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CHAPTER

2

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

TEACHERS CASEBOOK: Symbols and Cymbals

The provincial curriculum guide calls for a unit on poetry, including lessons on

symbolism in poems. You are concerned that many of your grade

5

students may not

be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters, you ask a few

students to describe a symbol.

Its sorta like a big metal thing that you bang together. Tracy waves her hands

like a drum major.

Yeah, Sean adds, my sister plays one in the high school band.

You realize they are on the wrong track here, so you try again. I was

thinking

of

a different kind of symbol, like a ring as a symbol of marriage or a heart as a symbol

of love, or . . .

You are met with blank stares.

Trevor ventures, You mean like the Olympic torch?

And what does that symbolize, Trevor? you ask.

Like I said, a torch. Trevor wonders how you could be so dense.

CRITICAL THINKING

What do these students reactions tell you about childrens thinking?

How would you approach this unit?

What would you do to listen to your students thinking so that you could

match your teaching to their level of thinking?

How would you give your students concrete experience with the concept of

symbolism?

How will you decide if the students are developmentally ready for this material

zhi
Highlight

OVERVIEW AND OBJECTIVES

What is going on with Trevor?

In

this chapter, you will find out. We begin with a definition of

development and three issues that have intrigued psychologists who study it: nature versus

nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and critical versus sensitive periods

for development.

Next, we look at general principles of human development that most psychologists affirm.

To understand cognitive development, we begin by studying how the brain

work

s, and then

we explore the ideas of two of the most influential cognitive developmental theorists, Jean

Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piagets ideas have implications for teachers about how their

students think and what they can learn. We will consider criticisms of his ideas as well. The

work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, highlights the important role teachers

and

parents play in the cognitive development of the child. Vygotskys theory is becoming more

and more influential in the field of child development. By the time you have completed this

chapter, you should be able to:

2.1 Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon

principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with

current consensus on these

questions.

2.2 Summarize some current research on the physical development of the brain and

possible implications for teaching.

2.

3

Explain the principles and stages presented in Piagets theory of

cognitive development.

2.

4

Explain the principles presented in Vygotskys

theory of development.

2.5 Discuss how the ideas of Piaget and Vygotsky influence current educational research

and practice.

A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT

In the next few chapters, we will explore how students develop, and we will encounter

some surprising situations. In this chapter, you will learn why the following children

behave in peculiar ways:

Leah, a 5-year-old, is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into a snake makes more clay.

A 9-year-old child in Geneva, Switzerland, firmly believes that it is impossible to be Swiss

and Genevan at the same time, insisting, Im already Swiss, I cant also be Genevan.

Jamal, a very bright elementary school student, cannot answer the question, How

would life be different if people did not have to sleep? because he insists, People

have to sleep!

A young girl who once said her feet hurt suddenly begins to refer to her foots hurting,

then describes her footses, before she finally returns to talking about her feet.

A 2-year-old brings his own mother to comfort a friend who is crying, even though the

friends mother is available too.

What explains these interesting events? You will soon find out, because you are enter-ing

the world of child and adolescent development.

The term development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain

changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death. The term

is not applied to all changes, but rather to those that appear in orderly ways and remain

for a reasonably long period of time. A temporary change caused by a brief illness, for

example, is not considered a part of development. Human development can be divided

into a number of different aspects. Physical development, as you might guess, deals with

changes in the body. Personal development is the term generally used for changes in an

Development Orderly, adaptive

changes that humans (or animals)

go through from conception to

death.

Physical development Changes

in body structure that take place

as

one grows.

Personal development Changes

in personality that take place as

one grows.

2

24 PART 1 STUDENTS

individuals personality. Social development refers to changes in the way an individual

relates to others. And cognitive development refers to changes in thinking, reasoning, and

decision making.

Many changes that occur during development are simply matters of growth and matu-ration.

Maturation refers to changes that occur naturally and spontaneously, and that are,

to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge over time and are rela-tively

unaffected by environment, except in cases of malnutrition or severe illness. Much

of a persons physical development falls into this category. Other changes are brought

about through learning, as individuals interact with their environment. Such changes make

up a large part of a persons social development. What about the development of thinking

and personality? Most psychologists agree that in these areas, both maturation and interac-tion

with the environment (or nature and nurture, as they are sometimes called) are impor-tant,

although they may disagree about the amount of emphasis to place on each. Nature

versus nurture is one of three continuing discussions in theories of development.

Three Questions Across the Theories

Because there are many different approaches to research and theory, as you saw in Chap-ter

1, there are some continuing debates about key questions surrounding development.

What is the Source of Development? Nature Versus Nurture. Which is more important

in development, the nature of an individual (heredity, genes, biological processes, mat-uration,

etc.) or the nurture of environmental contexts (education, parenting, culture,

social policies, etc.)? This debate has raged for at least 2000 years, and has had many

labels along the way, including heredity versus environment, biology versus culture,

maturation versus learning, and innate versus acquired abilities. In earlier centuries,

philosophers, poets, religious leaders, and politicians argued the question. Today scientists

bring new tools to the discussion as they can map genes or trace the effects of drugs on

brain activity, for example (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 200

6

). Even in scientific expla-nations,

the pendulum has swung back and forth between nature and nurture (Cairns &

Cairns, 2006; Overton, 2006).

Today the environment is seen as critical, but so are biological factors and individual

differences. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviours are determined 100% by

biology and 100% by environmentthey cannot be separated (Miller, 2002). Current views

emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. For example, a child

born with a very easygoing, calm disposition will likely elicit different reactions from

parents, playmates, and teachers compared to a child who is often upset and difficult to

soothe; this shows that individuals are active in constructing their own environments. But

environments shape individuals as wellif not, what good would education be? So today,

the either/or debates about nature and nurture are of less interest to educational and

developmental psychologists. As a pioneering developmental psychologist said over 100

years ago, the more exciting questions involve understanding how both causes work

together (Baldwin, 1895, p. 77).

Social development Changes

over time in the ways in which

one relates to others.

Cognitive development Gradual,

orderly changes by which mental

processes become more complex

and sophisticated.

Maturation Genetically

programmed, naturally

occurring changes over time.

Coactions Joint actions of

individual biology and

environmenteach shapes and

influences the other.

What is the Shape of Development? Continuity Versus Discontinuity. Is human devel-opment

a continuous process of adding to and increasing abilities, or are there leaps or

moves to new stages when abilities actually change? A continuous process would be like

gradual improvement in your running endurance through systematic exercise. A discon-tinuous

change (also called qualitative) would be like many of the changes that occur in

humans during puberty, such as the ability to reproducean entirely different ability.

Qualitative changes are contrasted with purely quantitative change, such as an adolescent

growing taller.

You can think of continuous or quantitative change like walking up a ramp to go higher

and higher. Progress is steady. A discontinuous or qualitative change is more like walking

up stairsthere are level periods, then you move up to the next step all at once. Piagets

theory of cognitive development, described in the next section, is an example of qualitative,

discontinuous change in childrens thinking abilities. But other explanations of cognitive

development based on learning theories emphasize gradual, continuous quantitative change

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Timing: Is It too Late? Critical Periods and Earlier versus Later Experiences. Are

there critical periods when certain abilities, such as language, need to develop? If those

opportunities are missed, can the child still catch up? These are questions about timing

and development. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those influenced by Freud,

believed that early childhood experiences were critical, especially for emotional/social

and cognitive development. Does early toilet training really set all of us on a particular

life path? Probably not. More recent research shows that later experiences are powerful,

too, and can change the direction of development (Kagan & Herschkowitz, 2005). Most

psychologists today talk about sensitive periods, not critical periods. There are times

when a person is especially ready for or

responsive to certain experiences

. Also, early

experiences, particularly those that have an adverse impact, can have long-term conse-quences

for development.

Beware of Either/Or. As you might imagine, the debates above proved too compli-cated

to be settled by splitting alternatives into either/or possibilities (Griffins & Gray,

2005). Today, most psychologists see human development, learning, and motivation as

a set of interacting and coacting contexts, from the inner biological structures and pro-cesses

that influence development, such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the

external factors of families, neighbourhoods, social relationships, educational and health

institutions, public policies, time periods, historical events, and so on. So the effects of

a childhood disease on the cognitive development of a child born in the sixteenth cen-tury

to a poor family and treated by bloodletting or leeches will be quite different from

the effect of the same disease on a child born in 2018 to a wealthy family and given the

best treatment available for the time period. Throughout the rest of this text, we will try

to make sense of development, learning, motivation, and teaching without falling into

the either/or trap.

General Principles of Development

Although there is disagreement about what is involved in development and about the way

it takes place, there are a few general principles that almost all theorists would support.

1. People develop at different rates. In your own classroom, you will have a whole range

of examples of different developmental rates. Some students will be larger, better

coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships. Others will be

much slower to mature in these areas. Except in rare cases of very rapid or very slow

development, such differences are normal, and are to be expected in any large group

of

students.

2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop certain abilities before others. In

infancy, they sit before they walk, babble before they talk, and see the world through

their own eyes before they can begin to imagine how others see it. In school, they

master addition before algebra, Harry Potter before Shakespeare, and so on. But

orderly does not necessarily mean linear or predictablepeople might advance,

stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward.

3. Development takes place gradually. Very rarely do changes appear overnight. A stu-dent

who cannot manipulate a pencil or answer a hypothetical question may well

develop this ability, but the change is likely to take time.

THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

If you have taken an introductory psychology class, you have read about the brain and

nervous system. You probably remember that there are several different areas of the brain,

and that certain areas are involved in particular functions. For example, the feathery look-ing

cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movementsfrom

the graceful gestures of a dancer to the everyday action of eating without stabbing

yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a role in higher cognitive

functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in recalling new information and

recent experiences, while the amygdala directs emotions. The thalamus is involved in our

25

Sensitive periods Times when a

person is especially ready for or

responsive to certain experiences

26 PART 1 STUDENTS

FIGURE 2.1

REGIONS OF THE BRAIN

Cerebrum

Corpus Callosum

Frontal Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Amygdala

Pons

Spinal

Pons

ulla Oblongata

Spinal Cord

Medulla Oblongata

Parietal Lobe

Basal Ganglia

Thalamus

Occipital Lobe

Cerebellum

Hippocampus

ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. Figure 2.1 shows the various

regions of the brain.

Advances in brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists remarkable access to

Functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI) An MRIis an

imaging technique that uses a

magnetic field along with radio

waves and a computer to create

detailed pictures of the inside of

the body. A functional MRI uses

the MRI to measure the tiny

changes that take place in the

brain during brain activity.

Event-related potential (ERP)

Measurements that assess

electrical activity of the brain

through the skull or scalp.

Positron emission tomography

(PET) A method of localizing and

measuring brain activity using

computer-assisted motion

pictures of the brain.

Neurons Nerve cells that store

and transfer

information.

Neurogenesis The production of

new neurons.

Synapses The tiny space

between neurons; chemical

messages are sent across

these gaps.

the functioning brain. For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) shows

how blood flows within the brain when children or adults do different cognitive tasks.

Event-related potential (ERP) measurements assess electrical activity of the brain through

the skull or scalp as people perform activities such as reading or learning vocabulary

words. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans can track brain activity under different

conditions.

Lets begin our look at the brain by examining its tiny componentsneurons, synapses,

and glial cells.

The Developing Brain: Neurons

A newborn babys brain weighs about one pound, or 454 grams, barely one-third of the

weight of an adult brain. But this infant brain has billions of neurons, the specialized nerve

cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the

brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurons are a greyish colour, so they some-times

are called the grey matter of the brain. One neuron has the information processing

capacity of a small computer. That means the processing power of one 3-pound (1.4-kilogram)

human brain is likely greater than all the computers in the world. Of course, computers

do many things, like calculate square roots of large numbers, much faster than humans

can (Anderson, 2010). These incredibly important neuron cells are tinyabout 30 000

could fit on the head of a pin (Sprenger, 2010). Scientists once believed that all the neurons

a person would ever have were present at birth, but now we know that the production of

new neurons, neurogenesis, continues into adulthood (Koehl & Abrous, 2011).

Neuron cells send out long arm-and branch-like fibres called axons and dendrites

to connect with other neuron cells. The fibre ends from different neurons do not actually

touchthere are tiny spaces between them, about one billionth of a metre in length, called

synapses. Neurons share information using electrical signals and by releasing chemicals

that jump across the synapses. Axons transmit information out to muscles, glands, or other

neurons; dendrites receive information and transmit it to the neuron cells themselves.

Communication between neurons by these synaptic transmissions is strengthened or

weakened, depending on patterns of use. So the strength of these synaptic connections

is dynamicalways changing. This is called synaptic plasticity, or just plasticity, a very

important concept for educators, as you will see soon. Connections

between neurons

become stronger with use or practice and weaker when not used (Dubinsky, Roehrig, &

Varma, 2013). Figure 2.2 shows these components of the neuron system (Anderson, 2010)

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 2.2

A SINGLE NEURON

Each neuron (nerve cell) includes dendrites that bring in messages and an axon that sends out

messages. This is a single neuron, but each neuron is in a network with many others.

Axon sends messages

to other cells

Neuron

Myelin cover on the

axon accelerates

transmission of

impulses

27

Dendrites receive

messages from

other neurons

Axon

In the synapse,

neurotransmitters

carry information

between neurons

Neurotransmitters

Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

Synapse Dendrite

At birth, each of the childs 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2500 synapses.

However, the fibres that reach out from the neurons and the synapses between the fibre

ends increase during the first years of life, perhaps into adolescence or longer. By ages 2

to 3, each neuron has around 15 000 synapses. Children this age have many more syn-apses

than they will have as adults. In fact, they are oversupplied with the neurons and

synapses that they will need to adapt to their environments. However, only those neurons

that are used will survive. Unused neurons will be pruned. This pruning is necessary

and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found that some developmental

disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with pruning (Bransford,

Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Cook & Cook, 2014).

Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place. One is called

experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain

during specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. For example,

during the first months of life, the brain expects visual and auditory stimulation. If a

normal range of sights and sounds occurs, then the visual and auditory areas of the brain

develop. But children who are born completely deaf receive no auditory stimulation and,

as a result, the auditory processing area of their brains becomes devoted to processing

visual information. Similarly, the visual processing area of the brain for children blind

from birth becomes devoted to auditory processing (Nelson, 2001; Neville, 2007).

Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are responsible for general

development in large areas of the brain and may explain why adults have difficulty with

pronunciations that are not part of their native language. For example, the distinction between

the sounds of r and l is important in English but not in Japanese, so by about 10 months,

Japanese infants lose the ability to discriminate between r and l those neurons are pruned

away. As a result, Japanese adults learning these sounds require intense instruction and

practice (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008)

28 PART 1 STUDENTS

The second kind of synaptic overproduction

and pruning is called experience-dependent. Here,

synaptic connections are formed based on the indi-viduals

experiences. New synapses are formed in

response to neural activity in very localized areas of

the brain when the individual is not successful in

processing information. Again, more synapses are

produced than will be kept after pruning. Experi-ence-dependent

processes are involved in individual

learning, such as mastering unfamiliar sound pro-nunciations

in a second language you are studying,

or developing an ear for music.

Stimulating environments may help in the prun-SUPPORTING

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT Studies of the brain indicate that

stimulating environments and meaningful interactions with parents and

teachers likely support better brain development.

ing process in early life (experience-expectant

period) and also may support increased synapse

development in adulthood (experience-dependent

period) (Cook & Cook, 2009). In fact, animal studies

have shown that rats raised in stimulating environ-ments

(with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and

human handling) develop and retain 25% more syn-apses

than rats that are raised with little stimulation.

Even though the research with rats may not apply directly to humans, it is clear that

extreme deprivation can have negative effects on human brain development. Perhaps the

best examples of this come from studies of children raised in institutions or orphanages

(Nelson et al., 2007; Twardosz, 2012). But extra stimulation will not necessarily improve

development for young children who are getting adequate or typical amounts (Byrnes &

Fox, 1998; Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). So spending money on expensive toys or baby educa-tion

programs probably offers more stimulation than is necessary. Pots and pans, blocks

and books, and sand and water all provide excellent stimulationespecially if accompa-nied

by caring conversations with parents or teachers.

In Figure 2.2, it appears that there is nothing between the neurons but air. Actually,

the spaces are filled with glial cells, the white matter of the brain. There are trillions of

these cellsthey greatly outnumber neurons. Glial cells appear to have many functions,

such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons,

and providing the myelin coating (see Figure 2.2) around axon fibres (Ormrod, 2012).

Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibres with an insulating fatty glial covering, influ-ences

thinking and learning. This process is something like coating bare electrical wires

with rubber or plastic. This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more

efficient. Myelination happens quickly in the early years, but continues gradually into

adolescence, with the childs brain doubling in volume in the first year of life and doubling

again around puberty (Anderson, 2010).

Glial cells The white matter of

the brain. These cells greatly

outnumber neurons and appear

to have many functions, such as

fighting infections, controlling

blood flow and

communication

among neurons, and providing

the myelin coating around axon

fibres.

Myelination The process by

which neural fibres are coated

with a fatty sheath called myelin

that makes message transfer

more efficient.

The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex

Lets move from the neuron level to the brain itself. The outer 1/8-inch-thick (3.18-milli-metre)

covering is the cerebral cortexthe largest area of the brain. It is a thin sheet of

neurons, but it is almost 3 square feet (0.28 square metres) in area for adults. To get all

that area in your head, the sheet is crumpled together with many folds and wrinkles

(Anderson, 2010). In humans, this area of the brain is much larger than it is in lower

animals. The cerebral cortex accounts for about 85% of the brains weight in

adulthood

and contains the greatest number of neurons. The cerebral cortex allows the greatest

human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and language.

The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is believed to be more sus-ceptible

to environmental influences than other areas of the brain (Gluck, Mercado, &

Myers, 2008; Schacter, Gilbert, & Wenger, 2009). Parts of the cortex mature at different

rates. The region of the cortex that controls physical motor movement matures first, then

the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal

lobe

Stephen

McBrady/PhotoEdit,

In

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 2.3

A VIEW OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

This is a simple representation of the left side of the human brain, showing the cerebral cortex.

The cortex is divided into different areas, or lobes, each having a variety of regions with different

functions. A few of the major functions are indicated here.

Body movement

and coordination

Frontal

lobe

Body sensation

Parietal

lobe

Visual

cortex

29

Auditory

cortex

Temporal

lobe

Occipital

lobe

that controls higher-order thinking processes. The temporal lobes of the cortex that play

major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop fully until the high school

years and maybe later.

Different areas of the cortex seem to have distinct functions, as shown in Figure 2.3.

Even though different functions are found in particular areas of the brain, these special-ized

functions are quite specific and elementary. To accomplish more complex functions

such as speaking or reading, the various areas of the cortex must communicate and work

together (Anderson, 2010; Byrnes & Fox, 1998).

Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive development

is lateralization, or the specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain. We know that

each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. Damage to the right side of

the brain will affect movement of the left side of the body and vice versa. In addition,

certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviours. For most of us, the left hemisphere

of the brain is a major factor in language processing, and the right hemisphere handles

much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal information). For some

left-handed people, the relationship may be reversed, but for most left-handers, and for

females on average, there is less hemispheric specialization altogether (Anderson, 2010;

OBoyle & Gill, 1998). The brains of young children show more plasticity (adaptability)

because they are not as specialized or lateralized as the brains of older children and adults.

Young children with damage to the left side of the brain are somewhat able to overcome

the damage, which allows language development to proceed. Different areas of the brain

take over the functions of the damaged area. But in older children and adults, this com-pensation

is less likely to occur after damage to the left brain hemisphere.

