1 DISCUSSIONS DUE IN 24 HOURS

Discussion Forum

(the best posts will have at least three (3) paragraphs with at least five (5) sentences each).

** Based on what you’ve read and learned in Chapters 7 and 8 about LMX and Transformational Leadership, describe ways in which technology use (in general and/or specifically during the past year with the pandemic depending on your work situation) has either enhanced or hindered (or, both) your working relationship with a leader or follower in your organization (e.g., texting or apps instead of phoning, use of social media sites instead of in-person conversation, Zoom or Teams instead of face-to-face, etc.). Be sure to utilize enough textual evidence to effectively argue and articulate your points and help your discussion flow smoothly. **

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Transformational Leadership
Chapter 8
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Overview
Transformational Leadership (TL) Perspective
A Model of Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership Factors
Full Range of Leadership Model
The Additive Effects of TL
Other Transformational Leadership Perspectives
How Does the Transformational Approach Work?
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Transformational Leadership
Description
Process–TL is a process that changes and transforms individuals, both leaders and followers.
Influence–TL involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected.
Core elements–TL is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals.
Encompassing approach–TL describes a wide range of leadership influence where followers and leaders are bound together in the transformation process.
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Types of Leadership Defined (Burns, 1978)
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TRANSACTIONAL
Focuses on the
exchanges
that occur
between leaders
and their followers
TRANSFORMATIONAL
Process of
engaging with others
to create a connection that increases
motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower
Focuses on the
leader’s
own interests rather than the interests of his or her followers
PSEUDO-TRANSFORMATIONAL
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Types of Leadership Defined
(Burns, 1978)

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TRANSACTIONAL
Focuses on the
exchanges
that occur
between leaders
and their followers
No new taxes = votes
Turn in assignments = grade
Surpass goals = promotion
The exchange dimension is so common that you can observe it at all walks of life.
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Types of Leadership Defined
(Burns, 1978)

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Leaders who are
transforming but in a negative way
self-consumed, exploitive; power- oriented, with warped moral values
Includes leaders like
Adolph Hitler
Saddam Hussein
PSEUDOTRANSFORMATIONAL
Focuses on the
leader’s
own interests rather than the interests of his or her followers
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Pseudotransformational
(Christie, Barling, & Turner, 2011)
Four experimental studies => model of pseudotransformational leadership
Self-serving
Unwilling to encourage independent thought in followers
Exhibits little general caring for others
Uses inspiration and appeal to manipulate followers for his or her own ends
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Types of Leadership Defined Burns (1978)
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TRANSFORMATIONAL
Process of
engaging with others
to create a connection
that increases
motivation
and morality in both the
leader and the follower
Leader is attentive to the needs and motives of followers and tries to help followers reach their fullest potential.
Mohandas Gandhi raised the hopes and demands of millions of his people and in the process was changed himself.
Ryan White raised people’s awareness about AIDS.
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Transformational Leadership and Charisma
Definition
Charisma–A special personality characteristic that gives a person superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader (Weber, 1947).
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Charismatic Leadership Theory (House, 1976)
Charismatic leaders act in unique ways that have specific charismatic effects on their followers.
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Theory of Charismatic Leadership
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(House, 1976)
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Table 8.1: Personality Characteristics, Behaviors, and Effects on Followers of Charismatic Leadership

Theory of Charismatic Leadership
(Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993)
Later Studies
Charismatic Leadership:
Transforms follower’s self-concepts; tries to link identity of followers to collective identity of the organization
Forge this link by emphasizing intrinsic rewards and de-emphasizing extrinsic rewards
Throughout process, leaders
express high expectations for followers
help followers gain sense of self-confidence and self-efficacy
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Model of Transformational Leadership (Bass, 1985)
Expanded and refined version of work done by Burns and House. It included
More attention to followers’ rather than leader’s needs
Suggested TL could apply to outcomes that were not positive
Described transactional and transformational leadership as a continuum
Extended House’s work by
Giving more attention to emotional elements and origins of charisma
Suggested charisma is a necessary but not sufficient condition for TL
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Model of Transformational Leadership
TL motivates followers beyond the expected by
raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals
transcending self-interest for the good of the team or organization
addressing higher level needs

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Figure 8.1: Leadership Continuum From Transformational to Laissez-Faire Leadership

Transformational Leadership Factors
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Table 8.2: Leadership Factors

Full Range of Leadership Model
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Figure 8.2: Full Range of Leadership Model with Legend

