and non-referred peer populations reported on in pre-
vious studies (see Gilman, Dooley, & Florell, 2006; Guse & Vermaak, 2011; McNeal et al., 2006;
Snyder et al., 1997; van Schalkwyk & Wissing, 2010). This indicates that our sample evidenced
higher levels of well-being and hope than expected. It is therefore possible that, with limited
scope for improvement on subsequent measures, the ceiling effect could have contributed
towards the non-significant outcomes of this study (Goodwin, 2010). Still, this explanation should
be viewed with caution, as the objective reality of these youth may not warrant such high levels

Table 1. Differences between experimental and control groups pre, post and follow-up.

Experimental group Control group

Mean SD Mean SD p

CHS Pre-test 25.86 5.57 21.87 5.81 .70
Post-test 22.50 5.29 24.07 5.12 .42
Follow-up 24.14 4.98 22.40 6.22 .41

MHC-SF Pre-test 48.43 12.68 47.07 9.35 .74
Post-test 48.21 11.81 47.60 8.39 .87
Follow-up 48.71 14.71 43.80 14.53 .37

RCADS-SV Pre-test 60.36 12.45 55.67 9.06 .25
Post-test 56.71 13.36 54.93 10.74 .70
Follow-up 55.29 11.53 58.07 18.15 .63

Note: MHC-SF: Mental Health Continuum – Short Form; RCADS-SV: Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale – Short Version.

Table 2. Differences within the experimental and control groups pre, post and follow-up.

Pre-test Post-test Follow-up

Mean SD Mean SD p Mean SD p

Experiment CHS 25.86 5.57 22.5 5.29 .04 24.14 4.98 .22
MHC-SF 48.43 12.68 48.21 11.81 .95 48.71 14.72 .94
RCADS-SV 60.36 12.45 56.71 13.36 .29 55.29 11.53 .19

Control CHS 21.87 5.81 24.07 5.12 .05 22.4 6.22 .65
MHC-SF 47.07 9.35 47.60 8.39 .80 43.80 14.53 .24
RCADS-SV 55.67 9.06 54.93 10.74 .77 58.07 18.15 .53

Note: MHC-SF: Mental Health Continuum – Short Form; RCADS-SV: Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale – Short Version.

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 239

of well-being. However, a recent study among children in disadvantaged areas in the Western Cape,
South Africa, also reported relatively high levels of subjective well-being (Savahl et al., 2015). It is
evident that more research is needed regarding the measurement, experience and dynamics of
well-being among South African children and adolescents.

Methodological and participatory moderators may also have played a role in the efficacy of the
intervention. Nations and cultures may well differ in orientations of happiness, Park, Peterson, and
Ruch (2009) reported that South Africans scored the highest out of 27 nations on an orientation
towards pleasure. Thus, the MHC-SF, which largely incorporates elements of meaning and engage-
ment in life, may not have fully tapped into the more transient, malleable and affect based facets
of well-being, which may be relevant to this particular sample. Another methodological moderator
that deserves mention is that of the duration of the intervention. In their meta-analysis of 51 inter-
ventions, Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) reported that interventions of longer durations produced
larger gains in well-being. The current study’s six-week intervention fell within the second shortest
of four temporal categories described in the meta-analysis. Therefore increasing the duration of
the intervention may have yielded results of significance.

In addition to methodological moderators, research has repeatedly indicated individuals’ beha-
viours, circumstances and characteristics may contribute to the efficacy of interventions. According
to Lyubomirsky and colleagues (Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm, & Sheldon, 2011; Sin & Lyubo-
mirsky, 2009; Sin, Della Porta, & Lyubomirsky, 2011), studies that recruited participants, as opposed
to self-selection studies, yielded weaker and less robust effects. These scholars suggested that self-
selection, driven by conscious knowledge of the purpose of interventions, was associated with motiv-
ation to achieve proposed outcomes. As such, motivation and increased effort placed on completing
exercises, in combination with positive expectations, may have contributed towards stronger and
more durable outcomes. Although participation in the current study was voluntary, adolescents
did not personally pursue the programme, nor were they made aware of the aim to enhance
levels of well-being and hope. As such, participants may have lacked motivation and effort in com-
pleting tasks.

