Construction Safety

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Ladders are likely one of the most misused pieces of equipment in construction and at home. Share with the class a time when you (or someone you know) experienced a ladder-related fall or close call. What construction standards that were not followed can you identify in the incident? What could have been done differently?

Unit Quiz

QUESTION 1

Electric-arc welding is a type of __________ welding.

	1.	pressure
gas
fission
fusion

QUESTION 2

Which of the following is NOT a component of an assured equipment grounding conductor program?

Competent person

Ground fault circuit interrupters

Continuity tests

Daily visual inspections

QUESTION 3

A ladder or stairway is required at work points of access where there is a break in elevation of __________ inches or more

QUESTION 4

What is the maximum permissible height for a supported scaffold when braces are not used?

20 feet

30 feet

Four times the minimum base dimension

Four times the largest base dimension

QUESTION 5

When using a portable ladder to access a roof, the side rails:

must extend at least 3 feet above the roof edge.

should extend at least 2 feet above the roof edge.

should not extend above the roof edge.

must be even with the roof edge.

QUESTION 6

Briefly explain three ways that exposure to welding fumes can be reduced in an outdoor working environment. Which of the three would be the most efficient?
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

QUESTION 7

Describe how electrical shock can contribute to falls on a construction site. Provide at least two examples.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

QUESTION 8

What is the difference between a handrail and a stair rail? When are they required?
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

FactSheet
Controlling Hazardous Fume and
Gases during Welding
Welding joins materials together by melting a metal work piece along with a filler
metal to form a strong joint. The welding process produces visible smoke that
contains harmful metal fume and gas by-products. This fact sheet discusses welding
operations, applicable OSHA standards, and suggestions for protecting welders and
coworkers from exposures to the many hazardous substances in welding fume.

Types of welding
Welding is classified into two groups: fusion (heat
alone) or pressure (heat and pressure) welding.
There are three types of fusion welding: electric
arc, gas and thermit. Electric arc welding is the
most widely used type of fusion welding. It
employs an electric arc to melt the base and filler
metals. Arc welding types in order of decreasing
fume production include:

Gas or oxy-fuel welding uses a flame from burning
a gas (usually acetylene) to melt metal at a joint to
be welded, and is a common method for welding
iron, steel, cast iron, and copper. Thermit welding
uses a chemical reaction to produce intense
heat instead of using gas fuel or electric current.
Pressure welding uses heat along with impact-type
pressure to join the pieces.

Oxy-fuel and plasma cutting, along with brazing,
are related to welding as they all involve the
melting of metal and the generation of airborne
metal fume. Brazing is a metal-joining process
where only the filler metal is melted.

Welder using local exhaust ventilation to remove fume from
breathing zone. (Photo courtesy of the Lincoln Electric Company).

What is in welding fume?

Metals
Aluminum, Antimony, Arsenic, Beryllium,
Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron, Lead,
Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silver, Tin,
Titanium, Vanadium, Zinc.

Gases
• Shielding—Argon, Helium, Nitrogen,

Carbon Dioxide.
• Process—Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide,

Carbon Monoxide, Ozone, Phosgene, Hydrogen
Fluoride, Carbon Dioxide.

Factors that affect worker exposure to
welding fume
• Type of welding process
• Base metal and filler metals used
• Welding rod composition
• Location (outside, enclosed space)
• Welder work practices
• Air movement
• Use of ventilation controls

Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) filler metal
electrode; flux shield

Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW) electrode
provides both flux and filler material

Gas Metal Arc (GMAW or MIG) widely
used; consumable electrode for filler metal,
external gas shield

Tungsten Inert Gas (GTAW or TIG)
superior finish; non-consumable electrode;
externally-supplied inert gas shield

Health effects of breathing welding fume
• Acute exposure to welding fume and gases can

result in eye, nose and throat irritation, dizziness and
nausea. Workers in the area who experience these
symptoms should leave the area immediately, seek
fresh air and obtain medical attention.

• Prolonged exposure to welding fume may
cause lung damage and various types of cancer,
including lung, larynx and urinary tract.

• Health effects from certain fumes may
include metal fume fever, stomach ulcers,
kidney damage and nervous system damage.
Prolonged exposure to manganese fume can
cause Parkinson’s–like symptoms.

• Gases such as helium, argon, and carbon
dioxide displace oxygen in the air and can lead to
suffocation, particularly when welding in confined
or enclosed spaces. Carbon monoxide gas can
form, posing a serious asphyxiation hazard.

Welding and Hexavalent Chromium

• Chromium is a component in stainless steel, nonferrous
alloys, chromate coatings and some welding consumables.