These differences in performance by the brains hemispheres, however, are more

relative than absolute; one hemisphere is just more efficient than the other in performing

certain functions. The left and right hemispheres process language differently, but simul-taneously

(Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). Nearly any task, particularly the

complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires simultaneous participation of

many different areas of the brain in constant communication with each other. For exam-ple,

the right side of the brain is better at figuring out the meaning of a story, but the

left side is where grammar and syntax are understood, so both sides of the brain have

to work together in reading. Remember, no mental activity is exclusively the work of a

Lateralization The specialization

of the two hemispheres (sides) of

the brain cortex.

Plasticity The brains tendency to

remain somewhat adaptable or

flexible

30 PART 1 STUDENTS

single part of the brainso there is no such thing as a right-brained student unless that

individual has had the left hemisphere removeda rare and radical treatment for some

forms of epilepsy.

Adolescent Development and the Brain

The brain continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. During adoles-cence,

changes in the brain increase individuals abilities to control their behaviour in

both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to

inhibit impulsive behaviour (Wigfield, Byrnes, & Eccles, 2006). But these abilities are not

fully developed until the early 20s, so while adolescents may seem like adults, at least

in low-stress situations, their brains are not fully developed. Adolescents often have trou-ble

avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents brains have been

described as having high horsepower, poor steering (Organisation for Economic Co-operation

and Development [OECD], 2007, p. 6).

One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and controlling impulses looks

to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brainthe

limbic system and the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008). The

limbic system develops earlier; it is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/

risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviours. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop;

it is involved with judgment and decision making. As the limbic system matures, adoles-cents

become more responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. In fact,

adolescents appear to need more intense emotional stimulation than either children or

adults, so they are set up for taking risks and seeking thrills. Risk taking and novelty

seeking can be positive factors for adolescent development as young people coura-geously

try new ideas and behavioursand learning is stimulated

(McAnarney, 2008).

But their less mature prefrontal lobe has not yet learned to say, Whoathat thrill is too

risky! So in emotional situations, thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the

prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated with the limbic system in late

adolescence. Then risks can be evaluated in terms of long-term consequences, not imme-diate

thrills (Casey et al., 2008; Smith, Xiao, & Bechara, 2012). In addition, there are

individual differences: Some adolescents are more prone than others to engage in risky

behaviours.

Teachers can take advantage of their adolescent students intensity by helping them

devote their energy and passion to areas such as politics, the environment, or social

causes (Price, 2005) or by guiding them to explore emotional connections with char-acters

in history or literature. Connections to family, school, community, and positive

belief systems help adolescents put the brakes on reckless and dangerous behaviours

(McAnarney, 2008).

Other changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep. We all

have an internal clock that influences sleep cycles among other things. Before puberty

this internal clock is set such that most children naturally fall asleep around 8 or 9 p.m.

During puberty, it appears this clock is reset, delaying the time at which teens feel tired

and making it difficult for them to get to sleep early. Teenagers need about nine hours

of sleep per night, but one study, published in the Journal of School Health (Noland,

Price, Dake, & Telljohann, 2009) indicated most adolescents get less than that. Over time,

sleep deprivation can have serious consequences (e.g., teens may experience difficul-ties

concentrating and learning, mood swings, behaviour problems, and drowsy driv-ing).

Some parents and advocates argue high school should begin later in the day to

be more in sync with teenagers internal clocks. Other strategies include establishing

regular bedtime routines; curbing daytime naps and caffeinated drinks; and winding

down in the eveninglimit socializing and unplug as bedtime approaches (Mayo

Clinic Staff, 2013).

Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works

What is your conception of the brain? Is the brain a culture-free container that holds

knowledge the same way for everyone? Is the brain like a library of facts or a compute

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

filled with information? Do you wake up in the morning, download what you need for

the day, and then go merrily on your way? Is the brain like a pipe that transfers informa-tion

from one person to anothera teacher to a student, for example? Kurt Fischer (2009)

offers a different view, based on neuroscience research. Knowing is actively constructing

understandings and actions. Knowledge is based in our activities:

When animals and people do things in their worlds, they shape their behavior. Based

on brain research, we know that likewise they literally shape the anatomy and physiol-ogy

of their brains (and bodies). When we actively control our experience, that experi-ence

sculpts the way that our brains work, changing neurons, synapses, and brain

activity. (p. 5)

All experiences sculpt the brainplay and deliberate practice, formal and informal

learning (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Earlier, you encountered the term plasticity, which

describes the brains capacity for constant change in neurons, synapses, and activity.

Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world

shape the brain through plasticity. For example, in one study, when adult Chinese

speakers added and compared Arabic numerals, they showed brain activity in the motor

(or movement) areas of their brains, whereas adult English speakers performing the

same tasks showed activity in the language areas of their brains (Tang et al., 2006).

One explanation is that Chinese children are taught arithmetic using an abacusa

calculation tool that involves movement and spatial positions. As adults, these individu-als

retain a kind of visual-motor sense of numbers (Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz,

2008). There are also cultural differences in how languages affect reading. For example,

when they read, native Chinese speakers activate additional parts of their brain associ-ated

with spatial information processing, probably because Chinese is written with

graphic characters, rather than an alphabet. But Chinese speakers also activate these

spatial areas of the brain when they read English, demonstrating that reading profi-ciency

can be reached through different neural pathways (Hinton, Miyamoto, &

Della-Chiesa, 2008).

Thanks to plasticity, the brain is ever changingshaped by activity, culture, and

context. We build knowledge as we do things, manipulating objects and ideas mentally

and physically. As you can imagine, educators have looked for ways to apply neuroscience

research to their instruction. This has led to vigorous debate between the enthusiastic

educational advocates of brain-based education and the skeptical neuroscience research-ers

who caution that studies of the brain do not really address major educational ques-tions.

Many publications for parents and teachers have useful ideas about the brain and

education, but beware of suggestions that oversimplify. The jury still is out on many of

these brain-based programs (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). See the Point/Counter-point

on the next page for a slice of this debate.

So what can teachers learn from neuroscience? We turn to this next.

Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching

There are many popular neuromyths about the brain, as you can see in Table 2.1. We have

to be careful about what we encounter in the media.

It is not a myth that teaching can change the organization and structure of the brain.

For example, individuals who are deaf and use sign language have different patterns of

electrical activity in their brains than people who are deaf and do not use sign language

(Varma, McCandliss, & Schwartz, 2008). What are some other effects of instruction on the

brain?

Instruction and Brain Development. Several studies have shown differences in brain

activity associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction and practice

provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new

connections and using new areas of the brain (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000;

McKinley, 2011). In another example, Margarete Delazer and her colleagues (2005) com-pared

students brain activity as they learned new arithmetic operations, either by just

memorizing the answers or by learning an algorithm strategy. Using functional magnetic

3

32 PART 1 STUDENTS

TABLE 2.1 Myths About the Brain

COMMON MYTHS

1. You use only 10% of your brain.

2. Listening to Mozart will make children

smarter.

3. Some people are more right brained,

and others are more left brained.

4. A young childs brain can only manage to

learn one language at a time.

5. You cant change your brain.

6. Damage to the brain is permanent.

7. Playing games like Sudoku keeps your

brain from aging.

8. The human brain is the biggest brain.

9. Alcoholic beverages kill brain cells.

TRUTH

1. You use all of your brain. That is why

strokes are so devastating.

2. Listening will not, but learning to play a

musical instrument is associated with

increased cognitive achievement.

3. It takes both sides of your brain to do

most things.

4. Children all over the world can and do

learn two (or more) languages at once.

5. Our brains are changing all the time.

6. Most people recover well from minor brain

injuries.

7. Playing Sudoku makes you better at

playing Sudoku and similar games. Physical

exercise is a better bet to prevent decline.

8. Sperm whales have brains five times

heavier than those of humans.

9. Heavy drinking does not kill brain cells but

it can damage the nerve ends called

dendrites, and this causes problems with

communicating messages in the brain. This

damage is mostly reversible.

10. The adolescents brain is the same as that

of an adult.

10. There are critical differences between

adolescents and adults brains: Adolescents

brains have high horsepower, but poor

steering (Fischer, 2009).

Source: Based on Aamodt & Wang (2008); K. W. Fischer (2009); Freeman (2011).

resonance imaging (fMRI), the researchers found that students who simply memorized

answers showed greater activity in the area of the brain that specializes in retrieving

verbal information, whereas the students who used a strategy showed greater activity in

the visual-spatial processing portion of the brain.

Fischer (2009) described a dramatic case of two children who each had one brain

hemisphere removed as a treatment for severe epilepsy. Nicos right hemisphere was

removed when he was 3, and his parents were told he would never have good visual-spatial

skills. With strong and constant support and teaching, Nico grew up to be a

skilled artist! Brookes left hemisphere was removed when he was 11. His parents

were told he would lose his ability to talk. Again, with strong support, he regained

enough speaking and reading ability to finish high school and attend community

college.

The Brain and Learning to Read. Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differ-ences

among skilled and less skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary. For example,

one imaging study showed that less skilled readers had trouble establishing high-quality

representations of new vocabulary words in their brains, as indicated by event-related

potential (ERP) measurements of electrical activity of the brain. When they encountered

the new word later, less skilled readers brains often did not recognize that they had seen

the word before, even though they had learned the words in an earlier lesson. If words

you have learned seem unfamiliar later, you can see how it would be hard to understand

what you read (Balass, Nelson, & Perfetti, 2010)

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

In another study, Bennett Shaywitz and his colleagues

(2004) studied 28 children (ages 6 to 9) who were good

readers and 49 children who were poor readers. Differences

in the brain activity of the two groups were visible on fMRIs.

The poor readers underused parts of their brains left hemi-sphere

and sometimes overused their right hemispheres.

After over 100 hours of intensive instruction in lettersound

combinations, reading ability improved; the brains of the

poor readers started to function more like those of the good

readers and continued this functioning a year later. Poor

readers who received the standard school remediation did

not show the same changes in brain function.

Reading is not innate or automaticevery brain has

to be taught to read (Frey & Fisher, 2010). Reading is a

complex integration of the systems in the brain that rec-ognize

sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences,

and then connect with what the reader already knows.

This has to happen quickly and automatically (Wolf et al.,

2009). Will brain research help us teach reading more

effectively? Judith Willis (2009), a neurobiologist who

became a science teacher, cautions that: Neuroimaging

and the other brain monitoring systems used for reading

research offer suggestive rather than completely empirical

links between how the brain learns and metabolizes oxygen or glucose, conducts electric-ity,

or changes its cellular density. (p. 333).

Although the strategies for teaching reading that are consistent with brain research

are not completely new, the research may help us understand why these

strategies work.

What are some suggested strategies? Use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling,

meanings, sequencing, and vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining,

drawing, and modelling. Different students may learn in different ways, but all need prac-tice

in literacy.

Emotions, Learning, and the Brain. Finally, another clear connection between the brain and

classroom learning is in the area of emotions and stress. For an example, lets step inside a

high school math classroom described by Hinton, Miyamoto, and Della-Chiesa (2008, p. 91).

Patricia, a high school student, struggles with mathematics. The last few times she answered

a mathematics question she got it wrong and felt terribly embarrassed, which formed an

association between mathematics . . . and negative emotions . . . . Her teacher had just

asked her to come to the blackboard to solve a problem. This caused an immediate trans-fer

of this emotionally-charged association to the amygdala, which elicits fear. Meanwhile,

a slower, cortically-driven cognitive appraisal of the situation is occurring: she remembers

her difficulty completing her mathematics homework last night, notices the problem on

the board contains complicated graphs, and realizes that the boy she has a crush on is

watching her from a front-row seat. These various thoughts converge to a cognitive con-firmation

that this is a threatening situation, which reinforces her progressing fear response

and disrupts her ability to concentrate on solving the mathematics problem. (Hinton,

Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008).

In Chapter 7 you will learn about how emotions can become paired with particular

situations; and in Chapter 12, you will see that anxiety interferes with learning, whereas

challenge, interest, and curiosity can support learning. If students feel unsafe and anxious,

they are not likely to be able to focus attention on academics (Sylvester, 2003). But if stu-dents

are not challenged or interested, learning suffers too. Keeping the level of challenge

and support just right is a challenge for teachers. And helping students learn to regulate

their own emotions and motivation is an important goal for education (see Chapter 11) .

Simply put, learning will be more effective if educators help to minimize stress and fear

at school, teach students emotional regulation strategies, and provide a positive learning

environment that is motivating to students (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008).

33

BRAIN RESEARCH AND READING Brain research may help us under-stand

why strategies for teaching reading are or are not effective.

Gorillaimages/Shutterstoc

34 PART 1 STUDENTS

POINT

/

COUNTERPOINT

Brain-Based Education

Educators are hearing more and more about brain-based education, the importance of early stimulation for

brain development, the Mozart effect, and right-and left-brain activities. In fact, based on some research

findings that listening to 10 minutes of Mozart can briefly improve spatial reasoning (Rauscher & Shaw, 1998;

Steele, Bass, & Crook, 1999), a former governor of Georgia established a program to give a Mozart CD to

every newborn. The scientists who had done the work could not believe how their research had been applied

(Katzir & Par-Blagoev, 2006). Apparently, the governor had confused experiments on infant brain develop-ment

with studies of adults and Mozart (Pinker, 2002). Are there clear educational implications from the neu-roscience

research on the brain?

No, the implications are not clear. Catherine and

Miriam Beauchamp (2013) note that the application of neu-roscience

to education actually has been plagued by misap-plications

because the findings have been treated in

isolation, without attention to knowledge from other disci-plines

such as cognitive science or educational psychology

that place the findings in context. To further complicate the

problem of misapplication, educators and neuroscience

researchers have different meanings for learning, and do

not have an appreciation for each others realityneuroscientists

do not understand schools, and educators do not have a back-ground

in neurobiology.

John Bruer, president of the James S. McDonnell Founda-tion,

has written articles that are critical of the brain-based educa-tion

craze (Bruer, 1999, 2002). He notes that many so-called

applications of brain research begin with solid science, but then

move to unwarranted speculation, and end in a sort of appealing

folk tale about the brain and learning. He suggests that for each

claim, the educator should ask, Where does the science end and

the speculation begin? For example, one claim that Bruer ques-tions

is the notion of right-brain, left-brain learning.

Right brain versus left brain is one of those popular ideas

that will not die. Speculations about the educational signifi-cance

of brain laterality have been circulating in the educa-tion

literature for 30 years. Although repeatedly criticized

and dismissed by psychologists and brain scientists, the

speculation continues. David Sousa devotes a chapter of

How the Brain Learns to explaining brain laterality and pres-ents

classroom strategies that teachers might use to ensure

that both hemispheres are involved in learning . . . . Now lets

consider the brain sciences and how or whether they offer

support for some of the particular teaching strategies Sousa

recommends. To involve the right hemisphere in learning,

Sousa writes, teachers should encourage students to gener-ate

and use mental imagery . . . . . What brain scientists cur-rently

know about spatial reasoning and mental imagery

provides counter examples to such simplistic claims as these.

Such claims arise out of a folk theory about brain laterality,

not a neuroscientific one . . . . . Different brain areas are spe-cialized

for different tasks, but that specialization occurs at a

finer level of analysis than using visual imagery. Using

visual imagery may be a useful learning strategy, but if it is

useful it is not because it involves an otherwise underutilized

right hemisphere in learning. (Bruer, 1999, pp. 653654)

Ten years later, Kurt Fischer (2009), president of the Interna-tional

Mind, Brain, and Education Society, lamented

Expectations for neuroscience and genetics to shape educa-tional

practice and policy have exploded far beyond what is

merited by the state of the emerging field of MBE [mind body

education] and the level of knowledge about how brains and

genetics function . . . Many neuromyths have entered popu-lar

discoursebeliefs about how the brain and body work that

are widely accepted but blatantly wrong (OECD, 2007b).

Most of what is put forward as brain-based education builds

on these scientifically inaccurate myths: The one small way

that neuroscience relates to most brain-based education is

that the students have brains. There is no grounding for these

claims in the young field of neuroscience. (Fischer, 2009)

No teacher doubts that the brain is important in learning.

As Steven Pinker (2002), professor of psychology at Harvard Uni-versity,

observed, does anyone really think learning takes place

STOP & THINK As a teacher, you do not want to fall for overly simplistic brain-based teach-ing

slogans. But obviously, the brain and learning are intimately relatedthis is not a surprise.

So how can you be savvy about neuroscience as a teacher (Murphy & Benton, 2010)?

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles

What can we learn from neuroscience? One overarching idea is that teachers and students

should transform the notion of learning from using your brain to changing your brainembracing

the amazing plasticity of the brain (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Here are some

general teaching implications drawn from Driscoll (2005), Dubinsky and colleagues

(2013), Murphy and Benton (2010), Sprenger (2010), and Wolfe (2010):

POINT

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

somewhere else, like the pancreas? But knowing that learning

affects the brain does not tell us how to teach. All learning affects

the brain: . . . this should be obvious, but nowadays any banality

about learning can be dressed up in neurospeak and treated like

a great revelation of science (2002, p. 86). Virtually all of the so-called

best practices for brain-based education are simple

restatements of good teaching based on understandings of how

people learn, not how their brains work. For example, we have

known for over 100 years that it is more effective to learn in many

shorter practice sessions as opposed to one long cramming ses-sion.

To tie that fact to building more dendrites does not give

teachers new strategies (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010). Finally,

Richard Haier and Rex Jung (2008) look to the future: Someday,

we believe that our educational system will be informed by neu-roscience

knowledge, especially concerning intelligence, but how

we get from here to there remains unclear (p. 177).

Yes, teaching should be brain-based. Articles in popu-lar

magazines such as Newsweek assert, . . . its naive to say

that brain discoveries have no consequences for understand-ing

how humans learn (Begley, 2007). Do scientists agree? In

their article Applying Cognitive Neuroscience Research to

Education in Educational Psychologist, Tami Katzir and

Juliana Par-Blagoev (2006) conclude, When applied cor-rectly,

brain science may serve as a vehicle for advancing the

application of our understanding of learning and develop-ment.

. . . Brain research can challenge common-sense views

about teaching and learning by suggesting additional systems

that are involved in particular tasks and activities

(Katzir & Par-Blagoev, 2006, p. 70). If we are to guard against

overstating the links between brain research and education,

then we should not ask if, but instead how best to teach

neuroscience concepts to pre-service teachers (Dubinsky

et al., 2013, p. 325). A number of universities, including

Cambridge, Harvard, Dartmouth, Johns Hopkins, the

University of Texas at Arlington, the University of Southern California,

Beijing Normal University, and Southeast University in Nanjing, have

established training programs for educators in brain-education

studies (Dubinsky et al., 2013; Fischer, 2009; Wolfe, 2010). Other

educational psychologists have called for a new professional

specialtyneuro-educators (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013).

Brain research is leading to much better understandings

about learning disabilities. For example, neuroscience studies of

people with reading disabilities have found that these individuals

may have trouble with sounds and sound patterns or with retriev-ing

the names of very familiar letters, so there may be different

bases for reading disabilities (Katzir & Par-Blagoev, 2006).

There are examples of applying knowledge of brain research

to education. A reading improvement product called FastForword

was developed by two neuroscientists, Dr. Michael Merzenich and

Dr. Paula Tallal, and is in use today in classrooms around the country

(see http://www.scilearn.com/results/success-stories/index.php). It

specifically uses discoveries in neural plasticity to change the brains

ability to read the printed word (Tallal & Miller, 2003).

In his presidential address for the First Conference of the

International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer, a

developmental psychologist and Harvard professor, noted,

The primary goal of the emerging field of Mind, Brain, and

Education is to join biology, cognitive science, development,

and education in order to create a sound grounding of edu-cation

in research. The growing, worldwide movement needs

to avoid the myths and distortions of popular conceptions of

brain and genetics and build on the best integration of

research with practice, creating a strong infrastructure that

joins scientists with educators to study effective learning and

teaching in educational settings. (Fischer, 2009, pp. 316)

Fischer makes the point that we can go from understanding

how the brain works to understanding cognitive processes, and

then to developing educational practices. But jumping directly

from knowledge about the brain to educational practices prob-ably

involves too much speculation.