Researchers have suggested that engaging in positive activities yields better results when those
performing tasks receive social support and encouragement (Layous, Sheldon, & Lyubomirsky,
2014; Lyubomirsky et al., 2011; Sin et al., 2011). Research has indicated that children in care facilities
experienced less emotional and social support than their family-nurtured counterparts (Allen & Vacca,
2010). Additionally, negative peer appraisals, increased loneliness, fewer friendships and less satisfac-
tion within relationships are factors associated with cared-for youths (Dinisman, Montserrat, & Casas,
2012). It may, therefore, be possible that the vulnerable population in this study could have experi-
enced lower levels of support, involvement, reassurance and encouragement when performing PPI
exercises, which may have played a role in the effectiveness of the PPI.

Frequency and variation of practiced activities could impact on the effectiveness of gratitude and
kindness interventions (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005;
Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2012; Sheldon, Boehm, & Lyubomirsky, 2013; Tkach, 2005). Although instruc-
tions for these interventions were given in accordance with the findings, it appeared apparent in
weekly feedback discussions that neither variety nor timing of tasks was maintained, even with
repeated encouragement. Failure to observe task instructions may have resulted in participants per-
forming tasks differently than suggested by empirical evidence, thereby contributing to the lack of
change in outcome measures.

Research suggests that different positive activities may better suit participants with different per-
sonalities, values, strengths, interests, cultural preferences and circumstances (Lyubomirsky & Layous,
2013; Nelson & Lyubomirsky, 2012; Parks, Della Porta, Pierce, Zilca, & Lyubomirsky, 2012). Higher
levels of person-activity fit have been associated with greater benefits (Nelson & Lyubomirsky,
2012; Schueller, 2011). The current study did not account for individual differences among partici-
pants, and therefore may have inadvertently employed activities not best suiting all participants,
thus negatively influencing participant engagement and measured outcomes.

240 K. TEODORCZUK ET AL.

The statistically non-significant outcomes of our study may not be a true or complete reflection of
the possible benefits of the intervention. Qualitatively we observed improvement in communication,
confidence, self-esteem, positive affect and future-focussed optimism among some participants.
Identifying and building character strengths noticeably enhanced levels of self-confidence and
self-worth in a number of adolescents, with one participant privately reporting the impact these exer-
cises had on assertiveness, self-belief and self-value. Additionally, several adolescents reported that
practicing gratitude made them more aware of how much they had, as opposed to focussing on
what was missing in their lives. Individuals mentioned that this practice, although “obvious”, was
not within their regular behaviour, and one went so far as to be grateful for the gratitude exercise,
whilst another stated gratitude towards the intervention programme.

Youths also reflected positively on the weekly savouring activity, expressing gratitude for the
immediate experience of indulgence as well as for their newfound capacity of identifying novel
ways of appreciating regular experiences. Engaging in LKM reportedly brought calm into their other-
wise hectic lives. A few adolescents remarked that LKM brought them a sense of connectedness and
warmth with the prospect of offering anonymous help to others where they felt otherwise helpless.