• Chromium is converted to its hexavalent state, Cr(VI),
during the welding process.

• Cr(VI) fume is highly toxic and can damage the eyes, skin,
nose, throat, and lungs and cause cancer.

• OSHA regulates worker exposure to Cr(VI) under its
Chromium (VI) standard, 29 CFR 1910.1026 and 1926.1126.

• OSHA’s Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for Cr(VI) is 5 µg/
m3 as an 8-hour time-weighted average.

Reducing exposure to welding fume
• Welders should understand the hazards of the

materials they are working with. OSHA’s Hazard
Communication standard requires employers to
provide information and training for workers on
hazardous materials in the workplace.

• Welding surfaces should be cleaned of any
coating that could potentially create toxic
exposure, such as solvent residue and paint.

• Workers should position themselves to avoid
breathing welding fume and gases. For
example, workers should stay upwind when
welding in open or outdoor environments.

• General ventilation, the natural or forced
movement of fresh air, can reduce fume and gas
levels in the work area. Welding outdoors or in
open work spaces does not guarantee adequate
ventilation. In work areas without ventilation and
exhaust systems, welders should use natural
drafts along with proper positioning to keep
fume and gases away from themselves and
other workers.

• Local exhaust ventilation systems can be used
to remove fume and gases from the welder’s
breathing zone. Keep fume hoods, fume
extractor guns and vacuum nozzles close to the
plume source to remove the maximum amount
of fume and gases. Portable or flexible exhaust
systems can be positioned so that fume and
gases are drawn away from the welder. Keep
exhaust ports away from other workers.

• Consider substituting a lower fume-generating
or less toxic welding type or consumable.

• Do not weld in confined spaces without
ventilation. Refer to applicable OSHA
regulations (see list below).

• Respiratory protection may be required if
work practices and ventilation do not reduce
exposures to safe levels.

Some OSHA standards applicable to welding:
• Welding, Cutting & Brazing—29 CFR 1910

Subpart Q
• Welding & Cutting—29 CFR 1926 Subpart J
• Welding, Cutting & Heating—29 CFR 1915

Subpart D
• Permit-required confined spaces—29 CFR 1910.146
• Confined & Enclosed Spaces & Other Dangerous

Atmospheres in Shipyard Employment—29 CFR
1915 Subpart B

• Hazard Communication—29 CFR 1910.1200
• Respiratory Protection—29 CFR 1910.134
• Air Contaminants—29 CFR 1910.1000 (general

industry), 29 CFR 1915.1000 (shipyards), 29 CFR
1926.55 (construction)

More Information
For more information on hexavalent chromium
exposure, visit OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov.

DSG FS-3647 03/2013

This is one in a series of informational fact sheets highlighting OSHA programs, policies or
standards. It does not impose any new compliance requirements. For a comprehensive list of
compliance requirements of OSHA standards or regulations, refer to Title 29 of the Code of Federal
Regulations. This information will be made available to sensory-impaired individuals upon request.
The voice phone is (202) 693-1999; teletypewriter (TTY) number: (877) 889-5627.

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=13096

http://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/index.html

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9855

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10696

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10229

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/confinedspaces/index.html

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10217

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10099

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/respiratoryprotection/index.html

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9991

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10286

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10628

http://www.osha.gov

Construction

Industry Digest

OSHA 2202-09R 2015

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 19

“To assure safe and healthful working
conditions for working men and women; by
authorizing enforcement of the
standards developed under the Act; by
assisting and encouraging the States in their
efforts to assure safe and healthful working
conditions; by providing for research,
information, education, and training in the
field of occupational safety and health…”

This informational booklet is intended to
provide an overview of frequently used
OSHA standards in the Construction
industry. This publication does not itself alter
or determine compliance responsibilities,
which are set forth in OSHA standards
themselves and the Occupational Safety and
Health Act.

Employers and employees in the 28 states
and territories that operate their own OSHA-
approved workplace safety and health plans
should check with their state safety and
health agency. Their state may be enforcing
standards and other procedures that, while “at
least as effective as” federal standards, are not
always identical to the federal requirements.
For more information on states with OSHA-
approved state plans, please visit: www.osha.
gov/dcsp/osp.

Material contained in this publication is in the
public domain and may be reproduced, fully
or partially, without permission. Source credit
is requested but not required.

This information will be made available
to sensory-impaired individuals upon
request. Voice phone: (202) 693-1999;
teletypewriter (TTY) number: 1-877-889-5627.