BEWARE OF EITHER/OR

Schools should not be run on curricula based solely on the biol-ogy

of the brain. However, to ignore what we do know about the

brain would be equally irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers

some direction for educators who want more purposeful,

informed teaching. At the very least, the neuroscience research

is helping us to understand why effective teaching strategies,

such as distributed practice, work.

Re

sourc

es: OCED. (2007). Understanding the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science. Podcast. http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,3343,en_2649_

35845581_38811388_1_1_1_1,00.html.

35

1. Human capabilitiesintelligence, communication, problem solving, and so onemerge

from each persons unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically

endowed brain anatomy; nature and nurture are in constant activity together. The

brain can place some limits on learning in the form of genetic brain anomalies in

neural wiring or structure, but learning can occur through alternate pathways in the

brain (as Nico and Brooke demonstrated). So, there are multiple ways both to teach

and to learn a skill, depending on the student.

2. Many cognitive functions are differentiated; they are associated with different parts of

the brain. So learners are likely to have preferred modes of processing (e.g., visual or

verbal) as well as varying capabilities in these modes. Using a range of modalities for

instruction and activities that draw on different senses may support learningfor exam-ple,

using maps and songs to teach geography. Assessment should be differentiated, too.

COUNTERPOINT

36 PART 1 STUDENTS

3. The brain is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instruc-tional

strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and

learning in adults.

4. Some learning disorders may have a neurological basis; neurological testing may

assist in diagnosing and treating these disorders, as well as in evaluating the effects

of various treatments.

5. The brain can change, but it takes time. Teachers must be consistent, patient, and

compassionate in teaching and reteaching in different ways, as Nicos and Brookes

parents and teachers could tell you.

6. Learning from real-life problems and concrete experiences helps students construct

knowledge and also gives them multiple pathways for learning and retrieving infor-mation.

7. The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks, so

teachers should tie new information to what students already understand and help

them form new connections. Information that is not linked to existing knowledge

will be easily forgotten.

8. It takes a long time to build and consolidate knowledge. Numerous visits in different

contexts over time (not all at once) help to form strong, multiple connections.

9. Large, general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts so that stu-dents

can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not

constantly changing.

10. Stories should be used in teaching. Stories engage many areas of the brainmemories,

experiences, feelings, and beliefs. Stories also are organized and have a

sequencebeginning, middle, endso they are easier to remember than unrelated

or unorganized information.

11. Helping students understand how activity (practice, problem solving, making connec-tions,

inquiry, etc.) changes their brain and how emotions and stress affect attention

and memory can be motivating, leading to greater self-efficacy and self-regulated

learning (we talk more about this in Chapter 11). One important message to students

is that they are responsible for doing what it takes to change their own brains; you

have to work (and play) to learn.

For the rest of the chapter, we turn our attention to several major theories of cogni-tive

development, the first offered by biologist-turned-psychologist, Jean Piaget.

PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a real prodigy. In fact, in his teens, he published so

many scientific papers on molluscs (marine animals such as oysters, clams, octopuses,

snails, and squid) that he was offered a job as the curator of the mollusc collection at the

Museum of Natural History in Geneva. He told the museum officials that he wanted to

finish high school first. For a while, Piaget worked in Alfred Binets laboratory in Paris

developing intelligence tests for children. The reasons children gave for their wrong

answers fascinated him, and this prompted him to study the thinking behind their

answersthis question intrigued him for the rest of his life (Green & Piel, 2010). He con-tinued

to write until his death at the age of 84 (Miller, 2011).

During his long career, Piaget devised a model describing how humans go about

making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information (Piaget, 1954, 1963,

1970a, 1970b). We will examine Piagets ideas closely because they provide an explanation

of the development of thinking from infancy to adulthood.

STOP & THINK Can you be in Montreal, Quebec, and Canada at the same time? Is this a

difficult question for you? How long did it take you to answer?

According to Piaget (1954), certain ways of thinking that are quite simple for an adult,

such as the Montreal question above, are not so simple for a child. For example, do you

remember the 9-year-old child at the beginning of the chapter who was asked if he coul

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

be Genevan? He answered, No, thats not possible. Im already

Swiss, I cant also be Genevan (Piaget, 1965/1995, p. 252). Imag-ine

teaching this student geography. The student has trouble with

classifying one concept (Geneva) as a subset of another (Switzer-land).

There are other differences between adult and child think-ing.

Childrens concepts of time may be different from your own.

They may think, for example, that they will someday catch up to

a sibling in age, or they may confuse the past and the future. Lets

examine why.

Influences on Development

Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new

facts and ideas to an existing store of information. According to

Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly,

from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense

of the world. Piaget identified four factorsbiological maturation,

activity, social experiences, and equilibrationthat interact to

influence changes in thinking (Piaget, 1970a). Lets briefly exam-ine

the first three factors. Well return to a discussion of equilibra-tion

in the next section.

One of the most important influences on the way we make

37

STUDYING CHILDRENS THINKING Jean Piaget was a Swiss

psychologist whose insightful descriptions of childrens think-ing

changed the way we understand cognitive development.

sense of the world is maturation, the unfolding of the biological

changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little impact on this

aspect of cognitive development, except to ensure that children get the nourishment and

care they need to be healthy.

Activity is another influence on cognitive development. With physical maturation

comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. When a young

childs coordination is reasonably developed, for example, the child may discover princi-ples

about balance by experimenting with a seesaw. Thus, as we act on the environmentas

we explore, test, observe, and eventually organize informationwe are likely to alter

our thinking processes at the same time.

As we develop, we also interact with the people around us. According to Piaget, our

cognitive development is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others.

Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered

by our culture. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to

their stage of cognitive development.

Maturation, activity, and social transmission all work together to influence cognitive

development. How do we respond to these influences?

Basic Tendencies in Thinking

As a result of his early research in biology, Piaget concluded that all species inherit

two basic instincts, or invariant functions. The first of these tendencies is toward

organizationthe combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviour

and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward adaptation, or

adjusting to the

environment.

Organization. People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking and knowl-edge

into psychological structures or schemes. These psychological structures are our

systems for understanding and interacting with the world. Simple structures are continu-ally

combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus more effective.

Very young infants, for example, can either look at an object or grasp it when it comes in

contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and grasping at the same time.

As they develop, however, infants organize these two separate behavioural structures into

a coordinated higher-level structure of looking at, reaching for, and grasping the object.

They can, of course, still use each structure separately (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002;

Miller, 2002).

Organization Ongoing process

of arranging information and

experience into mental systems

or categories.

Adaptation Adjustment to the

environment.

Bill

Anderson/Science

sourc

38 PART 1 STUDENTS

Piaget gave a special name to these structures: schemes. In his theory, schemes are

the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or

thought

that allow us to mentally represent or think about the objects and events in our world.

Schemes may be very small and specific, for example, the sucking-through-a-straw scheme

or the recognizing-a-rose scheme. Or they may be more general, for example, the drinking

scheme or the categorizing-plants scheme. As a persons thinking processes become more

organized and new schemes develop, behaviour also becomes more sophisticated and

better suited to

the environment.

Adaptation. In addition to the tendency to organize their psychological structures, peo-ple

also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are

involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation takes place when people use their existing schemes to make sense of

events in our world. Assimilation involves trying to understand something new by fitting

it into what we already know. At times, we may have to distort the new information to

make it fit. For example, the first time many children see a raccoon, they call it a kitty.

They try to match the new experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals.

Accommodation occurs when a person must change existing schemes to respond to a

new situation. If data cannot be made to fit any existing schemes, more appropriate structures

must be developed. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information, instead of adjusting

the information to fit our thinking. Children demonstrate accommodation when they add the

scheme for recognizing raccoon to their other systems for identifying animals.

People adapt to their increasingly complex environments by using existing schemes

Schemes Mental systems or

categories of perception and

experience.

Assimilation Fitting new

information into existing

schemes.

Accommodation Altering

existing schemes or creating new

ones in response to new

information.

Equilibration Search for mental

balance between cognitive

schemes and information from

the environment.

Disequilibrium In Piagets theory,

the out-of-balance state that

occurs when a person realizes

that his or her current ways of

thinking are not working to solve

a problem or understand a

situation.

whenever these schemes work (assimilation) and by modifying and adding to their

schemes when something new is needed (accommodation). In fact, both processes are

required most of the time. Even using an established pattern, such as sucking through a

straw, may require some accommodation if you are used to a straw of a different size or

length. If you have tried drinking juice from box packages, you know that you have to

add a new skill to your sucking schemedo not squeeze the box or you will shoot juice

through the straw, straight up into the air, and into your lap. Whenever new experiences

are assimilated into an existing scheme, the scheme is enlarged and changed somewhat,

so assimilation involves some accommodation (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005).

There are also times when neither assimilation nor accommodation is used. If people

encounter something that is too unfamiliar, they may ignore it. Experience is filtered to

fit the kind of thinking a person is doing at a given time. For example, if you overhear a

conversation in a foreign language, you probably will not try to make sense of the

exchange unless you have some knowledge of the language.

Equilibration. According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be

seen as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take

place through the process of equilibrationthe act of searching for a balance. Piaget

assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to

achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works as follows. If we apply a

particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, equilibrium exists. If

the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, disequilibrium exists, and we become

uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation

and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level

of disequilibrium must be just right or optimaltoo little and we are not interested in

changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change.

Four Stages of

Cognitive Development

Now we turn to the actual differences that Piaget hypothesized for children as they grow.

Piaget believed that all people pass through the same four stages in exactly the same order.

These stages are generally associated with specific ages, as shown in Table 2.2, but these

are only general guidelines, not labels for all children of a certain age. Piaget noted that

individuals may go through long periods of transition between stages and that a person

may show characteristics of one stage in one situation, but characteristics of a higher o

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

TABLE 2.2 Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

STAGE

Sensorimotor

39

APPROXIMATE AGE CHARACTERISTICS

02 years Learns through reflexes, senses, and

movementactions on the environment.

Begins to imitate others and remember

events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes

to understand that objects do not cease to

exist when they are out of sightobject

permanence. Moves from reflexive actions

to intentional activity.

Preoperational Begins about the time

the child starts

talking, to about 7

years old

Develops language and begins to use symbols

to represent objects. Has difficulty with

past and futurethinks in the present.

Can think through operations logically in

one direction. Has difficulties

understanding the point of view of

another person.

Concrete operational Begins about grade 1,

to early

adolescence, about

11 years old

Formal operational Adolescence to

adulthood

Can think logically about concrete (hands-on)

problems. Understands conservation and

organizes things into categories and in

series. Can reverse thinking to mentally

undo actions. Understands past,

present, and future.

Can think hypothetically and deductively.

Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves

abstract problems in logical fashion. Can

consider multiple perspectives, and

develops concerns about social issues,

personal identity, and justice.

Source: Fischer, K. W. (2009). Mind, brain, and education: Building a scientific groundwork for learning and teaching.

Mind, Brain, and Education, 3 , 216.

lower stage in other situations. Therefore, knowing a students age is never a guarantee of

knowing his or her level of cognitive development (Orlando & Machado, 1996).

Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage. The earliest period is called the sensorimotor stage,

because the childs thinking involves the major senses of seeing, hearing, moving, touch-ing,

and tasting. During this period, the infant develops object permanence, the under-standing

that objects in the environment exist whether they perceive them or not. This is

the beginning of the important ability to construct a mental representation. As most

parents discover, before infants develop object permanence, it is relatively easy to take

something away from them. The trick is to distract them and remove the object while they

are not lookingout of sight, out of mind. The older infant who searches for the ball

that has rolled out of sight is indicating an understanding that objects still exist even when

they are not in view (Moore & Meltzoff, 2004). Some researchers suggest that infants as

young as 3 to 4 months may know that an object still exists, but they do not have either

the memory skills to hold on to the location of the object or the motor skills to coordi-nate

a search (Baillargeon, 1999; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002).

A second major accomplishment in the sensorimotor period is the beginning of logi-cal,

goal-directed actions. Think of the familiar container toy for babies. It is usually plastic,

has a lid, and contains several colourful items that can be dumped out and replaced.

A

6-month-old baby is likely to become frustrated trying to get to the toys inside. An older

child who has mastered the basics of the sensorimotor stage will probably be able to deal

with the toys in an orderly fashion. Through trial and error, the child will slowly build a

container toy scheme: (1) get the lid off; (2) turn the container upside down; (3) shake

if the items jam; (4) watch the items fall. Separate lower-level schemes have been organ-ized

into a higher-level scheme to achieve a goal.

Sensorimotor Involving the

senses and motor activity.

Object permanence The

understanding that objects have

a separate, permanent existence.

Goal-directed actions Deliberate

actions toward a goal

40 PART 1 STUDENTS

The child is soon able to reverse this action by refilling the container. Learning

to reverse actions is a basic accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. As we will

soon see, however, learning to reverse thinkingthat is, learning to imagine the

reverse of a sequence of actionstakes much longer.

Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage. By

the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child can use many action schemes. However,

as long as these schemes remain tied to physical actions, they are of no use in recall-ing

the past, keeping track of information, or planning. For this, children need what

Piaget called operations, or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather

than physically. At the preoperational stage the child has not yet mastered these

mental operations but is moving toward mastery (so thinking is preoperational).

According to Piaget, the first type of thinking that is separate from action

Family Circus 2002 Bil Keane, Inc/King

Features Syndicate

involves making action schemes symbolic. The ability to form and use symbolswords,

gestures, signs, images, and so onis thus a major accomplishment of the

preoperational period and moves children closer to mastering the mental operations

of the next stage. This ability to work with symbols, such as using the word horse

or a picture of a horse or even pretending to ride a horse to represent a real horse that

is not actually present, is called the semiotic function. In fact, the childs earliest use of

symbols occurs during pretending. Children who are not yet able to talk will often use

action symbolspretending to drink from an empty cup or touching a comb to their hair,

showing that they know what each object is for. This behaviour also shows that their

schemes are becoming more general and less tied to specific actions. The eating scheme,

for example, can be used in playing house. During the preoperational stage, there is also

rapid development of that very important symbol system, language. Between the ages of 2

and 4, most children enlarge their vocabulary from about 200 to 2000 words.

As the child moves through the preoperational stage, the developing ability to think

Operations Actions that a person

carries out by thinking them

through instead of literally

performing them.

Preoperational The stage of

development before a child

masters logical mental

operations.

Semiotic function The ability to

use symbolslanguage, pictures,

signs, or gesturesto represent

actions or objects mentally.

Reversible thinking Thinking

backward, from the end to the

beginning.

Conservation Principle that some

characteristics of an object

remain the same despite changes

in appearance.

Decentring Focusing on more

than one aspect at a time.

Egocentric Assuming that

others experience the world

the way you do.

about objects in symbolic form remains somewhat limited to thinking in one direction

only, or using one-way logic. It is very difficult for the child to think backward, or imag-ine

how to reverse the steps in a task. Reversible thinking is involved in many tasks that

are difficult for the preoperational child, such as the conservation of matter.

Conservation is the principle that the amount or number of something remains the

same even if the arrangement or appearance is changed, as long as nothing is added and

nothing is taken away. You know that if you tear a piece of paper into several pieces, you

will still have the same amount of paper. To prove this, you know that you can reverse

the process by taping the pieces back together. Here is a classic example of difficulty with

the principle of conservation. Leah, a 5-year-old, is shown two identical glasses, both short

and wide in shape. Both have exactly the same amount of coloured water in them. She

agrees that the amounts are the same. The experimenter then pours the water from one

of the glasses into a taller, narrower glass and asks, Now, does one glass have more water,

or are they the same? Leah responds that the tall glass has more because It goes up more

here (she points to the higher level on the taller glass).

Piagets explanation for Leahs answer is that she is focusing, or centring, attention

on the dimension of height. She has difficulty considering more than one aspect of the

situation at a time, or decentring. The preoperational child cannot understand that

increased diameter compensates for decreased height, since this would require taking into

account two dimensions at once. Thus, children at the preoperational stage have trouble

freeing themselves from their own perceptions of how the world appears.

This brings us to another important characteristic of the preoperational stage. Preop-erational

children, according to Piaget, are very egocentric; they tend to see the world and

the experiences of others from their own viewpoints. Egocentric, as Piaget intended it, does

not mean selfish; it simply means that children often assume that everyone else shares

their feelings, reactions, and perspectives. For example, if a little girl at this stage is afraid

of dogs, she may assume that all children share this fear. The 2-year-old at the beginning

of this chapter who brought his own mother to comfort a friend who was crying, even

though the friends mother was available, was simply seeing the situation through his own

eyes. Very young children centre on their own perceptions and on the way the situatio

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 41

Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children

GUIDELINES

Encourage families to use concrete props and visual aids

whenever possible.

Examples

1. When family members use words, such as part, whole,

or one-half, encourage them to demonstrate using objects

in the house, such as cutting an apple or pizza into parts.

2. Let children add and subtract with sticks, rocks, or coloured

chips. This technique also is helpful for early concrete-operational

students.

Make instructions relatively shortavoid introducing too

many steps at once. Use actions as well as words.

Examples

1. When giving instructions, such as how to feed a pet, first

model the process, then ask the child to try it.

2. Explain a game by acting out one of the parts.

Help children develop their ability to see the world from

someone elses point of view.

Examples

1. Ask children to imagine how your sister felt when you broke

her toy.

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS

2. Be clear about rules for sharing or use of material. Help

children understand the value of the rules, and help them

develop empathy by asking them to think about how they

would like to be treated. Avoid long lectures on sharing or

being nice.

Give children plenty of hands-on practice with the skills that

serve as building block for more complex skills such as reading

comprehension or collaboration.

Examples

1. Provide cut-out letters or letter magnets for the refrigerator

to build words.

2. Do activities that require measuring and simple

calculationscooking, dividing a batch of popcorn equally.

Provide a wide range of experiences to build a foundation for

concept learning and language.

Examples

1. Take trips to zoos, gardens, theatres, and concerts;

encourage storytelling.

2. Give children words to describe what they are doing,

hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling.

appears to them. This is one reason it is difficult for these children to understand that your

right hand is not on the same side as theirs when you are facing them.

Research has shown that young children are not totally egocentric in every situation,

however. Even at age 2, children will describe more details about a situation to a parent

who was not present than they will provide to a parent who experienced the situation

with them. So young children do seem quite able to take the needs and different perspec-tives

of others into account, at least in certain situations (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 2002).

And in fairness to young children, even adults can make assumptions that others feel or

think as they do. For example, have you ever received a gift that the giver loved but was

clearly inappropriate for you? The Family and Community Partnerships Guidelines pro-vide

ideas for working with preoperational thinkers and for guiding families in supporting

the cognitive development of their children.

Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete Operational Stage. Piaget

coined the term concrete operations to describe this stage of hands-on thinking. The basic

characteristics of the stage are the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world;

the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and still conserve many of

their original characteristics; and the understanding that these changes can be reversed.

Look at Figure 2.4, which shows examples of the different tasks given to children to

assess conservation and the approximate age ranges when most children can solve these

problems. According to Piaget, a students ability to solve conservation problems depends

on an understanding of three basic aspects of reasoning: identity, compensation, and

reversibility. With a complete mastery of identity, the student knows that if nothing is

added or taken away, the material remains the same. With an understanding of compensation,

the student knows that an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by

a change in another direction. That is, if the liquid rises higher in the glass, the glass must

be narrower. And with an understanding of reversibility, the student can mentally cancel

Concrete operations Mental

tasks tied to concrete objects

and situations.

Identity The principle that a

person or object remains the

same over time.

Compensation The principle that

changes in one dimension can be

offset by changes in another

dimension.