Although participants seemed to enjoy the “acts of kindness” and “best possible future self” exer-
cises on the whole, both activities generated a negative response in a few individuals. First, three
members of the experimental group mentioned disliking performing acts of kindness as they
found people either ridiculed them for their kind efforts or took advantage of their kindness. On
the other hand, others expressed pleasure in performing kind acts, stating that the intrinsic
reward of practicing kindness far outweighed the effort spent on the practice. Second, during the
“best possible future self” exercise, one individual was reluctant to generate such an image to
avoid the inevitable sadness of disappointment. According to this participant, not creating positive
expectations was a protective mechanism developed following “a life of bad experiences”. On the
other hand, several adolescents in our study expressed vivid visualisations of seemingly achievable
and desirable “best possible future self” images, once again exhibiting complete immersion and
belief in the activity and in themselves. Finally, it was encouraging that a particularly troubled partici-
pant from the experimental group voluntarily attended the control group sessions as well, thereby
experiencing the PPI for the second time. Additionally, an adolescent not involved in the study,
and another who had declined consenting to participation, requested permission to attend the
control group intervention, which attests to favourable reports from participants in the experimental
group.

The subtleties in positive behavioural and attitudinal changes noted, as well as information
regarding the benefits and drawbacks of specific activities implemented were not identified or
assessed through the quantitative study. Including a qualitative component in future research on
PPIs may, therefore, yield valuable information. Taking into account the elements discussed above,
and the possible benefits vulnerable adolescents may gain from these activities, brief guidelines
are offered for the implementation of PPIs among cared-for youth.

Future considerations for implementing PPIs in CYCCs

Considering that intervention duration moderates the effectiveness of PPIs with significantly greater
benefit associated with longer treatments (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), we suggest that PPIs longer
than 8 weeks be implemented. Such practice may better support skill improvement and provide
an opportunity for rehearsed positive activities to develop into habitual practices.

Where possible, intended intervention outcomes should be transparent, providing youths with
explicit motive and intrinsic incentive to fully immerse themselves in the effortful practice of positive
activities. Additionally, activities should be adapted to accommodate person-activity fit. For example,
where acts of kindness may be better suited to more socially extroverted participants (Nelson & Lyu-
bomirsky, 2012), youths in the current study who expressed discomfort with this exercise may have
benefitted more by practicing self-compassion.

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 241

Bearing in mind the premise that expressing gratitude gives rise to an upward spiral of positive
emotions, and that the participants seemed to enjoy the gratitude exercise, we suggest that explor-
ing the virtue of gratitude, identifying blessings rather than burdens, and expressing appreciation for
these blessings be the focus of the initial session. Similarly, participants provided positive feedback
on engaging in LKM and savouring. It seems that these two activities served to focus the group’s
attention while simultaneously enhancing positive emotions in the present moment. We recommend
that these exercises be repeated regularly throughout a PPI.

Finally, the PPIs included in this study were selected with specific focus on, and consideration of
the characteristics, risk factors and vulnerabilities of adolescents residing in CYCCs. Based on our
qualitative observations, PPIs aimed at optimising mental health and enhancing levels of well-
being and hope in this population could include at least some of the activities implemented in
this study.

In conclusion, despite the fact that our study did not find a significant improvement in well-being
and hope for adolescents participating in a PPI, we expanded emerging literature that cautions
against the over-optimistic implementation of positive interventions among youth. Qualitatively,
however, there appeared to be value in these positive interventions for the adolescents in our
sample and we encourage further mixed-method research on PPIs among vulnerable youth.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding

This work was supported by National Research Foundation South Africa.

Notes on contributors

Krysia Teodorczuk is a clinical psychologist in private practice in Johannesburg. Her areas of interest include, among
others, mental health with a special focus on adolescent well-being, strength focussed interventions, psychotherapy
and working through trauma.

Tharina Guse is a counselling psychologist, Professor, and Head of the Department of Psychology at the University of
Pretoria. Her areas of research include adolescent well-being, psychological strengths (particularly hope and gratitude)
and implementing hypnosis for mental health promotion.

Graham du Plessis is a registered Clinical Psychologist (South Africa and New Zealand) and a Psychologist (Australia). He
has worked extensively in academia lecturing courses in psychology, statistics, management and finance. He is a Senior
Research Fellow in Psychology at the University of Johannesburg (South Africa), and a Lecturer in the Faculty of Business,
Economics and Law at the University of Queensland (Australia). His research interests include psychotherapy, positive
psychology, organisational psychology and behavioural finance.