Construction
Industry Digest

U.S. Department of Labor

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSHA 2202-09R
201

U.S. Department of Labor

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Contents

Foreword

General

OSHA Worksite Investigations

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records 9
Aerial Lifts 9

Air Tools

Asbestos 10

Belt Sanding Machines

Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and
Ropes) 12

Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes,
Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica;
and Hazard Communication) 12

Compressed Air, Use of 12

Compressed Gas Cylinders 12

Concrete and Masonry Construction

Confined Spaces 1

Cranes and Derricks

Demolition 1

Disposal Chutes

Diving

Drinking Water

Electrical Installations 18

Electrical Work Practices

Excavating and Trenching

Exits 22

Explosives and Blasting

Eye and Face Protection 23

Fall Protection

Fall Protection, Falling Objects

Fall Protection, Wall Openings 26

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

Fire Protection 26

Flaggers

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)

Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists 29

General Duty Clause

Grinding 30

Hand Tools

Hazard Communication 31

Hazardous Waste Operations

Head Protection 33

Hearing Protection

Heating Devices, Temporary

Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers;
Signs, Signals, and Barricades) 35

Hoists, Material and Personnel 35

Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and
Ropes)

Housekeeping 36

Illumination 36

Jointers

Ladders

Lasers

Lead

Lift Slab

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Medical Services and First Aid 42

Motor Vehicles and Mechanized
Equipment

Noise (See Hearing Protection) 43

Personal Protective Equipment 43

Powder-Actuated Tools

Power Transmission and Distribution 44

Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts) 45

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
5

Power Transmission, Mechanical 45

Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals

Radiation, Ionizing 46

Railings

Recordkeeping: Recording and Reporting
Requirements 47

Reinforced Steel

Respiratory Protection 48

Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)

Safety Nets 49

Saws

Band 50
Portable Circular 50
Radial 50
Swing or Sliding Cut-Off 51
Table 51

Scaffolds, General Requirements

Bricklaying

Erectors and Dismantlers 53
Fall Arrest Systems

Guardrails 54
Mobile

Planking 55
Supported

Suspension (Swing) 56

Signs, Signals, and Barricades
(See Flaggers)

Silica 58

Stairs 58

Steel Erection

Storage

Tire Cages 62

Toeboards 62

Toilets 62

Training and Inspections 63

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
6

Underground Construction 63

Washing Facilities

Water, Working Over or Near 64

Welding, Cutting, and Heating

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes

Woodworking Machinery

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights 67

OSHA Assistance, Services
and Programs

NIOSH Health Hazard
Evaluation Program

How to Contact OSHA

OSHA Regional Offices

OSHA-Approved State Plans

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
7

Foreword

The Construction Industry Digest contains
summaries of the most frequently used standards
in the construction industry. The standards are
presented alphabetically followed by the reference
to the appropriate regulation. With few exceptions,
standards in this digest are from Title 29 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 1926.

Remember, this booklet is only a digest of basic
applicable standards and should not be
considered as a complete substitute for any
provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970 (OSH Act), or for any standards issued
under the OSH Act. The requirements discussed in
this publication are summarized and abbreviated.
The actual source standards are referenced at
the end of each topic discussed; consult the CFR
for a more complete explanation of the specific
standards listed.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
8

General

Employers have the responsibility to provide a
safe workplace. Employers MUST provide their
employees with a workplace that does not have
serious hazards and follow all relevant OSHA
safety and health standards.

Employers must comply with specific standards.
All employers in the construction industry must
also have injury and illness prevention programs.
Contractors and employers who do construction
work must comply with standards in 29 CFR
1926. Subpart C, General Safety and Health
Provisions, as well as other specific sections of
these standards, include the responsibilities for
each contractor/employer to initiate and maintain
injury and illness prevention programs, provide
for a competent person to conduct frequent and
regular inspections, and instruct each employee
to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions and
know what regulations are applicable to the work
environment. Employees must be provided
training in a language and vocabulary they can
understand.

OSHA Worksite Investigations

OSHA conducts on-site inspections of worksites
to enforce the OSHA law that protects workers
and their rights. Inspections are initiated without
advance notice, conducted using on-site or
telephone and facsimile investigations, and
performed by highly trained compliance officers.
Worksite inspections are conducted based on the
following priorities:

� Imminent danger;

� A fatality or hospitalizations;
� Worker complaints and referrals;
� Targeted inspections – particular hazards, high
injury rates; and

� Follow-up inspections.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
9

Inspections are conducted without employers
knowing when or where they will occur. The
employer is not informed in advance that there
will be an inspection, regardless of whether it is
in response to a complaint or is a programmed
inspection.