Reversibility A characteristic of

Piagetian logical operationsthe

ability to think through a series of

steps, then mentally reverse the

steps and return to the starting

point; also called reversible

thinking

42 PART 1 STUDENTS

FIGURE 2.4

SOME PIAGETIAN CONSERVATION TASKS

In addition to the tasks shown here, other tasks involve the conservation of number, length, weight, and

volume. These tasks are all achieved over the concrete-operational period.

Suppose you

start with this

(a)

conservation

of mass A

B

B

(b)

conservation

of weight

A B

Roll out

clay

ball B

Take

(c)

conservation

of volume

A

(d)

conservation

of continuous

quantity

A

(e)

conservation

of number

B C

A
B

Break

candy bar

B into

pieces

B

clay ball

out of

water

and

roll out

clay ball B

Pour

water

in beaker

A into

beaker C

AB C

A
B

A
B

Which beaker has more liquid,

B or C?

When I put the clay back

into the water beakers,

in which beaker will

the water be higher?

A B
Roll out
clay
ball B

Then you change

the situation to this

The question you

would ask a child is

A Which is bigger,

A or B?

Which will weigh more,

A or B?

Which is more candy?

A or B

Source: Woolfolk, A., & Perry, N. E. (2015). Child Development. Pearson Education, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. All

rights reserved.

out the change that has been made. Leah apparently knew it was the same water (iden-tity),

but lacked compensation and reversibility, so she was still moving toward

conservation.

Classification Grouping objects

into categories.

Another important operation mastered at this stage is classification. Classification

depends on a students abilities to focus on a single characteristic of objects in a set (for

example, colour) and group the objects according to that characteristic. More advanced

classification at this stage involves recognizing that one class fits into another. A city can

be in a particular province and also in Canada. As children apply this advanced classifica-tion

to locations, they often become fascinated with complete addresses, such as this

one: Lee Jary, 5116 Forest Hill Drive, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, North America,

Northern Hemisphere, Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe.

Classification is also related to reversibility. The ability to reverse a process mentally

now allows the concrete-operational student to see that there is more than one way t

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

classify a group of objects. The student understands, for example, that buttons can be

classified by colour and then reclassified by size or by the number of holes they have.

Seriation is the process of making an orderly arrangement from large to small or vice

versa. This understanding of sequential relationships permits a student to construct a

logical series in which A , B , C (A is less than B is less than C) and so on. Unlike the

preoperational child, the concrete-operational child can grasp the notion that B can be

larger than A but smaller than C.

With the abilities to handle operations such as conservation, classification, and seri-ation,

the student at the concrete-operational stage has finally developed a complete and

very logical system of thinking. However, this system of thinking is still tied to physical

reality. The logic is based on concrete situations that can be organized, classified, or

manipulated. Thus, children at this stage can imagine several different arrangements for

the furniture in their rooms. They do not have to solve the problem strictly through trial

and error by actually moving the furniture. However, the concrete-operational child is not

yet able to reason about hypothetical, abstract problems that involve the coordination of

many factors at once. This kind of coordination is part of Piagets next and final stage of

cognitive development.

In any grade you teach, knowledge of concrete-operational thinking will be helpful.

See Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete Operational Child for ideas. In the early grades,

students are moving toward this logical system of thought. In the middle grades, this

system is in full flower, ready to be applied and extended by your teaching. Students in

high school and even adults still commonly use concrete-operational thinking, especially

in areas that are new or unfamiliar.

High School and University: The Formal-Operational Stage. Some students remain at

the concrete-operational stage throughout their school years, even throughout life. How-ever,

new experiences, usually those that take place in school, eventually present most

students with problems that they cannot solve using concrete operations.

STOP & THINK You are packing for along trip, but you want to pack light. How many different

three-piece outfits (pants, shirt, jacket) will you have if you include three shirts, three pants, and

three jackets (assuming of course that they all go together in fashion perfection)? Time yourself

to see how long it takes to arrive at the answer.

What happens when a number of variables interact, as in a laboratory experiment

or the problem just posed in the Stop & Think feature? Then a mental system for control-ling

sets of variables and working through a set of possibilities is needed. These are the

abilities that Piaget called formal operations.

At the level of formal operations, the focus of thinking can shift from what is to what

might be. Situations do not have to be experienced to be imagined. You met Jamal at the

beginning of this chapter. Even though he is a bright elementary school student, he could

not answer the question, How would life be different if people did not have to sleep?

because he insisted, People have to sleep! In contrast, the adolescent who has mastered

formal operations can consider contrary-to-fact questions. In answering, the adolescent

demonstrates the hallmark of formal operationshypothetico-deductive reasoning. The

formal thinker can consider a hypothetical situation (people do not have to sleep) and

reason deductively (from the general assumption to specific implications, such as longer

workdays, more money spent on lighting, or new entertainment industries). Formal opera-tions

also include inductive reasoning, or using specific observations to identify general

principles. For example, the economist observes many specific changes in the stock mar-ket

and attempts to identify general principles about economic cycles from this

information.

Using formal operations is a new way of reasoning that involves thinking about

thinking or mental operations on mental operations (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). For

example, the child using concrete operations can categorize animals by their physical

characteristics or by their habitats, but a child using formal operations can perform

Seriation Arrangement of

objects in sequential order

according to one aspect, such as

size, weight, or volume.

Formal operations Mental tasks

involving abstract thinking and

coordination of a number of

variables.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

A formal-operations problem-solving

strategy in which an

individual begins by identifying all

the factors that might affect a

problem and then deduces and

systematically evaluates specific

solutions.

4

44 PART 1 STUDENTS

Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child

GUIDELINES

Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially

when dealing with sophisticated material.

Examples

1. Use timelines in history lessons and three-dimensional

models in science lessons.

2. Use diagrams to illustrate hierarchical relationships, such

as branches of government and the agencies under each

branch.

Continue to give students a chance to manipulate and test

objects.

Examples

1. Set up simple scientific experiments like the following

involving the relationship between fire and oxygen. What

happens to a flame when you blow on it from a distance? (If

you do not blow it out, the flame gets larger briefly, because

it has more oxygen to burn.) What happens when you cover

the flame with a jar?

2. Have students make candles by dipping wicks in wax, weave

cloth on a simple loom, bake bread, set type by hand, or do

other craftwork that illustrates the daily occupations of

people during the pioneer period.

Make sure that presentations and readings are brief and well

organized.

Examples

1. Assign stories or books with short, logical chapters,

moving to longer reading assignments only when

students are ready.

2. Break up a presentation, giving students an opportunity to

practise the first steps before introducing the next steps.

Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas.

Examples

1. Compare students lives with those of characters in a story.

For example, after reading Island of the Blue Dolphins (the

true story of a girl who grew up alone on a deserted island),

ask, Have you ever had to stay alone for along time? How

did you feel?

2. Teach the concept of area by having students measure two

rooms in the school that are different sizes.

Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on

increasingly complex levels.

Examples

1. Give students slips of paper that each have one sentence

written on them and ask the students to group the sentences

into paragraphs.

2. Compare the systems of the human body to other kinds of

systems: the brain to a computer, the heart to a pump. Break

down stories into components, from the broad to the

specific: author; story; characters, plot, theme; place, time.

Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking.

Examples

1. Discuss open-ended questions that stimulate thinking,

such as Are the brain and the mind the same thing?

How should the city deal with stray animals? What is

the largest number?

2. Use sports photos or pictures of crisis situations (Red Cross

helping in disasters, victims of poverty or war, senior citizens

who need assistance) to stimulate problem-solving

discussions.

second-order operations on these category operations to infer relationships between

habitat and physical characteristicssuch as understanding that the physical characteristic

of thick fur on animals is related to their arctic habitats (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Abstract

formal-operational thinking is necessary for success in many advanced high school and

college or university courses. For example, most math is concerned with hypothetical situ-ations,

assumptions, and givens: Let x 5 10, or Assume x2 1 y2 5 z2, or Given two

sides and an adjacent angle . . . . Work in social studies and literature requires abstract

thinking, too: What did Woodrow Wilson mean when he called the First World War the

war to end all wars? What are some metaphors for hope and despair in Shakespeares

sonnets? What symbols of old age does T. S. Eliot use in The Waste Land? How do

animals symbolize human character traits in Aesops fables?

The organized, scientific thinking of formal operations requires that students system-atically

generate different possibilities for a given situation. For example, if asked, How

many different shirt/pants/jacket outfits can you make using three of each kind of cloth-ing?

the child using formal operations can systematically identify the 27 possible combi-nations.

(Did you get it right?) A concrete-operational thinker might name just a few

combinations, using each piece of clothing only once. The underlying system of combina-tions

is not yet available to the concrete thinker

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Another characteristic of this stage is adolescent egocentrism. Unlike egocentric young

children, adolescents do not deny that other people may have different perceptions and

beliefs; the adolescents just become very focused on their own ideas. They spend much

time examining their own beliefs and attitudes. This leads to what Elkind (1981) calls the

sense of an imaginary audiencethe feeling that everyone is watching and analyzing

them. (e.g., Everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week. The whole class

thought my answer was dumb!). You can see that social blunders or imperfections in

appearance can be devastating to an adolescent if he or she believes that everybody is

watching. In fact, Kimberly Schonert-Reichl (1994) at the University of British Columbia

linked adolescent egocentrism with adolescent depression. In particular, her study found

that girls from high-socioeconomic-status (SES) families tended to be overly self-conscious

and more at risk for depression. In contrast, boys from high-SES families reported a

heightened sense of omnipotence, uniqueness, and invulnerability. Luckily, this feeling of

being on stage seems to peak in early adolescence, by age 14 or 15.

The ability to think hypothetically, consider alternatives, identify all possible combi-nations,

and analyze their own thinking has some interesting consequences for adoles-cents.

Since they can think about worlds that do not exist, they often become interested

in science fiction. Because they can reason from general principles to specific actions,

they are often critical of people whose actions seem to contradict their principles. Ado-lescents

can deduce the set of best possibilities and imagine ideal worlds (or ideal par-ents

and teachers, for that matter). This explains why many students at this age develop

interests in utopias, political causes, and social issues. They want to design better worlds,

and their thinking allows them to do so. Adolescents can also imagine many possible

futures for themselves and may try to decide which is best. Feelings about any of these

ideals may be strong.

Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage? Most psychologists agree that there is a level of

thinking more sophisticated than concrete operations. But the question of how universal

formal-operational thinking actually is, even among adults, is a matter of debate. The first

three stages of Piagets theory are forced on most people by physical realities. Objects

really are permanent. The amount of water does not change when it is poured into another

glass. Formal operations, however, are not so closely tied to the physical environment.

Being able to use formal operations may be the result of practice in solving hypothetical

problems and using formal scientific reasoningabilities that are valued and taught in

literate cultures, particularly in college and university. Even so, not all high school students

can perform Piagets formal-operational tasks (Shayer, 2003). The Guidelines: Helping

Students to Use Formal Operations will help you support the development of formal

operations in your students.

Piaget himself (1974) suggested that most adults may be able to use formal-opera-tional

thought in a few areas where they have the greatest experience or interest. Taking

a college or university class fosters formal-operational abilities in that subject, but not

necessarily in others (Lehman & Nisbett, 1990). So expect many students in your middle

school or high school class to have trouble thinking hypothetically, especially when they

are learning something new. Sometimes, students find shortcuts for dealing with problems

that are beyond their grasp; they may memorize formulas or lists of steps. These systems

may be helpful for passing tests, but real understanding will take place only if students

are able to go beyond this superficial use of memorization.

Information Processing and Neo-Piagetian Views of

Cognitive Development

As you will see in Chapter 8, there are explanations for why children have trouble with con-servation

and other Piagetian tasks. These explanations focus on the childs developing

information processing skills, such as attention, memory capacity, and learning strategies. As

children mature and their brains develop, they are better able to focus their attention, process

information more quickly, hold more information in memory, and use thinking strategies

more easily and flexibly (Siegler, 2000; 2004). These improvements reflect advances in

Adolescent

egocentrism Assumption that

everyone else is interested in

ones thoughts, feelings, and

concerns.

4

46 PART 1 STUDENTS

Helping Students to Use Formal Operations

GUIDELINES

Continue to use concrete-operational teaching strategies and

materials.

Examples

1. Use visual aids, such as charts and illustrations, as well as

somewhat more sophisticated graphs and diagrams,

especially when the material being covered is new.

2. Compare the experiences of characters in stories to students

experiences.

Give students the opportunity to explore many hypothetical

questions.
Examples

1. Have students write position papers, then exchange their

papers with students who embraced the opposing side of

the issue, and debate

topic

al social issues, such as the

environment, the economy, national unity.

2. Ask students to write about their personal vision of a utopia,

a description of a universe that has no sex differences, a

description of Earth after humans are extinct, and so forth.

Give students opportunities to solve problems and to reason

scientifically.

Examples

1. Set up group discussions in which students design

experiments to answer questions.

2. Ask students to justify two different positions on animal

rights, with logical arguments for each position.

Whenever possible, teach broad concepts, not just facts, using

materials and ideas relevant to students lives (Delpit, 1995).

Examples

1. When discussing Indigenous peoples land claims, consider

other issues that have divided Canadians (e.g., Quebec

sovereignty).

2. When teaching about poetry, let students find lyrics from

popular songs that illustrate poetic devices, and talk about

how these devices do or do not work well to communicate

the meanings and feelings the songwriters intended.

Executive functioning The

processes used to organize,

coordinate, and perform goal-directed,

intentional actions,

including focusing attention,

inhibiting impulsive responses,

making and changing plans, and

using memory to hold and

manipulate information.

Neo-Piagetian theories More

recent theories that integrate

findings about attention, memory,

and strategy use with Piagets

insights about childrens thinking

and the construction of

knowledge.

executive functioning. Executive functioning skills include focusing attention, inhibiting impul-sive

responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate

information (Best & Miller, 2010; Raj & Bell, 2010). We use these processes to organize,

coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions. As children develop more sophis-ticated

and effective executive functioning skills, they are active in advancing their own

development; they are constructing, organizing, and improving their own knowledge and

strategies (Siegler & Alibali, 2005). For example, one classic Piagetian task is to show children

10 daisies and 2 roses, then ask if there are more daisies or more flowers. Young children

see more daisies and jump to the answer, daisies. As they mature, children are better at

resisting (inhibiting) that first response based on appearances and can answer based on the

fact that both daisies and roses are flowers. But even adults have to take a fraction of a second

to resist the obvious, so inhibiting impulsive responses is important for developing complex

knowledge throughout life (Borst, Poirel, Pineau, Cassotti, & Houd, 2013).

Some developmental psychologists have formulated neo-Piagetian theories that retain

Piagets insights about childrens construction of knowledge and the general trends in

childrens thinking, but add findings from information processing about the role of atten-tion,

memory, and strategies (Croker, 2012). One of the best known neo-Piagetian theo-rists,

Robbie Case (1992, 1998), who was a professor at both Stanford University and the

University of Toronto, devised an explanation of cognitive development suggesting that

children develop in stages within specific domains such as numerical concepts, spatial

concepts, social tasks, storytelling, reasoning about physical objects, and motor develop-ment.

As children practise using the schemes in a particular domain (e.g., using counting

schemes in the number concept area), accomplishing the schemes takes less attention.

The schemes become more automatic because the child does not have to think so hard

about it. This frees up mental resources and memory to do more. The child now can

combine simple schemes into more complex ones and invent new schemes when needed

(assimilation and accommodation in action).

Kurt Fischer (2009) connected cognitive development in different domains to research

on the brain. He also examined development in different domains such as reading or math

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

You may remember Nico and Brooke, the remarkable children we met earlier in the

chapter who each had one side of their brain removed to treat severe epilepsy, yet still

developed other pathways in their brains to recover lost spatial and verbal abilities. We

have seen that one of the implications of research on the brain is that there are multiple

pathways for learning.

Fischer (2009) found, however, that even though their brains follow different path-ways

as they master skills in speaking, reading, and mathematics, childrens growth pat-terns

show a similar series of spurts, and they go through predictable levels of development.

When learning a new skill, children move through three tiersfrom actions to representa-tions

to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single

action to mapping or coordinating two actions together, creating whole systems of under-standingsuch

as coordinating addition and multiplication in math. At the level of abstrac-tions,

the children finally move to constructing explanatory principles. This may remind

you of sensorimotor, concrete operations, and formal operations in Piagets theory. Look

at Table 2.3, which shows the movement through the tiers of actions to representations

to abstractions.

For each skill level, the brain reorganizes itself, too. Table 2.3 shows this progression

between birth and 30 years old for the skill of arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. Notice the column that says emergence of optimal level.

This column shows the ages at which the skills will develop if the individuals have quality

support and the chance to practice. The age the skill emerges without support and practice

is shown in the last column. Support and practice are keys in another explanation of

cognitive development we will discuss soonVygotskys theory.

Limitations of Piagets Theory

Although most psychologists agree with Piagets insightful descriptions of how children

think, many disagree with his explanations of why thinking develops as it does.

The Trouble with Stages. Some psychologists have questioned the existence of four

separate stages of thinking, even though they agree that children do go through the

TABLE 2.3 A Pattern of Cognitive Development over 30 Years

As children develop skills in speaking, reading, and mathematics, their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts. In learning a new

skill, children move from actions to representations to abstractions.

TIERS LEVELS

Abstraction

Ab4. Principles

Ab3. Systems

Ab2. Mappings

Rp4./Ab1. Single

Abstraction

Representations

Rp3. Systems

Rp2. Mappings

Sm4./Rp1. Single

Representations

Actions

Sm3. Systems

Sm2. Mappings

Sm1. Single Actions

1113 mos

78

34

1124 mos

713

39

Source: Fischer, K. W. (2009). Mind, brain, and education: Building a scientific groundwork for learning and teaching. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3, 216.

31/241/2

2

3045 yrs

2340

1730

1320

712

48

25

47

AGE OF EMERGENCE OF OPTIMAL LEVEL AGE OF FUNCTIONAL LEVEL

2325 yrs

1820

1416

1012

6

48 PART 1 STUDENTS

changes that Piaget described (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005; Miller, 2011). One problem with

the stage model is the lack of consistency in childrens thinking. For example, children

can conserve number (the number of blocks does not change when they are rearranged)

a year or two before they can conserve weight (the weight of a ball of clay does not

change when you flatten it). Why cant they use conservation consistently in every situa-tion?

In fairness, we should note that in his later work, even Piaget put less emphasis on

stages of cognitive development and gave more attention to how thinking changes through

equilibration (Miller, 2011).

Another problem with the idea of separate stages is that the processes may be more

continuous than they seem. Changes may seem like discontinuous, qualitative leaps when

we look across longer time periods. The 3-year-old persistently searching for a lost toy

seems qualitatively different from the infant who does not seem to miss a toy or to search

when the toy rolls under a sofa. But if we watched a developing child very closely and

observed moment-to-moment or hour-to-hour changes, we might see that indeed there

are gradual, continuous changes. Rather than appearing all at once, the knowledge that

a hidden toy still exists may be a product of the older childs more fully developed mem-ory:

He knows that the toy is under the sofa because he remembers seeing it roll there,

whereas for the infant the toy is out of sight, out of mind. The longer you require chil-dren

to wait before searchingthe longer you make them remember the objectthe older

they have to be to succeed (

Siegler & Alibali, 2005).

Change can be both continuous and discontinuous, as described by a branch of

mathematics called catastrophe theory. Changes that appear suddenly, like the collapse

of a bridge, are preceded by many slowly developing changes such as gradual, continuous

corrosion of the metal structures. Similarly, gradually developing changes in children can

lead to large changes in abilities that seem abrupt (Dawson-Tunik, Fischer, & Stein, 2004;

Siegler & Alibali, 2005).