ORCID

Tharina Guse http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9541-0392

References

Aguilar-Vafaie, M. E., Roshani, M., Hassanabadi, H., Masoudian, Z., & Afruz, G. A. (2011). Risk and protective factors for resi-
dential foster care adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.08.005

Allen, B., & Vacca, J. S. (2010). Frequent moving has a negative affect on the school achievement of foster children makes
the case for reform. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(6), 829–832. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.02.001

Berger, K. S. (2011). The developing person through the lifespan (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.
Bryant, F. B., Smart, C. M., & King, S. P. (2005). Using the past to enhance the present: Boosting happiness through positive

reminiscence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6(3), 227–260. doi:10.1007/s10902-005-3889-4
Bryant, F. B., & Veroff, J. (2007). Savoring: A new model of positive experience. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

242 K. TEODORCZUK ET AL.

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9541-0392

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.08.005

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.02.001

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-3889-4

Cafasso, L. L. (1994). Uplifts and hassles in the lives of young adolescents. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chicago: Loyola
University Chicago.

Cafasso, L. L. (1998). Subjective well-being of inner-city resilient and non-resilient young adolescents. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Chicago: Loyola University Chicago.

Cheavens, J. S., Feldman, D. B., Gum, A., Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2006). Hope therapy in a community sample: A pilot
investigation. Social Indicators Research, 77(1), 61–78.

Cicchetti, D. (2010). Resilience under conditions of extreme stress: A multilevel perspective. World Psychiatry: Official
Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 9(3), 145–154.

Cluver, L., & Gardner, F. (2007). Risk and protective factors for psychological well-being of children orphaned by AIDS in
Cape Town: A qualitative study of children and caregivers’ perspectives. AIDS Care, 19(3), 318–325. doi:10.1080/
09540120600986578

Coleman, J., & Hagell, A. (2007). Adolescence, risk and resilience: Against the odds. Chichester: John Wiley.
Daniel, B., Wassell, S., & Gilligan, R. (1999). It’s just common sense isn’t it?’: Exploring ways of putting the theory of resi-

lience into action. Adoption & Fostering, 23(3), 6–15. doi:10.1177/030857599902300303
Dickens, L. R. (2017). Using gratitude to promote positive change: A series of meta-analyses investigating the effective-

ness of gratitude interventions. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 39(4), 193–208.
Dinisman, T., Montserrat, C., & Casas, F. (2012). The subjective well-being of Spanish adolescents: Variations according to

different living arrangements. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(12), 2374–2380. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.09.
005

Ebesutani, C., Reise, S. P., Chorpita, B. F., Ale, C., Regan, J., Young, J., … Weisz, J. R. (2012). The revised child anxiety and
depression scale-short version: Scale reduction via exploratory bifactor modeling of the broad anxiety factor.
Psychological Assessment, 24(4), 833–845. doi:10.1037/a0027283

Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude
and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377–389. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.84.2.377

Epstein, M. H. (2000). The behavioral and emotional rating scale: A strength-based approach to assessment. Assessment
for Effective Intervention, 25(3), 249–256. doi:10.1177/073724770002500304

Evans, D. L., Foa, E. B., Gur, R. E., Hendin, R., O’Brien, C. P., Seligman, M. E. P., & Walsh, B. T. (Eds.). (2005). Treating and pre-
venting adolescent mental health disorders: What we know and what we don’t know. A research agenda for improving the
mental health of our youth. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Feldman, D. B., & Dreher, D. E. (2012). Can hope be changed in 90 minutes? Testing the efficacy of a single-session goal-
pursuit intervention for college students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(4), 745–759. doi:10.1007/s10902-011-9292-4

Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2003). Resilience to childhood adversity: Results of a 21-year study. In S. S. Luthar (Ed.),
Resilience and vulnerablity: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 130–155). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive
emotions.. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.

Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions,
induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 95(5), 1045–1062. doi:10.1037/a0013262

Froh, J. J., Sefick, W. J., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of grati-
tude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46(2), 213–233. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005

Gander, F., Proyer, R., Ruch, W., & Wyss, T. (2012). Strength-based positive interventions: Further evidence for their poten-
tial in enhancing well-being and alleviating depression. Journal of Happiness Studies. doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9380-0

Garland, E. L., Fredrickson, B., Kring, A. M., Johnson, D. P., Meyer, P. S., & Penn, D. L. (2010). Upward spirals of positive
emotions counter downward spirals of negativity: Insights from the broaden-and-build theory and affective neuro-
science on the treatment of emotion dysfunctions and deficits in psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 30
(7), 849–864. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.002

Gilman, R., Dooley, J., & Florell, D. (2006). Relative levels of hope and their relationship with academic and psychological
indicators among adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(2), 166–178.

Goodwin, C. J. (2010). Research in psychology: Methods and design (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Guse, T. (2014). Activities and programmes to enhance well-being. In M. P. Wissing, J. Potgieter, T. Guse, I. Khumalo, & L.

Nel (Eds.), Towards flourishing: Contextualizing positive psychology. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Guse, T., De Bruin, G. P., & Kok, M. (2016). Validation of the children’s hope scale in a sample of South African adolescents.

Child Indicators Research, 9(3), 757–770.
Guse, T., & Vermaak, Y. (2011). Hope, psychosocial well-being and socioeconomic status among a group of South African

adolescents. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 21(4), 527–533.
Hagen, K. B., Myers, B. J., & Mackintosh, V. H. (2005). Hope, social support, and behavioral problems in at-risk children.

American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(2), 211–219.
Herth, K. (1998). Hope as seen through the eyes of homeless children. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 28(5), 1053–1062.

Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9840877

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 243

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120600986578

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120600986578

https://doi.org/10.1177/030857599902300303

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.09.005

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.09.005

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027283

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.377

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.377

https://doi.org/10.1177/073724770002500304

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9292-4

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013262

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9380-0

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.002

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9840877

Hurley, D. B., & Kwon, P. (2012). Results of a study to increase savoring the moment: Differential impact on positive and
negative outcomes. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(4), 579–588.

Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Loving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness.
Emotion, 8(5), 720–724. doi:10.1037/a0013237

Jose, P. E., Lim, B. T., & Bryant, F. B. (2012). Does savoring increase happiness? A daily diary study. The Journal of Positive
Psychology, 7(3), 176–187.

Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). The subjective well-being of America’s youth: Toward a comprehensive assessment. Adolescent and
Family Health, 4, 3–11.

Keyes, C. L. M. (2006). Mental health in adolescence: Is America’s youth flourishing? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
76(3), 395–402.

Keyes, C. L. M. (2009). Atlanta: Brief description of the mental health continuum short form (MHC-SF). Retrieved from http://
www.sociology.emory.edu/ckeyes/

Keyes, C. L. M., Wissing, M., Potgieter, J. P., Temane, M., Kruger, A., & van Rooy, S. (2008). Evaluation of the Mental Health
Continuum – Short Form (MHC – SF) in Setswana-speaking South Africans. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 15
(3), 181–192.

King, L. (2001). The health benefits of writing about life goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(7), 798–807.
doi:10.1177/0146167201277003

Kjelsberg, E., & Nygren, P. (2004). The prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems in institutionalized childcare
clients. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 58(4), 319–325. doi:10.1080/08039480410005846

Kristeller, J. L., & Johnson, T. (2005). Cultivating loving kindness: A two-stage model of the effects of meditation on
empathy, compassion, and altruism. Zygon Journal of Religion and Science, 40(2), 391–408.

Layous, K., Lee, H., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). Culture matters when designing a successful happiness-increasing
activity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1294–1303.