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records

Each employer shall permit employees, their
designated representatives, and OSHA direct
access to employer-maintained exposure and
medical records. The standard limits access only
to those employees who are, have been (including
former employees), or will be exposed to toxic
substances or harmful physical agents. 1910.1020
made applicable to construction by 1926.33

Each employer must preserve and maintain
accurate medical and exposure records for each
employee. Exposure records and data analyses
based on them are to be kept for 30 years. Medical
records are to be kept for at least the duration
of employment plus 30 years. Background data
for exposure records such as laboratory reports
and work sheets need to be kept for only 1 year.
1910.1020(b)(3), .1020(d)(1)(i), and .1020(d)(1)(ii)

Records of employees who have worked for
less than 1 year need not be retained after
employment if they are provided to the employee
upon the termination of employment. First-
aid records of one-time treatment need not be
retained for any specified period. 1910.1020(d)(1)(i)
(B) and (C)

Aerial Lifts

Aerial lifts, powered or manual, include, but are
not limited to, the following types of vehicle-
mounted aerial devices used to elevate personnel
to jobsites above ground: extensible boom
platforms, aerial ladders, articulating boom
platforms, and vertical towers. 1926.453(a)(1)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
10

When operating aerial lifts, employers must
ensure that employees are

� Trained,
� Authorized,
� Setting brakes,
� Positioning outriggers on pads or a solid surface,
� Not exceeding boom and basket load limits,
� Attached to the boom or basket with a restraint
device or personal fall arrest system,

� Standing firmly on the floor of the basket,
� Not climbing on the edge of the basket or using
ladders, planks, or other devices for a work
position. 1926.453(b) and 1926.454

In addition, manufacturers (or the equivalent, such
as a nationally recognized testing laboratory) must
certify in writing that all modifications to aerial lifts
conform to applicable OSHA and ANSI A92.2-1969
provisions, and are at least as safe as the
equipment was before modification. 1926.453(a)(2)

Air Tools

Pneumatic power tools shall be secured to the
hose in a positive manner to prevent accidental
disconnection. 1926.302(b)(1)

Safety clips or retainers shall be securely installed
and maintained on pneumatic impact tools to
prevent attachments from being accidentally
expelled. 1926.302(b)(2)

The manufacturer’s safe operating pressure for all
fittings shall not be exceeded. 1926.302(b)(5)

All hoses exceeding 1/2-inch (1.3-centimeters)
inside diameter shall have a safety device at the
source of supply or branch line to reduce pressure
in case of hose failure. 1926.302(b)(7)

Asbestos

Each employer who has a workplace or work
operation where exposure monitoring is required
must perform monitoring to determine accurately
the airborne concentrations of asbestos to which
employees may be exposed. 1926.1101(f)(1)(i)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Employers also must ensure that no employee is
exposed to an airborne concentration of asbestos
in excess of 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air (f/
cc) as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA).
1926.1101(c)(1)

In addition, employers must ensure that no
employee is exposed to an airborne concentration
of asbestos in excess of 1 f/cc as averaged over a
sampling period of 30 minutes. 1926.1101(c)(2)

Respirators must be used during (1) all Class I
asbestos jobs; (2) all Class II work where an
asbestos-containing material is not removed
substantially intact; (3) all Class II and III work
not using wet methods, except on sloped roofs;
(4) all Class II and III work without a negative
exposure assessment; (5) all Class III jobs where
thermal system insulation or surfacing asbestos-
containing or presumed asbestos-containing
material is cut, abraded, or broken; (6) all Class
IV work within a regulated area where respirators
are required; (7) all work where employees
are exposed above the PEL or STEL; and (8) in
emergencies. 1926.1101(h)(1)(i) through (viii)

The employer must provide and require the use of
protective clothing – such as coveralls or similar
whole-body clothing, head coverings, gloves, and
foot coverings – for:

� Any employee exposed to airborne asbestos
exceeding the PEL or STEL,

� Work without a negative exposure assessment, or

� Any employee performing Class I work involving
the removal of over 25 linear or 10 square feet
(10 square meters) of thermal system insulation
or surfacing asbestos containing or presumed
asbestos-containing materials. 1926.1101(i)(1)

The employer must provide a medical surveillance
program for all employees who – for a combined
total of 30 or more days per year – engage in
Class I, II, or III work or are exposed at or above
the PEL or STEL; or who wear negative-pressure
respirators. 1926.1101(m)(1)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
12

Belt Sanding Machines

Belt sanding machines shall be provided with
guards at each nip point where the sanding belt
runs onto a pulley. 1926.304(f), incorporated from
ANSI 01.1-1961, Section 4.9.4

The unused run of the sanding belt shall be
guarded against accidental contact. 1926.304(f),
incorporated from ANSI 01.1-1961, Section 4.9.4

Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)

Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes,
Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica;
and Hazard Communication)

Compressed Air, Use of

Compressed air used for cleaning purposes shall
be reduced to less than 30 pounds per square
inch (psi) and then only with effective chip
guarding and personal protective equipment. This
requirement does not apply to concrete form,
mill scale, and similar cleaning operations.
1926.302(b)(4)

Compressed Gas Cylinders

Valve protection caps shall be in place and
secured when compressed gas cylinders are
transported, moved, or stored. 1926.350(a)(1)

Cylinder valves shall be closed when work is
finished and when cylinders are empty or are
moved. 1926.350(a)(8)

Compressed gas cylinders shall be secured in an
upright position at all times, except if necessary
for short periods of time when cylinders are
actually being hoisted or carried. 1926.350(a)(9)

Cylinders shall be kept far enough away from the
actual welding or cutting operations so that
sparks, hot slag, or flame will not reach them.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
13

When this is impractical, fire-resistant shields
shall be provided. Cylinders shall be placed where
they cannot become part of an electrical circuit.
1926.350(b)(1) through (2)

Oxygen and fuel gas pressure regulators,
including their related gauges, shall be in proper
working order while in use. 1926.350(h)

Concrete and Masonry Construction

No construction loads shall be placed on a
concrete structure or portion of a concrete
structure unless the employer determines, based
on information received from a person who is
qualified in structural design, that the structure or
portion of the structure is capable of supporting
the loads. 1926.701(a)

No employee shall be permitted to work under
concrete buckets while buckets are being elevated
or lowered into position. 1926.701(e)(1)

To the extent practical, elevated concrete buckets
shall be routed so that no employee or the fewest
number of employees is exposed to the hazards
associated with falling concrete buckets.
1926.701(e)(2)

Formwork shall be designed, fabricated, erected,
supported, braced, and maintained so that it is
capable of supporting – without failure – all vertical
and lateral loads that may reasonably be anticipated
to be applied to the formwork. 1926.703(a)(1)

Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on
grade and slip forms) shall not be removed until
the employer determines that the concrete has
gained sufficient strength to support its weight and
superimposed loads. Such determination shall be
based on compliance with one of the following:

� The plans and specifications stipulate conditions
for removal of forms and shores, and such
conditions have been followed, or

� The concrete has been properly tested with an
appropriate American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM) standard test method designed

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

to indicate the concrete compressive strength,
and the test results indicate that the concrete has
gained sufficient strength to support its weight
and superimposed loads. (ASTM, 100 Barr
Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428;
(610) 832-9585). 1926.703(e)(1)(i) through (ii)

A limited access zone shall be established
whenever a masonry wall is being constructed.
The limited access zone shall conform to the
following:

� Established prior to the start of construction of
the wall,

� Equal to the height of the wall to be constructed
plus 4 feet (1.2 meters), and shall run the entire
length of the wall,

� Established on the side of the wall that will be
unscaffolded,

� Restricted to entry by employees actively
engaged in constructing the wall. No other
employees shall be permitted to enter the zone,

� Remain in place until the wall is adequately
supported to prevent overturning and to prevent
collapse; where the height of a wall is more than
8 feet (2.4 meters), the limited access zone shall
remain in place until the requirements of
paragraph (b) of this section have been met.
1926.706(a)(1) through (5)

All masonry walls more than 8 feet (2.4384
meters) in height shall be adequately braced
to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse
unless the wall is adequately supported so that
it will not overturn or collapse. The bracing shall
remain in place until permanent supporting
elements of the structure are in place. 1926.706(b)

Confined Spaces

All employees required to enter into confined or
enclosed spaces must be instructed as to the
nature of the hazards involved, the necessary
precautions to be taken, and in the use of
required protective and emergency equipment.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
15

The employer shall comply with any specific
regulations that apply to work in dangerous or
potentially dangerous areas. Confined or enclosed
spaces include, but are not limited to, storage
tanks, process vessels, bins, boilers, ventilation or
exhaust ducts, sewers, underground utility vaults,
tunnels, pipelines, and open top spaces more than
4 feet deep (1.2 meters) such as pits, tubs, vaults,
and vessels. 1926.21(b)(6)(i) through (ii)

Cranes and Derricks

Before assembly or use of a crane, ground
conditions must be firm, drained, and graded so
that the equipment manufacturer’s specifications
for adequate support and degree of level are met.
1926.1402(b)

A competent person must begin a visual inspection
prior to each shift during which the equipment will
be used, which must be completed before or during
the shift. The inspection must consist of observation
for apparent deficiencies. 1926.1412(d)(1)