Transformational Leadership Factors: The 4 Is
Idealized Influence
Acting as strong role models
High standards of moral and ethical conduct
Making others want to follow the leader’s vision
Inspirational Motivation
Communicating high expectations
Inspiring followers to commitment and engagement in shared vision
Using symbols and emotional appeals to focus group members to achieve more than self-interest
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Transformational Leadership Factors: The 4 Is
Intellectual Stimulation
Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative
Challenging their own beliefs and valuing those of leader and organization
Supporting followers to
Try new approaches
Develop innovative ways of dealing with organization issues
Individualized Consideration
Listening carefully to the needs of followers
Acting as coaches to assist followers in becoming fully actualized
Helping followers grow through personal challenges
For example, showing optimism helps employees become more engaged in their work (Tims et al., 2011)
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The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership
Augments impact on employee’s performance and company profit (Rowald & Heinitz, 2007)
Positively related to job satisfaction and performance (Nemanich & Keller, 2007)
Boosts employee engagement and optimism (Tims, et. al., 2011)
TL leaders more likely to promote employee’s achieving their mastery goals (Hamstra, et.al.,2014)
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Transactional Leadership Factors
Contingent Reward
The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards
For example, how much TV a child can watch after practicing piano.
Management-by-Exception
Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement
Two forms
Active–Watches follower closely to identify mistakes/rule violations
Passive–Intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisen

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Nonleadership Factor
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Laissez-Faire
The Absence of Leadership
A hands-off, let-things-ride approach
Refers to a leader who
abdicates responsibility,
delays decisions,
gives no feedback, and
makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs.
May also be a strategic choice by leader to acknowledge subordinates’ abilities

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Individualized Consideration
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Figure 8.3: The Additive Effect of Transformational Leadership

Bennis and Nanus (1985)
Four Leader Strategies in Transforming Organizations
Clear vision of organization’s future state
TL’s social architect of organization
Create trust by making their position known and standing by it
Creatively deploy themselves through positive self-regard
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Kouzes and Pozner (1987, 2002)
Model consists of five fundamental practices
Model the Way
Inspire a Shared Vision
Challenge the Process
Enable Others to Act
Encourage the Heart
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How Does the Transformational Leadership Approach Work?
Focus of Transformational Leadership
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
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Transformational Leadership
Focus of Transformational
Leaders
TLs empower and nurture followers
TLs stimulate change by becoming strong role models for followers
TLs commonly create a vision
TLs require leaders to become social architects
TLs build trust and foster collaboration
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Overall Scope
Describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and carry out significant changes in organizations
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Strengths
Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.
Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.
Process focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.
Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models. Contributes to leader’s growth.
Emphasizes followers. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.
Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.
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Criticisms
Lacks conceptual clarity
Dimensions are not clearly delimited
Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership
Unclear whether dimensions are simply descriptions of TL
Measurement questioned
Validity of MLQ not fully established
Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model
TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught
No causal link shown between transformational leaders and changes in followers or organizations
TL is elitist and antidemocratic
Suffers from heroic leadership bias
Has the potential to be abused
May not be well-received by millennials
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Application
Provides a general way of thinking about leadership that stresses ideals, inspiration, innovations, and individual concerns
Can be taught to individuals at all levels of the organization
Able to positively impact a firm’s performance
May be used as a tool in recruitment, selection, promotion, and training development
Can be used to improve team development, decision-making groups, quality initiatives, and reorganizations
The MLQ and Sosik and Jung (2010) guide help leaders to target areas of leadership improvement
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Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Chapter 7
Northouse, Leadership 8e. © SAGE Publications, 2019.
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Overview
LMX Theory Description
LMX Theory Perspective
Early Studies
Later Studies
Leadership Making
How Does the LMX Approach Work?
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Definition
Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory:
conceptualizes leadership as a process
that is centered on the interactions between a leader and followers
Some theories focus on leaders:
trait approach, skills approach, and behavior approach
Other theories focus on the follower and the context:
situational leadership, path–goal theory.
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Dimensions of Leadership
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LMX theory makes the dyadic relationship between leaders and followers the focal point of the leadership process
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Figure 7.1: Dimensions of Leadership

LMX Theory Description
Development–LMX theory first described by Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975); Graen and Cashman (1975); and Graen (1976)
Revisions–Theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception and continues to be of interest to researchers
Assumption–LMX theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way, as a group.
LMX–Directed attention to the differences that might exist between the leader and each of his/her followers
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Perspective
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Early Studies
First studies of LMX called–Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
Focus on the vertical linkages leaders formed with each of their followers
Leader’s relationship to a work unit viewed as a series of vertical dyads

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Figure 7.2: The Vertical Dyad
Figure 7.3: Vertical Dyads

Early Studies
Leader’s work unit as a whole was viewed as a series of vertical dyads; leader forms unique relationship with each follower
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Figure 7.4: In-Groups and Out-Groups