Layous, K., Nelson, K. S., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). What is the optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The
case of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(2), 635–654. doi:10.1007/s10902-012-
9346-2

Layous, K., Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). The prospects, practices, and prescriptions for the pursuit of happi-
ness. In S. Joseph (Ed.), Positive psychology in practice (2nd ed., pp. 248–273). New York, NY: John Wiley.

Leslie, L. K., Gordon, J. N., Ganger, W., & Gist, K. (2002). Developmental delay in young children in child welfare by initial
placement type. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23(5), 496–516.

Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J. K., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper
way: An experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being. Emotion, 11(2), 391–402. doi:10.1037/a0022575

Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 22(1), 57–62. doi:10.1177/0963721412469809

Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review
of General Psychology, 9(2), 111–131. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111

Marques, S. C., Lopez, S. J., & Pais-Ribeiro, J. (2011). “Building hope for the future”: A program to foster strengths in middle-
school students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12(1), 139–152. doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9180-3

McNeal, R., Handwerk, M. L., Field, C. E., Roberts, M. C., Soper, S., Huefner, J. C., & Ringle, J. L. (2006). Hope as an outcome
variable among youths in a residential care setting. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(3), 304–311. doi:10.1037/
0002-9432.76.3.304

Milkman, H., & Wanberg, K. (2012). Adolescent development and pathways to problem behavior. In Criminal conduct and
substance abuse treatment for adolescents: Pathways to self-discovery and change (2nd ed., pp. 21–54). Washington, DC:
Sage.

Moore, W. (2010). Investigation of character strengths among college attendees with and without a history of child abuse
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology, Massachusetts.

Morling, B. (2012). Research methods in psychology: Evaluating a world of information. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Mullan, C., & Fitzsimons, L. (2006). The mental health of looked after children/care leavers in Northern Ireland: A literature

review (Research Report). Retrieved from http://www.voypic.org/publications/research-policy-reports
Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Finding happiness: Tailoring positive activities for optimal well-being benefits. In

M. Tugade, M. Shiota, & L. Kirby (Eds.), Handbook of positive emotions (pp. 275–293). New York, NY: Guilford.
Park, N. (2004). Character strengths and positive youth development. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and

Social Science, 591(1), 40–54. doi:10.1177/0002716203260079
Park, N., Peterson, C., & Ruch, W. (2009). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction in twenty-seven nations. The

Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(4), 273–279. doi:10.1080/17439760902933690
Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Strengths of character and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical

Psychology, 23(5), 603–619.
Parks, A., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2013). Positive interventions: Past, present and future. In T. B. Kashdan, & J. Ciarrochi (Eds.),

The context press mindfulness and acceptance practica series. Mindfulness, acceptance, and positive psychology: The seven
foundations of well-being (pp. 140–165). Oakland, CA: Context Press/New Harbinger.

244 K. TEODORCZUK ET AL.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013237

http://www.sociology.emory.edu/ckeyes/

http://www.sociology.emory.edu/ckeyes/

https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201277003

https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480410005846

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9346-2

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9346-2

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022575

https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809

https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9180-3

https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.3.304

https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.3.304

http://www.voypic.org/publications/research-policy-reports

https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203260079

https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760902933690

Parks, A. C., Della Porta, M. D., Pierce, R. S., Zilca, R., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Pursuing happiness in everyday life: The
characteristics and behaviors of online happiness seekers. Emotion, 12(6), 1222–1234. doi:10.1037/a0028587

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A classification and handbook. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.

Proctor, C., Tsukayama, E., Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Eades, J., & Linley, P. A. (2011). Strengths gym: The impact of a character
strengths-based intervention on the life satisfaction and well-being of adolescents. The Journal of Positive Psychology,
6(5), 377–388. doi:10.1080/17439760.2011.594079

Quinlan, D., Swain, N., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2012). Character strengths interventions: Building on what we know for
improved outcomes. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(6), 1145–1163.