A qualified person must conduct a comprehensive
inspection at least every 12 months. 1926.1412(f)(1)

The employer must comply with all manufacturer
procedures applicable to the operational functions
of equipment, including its use with attachments.
1926.1417(a)

Hand signal charts must be either posted on the
equipment or conspicuously posted in the vicinity
of the hoisting operations. 1926.1422

A personal fall arrest system is permitted to be
anchored to the crane/derrick’s hook (or other part
of the load line) where a qualified person has
determined the set-up and rated capacity of the
crane/derrick (including the hook, load line, and
rigging) meets or exceeds the requirements in
§1926.502(d)(15) and no load is suspended from
the load line when the personal fall arrest system
is anchored to the crane/derrick’s hook (or other
part of the load line). The equipment operator
must be at the work site and know the equipment
is being used for this purpose. 1926.1423(j)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
16

Where available, hoisting routes that minimize the
exposure of employees to hoisted loads must be
used, to the extent consistent with public safety.
1926.1425(a)

The employer must ensure that, prior to operating
any equipment covered under Subpart CC, the
person operating the equipment is qualified or
certified to operate the equipment. Exceptions:
operation of derricks, sideboom cranes, and
equipment with a rated hoisting/lifting capacity of
2,000 pounds or less. 1926.1427(a)(1) through (3)

On equipment with a rated hoisting/lifting capacity
of 2,000 pounds or less the employer must train
each operator, prior to operating the equipment,
on the safe operation of the type of equipment the
operator will be using. 1926.1441(e)

Demolition

Prior to permitting employees to start demolition
operations, a competent person shall make an
engineering survey of the structure to determine
the condition of the framing, floors, and walls, and
possibility of unplanned collapse of any portion
of the structure. A similar survey of any adjacent
structure where employees may be exposed shall
be completed. The employer shall have in writing
evidence that such a survey has been performed.
1926.850(a)

During balling or claiming operations, employers
shall not permit any workers in any area that can
be adversely affected by demolition operations.
Only those workers necessary for the performance
of the operations shall be permitted in this area at
any other time. 1926.859(a)

Disposal Chutes

Whenever materials are dropped more than 20
feet (6 meters) to any exterior point of a building,
an enclosed chute shall be used. 1926.252(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
17

When debris is dropped through holes in the floor
without the use of chutes, the area where the
material is dropped shall be enclosed with
barricades not less than 42 inches high (106.7
centimeters) and not less than 6 feet (1.8 meters)
back from the projected edges of the opening
above. Warning signs of the hazard of falling
material shall be posted at each level. 1926.252(b)

Note: During demolition, 1926.852 applies to
chutes and 1926.853 applies to the removal of
materials through floor openings.

Diving

The employer shall develop and maintain a safe
practice manual, and make it available at the dive
location for each dive team member. 1910.420(a)
made applicable to construction by 1926.1080

The employer shall keep a record of each dive.
The record shall contain the diver’s name, his
or her supervisor’s name, date, time, location,
type of dive (scuba, mixed gas, surface supply),
underwater and surface conditions, and maximum
depth and bottom time. 1910.423(d)(1)(i) through
(vi) made applicable to construction by 1926.1083

Each dive team member shall have the experience
or training necessary to perform assigned
tasks safely. 1910.410(a)(1) made applicable to
construction by 1926.10

Each dive team member shall be briefed on the
tasks, safety procedures, unusual hazards or
environmental conditions, and modifications
made to the operating procedures. 1910.421(f)
made applicable to construction by 1926.1081

The dive shall be terminated when a diver
requests it, the diver fails to respond correctly,
communication is lost, or when the diver begins
to use the reserve breathing gas. 1910.422(i)(1)
through (4) made applicable to construction by
1926.1082.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
18

Drinking Water

An adequate supply of potable water shall be
provided in all places of employment. 1926.51(a)(1)

Portable drinking water containers shall be
capable of being tightly closed and equipped with
a tap. 1926.51(a)(2)

Using a common drinking cup is prohibited.
1926.51(a)(4)

Where single service cups (to be used but once)
are supplied, both a sanitary container for unused
cups and a receptacle for used cups shall be
provided. 1926.51(a)(5)

Electrical Installations

Employers must provide either ground-fault circuit
interrupters (GFCIs) or an assured equipment
grounding conductor program to protect employees
from ground-fault hazards at construction sites.
The two options are detailed below.