Early Studies
Researchers found two general types of linkages (or relationships)–those based on
Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities
(extra-roles) = in-group
Relationships marked by mutual trust, respect, liking, and reciprocal influence
Receive more information, influence, confidence, and concern than out-group members
Formal employment contract (defined-roles) =
out-group
Relationships marked by formal communication based on job descriptions
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Early Studies
In-group/out-group status based on how well follower works with the leader and how well the leader works with the follower
How followers involve themselves in expanding their role responsibilities with the leader determines whether they become in-group or out-group participants
Becoming part of the in-group involves follower negotiations in performing activities beyond the formal job description
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Follower
In-Group
more information, influence, confidence, and concern from leader
more dependable, highly involved, and communicative than out-group
Out-Group
less compatible with leader
usually just come to work, do the job, and go home
In-Group and Out-Group Followers
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Out-Group
Leader
In-Group

F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
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Later Studies (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Initial research primarily addressed differences between in-groups and out-groups; later research addressed how LMX theory was related to organizational effectiveness
Later research focus on the quality of leader–member exchanges resulting in positive outcomes for
Leaders
Followers
Groups
Organizations in general
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Later Studies (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Researchers found that high-quality leader–member exchanges resulted in
Less employee turnover
More positive performance evaluations
Higher frequency of promotions
Greater organizational commitment
More desirable work assignments
Better job attitudes
More attention and support from the leader
Greater participation
Faster career progress
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Later Studies
Gerstner and Day (1997)
LMX consistently related to member job performance, overall satisfaction, supervisor satisfaction, commitment, role conflict and clarity, turnover intentions.
Support for psychometric properties of LMX Questionnaire
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Ilies, Nahrang, and Morgeson (2007)
Meta-analysis of 51 research studies
Positive relationship between LMX quality and citizenship behaviors (discretionary employee behaviors that go beyond the prescribed role, job description, or reward system.
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Later Studies
Hill, Kang, and Seo (2014)
Work relationships co-constructed through communication
Greater amount of electronic communication between leaders and followers leads to higher LMX
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Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
A prescriptive approach to leadership that emphasizes that a leader should develop high-quality exchanges with all of her or his followers, rather than just a few.
Three phases of leadership making which develop over time:
(a) stranger phase
(b) acquaintance phase
(c) mature partnership phase
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Leadership Making
(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
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Table 7.1: Phases in Leadership Making

Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
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Interactions within the leader–follower dyad are generally rule bound
Rely on contractual relationships
Relate to each other within prescribed organizational roles
Experience lower quality exchanges
Motives of follower directed toward self-interest rather than good of the group
Phase 1 Stranger
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Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Phase 1 continued
How do leaders and followers determine relationship quality?
By leaders using narrative storylines to determine how trustworthy followers are (Kelley, 2014)
By looking at the social interaction between leaders and followers (Sheer, 2014)
By using traditional relationship-building techniques such as conflict management and shared tasks (Madlock & Booth-Butterfield, 2012)
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Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
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Begins with an “offer” by leader/follower for improved career-oriented social exchanges
Testing period for both, assessing whether
the follower is interested in taking on new roles
leader is willing to provide new challenges
Shift in dyad from formalized interactions to new ways of relating
Quality of exchanges improves along with greater trust and respect
Less focus on self-interest, more on goals of the group
Phase 2
Acquaintance
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Leadership Making (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
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Phase 3
Mature Partnership
Marked by high-quality leader–member exchanges
Experience high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation toward each other
Tested relationship and found it dependable
High degree of reciprocity between leaders and subordinates
May depend on each other for favors and special assistance
Highly developed patterns of relating that produce positive
Outcomes for both themselves and the organization
Partnerships are transformational–moving beyond self-interest to accomplish greater good of the team and organization
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How Does the LMX Theory Approach Work?
Focus of LMX theory
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
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How Does LMX Theory Work?
LMX theory works in two ways: It describes leadership and it prescribes leadership
In both, the central concept is the dyadic relationship
Descriptively:
It suggests that it is important to recognize the existence of in-groups and out-groups within an organization
Significant differences in how goals are accomplished using in-groups versus out-groups
Relevant differences in in-group versus out-group behaviors
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How Does LMX Theory Work?
Prescriptively:
Best understood within the Leadership–Making Model
(Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Leader forms special relationships with all followers
Leader should offer each follower an opportunity for new roles/responsibilities
Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all followers
Rather than concentrating on differences, leader focuses on ways to build trust and respect with all followers, resulting in entire work group becoming an in-group
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Strengths
LMX theory validates our experience of how people within organizations relate to one another and the leader.
LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process.
LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communication in leadership.
Solid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes.
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Criticisms
Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory.
The basic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed.
How are high-quality leader–member exchanges created?
What are the means to achieve building trust, respect, and obligation? What are the guidelines?
Because of various scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader–member exchanges is being questioned.
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Application
Applicable to all levels of management and different types of organizations
Directs managers to assess their leadership from a relationship perspective
Sensitizes managers to how in-groups and out-groups develop within their work units
Can be used to explain how CEOs strategically develop special relationships with select individuals in upper management
Can be used to explain how individuals create leadership networks at various levels throughout an organization
Can be applied in different types of organizations–volunteer, business, education, and government settings
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