Richardson, J., & Lelliott, P. (2003). Mental health of looked after children. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 9(4), 249–256.
doi:10.1192/apt.9.4.249

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Adolescence (13th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Savahl, S., Adams, S., Isaacs, S., September, R., Hendricks, G., & Noordien, Z. (2015). Subjective well-being amongst a

sample of South African children: A descriptive study. Child Indicators Research, 8(1), 211–226.
Schueller, S. M. (2011). To each his own well-being boosting intervention: Using preference to guide selection. The Journal

of Positive Psychology, 6(4), 300–313.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.),

Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3–9). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of inter-

ventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Sheldon, K. M., Boehm, J. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). Variety is the spice of happiness: The hedonic adaptation preven-

tion model. In I. Boniwell, & S. David (Eds.), Oxford handbook of happiness (pp. 901–915). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). The challenge of staying happier. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38,
670–680.

Sin, N. L., Della Porta, M. D., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2011). Tailoring positive psychology interventions to treat depressed indi-
viduals. In S. I. Donaldson, M. Csikszentmihalyi, & J. Nakamura (Eds.), Applied positive psychology: Improving everyday
life, health, schools, work and society (pp. 79–96). New York, NY: Routledge.

Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology
interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 467–487.

Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., … Stahl, K. (1997). The development and vali-
dation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22(3), 399–421.

Snyder, C. R., Lopez, S., Shorey, H., Rand, K., & Feldman, D. (2003). Hope theory, measurements, and applications to school
psychology. School Psychology Quarterly, 18, 122–139.

Suldo, S. M., & Michalowski, J. A. (2007). Subjective well-being intervention program [Procedures manual]. Retrieved from
http://www.coedu.usf.edu/schoolpsych/ Faculty/Suldo.html

Tkach, C. (2005). Unlocking the treasury of human kindness: Enduring improvements in mood, happiness, and self-evalu-
ations (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Riverside, CA: University of California.

van Schalkwyk, I., & Wissing, M. P. (2010). Psychosocial well-being in a group of South African adolescents. Journal of
Psychology in Africa, 20(1), 53–60.

Weis, R., & Speridakos, E. C. (2011). A meta-analysis of hope enhancement strategies in clinical and community settings.
Psychology of Well-Being: Theory, Research and Practice, 1(1), 5–16.

Westerhof, G. J., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2010). Mental illness and mental health: The two continua model across the lifespan.
Journal of Adult Development, 17(2), 110–119. doi:10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y

Wilson, S., & MacLean, R. (2011). Research methods and data analysis for psychology. London: McGraw-Hill.
Zimmer, M. H., & Panko, L. M. (2006). Developmental status and service use among children in the child welfare system –

A national survey. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(2), 183–188.

BRITISH JOURNAL OF GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING 245

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028587

https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.594079

https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.9.4.249

https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410

http://www.coedu.usf.edu/schoolpsych/

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y

Copyright of British Journal of Guidance & Counselling is the property of Routledge and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.

• Abstract

Method
Design
Participants
Procedure
Ethical considerations
Measures
Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF; Keyes, 2009)
Children’s Hope Scale (CHS; Snyder et al., 1997)
Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale – Short Version (RCADS-SV; Ebesutani et al., 2012)
Data analysis
Results
Discussion
Future considerations for implementing PPIs in CYCCs
Disclosure statement
Notes on contributors
ORCID
References

Dr. Bill’s Notes:

6D 6110 Week 6 Discussion How To Complete the Discussion Requirement

Define and discuss internal and external validity.

Identify threats to internal and external validity in quantitative research.

Explain a strategy to mitigate these threats.

Identify an ethical issue in quantitative research and explain how it influences design decisions.

Explain how a quantitative research topic is amenable to scientific study.

Support your Main Issue Post and Response Post with references to Learning Resources and other scholarly sources from peer reviewed journals