Underestimating Childrens Abilities. It now appears that Piaget underestimated the

cognitive abilities of children, particularly younger ones. The problems he gave young

children may have been too difficult and the directions too confusing. His subjects may

have understood more than they could show on these problems. For example, work by

Gelman and her colleagues (Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Cordes, 2001) shows that pre-school

children know much more about the concept of number than Piaget thought,

even if they sometimes make mistakes or get confused. As long as preschoolers work

with only three or four objects at a time, they can tell that the number remains the same,

even if the objects are spread far apart or clumped close together. Mirjam Ebersbach

(2009) demonstrated that most of the German kindergartners in her study considered

all three dimensionswidth, height, and lengthwhen they estimated the volume of a

wooden block (actually, how many small cubes it would take to make bigger blocks of

different sizes). In other words, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools

than Piaget suggested. Some basic understandings or core knowledge, such as the per-manence

of objects or the sense of number, may be part of our evolutionary equipment,

ready for use in our cognitive development (Geary & Bjorklund, 2000; Woodward &

Needham, 2009).

Piagets theory also does not explain how even young children can perform at an

advanced level in certain areas where they have highly developed knowledge and exper-tise.

For example, Marion Porath (1996), who studied with Robbie Case, found the draw-ings

of artistically gifted children and the story plots of verbally gifted children to be far

more elaborate than those of children in a same-age control group. Similarly, an expert

9-year-old chess player can think abstractly about chess moves, whereas a novice 20-year-old

player may have to resort to more concrete strategies to plan and remember moves

(Siegler, 1998).

Finally, Piaget argued that the development of cognitive operations such as con-servation

or abstract thinking cannot be accelerated. He believed that children had to

be developmentally ready to learn. Quite a bit of research, however, has shown that

children can learn to perform cognitive operations such as conservation with effective

instruction. They do not have to naturally discover these ways of thinking on their own

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 49

CHILD EXPERTS One limitation of Piagets theory appears to be the underestimation of young chil-drens

cognitive abilities. For instance, his theory does not explain how these young girls can play

chess at the same level as many adults could.

Knowledge and experience in a situation affect the kind of thinking that students can

do (Brainerd, 2003).

Cognitive Development and Culture. One final criticism of Piagets theory is that it

overlooks the important effects of the childs cultural and social group. Research across

different cultures has generally confirmed that Piaget was accurate about the sequence of

the stages in childrens thinking he described, but age ranges for the stages vary. Children

living in Western countries typically move to the next stage about two to three years ear-lier

than their peers in non-Western societies. But careful research has shown that these

differences across cultures depend on the subject or domain tested and whether the

culture values and teaches knowledge in that domain. For example, children in Brazil

who sell candy in the streets instead of attending school appear to fail a certain kind of

Piagetian taskclass inclusion (e.g., Are there more daisies, more tulips, or more flow-ers

in the picture?). But when the tasks are phrased in concepts they understandsell-ing

candythen these children perform better than Brazilian children the same age who

attend school (Saxe, 1999). When a culture or context emphasizes a cognitive ability,

children growing up in that culture tend to acquire that ability sooner. In a study that

compared Chinese students in grades 1, 3, and 5 to same-grade North American peers,

the Chinese students mastered a Piagetian task that involved distance, time, and speed

relationships about two years ahead of the North American students, most likely because

the Chinese education system puts more emphasis on math and science in the early

grades (Zhou, Peverly, Beohm, & Chongde, 2001).

Even concrete operations such as classification may not be so basic to people of

other cultures. For example, when individuals from the Kpelle people of Africa were

asked to sort 20 objects, they created groups that made sense to thema hoe with a

potato, a knife with an orange. The experimenter could not get the Kpelle to change

their categories; they said this is how a wise man would do it. Finally, the experimenter

asked in desperation, Well, how would a fool do it? Then the subjects promptly created

the four neat classification piles the experimenter had expectedfood, tools, and so on

(Rogoff & Morelli, 1989).

Lev Vygotsky proposed another increasingly influential view of cognitive develop-ment.

His theory ties cognitive development to culture.

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Lev

Vygotsky elaborated the socio-cultural

theory of development.

His ideas about language, culture,

and cognitive development have

become major influences in the

fields of psychology and education.

Elena

Rooraid/PhotoEdit,Inc.

Felicia

Martinez

Photography/PhotoEdit,Inc

50 PART 1 STUDENTS

VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Psychologists today recognize that the childs culture shapes cognitive development by

determining what and how the child will learn about the world. For example, young girls

in the Indigenous Zinacanteco culture of southern Mexico learn complicated ways of

weaving cloth through informal instruction by adults in their communities. Cultures that

encourage cooperation and sharing teach these skills early, whereas cultures that encour-age

competition nurture competitive abilities in their children (Bakerman, Adamson,

Koner, & Barr, 1990; Ceci & Roazzi, 1994). The stages observed by Piaget are not neces-sarily

natural for all children because to some extent they reflect the expectations and

activities of the childrens culture (Kozulin, 2003; Rogoff, 2003).

A major spokesperson for this sociocultural theory (also called sociohistoric) was a

Russian psychologist who died in 1934. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was only 38 when he

died of tuberculosis, but during his life he produced more than 100 books and articles.

Some of his works are now available in translation (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986, 1987a, 1987b,

1993, 1997). Vygotskys work began when he was studying learning and development to

improve his own teaching. He went on to write about language and thought, the psychol-ogy

of art, learning and development, and educating students with special needs. His work

was banned in the former Soviet Union for many years because he referenced Western

psychologists. But in the past 40 years, with the rediscovery of his work, Vygotskys ideas

about language, culture, and cognitive development have become major influences in

psychology and education and have provided alternatives to many of Piagets theories

(Gredler, 2009a, 2009b, 2012; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller, 2003; Van

Der Veer, 2007; Wink & Putney, 2002).

Vygotsky believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be

understood apart from these settings. One of his key ideas was that our specific mental

structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others. These social inter-actions

are more than simple influences on cognitive developmentthey actually create

our cognitive structures and thinking processes (Palincsar, 1998). In fact, Vygotsky con-ceptualized

development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internal-ized

processes ( John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192). We will examine two themes in

Vygotskys writings that explain how social processes form learning and thinking: the

social sources of individual thinking and the role of tools in learning and development,

especially the tool of language (Driscoll, 2005; Gredler, 2012; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992).

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking

Vygotsky assumed that

Sociocultural theory Theory

that emphasizes the role in

development of cooperative

dialogues between children and

more knowledgeable members of

society; children learn the culture

of their community (ways of

thinking and behaving) through

these interactions.

Co-constructed Constructed

through a social process in which

people interact and negotiate

(usually verbally) to create an

understanding or to solve a

problem; the final product is

shaped by all participants.

Every function in a childs cultural development appears twice: first on the social level

and later on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then

inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logi-cal

memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual

relations between human individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57)

In other words, higher mental processes, such as directing your own attention and

thinking through problems, first are co-constructed during shared activities between the

child and another person. Then the processes are internalized by the child and become

part of that childs cognitive development (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b; Mercer, 2013). For

example, children first use language in activities with others, to regulate the behaviour of

the others (No nap! or I wanna cookie). Later, however, children can regulate their

own behaviour using private speech (Dont spill), as you will see in a later section. So,

for Vygotsky, social interaction was more than influence; it was the origin of higher mental

processes such as problem solving. Consider this example:

A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her father for help. The father asks her where she

last saw the toy; the child says, I cant remember. He asks a series of questionsdid

you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, no.

When he says in the car? she says I think so and goes to retrieve the toy. (Tharp &

Gallimore, 1988, p. 14

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Who remembered? The answer is really neither the father nor the daughter, but the

two together. The remembering and problem solving was co-constructedbetween peo-plein

the interaction. But the child may have internalized strategies to use next time

something is lost. At some point, the child will be able to function independently to solve

this kind of problem. So, as the strategy for finding the toy indicates, higher functions

appear first between a child and a teacher before they exist within the individual child

(Kozulin et al., 2003).

Here is another example of the social sources of individual thinking. Richard Ander-son

and his colleagues (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) studied how grade 4 students in

small-group classroom discussions appropriate (take for themselves and use) argument

stratagems that occur in the discussions. An argument stratagem is a particular form, such

as I think [POSITION] because [REASON], where the student fills in the position and the

reason. For example, a student might say, I think that the wolves should be left alone

because they are not hurting anyone. Another strategy form is If [ACTION], then [BAD

CONSEQUENCE], as in If they dont trap the wolves, then the wolves will eat the cows.

Other forms manage participation, for example, What do you think, [NAME]? or Let

[NAME] talk.

Andersons research identified 13 forms of talk and argument that helped to manage

the discussions, to get everyone to participate and present and defend positions, and to

handle confusion. The researchers found that the use of these different forms of talking

and thinking snowballedonce a useful argument was employed by one student, it spread

to other students, and the argument stratagem form appeared more and more in the dis-cussions.

Open discussionsstudents asking and answering each others questionswere

better than teacher-dominated discussion for the development of these argument forms.

Over time, these ways of presenting, attacking, and defending positions could be internal-ized

as mental reasoning and decision making for the individual students.

Both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cogni-tive

development, but Piaget saw a different role for interaction. He believed that interac-tion

encouraged development by creating disequilibriumcognitive conflictthat

motivated change. Thus, Piaget believed that the most helpful interactions were between

peers because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each others thinking. Vygot-sky,

on the other hand, suggested that childrens cognitive development is fostered by

interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinkingpeople

such as parents and teachers (Moshman, 1997; Palincsar, 1998). Of course, students can

learn from both adults and peers, and today, computers can play a role in supporting

communication across distances or in different languages.

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development

Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical tools (e.g., printing presses,

plows, rulers, abacuses, graph papertoday, we would add mobile devices, computers,

the internet, real-time translators for mobile devices and chats, search engines, digital

organizers and calendars, assistive technologies for students with learning challenges, etc.)

and psychological tools (signs and symbol systems, e.g., numbers and mathematical sys-tems,

Braille and sign language, maps, works of art, codes, and language) play very

important roles in cognitive development. For example, as long as the culture provides

only Roman numerals for representing quantity, certain ways of thinking mathematicallyfrom

long division to calculusare difficult or impossible. But with a number system that

has a zero, fractions, positive and negative values, and an infinite quantity of numbers,

much more is possible. The number system is a cultural tool that supports thinking, learn-ing,

and cognitive development. This symbol system is passed from adult to child and

from child to child through formal and informal interactions

and teachings.

Technical Tools in a Digital Age. The use of technical tools such as calculators and spell

checkers has been somewhat controversial in education. Technology is increasingly

checking up on us. You may rely on the spell checker in your word processing program

to protect yourself from embarrassment. But you might also have read papers with spell-ing

replacements that must have come from decisions made by the word processing

51

Cultural tools The real tools

(computers, scales, etc.) and

symbol systems (numbers,

language, graphs, etc.) that allow

people in a society to

communicate, think, solve

problems, and create knowledge

52 PART 1 STUDENTS

programwithout a sense check by the writer. Is student learning harmed or helped

by these technology supports? Just because students learned mathematics in the past

with paper-and-pencil procedures and practice does not mean that this is the best way

to learn. For example, in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (Trends

in International Mathematics and Science Study [TIMSS], 1998), on every test at the

advanced level, students who said that they used calculators in their daily math course-work

performed much better than students who rarely or never used calculators. In

fact, the research on calculators over the past decade has found that rather than erod-ing

basic skills, calculator use has positive effects on students problem-solving skills

and attitudes toward math (Ellington, 2003, 2013; Waits & Demana, 2000). There is a

catch, however. On simple math problems it probably is better to attempt recalling or

calculating the answer first before turning to a calculator. Self-generating answers

before resorting to calculators supports math fact learning and fluency in arithmetic

(Pyke & LeFevre, 2011).

Psychological Tools. Vygotsky believed psychological tools mediate (help to accom-plish)

all higher-order mental processes, such as reasoning and problem solving. These

tools allow children to transform their thinking by enabling them to gain greater and

greater mastery of their own cognitive processes; thus they advance their own develop-ment

as they use the tools. In fact, Vygotsky believed the essence of cognitive development

is mastering the use of psychological tools such as language to accomplish the kind of

advanced thinking and problem solving that could not be accomplished without those

tools (Gredler, 2012; Karpov & Haywood, 1998). The process goes something like this: As

children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and

ways of thinking about or representing conceptsdrawing maps, for example, as a way

to represent spaces and places. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Thus, chil-drens

knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating or taking

for themselves the ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture and by the more

capable members of their group (Wertsch, 2007).

In this exchange of signs and symbols and explanations, children begin to develop

a cultural tool kit to make sense of and learn about their world (Wertsch, 1991). The

kit is filled with physical tools such as pencils or paintbrushes directed toward the

external world and with psychological tools such as learning and problem solving or

memory strategies for acting mentally. Children do not just receive the tools transmitted

to them by others, however. Children transform the tools as they construct their own

representations, symbols, patterns, and understandings. As we learned from Piaget,

childrens constructions of meaning are not the same as those of adults. In the exchange

of signs and symbols such as number systems, children create their own understandings

(a raccoon is a kitty). These understandings are gradually changed (a raccoon is a

raccoon) as the children continue to engage in social activities and try to make sense

of their world (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Wertsch, 1991). In Vygotskys theory, lan-guage

is the most important symbol system in the tool kit, and it is the one that helps

fill the kit with other tools.

The Role of Language and Private Speech

Language is critical for cognitive development because it provides a means for expressing

ideas and asking questions, the categories and concepts for thinking, and the links

between the past and the future. Language frees us from the immediate situation to think

about what was and what might be (Driscoll, 2005; Mercer, 2013). Vygotsky thought that

The specifically human capacity for language enables children to provide for auxiliary

tools in the solution of difficult tasks, to overcome impulsive action, to plan

a solution

to a problem prior to its execution, and to master their own behavior. (Vygotsky, 1978,

p. 28)

Vygotsky placed more emphasis than Piaget on the role of learning and language in

cognitive development. He believed that thinking depends on speech, on the means of

thinking, and on the childs socio-cultural experience (Vygotsky, 1987a, p. 120). In fact

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky believed that language in the form of private speech (talking to yourself) guides

cognitive development.

Private Speech: Vygotskys and Piagets Views Compared. If you have spent much

time around young children, you know that they often talk to themselves as they play.

This can happen when the child is alone or, even more often, in a group of childreneach

child talks enthusiastically, without any real interaction or conversation. Piaget called this

the collective monologue, and he labelled all of the childrens self-directed talk egocentric

speech. He assumed that this egocentric speech is another indication that young children

cant see the world through the eyes of others. They talk about what matters to them,

without taking into account the needs or interests of their listeners. As they mature, and

especially as they have disagreements with peers, Piaget believed, children develop social-ized

speech. They learn to listen and exchange (or argue) ideas.

Vygotsky had very different ideas about young childrens private speech. He suggested

that, rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, these mutterings play an important

role in cognitive development because they move children toward self-regulation: the

ability to plan, monitor, and guide ones own thinking and problem solving (see Chapter

10 for a detailed description of this highly effective form of learning). First, the childs

behaviour is regulated by others, usually parents, using language and other signs such as

gestures. For example, the parent says No! when the child reaches toward a candle flame.

Next, the child learns to regulate the behaviour of others using the same language tools.

The child says No! to another child who is trying to take away a toy, often even imitating

the parents voice tone. The child also begins to use private speech to regulate her own

behaviour, saying no quietly to herself as she is tempted to touch the flame. Finally, the

child learns to regulate her own behaviour by using silent inner speech (Karpov &

Haywood, 1998).

In any preschool room, you might hear 4-or 5-year-olds saying, No, it wont fit. Try

it here. Turn. Turn. Maybe this one! while they do puzzles. As these children mature, their

self-directed speech goes underground, changing from spoken to whispered speech and

then to silent lip movements. Finally, the children just think the guiding words. The use

of private speech peaks at around age 9, although one study found that some students

from ages 11 to 17 still spontaneously muttered to themselves during problem solving

(McCafferty, 2004; Winsler, Carlton, & Barry, 2000; Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). Vygotsky

called this inner speech an internal plane of verbal thinking (Vygotsky, 1934/1987c,

p. 279)a critical accomplishment on the road to higher-order thinking.

This series of steps, from spoken words to silent inner speech, is another example

of how higher mental functions appear first between people as they communicate and

regulate each others behaviour and then emerge again within the individual as a cogni-tive

process. Through this fundamental process, the child is using language to accomplish

important cognitive activities such as directing attention, solving problems, planning,

forming concepts, and gaining self-control. Research supports Vygotskys ideas (Berk &

Spuhl, 1995; Emerson & Miyake, 2003). Children and adults tend to use more private

speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes (Duncan &

Cheyne, 1999). Have you ever thought to yourself something like, Lets see, the first step

is . . . or Where did I use my glasses last? or If I work to the end of this page, then I

can . . .? You were using inner speech to remind, cue, encourage, or guide yourself.

This internal verbal thinking is not stable until about age 12, so children in elemen-tary

school may need to continue talking through problems and explaining their reasoning

in order to develop their abilities to control their thinking (Gredler, 2012). Because private

speech helps students to regulate their thinking, it makes sense to allow, and even encour-age,

students to use private speech in school. Teachers insisting on total silence when

young students are working on difficult problems may make the work even harder for

them. Note when muttering increases in your classthis could be a sign that students

need help.

Table 2.4 contrasts Piagets and Vygotskys theories of private speech. We should note

that Piaget accepted many of Vygotskys arguments and came to agree that language could

be used in both egocentric and problem-solving ways (Piaget, 1962).

Collective monologue Form of

speech in which children in a

group talk but do not really

interact or communicate.

Private speech Childrens self-talk,

which guides their thinking

and action; eventually, these

verbalizations are internalized as

silent inner speech.

5

54 PART 1 STUDENTS

TABLE 2.4 Differences between Piagets and Vygotskys Theories of Egocentric or Private Speech

PIAGET VYGOTSKY

Developmental significance Represents an inability to take the

perspective of another and

engage in reciprocal

communication

Course of development

Relationship to social speech

Declines with age

Negative; least socially and

cognitively mature children use

more egocentric speech

Relationship to environmental contexts

Represents externalized thought; its function is to

communicate with the self for the purpose of

self-guidance and self-direction

Increases at younger ages and then gradually loses

its audible quality to become internal verbal

thought

Positive; private speech develops out of social

interaction with others

Increases with task difficulty; private speech serves

a helpful self-guiding function in situations

where more cognitive effort is needed to reach

a solution

Source: Based on Berk, L. E., & Garvin, R. A. (1984). Development of private speech among low-income Appalachian children. Developmental Psychology, 20, 272.

Copyright 1984 by the American Psychological Association.

The Zone of Proximal Development

According to Vygotsky, at

any given point in development, there are certain problems that

a child is on the verge of being able to solve. The child just needs some structure, clues,

reminders, help with remembering details or steps, encouragement to keep trying, and so

on. Some problems, of course, are beyond the childs capabilities, even if every step is

explained clearly. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area between the childs

current developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level

of development that the child could achieve through adult guidance or in collaboration

with more peers (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). It is a dynamic and changing space as student

and teacher interact and understandings are exchanged. This is the area where instruction

can succeed. Kathleen Berger (2012) called this area the magic middlesomewhere

between what the student already knows and what the student is not ready to learn.

Private Speech and the Zone. We can see how Vygotskys beliefs about the role of

private speech in cognitive development fit with the notion of the zone of proximal devel-opment.

Often, an adult helps a child to solve a problem or accomplish a task using

verbal prompts and structuring. We will see later that this type of support has been called

scaffolding. This support can be gradually reduced as the child takes over the guidance,

perhaps first by giving the prompts as private speech and finally as inner speech. Lets

move forward to a future day in the life of the girl in the earlier example who had lost

her toy and listen to her thoughts when she realizes that a school book is missing. They

might sound something like this:

Wheres my math book? Used it in class. Thought I put it in my book bag after class.