� All 120-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20-ampere
receptacles that are not part of the permanent
wiring must be protected by GFCIs. Receptacles
on smaller generators are exempt under certain
conditions, or

� An assured equipment grounding conductor
program covering extension cords, receptacles,
and cord- and plug-connected equipment must
be implemented. The program must include the
following:

� A written description of the program,

� At least one competent person to implement the
program,

� Daily visual inspections of extension cords and
cord- and plug-connected equipment for defects.
Equipment found damaged or defective shall not
be used until repaired,

� Continuity tests of the equipment grounding
conductors or receptacles, extension cords, and
cord- and plug-connected equipment. These
tests must generally be made every 3 months,

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
19

� Equipment that does not meet the above
requirements may not be used,

� Required tests shall be recorded. 1926.404(b)(1)
(i) through (iii)(e)

Light bulbs for general illumination must be
protected from breakage, and metal shell sockets
must be grounded. 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(E)

Temporary lights must not be suspended by their
cords, unless they are so designed. 1926.405(a)(2)
(ii)(F)

Portable lighting used in wet or conductive
locations, such as drums, tanks, and vessels, must
be operated at no more than 12 volts or must be
protected by a ground-fault circuit interrupter
(GFCI). 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(G)

Extension cords must be of the three-wire type.
Extension cords and flexible cords used with
temporary and portable lights must be designed
for hard or extra hard usage (for example, types S,
ST, and SO). 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(J)

Flexible cords must be connected to devices and
fittings so that strain relief is provided which will
prevent pull from being directly transmitted to
joints or terminal screws. 1926.405(g)(2)(iv)

Listed, labeled, or certified equipment shall be
installed and used in accordance with instructions
included in the listing, labeling, or certification.
1926.403(b)(2)

Electrical Work Practices

Employers must not allow employees to work
near live parts of electrical circuits, unless the
employees are protected by one of the following
means:

� Deenergizing and grounding the parts,

� Guarding the part by insulation,

� Any other effective means. 1926.416(a)(1)

In work areas where the exact location of
underground electrical power lines is unknown,
employees using jack hammers, bars, or other

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
20

hand tools that may contact the lines must be
protected by insulating gloves. 1926.416(a)(2)

Barriers or other means of guarding must be used
to ensure that workspace for electrical equipment
will not be used as a passageway during periods
when energized parts of equipment are exposed.
1926.416(b)(1)

Work spaces, walkways, and similar locations
shall be kept clear of cords. 1926.416(b)(2)

Worn or frayed electric cords or cables shall not
be used. 1926.416(e)(1)

Extension cords shall not be fastened with
staples, hung from nails, or suspended by wire.
1926.416(e)(2)

Equipment or circuits that are deenergized must
be rendered inoperative and must have tags
attached at all points where the equipment or
circuits could be energized. 1926.417(b)

Excavating and Trenching

The estimated location of utility installations –
such as sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water
lines, or any other underground installations that
reasonably may be expected to be encountered
during excavation work – shall be determined
prior to opening an excavation. 1926.651(b)(1)

Utility companies or owners shall be contacted
within established or customary local response
times, advised of the proposed work, and asked
to establish the location of the utility underground
installations prior to the start of actual excavation.
When utility companies or owners cannot
respond to a request to locate underground utility
installations within 24 hours (unless a longer
period is required by state or local law), or cannot
establish the exact location of these installations,
the employer may proceed, provided the employer
does so with caution, and provided detection
equipment or other acceptable means to locate
utility installations are used. 1926.651(b)(2)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

When excavation operations approach the
estimated location of underground installations,
the exact location of the installations shall be
determined by safe and acceptable means. While
the excavation is open, underground installations
shall be protected, supported, or removed, as
necessary, to safeguard employees. 1926.651(b)(3)
through (4)

Each employee in an excavation shall be
protected from cave-ins by an adequate protective
system except when excavations are made
entirely in stable rock, or excavations are less than
5 feet (1.5 meters) in depth and examination of
the ground by a competent person provides no
indication of a potential cave-in. 1926.652(a)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Protective systems shall have the capacity to
resist, without failure, all loads that are intended
or could reasonably be expected to be applied or
transmitted to the system. 1926.652(a)(2)

Employees shall be protected from excavated or
other materials or equipment that could pose a
hazard by falling or rolling into excavations.
Protection shall be provided by placing and
keeping such materials or equipment at least 2
feet (0.6 meters) from the edge of excavations, or
by the use of retaining devices that are sufficient
to prevent materials or equipment from falling or
rolling into excavations, or by a combination of
both if necessary. 1926.651(j)(2)