Dropped my bag on the bus. That dope Larry kicked my stuff, so maybe . . . .

The girl can now systematically search for ideas about the lost book without help

from anyone else.

Zone of proximal development

(ZPD) Phase at which a child can

master a task if given appropriate

help and support.

The Role of Learning and Development. Piaget defined development as the active con-struction

of knowledge, and learning as the passive formation of associations (Siegler,

2000). He was interested in knowledge construction and believed that cognitive develop-ment

has to come before learningthe child has to be cognitively ready to learn. He

said that learning is subordinated to development and not vice-versa (Piaget, 1964,

p. 17). Students can memorize, for example, that Geneva is in Switzerland but still insist

that they cannot be Genevan and Swiss at the same time. True understanding will happe

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

only when the child has developed the operation of class inclusionthe idea that one cat-egory

can be included in another. But as we saw earlier, research has not supported Piagets

position on the need for cognitive development to precede learning (Brainerd, 2003).

In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process that does not have to

wait for readiness. In fact, properly organized learning results in mental development and

sets in motion a variety of developmental processes that would be impossible apart from

learning (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 90). He saw learning as a tool in developmentlearning pulls

development up to higher levels, and social interaction is a key in learning (Glassman,

2001; Wink & Putney, 2002). Vygotskys belief that learning pulls development to higher

levels means that other people, including teachers, play a significant role in cognitive

development. This does not mean that Vygotsky believed memorization is learning. When

teachers try to directly communicate their understanding, the result can be a meaningless

acquisition of words and mere verbalization (Vygotsky 1934/1987b, p. 356) that actually

hides an understanding vacuum (Gredler, 2012). In Vygotskys words, the teacher explains,

informs, inquires, corrects, and forces the child to explain (p. 216).

Limitations of Vygotskys Theory

Vygotskys theory added important considerations by highlighting the role of culture and

social processes in cognitive development, but he may have gone too far. As we have

seen in this chapter, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than either

Piaget or Vygotsky suggested. Some basic understandings, such as the idea that adding

increases quantity, may be part of our biological predispositions, ready for use to guide

our cognitive development. Young children appear to figure out much about the world

before they have the chance to learn from either their culture or teachers (Schunk, 2012;

Woodward & Needham, 2009). The major limitation of Vygotskys theory, however, is that

it consists mostly of general ideas; Vygotsky died before he could expand and elaborate

on his ideas and pursue his research. His students continued to investigate his ideas, but

much of that work was suppressed until the 1950s and 1960s in the Soviet Union by

Stalins regime (Gredler, 2005; Kozulin, 1990, 2003). A final limitation might be that

Vygotsky did not have time to detail the applications of his theories for teaching, even

though he was very interested in instruction. So most applications of Vygotskys theory

described today have been created by his successorswe do not even know if he would

agree with them. It is clear that some of his concepts, like ZPD, have been misrepresented

at times (Gredler, 2012).

IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETS AND VYGOTSKYS

THEORIES FOR TEACHERS

Piaget did not make specific educational recommendations, and Vygotsky did not have

time to make a complete set of applications, but we can still glean some guidance

from them.

Piaget: What Can We Learn?

Piaget was more interested in understanding childrens thinking than in guiding teachers.

He did express some general ideas about educational philosophy, however. He believed

that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that

education should form not furnish the minds of students (Piaget, 1969, p. 70). Piaget

taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by listening carefully

and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand chil-drens

thinking, we will be better able to match teaching methods to childrens abilities;

in other words, we will be better able to differentiate instruction.

Even though Piaget did not design programs of education based on his ideas, his

influence on twentieth-century education is huge (Hindi & Perry, 2007). For example, the

National Association for the Education of Young Children has guidelines for developmen-tally

appropriate practice (DAP) that incorporate Piagets findings (Bredekamp, 2011;

Bredekamp & Copple, 1997).

5

56 PART 1 STUDENTS

ACTIVE LEARNING The ability to manipulate concrete

objects helps children understand abstract relationships

such as the connection between symbols and quantity.

Understanding and Building on Students Thinking. The stu-dents

in any class will vary greatly both in their level of cognitive

development and in their academic knowledge. As a teacher, how

can you determine whether students are having trouble because

they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply

have not learned the basic facts? To do this, Robbie Case (1985b)

suggested that you observe your students carefully as they try to

solve the problems you have presented. What kind of logic do they

use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they

fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or

by guessing and forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your

students how they tried to solve the problem. Listen to their strate-gies.

What kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or prob-lems?

Students are the best sources of information about their own

thinking abilities (Confrey, 1990a).

An important implication of Piagets theory for teaching is what

J. M. Hunt (1961) years ago called the problem of the match. Stu-dents

must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left

behind by teaching they cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be

kept just right to encourage growth. Setting up situations that lead to errors can help

create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. When students experience some conflict

between what they think should happen (a piece of wood should sink because it is big)

and what actually happens (it floats!), they may rethink their understanding, and new

knowledge may develop.

Many materials and lessons can be understood at several levels and can be just right

for a range of cognitive abilities. Classics such as Alice in Wonderland, myths, and fairy

tales can be enjoyed at both concrete and symbolic levels. It is also possible for a group

of students to be introduced to a topic together and then work individually on follow-up

activities matched to their learning needs and interests. Using multi-level lessons is called

differentiated instruction (Hipsky, 2011; Tomlinson, 2005b). We encountered this idea in

Chapter 1, and will look at it more closely in Chapter 14.

Activity and Constructing Knowledge. Piagets fundamental insight was that individu-als

construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level

of cognitive development, you will also want to see that students are actively engaged in

the learning process. In Piagets words:

Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know an event, is not simply

to look at it and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an object is to act on it.

To know is to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this

transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed.

(Piaget, 1964, p. 8)

For example, research in teaching mathematics indicates that students from kinder-garten

to college remember basic facts better when they have learned using manipulatives

versus using abstract symbols only (Carbonneau, Marley, & Selig, 2012). But this active

experience, even at the earliest school levels, should not be limited to the physical manip-ulation

of objects. It should also include mental manipulation of ideas that arise out of

class projects or experiments (Gredler, 2005; 2009). For example, after a social studies

lesson on different jobs, a primary-grade teacher might show the students a picture of a

woman and ask, What could this person be? After answers such as teacher, doctor,

secretary, lawyer, saleswoman, and so on, the teacher could suggest, How about a

daughter? Answers such as sister, mother, aunt, and granddaughter may follow. This

should help the children switch dimensions in their classification and centre on another

aspect of the situation. Next, the teacher might suggest Canadian, jogger, or blonde.

With older children, hierarchical classification might be involved: It is a picture of a

woman, who is a human being; a human being is a primate, which is a mammal, which

is an animal, which is a life form.

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CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking,

to be challenged, to receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems.

Disequilibrium is often set in motion quite naturally when the teacher or another student

suggests a new way of thinking about something. As a general rule, students should act,

manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write (to the teacher and each other) about

what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for think-ing.

Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their

thinking strategies.

The Value of Play. Maria Montessori once noted, and Piaget would agree, that play

is childrens work. We saw that the brain develops with stimulation, and that play pro-vides

some of that stimulation at every age. Babies in the sensorimotor stage learn by

exploring, sucking, pounding, shaking, throwingacting on their environments. Preop-erational

preschoolers love pretend play, and through pretending they form symbols,

use language, and interact with others. They are beginning to play simple games with

predictable rules. During their elementary school years, children also like fantasy, but

they are beginning to play more complex games and sports and thus learn cooperation,

fairness, negotiation, winning, and losing, as well as developing language. As children

grow into adolescents, play continues to be part of their physical and social develop-ment

(Meece, 2002).

Piaget taught us that children do not think like adults, but discussions about the

implications of Piagets theory often centre on the question of whether cognitive develop-ment

can be accelerated. This issue is at the heart of many discussions about the nature

of programming in preschool and kindergarten. Many provinces across Canada have

implemented, or are in the process of implementing, full-day kindergarten, including Brit-ish

Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Some provinces have

begun a targeted implementation, focusing on particular groups of children who are

believed to be disadvantaged in terms of their readiness for school (e.g., Indigenous chil-dren,

immigrant children, children with disabilities). Others, like British Columbia and

Ontario, are quickly moving to universal programs (universally available, although not

universally required). These provinces are promoting a play-based approach to instruction,

emphasizing that through play children can develop language and literacy, math and sci-ence

skills, and social competence (BC Ministry of Education, n.d.; Elementary Teachers

Federation of Ontario, 2008).

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that the main goal of education was the development of

higher mental functions, not simply filling students memories with facts. So Vygotsky

probably would oppose educational curricula that are an inch deep and a mile wide or

seem like the game Trivial Pursuit. As an example of this Trivial Pursuit curriculum,

Margaret Gredler (2009a) described a set of materials for a nine-week science unit that

had 61 glossary terms such as aqueous solution, hydrogen bonding, and fractional crys-tallizationmany

terms described with only one or two sentences.

There are at least three ways that higher mental functions can be developed through

cultural tools and passed from one individual to another: imitative learning (where one

person tries to imitate the other), instructed learning (where learners internalize the

instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate), and collaborative

learning (where a group of peers strives to understand each other and learning occurs in

the process) (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993). Vygotsky was most concerned with the

second type, instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences

that encourage anothers learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or

collaboration as well. Thus, Vygotskys ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly,

intentionally use modelling to teach, or create collaborative learning environments (Das,

1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). That pretty much includes all of us.

The Role of Adults and Peers. Vygotsky believed that the child is not alone in the

world discovering the cognitive operations of conservation or classification. This

5

58 PART 1 STUDENTS

discovery is assisted or mediated by family members, teachers,

peers, and even software (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). Most

of this guidance is communicated through language, at least in

Western cultures. In some cultures, observing a skilled perfor-mance,

not talking about it, guides the childs learning (Rogoff,

1990). Some people have called this adult assistance scaffolding,

taken from Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976). The idea is that chil-dren

use the help for support while they build a firm understand-ing

that will eventually allow them to solve the problems on their

own. Actually, when Wood and his colleagues introduced the term

scaffolding, they were talking about how teachers set up or struc-ture

learning environments, but Vygotskys theory implies more

dynamic exchanges between students and teachers that allow

teachers to support students in the parts of a task they cannot do

alonethe interactions of assisted learning, as you will see next

(Schunk, 2012).

SCAFFOLDING LEARNING According to Vygotsky, much

of childrens learning is assisted or mediated by teachers

or parents and tools in their environment, and most of this

guidance is communicated through language.

Assisted Learning. Vygotskys theory suggests that teachers need

to do more than just arrange the environment so that students can

discover on their own. Children cannot and should not be expected

to reinvent or rediscover knowledge already available in their cul-tures.

Rather, they should be guided and assisted in their learning

(Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Assisted learning, or guided participation, requires: first learn-ing

from the student what is needed; then giving information,

prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in

the right amounts; and gradually allowing the students to do more

and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting

materials or problems to students current levels; demonstrating

skills or thought processes; walking students through the steps of

a complicated problem; doing part of the problem (e.g., in algebra, the students set

up the equation and the teacher does the calculations or vice versa); giving detailed

feedback and allowing revisions; or asking questions that refocus students attention

(Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). Cognitive apprenticeships (described in Chapter 10) are

examples. Table 2.5 gives examples of assisted learning strategies that can be used in

any lesson.

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind

Deborah Leong and Elena Bodrova (2012) worked for years to develop a curriculum for

preschool through second-grade children based on Vygotskys theory. In Russia,

Dr. Bodrova had studied with students and colleagues of Vygotsky and wanted to bring

Scaffolding Support for learning

and problem solving; the support

could be clues, reminders,

encouragement, breaking the

problem down into steps,

providing an example, or

anything else that allows the

student to grow in independence

as a learner.

Assisted learning Learning by

having strategic help provided in

the initial stages; the help

gradually diminishes as students

gain independence.

TABLE 2.5 Strategies to Provide Scaffolding

Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud as you solve the problem or outline

an essay, for example.

Provide organizers or starters such as who, what, why, how, what next?

Do part of the problem.

Give hints and cues.

Encourage students to set short-term goals and take small steps.

Connect new learning to students interests or prior learning.

Use graphic organizers: timelines, charts, tables, categories, checklists, and graphs.

Simplify the task, clarify the purpose, and give clear directions.

Teach key vocabulary and provide examples.

Sources: Based on http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Scaffolding#Sharing_a_Specific_Goal; http://

condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~group4, http://k6educators.about.com/od/helpfornewteachers/a/scaffoldingtech.htm.

John

Birdsall/The

Image

work

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 2.5

BRANDONS PLAY PLANS

At the beginning of age three, Brandons play plans show that he wants to go to the art centre. By the

end of age four, Brandon plans to pretend to be a king. He is beginning to use sounds in writing.

59

End of age four

Beginning of age three.

Source: Brandons Plan, Beginning Age 3 Preschool. Tools of the Mind. http://www.toolsofthemind.org/curriculum/preschool. Used by

permission.

his ideas to teachers. The result is the Tools of the Mind project that includes curriculum

ideas for preschool, kindergarten, and special needs (see toolsofthemind.org). One key

idea taken from Vygotsky is that as children develop mental tools such as strategies for

focusing attention, they cease being prisoners of their environmenthaving their attention

grabbed away by any new sight or sound. They learn to control their attention. A second

key idea is that play, particularly dramatic pretend play, is the most important activity

supporting the development of young children. Through dramatic play children learn to

focus attention, control impulses, follow rules, use symbols, regulate their own behaviours,

and cooperate with others. So a key element of the Tools of the Mind curriculum for young

children is play plans, created by the students themselves. Children draw a picture of how

they plan to play that day, and then describe it to the teacher, who may make notes on

the page and thus model literacy activities. Plans become more complex and detailed as

children become better planners. Figure 2.5 shows Brandons simple play plan at the

beginning of age three and then another plan at the end of age four. His later plan shows

better fine motor control, more mature drawing, increased imagination, and greater use

of language.

Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the Magic Middle

Both Piaget and Vygotsky probably would agree that students need to be taught in the

magic middle (Berger, 2006) or the place of the match (Hunt, 1961)where they are

neither bored nor frustrated. Students should be put in situations where they have to reach

to understand, but where support from other students or the teacher is also available.

Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the

problem, because this student is probably operating in the learners zone of proximal

development. When a student works with another student who is a bit better at the activ-ity,

both students benefit in the exchange of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In

addition, students should be encouraged to use language to organize their thinking and

to talk about what they are trying to accomplish. Dialogue and discussion are important

avenues to learning (Karpov & Bransford, 1995; Kozulin & Presseisen, 1995; Wink & Putney,

2002). The Guidelines: Applying Vygotskys Ideas to Teaching offer additional ideas for

applying Vygotskys insights

60 PART 1 STUDENTS

Applying Vygotskys Ideas to Teaching

GUIDELINES

Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students.

Examples

1. When students are beginning new tasks or topics, provide

models, prompts, sentence starters, coaching, and feedback.

As the students grow in competence, give less support and

more opportunities for independent work.

2. Give students choices about the level of difficulty or

degree of independence in projects; encourage them

to challenge themselves but to seek help when they are

really stuck.

Make sure that students have access to powerful tools that

support thinking.

Examples

1. Teach students to use learning and organizational

strategies, research tools, language tools (dictionaries

or computer searches), spreadsheets, and word processing

programs.

2. Model the use of tools; show students how you use an

appointment book or electronic notebook to make plans and

manage time, for example.

Build on the students cultural funds of knowledge (Gonzales,

Moll, & Amanti, 2005; Moll, Amanti, Neff, & Gonzales, 1992).

Examples

1. Identify family knowledge by having students interview each

others families about their work and home knowledge

(agriculture, economics, manufacturing, household manage-ment,

medicine and illness, religion, child care, cooking, etc.).

2. Tie assignments to these funds of knowledge and use

community experts to evaluate assignments.

Capitalize on dialogue and group learning.

Examples

1. Experiment with peer tutoring; teach students how to ask

good questions and how to give helpful explanations.

2. Experiment with cooperative learning strategies, described

in Chapters 9 and 11, including using the internet to create

communities of learners.

For more information about Vygotsky and his theories, see http://tip.

psychology.org/vygotsky.html.

Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers

In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of

development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers

studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following

big ideas:

1. Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulation.

2. To develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active.

They need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write, and solve problems. But they

also benefit from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and

challenges to their thinking.

3. Teaching students what they already know is boring. Trying to teach what the student

is not ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective.

4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful.

. SUMMARY

A DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT (PP. 2325)

What are the different kinds of development? Human develop-ment

can be divided into physical development (changes in the

body), personal development (changes in an individuals personal-ity),

social development (changes in the way an individual relates to

others), and cognitive development (changes in thinking).

What are three questions about development and three gen-eral

principles? For decades, psychologists and the public have

debated whether development is shaped more by nature or

nurture, whether change is a continuous

process or involves qualitative differences

or stages, and whether there are criti-cal

times for the development of certain

abilities. We know today that these sim-ple

either/or distinctions cannot capture

the complexities of human development,

where coactions and interactions are the rule. Theorists generally

agree that people develop at different rates, that development is

an orderly process, and that development takes place gradually.

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CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PP. 2536)

What part of the brain is associated with higher mental functions?

The cortex is a crumpled sheet of neurons that serves three major

functions: receiving signals from sense organs (such as visual or

auditory signals), controlling voluntary movement, and forming

associations. The part of the cortex that controls physical motor

movement develops or matures first, followed by the areas that

control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and then the

frontal lobe, which controls higher-order thinking processes.

What is lateralization and why is it important? Lateralization is

the specialization of the two sides, or hemispheres, of the brain.

For most people, the left hemisphere is the major factor in lan-guage,

and the right hemisphere is prominent in spatial and visual

processing. Even though certain functions are associated with

certain parts of the brain, the various parts and systems of the

brain work together to learn and perform complex activities such

as reading and to construct understanding.

What are some implications for teachers? Recent advances in

both methods and findings in the neurosciences provide excit-ing

information about brain activity during learning and brain

activity differences among people with varying abilities and

challenges and from different cultures. There are some basic

implications for teaching based on these findings, but many of

the strategies offered by brain-based advocates are simply

good teaching. Perhaps we now know more about why these

strategies work.

PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PP. 3649)

What are the main influences on cognitive development?

Piagets theory of cognitive development is based on the assump-tion

that people try to make sense of the world and actively create

knowledge through direct experience with objects, people, and

ideas. Maturation, activity, social transmission, and the need for

equilibrium all influence the way thinking processes and knowl-edge

develop. In response to these influences, thinking processes

and knowledge develop through changes in the organization of

thought (the development of schemes) and through adaptationincluding

the complementary processes of assimilation (incorpo-rating

new information into existing schemes) and accommodation

(changing existing schemes).

What is a scheme? Schemes are the basic building blocks of think-ing.

They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow

us to mentally represent or think about the objects and events

in our world. Schemes may be very small and specific (grasping,

recognizing a square), or they may be larger and more general

(using a map in a new city). People adapt to their environment as

they increase and organize their schemes.

As children move from sensorimotor to formal-operational

thinking, what are the major changes? Piaget believed that

young people pass through four stages as they develop: sen-sorimotor,

preoperational, concrete operational, and formal

operational. In the sensorimotor stage, infants explore the world

through their senses and motor activity and work toward master-ing

object permanence and performing goal-directed activities.

In the preoperational stage, symbolic thinking and logical opera-tions

begin. Children in the stage of concrete operations can

think logically about tangible situations and can demonstrate

conservation, reversibility, classification, and seriation. The abil-ity

to perform hypothetico-deductive reasoning, coordinate a set

61

of variables, and imagine other worlds marks the stage of formal

operations.

How do neo-Piagetian and information processing views explain

changes in childrens thinking over time? Information processing

theories focus on attention, memory capacity, learning strategies,

and other processing skills to explain how children develop rules

and strategies for making sense of the world and solving prob-lems.

Neo-Piagetian approaches also look at attention, memory,

and strategies and at how thinking develops in different domains

such as numbers or spatial relations. Research in neuroscience sug-gests

that when learning a new skill, children move through three

tiersfrom actions to representations to abstractions. Within each

tier, the pattern is moving from accomplishing a single action to

mapping or coordinating two actions together such as coordinat-ing

addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems

of understanding.

What are some limitations of Piagets theory? Piagets theory has

been criticized because children and adults often think in ways that

are inconsistent with the notion of invariant stages. It also appears

that Piaget underestimated childrens cognitive abilities; he insisted

that children could not be taught the operations of the next stage,

but had to develop them on their own. Alternative explanations

place greater emphasis on students developing information pro-cessing

skills and ways teachers can enhance their development.

Piagets work is also criticized for overlooking cultural factors in

child development.

VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE (PP. 5055)

According to Vygotsky, what are three main influences on

cognitive development? Vygotsky believed that human activities

must be understood in their cultural settings. He believed that

our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our

interactions with others; that the tools of the culture, especially the

tool of language, are key factors in development; and that the zone

of proximal development is the area where learning and develop-ment

are possible.

What are psychological tools and why are they important?

Psychological tools are signs and symbol systems such as numbers

and mathematical systems, codes, and language that support

learning and cognitive developmentthey change the thinking

process by enabling and shaping thinking. Many of these tools are

passed from adult to child through formal and informal interactions

and teachings.

Explain how interpsychological development becomes intra-psychological

development. Higher mental processes appear first

between people as they are co-constructed during shared activi-ties.

As children engage in activities with adults or more capable

peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or repre-senting

concepts. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Thus

childrens knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through

appropriating, or taking for themselves, the ways of acting and

thinking provided by their culture and by the more capable mem-bers

of their group.

What are the differences between Piagets and Vygotskys

perspectives on private speech and its role in development?

Vygotskys sociocultural view asserts that cognitive development

hinges on social interaction and the development of language. As

an example, Vygotsky described the role of childrens self-directed

talk in guiding and monitoring thinking and problem solving, whil

62 PART 1 STUDENTS

Piaget suggested that private speech was an indication of the

childs egocentrism. Vygotsky, more than Piaget, emphasized the

significant role played by adults and more able peers in childrens

learning. This adult assistance provides early support while stu-dents

build the understanding necessary to solve problems on

their own.

What is a students zone of proximal development (ZPD)? At

any given point in development, there are certain problems that

a child is on the verge of being able to solve and others that are

beyond the childs capabilities. The zone of proximal development

is the area where the child cannot solve a problem alone, but can

be successful under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more

advanced peer.

What are two criticisms or limitations of Vygotskys theory?

Vygotsky may have overemphasized the role of social interaction

in cognitive developmentchildren figure out quite a bit on their

own. Also, because he died so young, Vygotsky was not able to

develop and elaborate on his theories. His students and others

since have taken up that work.

IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETS AND VYGOTSKYS THEORIES FOR

TEACHERS (PP. 5560)

What is the problem of the match described by Hunt? The

problem of the match is that students must be neither bored

by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot

understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be carefully

balanced to encourage growth. Situations that lead to errors can

help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium.

What is active learning? Why is Piagets theory of cognitive

development consistent with active learning? Piagets funda-mental

insight was that individuals construct their own under-standing;

learning is a constructive process. At every level of

cognitive development, students must be able to incorporate

information into their own schemes. To do this, they must act on

the information in some way. This active experience, even at the

earliest school levels, should include both physical manipulation

of objects and mental manipulation of ideas. As a general rule,

students should act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or

write about what they have experienced. Concrete experiences

provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with oth-ers

makes students use, test, and sometimes change their think-ing

abilities.

What is assisted learning, and what role does scaffolding

play? Assisted learning, or guided participation in the classroom,

requires scaffoldingunderstanding students needs; giving infor-mation,

prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time

and in the right amounts; and then gradually allowing the students

to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by

adapting materials or problems to students current levels, demon-strating

skills or thought processes, walking students through the

steps of a complicated problem, doing part of the problem, giving

detailed feedback and allowing revisions, or asking questions that

refocus students attention.

. what would they do?

TEACHERS CASEBOOK: Symbols and Cymbals

Here is how two practising teachers responded to the teaching

situation described on the first page of this chapter.

JANET E. GETTINGS

Willoughby Elementary School, Langley, BC Faculty Adviser and Sessional

Instructor, University of British Columbia

Source: Janet E. Gettings, Formerly from Willoughby Elementary School,

Langley, BC. Used with permission.

The students of the class have indicated a need for scaffolded

learning to enhance their understanding of the concept of

symbolism.

To introduce the concept, I would build on the childrens

prior knowledge of homophones by doing a quick review of com-monly

used word pairs, such as bear/bare, stare/stair, I/eye, pair/

pear, two/to/too, followed by cymbal/symbol. With the latter

example, I would explain that Tracy had defined cymbal. I

would then invite suggestions for symbol, summarizing with a

formal definition, such as something that stands for or repre-sents

something else.

I would follow the discussion with a Think, Pair, Share activity.

Students would be asked to think about symbols independently,

and then pair with a partner to share ideas. Next, the partners would

be invited to go on a detective search of the room and their desks

for symbols they could share with the class. For example, when I

hang an umbrella on the door, students know they can stay in the

classroom at lunch.

Another follow-up activity would be a modified game of

Pictionary. The class would be divided into teams of five or six

and take turns being artists. Each team would send a student to

the teacher to view a phrase, which the student then has to rep-resent

pictorially. Sample phrases might include the house had

not been lived in for a long time or her face reflected pain and

sadness.

At this stage, the students might be ready to move to usage of

symbolism in written language. Sections of a familiar novel that

includes symbolic phrases to describe feelings and emotions could

be shared. For example, the phrase thunderclouds passed over

her face describes the feelings of a character in a story in language

that students understand easily. I would engage the class in a dis-cussion

to share the authors message and intent.

Reading aloud humorous poetry, such as that of Jack Prelutsky,

might be used to move toward the final goal of identifying the use

of symbolism in poetry. Students could demonstrate their under-standing

by researching the use of symbolic language in the genre

of poetry and by writing their own poems, incorporating symbolism

into their products

CHAPTER 2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

MICHELE MELLOW

St Alphonsus Catholic School

The students responses would indicate to me that I need to take a

few steps back and reflect. I would start by asking myself some

questions like what are the cultural backgrounds of my students?

Do we all share the same knowledge? Are there many ESL learners

in the class who need help building their background knowledge?

We need to have a common understanding before we can continue.

To begin teaching about symbols, I would look for examples

that the students could relate to, so I would start a discussion about

how logos for companies are like symbols. First, we would examine

symbols for McDonalds, Nike, Twitter, Facebook and others. I would

listen to the students conversations as they worked in pairs match-ing

the logos to the companies and observe how accurately they

63

did this exercise. We would also look at pictures of other symbols

that are common in Canadian cultureCanadian flag, ring on the

third finger of the left hand, the Queen, red stoplight, peace sym-bol,

etc. and discuss their meanings.

Then the students would have to design a symbol that repre-sents

them and explain why they chose that symbol. What is it about

their personality that made them choose that particular symbol?

The students written responses would tell me more about their

understanding. I could assess their knowledge so far and see if they

were ready to continue.

After these steps, if students were still struggling to under-stand

symbols, I would conclude that they are not developmen-tally

ready for this material and would move on to a different

topic

SEVENTH

CANADIAN

EDITION

WOOLFOLK

WINNE

PERRY

EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOG

ANITA WOOLFOLK

The Ohio State University

SEVENTH
CANADIAN
EDITION

PHILIP H. WINNE

Simon Fraser University

NANCY PERRY

University of British Columbia

EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOG

Pearson Canada Inc., 26 Prince Andrew Place, North York, Ontario M3C 2H4.

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If you purchased this book outside the United States or Canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without the

approval of the publisher or the author.

ISBN 978-0-13-483221-0

1 20

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Hoy, Anita Woolfolk, 1947-, author

Educational psychology / Woolfolk, Winne, Perry. Seventh

Canadian edition.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-13-483221-0 (softcover)

1. Educational psychologyTextbooks. 2. Textbooks.

I. Winne, Philip H., author II. Perry, Nancy E. (Nancy

Ellen), 1962-, author III. Title.

LB1051.H69 2019 370.15 C2018-906496-

To my mother,

Marion Wieckert Pratt.

A remarkable educator,

an adventurous world traveler,

a courageous advocate for all in need,

and a wonderful guide in lifethank

you.

A.W.

In memory of missed parents,

Bill Perry and Jean and Hawley Winne.

Great teachers all!

And to family, friends, and students,

who continue to teach us the joys of life and learning.

P.H.W.

N.E.P

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

So you will know the authors a bit better, here is some information.

Anita Woolfolk was born in Fort Worth, Texas, where her mother taught child development

at TCU and her father was an early worker in the computer industry. She is a Texas Long-hornall

her degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin, the last one a PhD. After

graduating, she worked as a child psychologist in elementary and secondary schools in

15 counties of central Texas. She began her career in higher education as a professor of

educational psychology at Rutgers University, and then moved to The Ohio State University

in 1994. Today she is Professor Emerita at Ohio State. Anitas research focuses on motivation

and cognition, specifically, students and teachers sense of efficacy and teachers beliefs about

education. For many years she was the editor of Theory Into Practice, a journal that brings

the best ideas from research to practicing educators. She has published over 80 books, book

chapters, and research articles with her students and colleagues. Anita has served as vice-president

for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of the American Educational

Research Association and president of Division 15Educational Psychology of the American

Psychological Association. Just before completing this edition of Educational Psychology, she

collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British Columbia, to write the second edition of

Child Development (Pearson, 2015), a book for all those who work with and love children.

Philip H. Winne received his Ph.D. from Stanford University, accepted a position at Simon

Fraser University in 1975, and has happily worked there his entire career. He is a profes-sor

as SFU and previously served as associate dean for Graduate Studies and Research in

the Faculty of Education. His research accomplishments earned him two terms as a Tier I

Canada Research Chair in Self-Regulated Learning & Learning Technologies and election

as a fellow of the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological

Association, the Association for Psychological Science, and the Canadian Psychological

Association. His research interests include self-regulated learning, metacognition, motiva-tion,

study tactics and learning strategies, adaptive software for research, and promoting

self-regulated learning. To pursue these topics, he leads a team developing state-of-the-art

software called nStudy. As students use nStudy to study online, the software collects

extensive and detailed data about how they study. He has published more than 170 schol-arly

works and served as president of the Canadian Educational Researchers Association,

the Canadian Association for Educational Psychology, and Division 15Educational Psy-chology

of the American Psychological Association. He co-edited the Handbook of Edu-cational

Psychology (second edition) with Patricia Alexander and the field-leading journal

Educational Psychologist (20012005), with Lyn Corno. He has served as Associate Editor

of the British Journal of Educational Psychology for nearly 20 years, and currently is a

member of the editorial board of seven other leading journals in the field.

Nancy Perry worked as a classroom and resource teacher in school districts in British

Columbia, Canada, before obtaining her Ph.D. from the University of Michigan in 1996.

Today, she is a professor of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education

at the University of British Columbia (UBC). There, she teaches courses in two program

areasHuman Development, Learning, and Culture; and Special Education; and supports

students in a B.Ed. cohort that focuses on promoting self-regulated learning (SRL) in the

middle years. She is a recipient of UBCs Killam Teaching Prize and holds the Dorothy Lam

Chair in Special Education. Her research examines the role of task structures, instructional

practices, and interpersonal relationships in promoting motivation and self-regulation in

school. Related projects are profiled on her website: Seeding Success through Motivation

and Self-Regulation in Schools, http://self-regulationinschool.research.educ.ubc.ca. In addi-tion

to these teaching and research activities, Nancy has served an Associate Editor for the

Journal of Learning and Instruction, President of Division 15Educational Psychology of

the American Psychological Association, President of the Canadian Association for Educa-tional

Psychology, Member of the Executive Boards of the Canadian Association for Studies

in Education and Division 15Educational Psychology as Member-at-Large

PREFACE

Many of you reading this book are enrolled in an educational psychology course as part

of your professional preparation for teaching, counselling, speech therapy, nursing, or

psychology. The material in this text should be of interest to everyone who is concerned

about education and learning, from the kindergarten volunteer to the instructor in a

community program for adults with disabilities. No background in psychology or educa-tion

is necessary to understand this material. It is as free of jargon and technical lan-guage

as possible, and many people have worked to make this edition clear, relevant,

and interesting.

Since the first edition of Educational Psychology appeared, there have been many

exciting developments in the field. The seventh Canadian edition continues to emphasize

the educational implications and applications of research on child development, cognitive

science, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment. Theory and practice are not sepa-rated

in the text but are considered together. The book is written to show how information

and ideas drawn from research in educational psychology can be applied to solve the

everyday problems of teaching. To help you explore the connections between research

and practice, you will find in these pages a wealth of examples, lesson segments, case

studies, guidelines, and even practical tips from experienced teachers. As you read this

book, we believe you will see the immense value and usefulness of educational psychol-ogy.

The field offers unique and crucial knowledge to any who dare to teach and to all

who love to learn.

NEW CONTENT IN THE SEVENTH CANADIAN EDITION

Across the book, there is increased coverage of a number of important topics. Some of

these include

New explorations of current research on teaching and models of expert teaching,

introduced in Chapter 1 and continued throughout the book.

Increased coverage of the brain, neuroscience, and teaching emphasized in Chapter 2

and also integrated into several other chapters.

Increased coverage of the impact of technology and virtual learning environ-ments

on the lives of students and teachers today.

Increased emphasis on diversity in todays classrooms, especially in Chapters 1

to 6. Portraits of students in educational settings make diversity real and human

for readers.

Key content changes in each chapter include the following:

Chapter 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Our goal is that this text will provide the knowledge and skills that will enable you

to build a solid foundation for an authentic sense of teaching efficacy in every context

and for every student. There is new information about models of good teaching here

and throughout the text. Also, the section on research now examines different kinds

of qualitative and quantitative research and what you can learn from each approach

(see Table 1.2).

Chapter 2 Cognitive Development

New information on the brain, synaptic plasticity, executive functioning, and implica-tions

for teaching, including an approach based on Vygotsky called Tools of the Mind

vi PREFACE

Chapter 3 Self and Social and Moral Development

New sections on cultural differences in play, physical activity and students with

disabilities, eating disorders and the websites that promote them, self-conceptparticularly

elaborations of gender and sexual identityand Jonathan Haidts

model of moral psychology.

Chapter 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs

New sections on nine possible multiple intelligences, autism spectrum disorders,

student drug use, and ways to identify students who are gifted and talented.

Chapter 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and

Immigrant Education

New information on learning to read, emergent literacy and language diversity, shel-tered

instruction, and student-led conferences.

Chapter 6 Culture and Diversity

New coverage of homeless and highly mobile students, expanded coverage of pov-erty

and school achievement, opportunity gaps, and stereotype threat.

Chapter 7 Behavioural Views of Learning

Expanded coverage of teaching implications of behavioural learning.

Chapter 8 Cognitive Views of Learning

Updated coverage of working memory, developmental differences, and teaching

implications of cognitive learning theories.

Chapter 9 Complex Cognitive Processes

Updated sections on metacognition and learning strategies, creativity, and transfer,

and a new section on Paul and Elders model of critical thinking.

Chapter 10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism

New material on inquiry learning and teaching in a digital world, including Bettys

Brainan example of a virtual learning environmentthe use of games in teaching,

and the initiative to teach computational thinking and coding.

Chapter 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation

Updated coverage of self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and new material on emo-tional

self-regulation.

Chapter 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching

Updated treatment of self-determination theory and goal theory, expanded coverage

of helping students cope with anxiety, and new material on flow and motivation

PREFACE

Chapter 13 Creating Learning Environments

New sections on understanding your beliefs about classroom management, creating

caring relationships, bullying, restorative justice, and Marvin Marshalls views on

consequences and penalties.

Chapter 14 Teaching Every Student

Updated discussion of research on teaching, as well as a new section on understand-ing

by design.

Chapter 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing

Updated material on student testing.

A CRYSTAL-CLEAR PICTURE OF THE FIELD

AND WHERE IT IS HEADED

The seventh Canadian edition maintains the lucid writing style for which the book is

renowned. The text provides accurate, up-to-date coverage of the foundational areas

within educational psychology: learning, development, motivation, teaching, and assess-ment,

combined with intelligent examination of emerging trends in the field and society

that affect student learning, such as student diversity, inclusion of students with special

learning needs, education and neuroscience, and technology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

During the years we have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent revi-sion,

many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply could

not have been written.

Many educators contributed to this and previous editions. For recent contributions,

we give thanks to

Lisa Dack, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

Marian Jazvac-Martek, McGill University

Anoop Gupta, University of Windsor

Ashleigh Lerch, Western University

Elsa Lo, Concordia University

Chris Mattatall, University of Lethbridge

Julie Mueller, Wilfrid Laurier University

Nancy Norman, University of the Fraser Valley

Alexa Okrainec, Brandon University

Sheila Windle, University of Ottawa

Stephanie Yamniuk, University of Winnipeg

For reviews in connection with the sixth, fifth, and fourth Canadian editions, thanks to

Ajit Bedi, Memorial University of Newfoundland

Scott Conrod, McGill University

Connie Edwards, University of Toronto

Sonja Grover, Lakehead University

Michael Harrison, University of Ottawa

Linda Lysynchuck, Laurentian University

Anne MacGregor, Douglas College

vi

viii PREFACE

Rob McTavish, Simon Fraser University

Marlene Maldonado-Esteban, University of Windsor

Carlin J. Miller, University of Windsor

John C. Nesbit, Simon Fraser University

Gene Ouellette, Mount Allison University

Krista Pierce, Red Deer College

Jeff St. Pierre, University of Western Ontario

Noella Piquette-Tomei, University of Lethbridge

Kenneth A. Pudlas, Trinity Western University

Jill Singleton-Jackson, University of Windsor

Irina Tzoneva, University of Fraser Valley

Jennifer A. Vadeboncoeur, University of British Columbia

David Young, University of Western Ontario

PHIL WINNE AND NANCY PERR

BRIEF

CONTENTS

1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 1

PART I STUDENTS

2 Cognitive Development 22

3 Self and Social and Moral Development 64

4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 110

5 Language Development, Language Diversity,

and Immigrant Education 160

6 Culture and Diversity 195

PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7 Behavioural Views of Learning 232

8 Cognitive Views of Learning 266

9 Complex Cognitive Processes 302

10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 342

11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 382

12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 414

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING

13 Creating Learning Environments 457

14 Teaching Every Student 497

15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 53

CONTENTS

About the Authors iv

Preface v

CHAPTER 1

LEARNING, TEACHING,

AND EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY 1

Teachers CasebookIncluding All Students: What

Would You Do? 1

Overview and Objectives 2

Learning and Teaching Today 2

Classrooms Today Are Dramatically Diverse 2

Confidence in Every Context 3

Do Teachers Make a Difference? 4

What Is Good Teaching? 5

Inside Three Classrooms 5

What Are the Concerns of Beginning Teachers? 7

The Role of Educational Psychology 8

In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and

Teaching 8

Educational Psychology Today 8

Is It Just Common Sense? 9

Using Research to Understand and Improve

Learning 10

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should

Guide Education? 13

Theories for Teaching 15

Supporting Student Learning 18

Summary 19

Teachers CasebookWhat Is an Effective Teacher? What

Would They Do? 20

CHAPTER 2

COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT 22

Teachers CasebookSymbols and Cymbals:

What Would You Do? 22

Overview and Objectives 23

A Definition of Development 23

Three Questions Across the Theories 24

General Principles of Development 25

The Brain and Cognitive Development 25

The Developing Brain: Neurons 26

The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 28

Adolescent Development and the Brain 30

Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works 30

Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 31

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:

Brain-Based Education 34

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 34

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development 36

Influences on Development 37

Basic Tendencies in Thinking 37

Four Stages of Cognitive Development 38

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 41

GUIDELINES:

Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 44

Information Processing and Neo-Piagetian Views of Cognitive

Development 45

GUIDELINES:

Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 46

Limitations of Piagets Theory 47

Vygotskys Sociocultural Perspective 50

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 50

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 51

The Role of Language and Private Speech 52

The Zone of Proximal Development 54

Limitations of Vygotskys Theory 55

Implications of Piagets and Vygotskys Theories for

Teachers 55

Piaget: What Can We Learn? 55

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 57

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 58

Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the Magic Middle 59

GUIDELINES:

Applying Vygotskys Ideas to Teaching 60

Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 60

Summary 60

Teachers CasebookSymbols and Cymbals: What Would

They Do? 62

CHAPTER 3

SELF AND SOCIAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT 64

Teachers CasebookMean Girls: What Would You Do? 64

Overview and Objectives 6

CONTENTS

Physical Development 65

Physical and Motor Development 65

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the

Classroom 68

Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 68

Challenges in Physical Development 70

GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in

Adolescents 72

Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 72

Families 73

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Connecting with Families 76

GUIDELINES:

Helping Children of Divorce 77

Peers 78

Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 80

Teachers and Child Abuse 81

Society and Media 83

Identity and Self-Concept 84

Erikson: Stages of Individual Development 84

GUIDELINES:

Encouraging Initiative and Industry 86

GUIDELINES:

Supporting Identity Formation 89

Ethnic and Racial Identity 90

Self-Concept 91

Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence 93

Self-Esteem 94

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to

Encourage Students

Self-Esteem? 95

Understanding Others and

Moral Development 96

Theory of Mind and Intention 96

Moral Development 96

Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices 98

Diversity in Moral Reasoning 100

Beyond Reasoning: Haidts Social Intuitionist Model of Moral

Psychology 100

Moral Behaviour 101

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging

Cooperation 104

Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 106

Summary 106

Teachers CasebookMean Girls: What Would They Do? 108

CHAPTER 4

LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND

LEARNING NEEDS 110

Teachers CasebookIncluding Every Student: What Would

You Do? 110

Students with Sensory Impairments 148

Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders 150

Special Education and Inclusion 151

Education Laws and Policies Pertaining to Exceptional

Students 151

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Inclusion a Reasonable

Approach to Teaching Exceptional

Students? 153

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Productive Conferences 154

Response to Intervention (RTI) 154

Universal Designs for Learning 156

Summary 156

Teachers CasebookIncluding Every Student: What Would

They Do? 158

Overview and Objectives 111

Language and Labelling 111

Disabilities and Handicaps 112

Person-First Language 113

Possible Biases in the Application of Labels 113

Intelligence 114

What Does Intelligence Mean? 114

Multiple Intelligences 115

Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 118

Intelligence as a Process 118

Measuring Intelligence 119

GUIDELINES:

Interpreting IQ Scores 121

Sex Differences in Intelligence 122

Learning and Thinking Styles 124

Learning Styles and Preferences 124

Beyond Either/Or 126

Students Who are Gifted and Talented 126

Who Are These Students? 127

Identifying and Teaching Students Who

Are Gifted 129

Students with Learning Challenges 132

Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 132

Students with Learning Disabilities 133

Students with Hyperactivity and Attention

Disorders 137

Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities

and ADHD 139

Students with Language and Communication

Disorders 140

Students with Emotional or Behavioural

Disorders 141

Students with Developmental Disabilities 144

Students with Physical Disabilities and Chronic

Health Concerns 145

GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Developmental

Disabilities 146

x

xii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT,

LANGUAGE DIVERSITY, AND

IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 160

Teachers CasebookSupporting Language Diversity in the

Classroom: What Would You Do? 160

Overview and Objectives 161

The Development of Language 161

What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 161

When and How Does Language Develop? 162

Emergent Literacy 165

Emergent Literacy and Bilingual Children 167

GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting

Literacy 168

Diversity in Language Development 168

Dual-Language Development 169

Signed Languages 172

What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 172

Contextualized and Academic Language 173

GUIDELINES:

Promoting Language Learning 175

Dialect Differences in the Classroom 175

Dialects 176

Genderlects 177

Teaching Students and English Language Learners 177

Immigrants and Refugees 178

Classrooms Today 179

Four Student Profiles 179

Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 180

Bilingual Education and English Learners 181

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach

English Language

Learners? 182

Sheltered Instruction 184

Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 186

GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing

Self-Esteem for

English Language Learners 187

Working with Families: Using the Tools

of the Culture 188

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Welcoming All Families 189

Challenges: English Language Learners with Disabilities and

Special Gifts 190

English Language Learners with Disabilities 190

Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness

in Bilingual Students 191

Summary 192

Teachers CasebookCultures Clash in the Classroom: What

Would They Do? 193

CHAPTER 6

CULTURE AND

DIVERSITY 195

Teachers CasebookWhite Girls Club: What Would

You Do? 195

Overview and Objectives 196

Todays Diverse Classrooms 196

Culture and Group Membership 196

Meet Four Students 198

Cautions about Interpreting

Cultural Differences 200

Economic and Social Class Differences 201

Social Class and SES 201

Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly

Mobile Students 202

Poverty and School Achievement 202

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective

Strategy? 205

GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in

Poverty 206

Ethnicity and Race Differences in Teaching

and Learning 206

Terms: Ethnicity and Race 206

Ethnic and Racial Differences

in School Achievement 207

The Legacy of Discrimination 208

Stereotype Threat 212

Gender in Teaching and Learning 214

Sex and Gender 214

Gender Roles 216

Gender Bias in Curriculum 218

Gender Bias in Teaching 218

GUIDELINES:

Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 219

Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally

Compatible Classrooms 220

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 221

Fostering Resilience 223

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Building Learning Communities 224

Diversity in Learning 225

Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 227

GUIDELINES:

Culturally Relevant Teaching 229

Summary 229

Teachers CasebookWhite Girls Club: What

Would They Do? 23

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 7

BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF

LEARNING 232

Teachers CasebookSick of Class: What Would

You Do? 232

Overview and Objectives 233

Understanding Learning 233

Neuroscience of Behavioural Learning 234

Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 234

Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity

and Classical Conditioning 236

GUIDELINES:

Applying Classical Conditioning 237

Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 237

Types of Consequences 238

Reinforcement Schedules 240

Antecedents and Behaviour Change 242

Putting It All Together to Apply Operant Conditioning:

Applied Behaviour Analysis 243

Methods for Encouraging Behaviours 244

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise

Appropriately 245

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging

Positive

Behaviours 247

Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group

Consequences 248

Token Reinforcement Systems 249

Handling Undesirable Behaviour 251

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using

Punishment 253

Reaching Every Student: Severe Behaviour Problems 253

Contemporary Applications: Functional Behavioural

Assessment, Positive Behaviour Supports,

and Self-Management 254

Discovering the Why: Functional Behavioural

Assessments 255

Positive Behaviour Supports 256

Self-Management 258

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Applying Operant Conditioning: Student

Self-Management 259

Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 260

Beyond Behaviourism: Banduras Challenge

and Observational Learning 260

Criticisms of Behavioural Methods 261

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded

for Learning? 262

Ethical Issues 263

Behavioural Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 263

Summary 264

Teachers CasebookSick of Class: What Would

They Do? 265

CHAPTER 8

COGNITIVE VIEWS OF

LEARNING 266

Teachers CasebookRemembering the Basics: What Would

You Do? 266

Overview and Objectives 267

Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 267

Comparing Cognitive and Behavioural Views 267

The Brain and Cognitive Learning 268

The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 269

Cognitive Views of Memory 269

Sensory Memory 270

Attention and Teaching 274

Working Memory 274

GUIDELINES:

Gaining and Maintaining Attention 275

Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 278

Individual Differences in Working Memory 280

Long-Term Memory 282

Capacity, Duration, and Contents of

Long-Term Memory 282

Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 284

Implicit Memories 288

Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory 289

Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory 290

Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles

and Applications 290

Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful

Connections 290

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Organizing Learning 292

Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful 293

Development of Procedural Knowledge 296

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Whats Wrong

with Memorizing? 297

GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and

Remember 298

Summary 299

Teachers CasebookRemembering the Basics: What Would

They Do? 300

xii

xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER 9

COMPLEX COGNITIVE

PROCESSES 302

Teachers CasebookUncritical Thinking: What Would

You Do? 302

Overview and Objectives 303

Metacognition 304

Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 304

Individual Differences in Metacognition 305

Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 305

Learning Strategies 307

Being Strategic about Learning 307

Visual Tools for Organizing 310

Reading Strategies 312

Applying Learning Strategies 313

GUIDELINES:

Becoming an Expert Student 314

Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for Struggling

Students 314

Problem Solving 315

Identifying: Problem Finding 316

Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 317

Searching for Possible Solution Strategies 321

Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 322

Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 323

Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 324

GUIDELINES:

Applying Problem Solving 325

Creativity: What It is and Why It Matters 326

Assessing Creativity 327

OK, but So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? 327

What Are the Sources of Creativity? 327

Creativity in the Classroom 329

The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 329

GUIDELINES:

Applying and Encouraging Creativity 330

Critical Thinking and Argumentation 331

One Model of Critical Thinking: Paul and Elder 332

Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 333

Argumentation 333

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical

Thinking and Problem

Solving? 334

Teaching for Transfer 335

The Many Views of Transfer 336

Teaching for Positive Transfer 336

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Promoting Transfer 339

Summary 339

Teachers CasebookUncritical Thinking: What Would

They Do? 341

CHAPTER 10

THE LEARNING SCIENCES AND

CONSTRUCTIVISM 342

Teachers CasebookLearning to Cooperate: What Would

You Do? 342

Overview and Objectives 343

The Learning Sciences 343

What Are the Learning Sciences? 343

Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences 344

Embodied Cognition 345

Cognitive and Social Constructivism 345

Constructivist Views of Learning 346

How Is Knowledge Constructed? 349

Knowledge: Situated or General? 350

Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centred

Teaching 350

Applying Constructivist Perspectives 352

Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 353

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry

and Problem-Based Learning Effective

Teaching

Approaches? 356

Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal

Teaching 358

Collaboration and Cooperation 359

Tasks for Cooperative Learning 361

Preparing Students for Cooperative

Learning 362

Designs for Cooperation 365

Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative

Learning Wisely 367

GUIDELINES:

Using Cooperative Learning 368

Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 369

Service Learning 370

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Service Learning 371

Learning in a Digital World 372

Technology and Learning 372

Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities

for Young Children 375

Computers and Older Students 376

GUIDELINES:

Using Computers 377

GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development

of Media Literacy 379

Summary 379

Teachers CasebookLearning to Cooperate: What Would

They Do? 38

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11

SOCIAL COGNITIVE

VIEWS OF LEARNING

AND MOTIVATION 382

Teachers CasebookFailure to Self-Regulate: What Would

You Do? 382

Overview and Objectives 383

Social Cognitive Theory 383

A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 383

Beyond Behaviourism 384

Triarchic Reciprocal Causality 385

Modelling: Learning by Observing Others 386

Elements of Observational Learning 387

Observational Learning in Teaching 388

GUIDELINES:

Using Observational Learning 390

Self-Efficacy and Agency 390

Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 391

Sources of Self-Efficacy 392

Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 392

GUIDELINES:

Encouraging Self-Efficacy 394

Teachers Sense of Efficacy 394

Self-Regulated Learning 395

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher

Efficacy Beneficial? 396

What Influences Self-Regulation? 397

Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency 399

An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning 400

Two Classrooms 401

Technology and Self-Regulation 402

Reaching Every Student: Families and Self-Regulation 403

Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive

Behaviour Modification 403

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Supporting Self-Regulation at Home

and in School 403

Emotional Self-Regulation 406

Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated

Learning 406

GUIDELINES:

Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 407

Complex Tasks 408

Control 408

Self-Evaluation 409

Collaboration 410

Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning 410

Summary 412

Teachers CasebookFailure to Self-Regulate: What Would

They Do? 413

CHAPTER 12

MOTIVATION IN LEARNING

AND TEACHING 414

Teachers CasebookMotivating Students When Resources

Are Thin: What Would You Do? 414

Overview and Objectives 415

What Is Motivation? 415

Meeting Some Students 416

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 416

Five General Approaches to Motivation 418

Needs 420

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs 420

Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy,

and Relatedness 421

Needs: Lessons for Teachers 423

GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and

Autonomy 424

Goal Orientations 424

Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 425

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 428

Goals: Lessons for Teachers 429

Beliefs and Self-Perceptions 429

Beliefs about Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 429

Beliefs about Ability 430

Beliefs about Causes and Control: Attribution Theory 431

Beliefs about Self-Worth 433

GUIDELINES:

Encouraging Self-Worth 435

Beliefs and Attributions: Lessons for Teachers 435

Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 435

Tapping Interests 436

Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 437

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make

for Good Learning? 438

GUIDELINES: Building on Students Interests and

Curiosity 439

Flow 439

Emotions and Anxiety 440

Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 442

Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons

for Teachers 443

GUIDELINES:

Coping with Anxiety 444

Motivation to Learn in School: On Target 444

Tasks for Learning 445

Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing

Accomplishment 447

Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 448

x

xvi

CONTENTS

Diversity in Motivation 449

Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage

Motivation 451

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Motivation to Learn 453

Summary 454

Teachers CasebookMotivating Students When Resources

Are Thin: What Would They Do? 456

CHAPTER 13

CREATING LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS 457

Teachers CasebookBullies and Victims: What Would

You Do? 457

Overview and Objectives 458

The What and Why of Classroom Management 458

The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 461

The Goals of Classroom Management 462

Creating a Positive Learning Environment 464

Some Research Results 464

Routines and Rules Required 465

GUIDELINES:

Establishing Class Routines 466

Planning Spaces for Learning 469

GUIDELINES:

Designing Learning Spaces 470

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 471

Creating a Learning Community 472

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 473

Encouraging Engagement 473

GUIDELINES:

Keeping Students Engaged 474

Prevention Is the Best Medicine 474

Withitness 475

Caring Relationships: Connections with School 476

Dealing with Discipline Problems 477

GUIDELINES:

Creating Caring Relationships 478

Stopping Problems Quickly 478

GUIDELINES:

Imposing Penalties 479

Bullying and Cyberbullying 480

Special Problems with Secondary Students 483

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good

Idea? 484

GUIDELINES:

Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 485

The Need for Communication 486

Message SentMessage Received 486

Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 486

Counselling: The Students Problem 487

CHAPTER 14

TEACHING EVERY

STUDENT 497

Teachers CasebookReaching and Teaching Every Student:

What Would You Do? 497

Overview and Objectives 498

Research on Teaching 498

Characteristics of Effective Teachers 499

Teachers Knowledge 499

Recent Research on Teaching 500

The First Step: Planning 501

Research on Planning 502

Objectives for Learning 503

Flexible and Creative PlansUsing Taxonomies 504

Planning From a Constructivist Perspective 506

GUIDELINES:

Using Instructional Objectives 506

Teaching Approaches 507

Direct Instruction 507

Seatwork and Homework 511

GUIDELINES:

Teaching Effectively 512

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable

Use of Time? 513

Questioning and Discussion 514

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Homework 514

Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 518

Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design 518

GUIDELINES:

Productive Group Discussions 519

Differentiated Instruction 521

Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 521

GUIDELINES:

Using Flexible Grouping 522

Adaptive Teaching 522

Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive

Classrooms 524

Technology and Differentiation 524

Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching 526

Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 488

Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Negotiation 490

Research on Management Approaches 491

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Creating a Positive Classroom Environment 492

Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 492

Summary 493

Teachers CasebookBullies and Victims: What Would

They Do? 49

CONTENTS

GUIDELINES:

Teachers as Mentors 526

Teacher Expectations 527

Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 527

Sources of Expectations 527

Do Teachers Expectations Really Affect Students

Achievement? 528

GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of

Teacher Expectations 530

Summary 530

Teachers CasebookReaching and Teaching Every Student:

What Would They Do? 532

CHAPTER 15

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT,

GRADING, AND STANDARDIZED

TESTING 534

Teachers CasebookGiving Meaningful Grades: What Would

You Do? 534

Overview and Objectives 535

Basics of Assessment 535

Measurement and Assessment 536

Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity 538

Classroom Assessment: Testing 541

Using the Tests from Textbooks 542

Objective Testing 542

Essay Testing 543

GUIDELINES:

Writing Objective Test Items 544

Authentic Classroom Assessments 546

Portfolios and Exhibitions 546

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 547

GUIDELINES:

Creating Portfolios 549

GUIDELINES:

Developing a Rubric 550

Informal Assessments 551

Grading 553

Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced

Grading 553

Effects of Grading on Students 554

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children

Be Held Back? 556

Grades and Motivation 557

Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families 557

GUIDELINES:

Using Any Grading System 558

Standardized Testing 558

Types of Scores 558

Interpreting Standardized Test Reports 562

Accountability and High-Stakes Testing 565

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Conferences and Explaining Test Results 566

Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities

Prepare for High-Stakes Tests 568

GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students

for Testing 569

Lessons for Teachers: Quality Assessment 570

Summary 570

Teachers CasebookGiving Meaningful Grades: What Would

They Do? 572

Glossary G-1

References R-1

Name Index N-1

Subject Index S-1

xvi

SPECIAL FEATURES

GUIDELINES

Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 44
Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 46
Applying Vygotskys Ideas to Teaching 60

Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 68

Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 72

Helping Children of Divorce 77
Encouraging Initiative and Industry 86
Supporting Identity Formation 89

Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 104

Interpreting IQ Scores 121

Teaching Students with Developmental Disabilities 146

Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 168

Promoting Language Learning 175

Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for

English Language Learners 187

Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 206

Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 219
Culturally Relevant Teaching 229
Applying Classical Conditioning 237

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately 245

Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive

Behaviours 247

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment 253

Gaining and Maintaining Attention 275

Helping Students Understand and Remember 298

Becoming an Expert Student 314
Applying Problem Solving 325
Applying and Encouraging Creativity 330
Using Cooperative Learning 368
Using Computers 377

Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 379

Using Observational Learning 390
Encouraging Self-Efficacy 394
Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 407

Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 424

Encouraging Self-Worth 435

Building on Students Interests and Curiosity 439

Coping with Anxiety 444
Establishing Class Routines 466
Designing Learning Spaces 470
Keeping Students Engaged 474
Creating Caring Relationships 478
Imposing Penalties 479
Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 485
Using Instructional Objectives 506
Teaching Effectively 512
Productive Group Discussions 519
Using Flexible Grouping 522
Teachers as Mentors 526

Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations 530

Writing Objective Test Items 544
Creating Portfolios 549
Developing a Rubric 550
Using Any Grading System 558

Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 569

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY

PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES

Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 41
Connecting with Families 76
Productive Conferences 154
Welcoming All Families 189
Building Learning Communities 224

Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management 259

Organizing Learning 292
Promoting Transfer 339
Service Learning 371

Supporting Self-Regulation at Home and in School 403

Motivation to Learn 453
Creating a Positive Classroom Environment 492
Homework 514
Conferences and Explaining Test Results 566

POINT/COUNTERPOINT

What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? 13

Brain-Based Education 34

What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students

Self-Esteem? 95

Is Inclusion a Reasonable Approach to Teaching Exceptional

Students? 153

What Is the Best Way to Teach English Language

Learners? 182

Is Tracking an Effective Strategy? 205

Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 262

Whats Wrong with Memorizing? 297

Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem

Solving? 334

Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching

Approaches? 356

Are High Levels of Teacher Efficacy Beneficial? 396

Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? 438

Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 484

Is Homework a Valuable Use of Time? 513

Should Children Be Held Back? 55