Daily inspections of excavations, the adjacent
areas, and protective systems shall be made by a
competent person for evidence of a situation
that could result in possible cave-ins, indications
of failure of protective systems, hazardous
atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions. An
inspection shall be conducted by the competent
person prior to the start of work and as needed
throughout the shift. Inspections shall also be
made after every rainstorm or other hazard-
increasing occurrence. These inspections are
only required when employee exposure can be
reasonably anticipated. 1926.651(k)(1)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
22

Where a competent person finds evidence of a
situation that could result in a possible cave-in,
indications of failure of protective systems,
hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous
conditions, exposed employees shall be removed
from the hazardous area until the necessary
precautions have been taken to ensure their
safety. 1926.651(k)(2)

A stairway, ladder, ramp, or other safe means of
egress shall be located in trench excavations that
are 4 feet (1.2 meters) or more in depth so as to
require no more than 25 feet (7.6 meters) of lateral
travel for employees. 1926.651(c)(2)

Each employee at the edge of an excavation 6
feet deep (1.8 meters) or more in depth shall
be protected from falling by guardrail systems,
fences, barricades when the excavations are not
readily seen because of plant growth or other
visual barrier. 1926.501(b)(7)(i)

Exits

Exits must be free of all obstructions so they can
be used immediately in case of fire or emergency.
1926.34(c)

Explosives and Blasting

Only authorized and qualified persons shall be
permitted to handle and use explosives.
1926.900(a)

Explosives and related materials shall be stored in
approved facilities required under the applicable
provisions of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms regulations contained in 27 CFR Part
55, Commerce in Explosives. (See Subpart K.)
1926.904(a)

Smoking and open flames shall not be permitted
within 50 feet (15.2 meters) of explosives and
detonator storage magazines. 1926.904(c)
Procedures that permit safe and efficient loading
shall be established before loading is started.
1926.905(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Eye and Face Protection

Eye and face protection shall be provided when
machines or operations present potential for eye
or face injury. 1926.102(a)(1)

Eye and face protective equipment shall meet the
requirements of ANSI Z87.1-1968, Practice for
Occupational and Educational Eye and Face
Protection. 1926.102(a)(2)

Employees involved in welding operations shall
be furnished with filter lenses or plates of at least
the proper shade number as indicated in Table
E-2. 1926.102(b)(1)

Table E-2 – Filter Lens Shade Numbers for
Protection Against Radiant Energy – 1926.102(b)(1)

Welding operation Shade Number

Shielded metal-arc welding 1/16-, 3/32-, 1/8-,
5/32-inch diameter electrodes

Gas-shielded arc welding (nonferrous) 1/16-,
3/32-, 1/8-, 5/32-inch diameter electrodes

11
Gas-shielded arc welding (nonferrous) 1/16-,
3/32-, 1/8-, 5/32-inch diameter electrodes
12

Shielded metal-arc welding 3/16-, 7/32-,
1/4-inch diameter electrodes

5/16-, 3/8-inch diameter electrodes 14

Atomic hydrogen welding 10-14

Carbon-arc welding 14

Soldering 2

Torch brazing 3 or 4

Medium cutting, 1 inch to 6 inches 4 or 5

Heavy cutting, over 6 inches 5 or 6

Gas welding (light), up to 1/8-inch 4 or 5

Gas welding (medium), 1/8- to 1/2-inch 5 or 6

Gas welding (heavy), over 1/2-inch 6 or 8

Employees exposed to laser beams shall be
furnished suitable laser safety goggles that will
protect for the specific wave length of the laser
and the optical density adequate for the energy
involved. 1926.102(b)(2)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
24

Fall Protection

Employers are required to assess the workplace to
determine if the walking/working surface on which
employees are to work have the strength and
structural integrity to safely support workers.
Employees are not permitted to work on those
surfaces until it has been determined that the
surfaces have the requisite strength and structural
integrity to support the workers. 1926.501(a)(2)

Where employees are exposed to falling 6 feet
(1.8 meters) or more from an unprotected side or
edge, the employer must select either a guardrail
system, safety net system, or personal fall arrest
system to protect the worker. 1926.501(b)(1)

A personal fall arrest system consists of an
anchorage, connectors, body harness and may
include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or
a suitable combination of these. Body belts used
for fall arrests are prohibited. 1926.500(b) and
1926.502(d)

Each employee in a hoist area shall be protected
from falling 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more by
guardrail systems or personal fall arrest systems.
If guardrail systems (or chain gate or guardrail)
or portions thereof must be removed to facilitate
hoisting operations, as during the landing of
materials, and a worker must lean through the
access opening or out over the edge of the access
opening to receive or guide equipment and
materials, that employee must be protected by a
personal fall arrest system. 1926.501(b)(3)

Each employee on walking/working surfaces shall
be protected from falling through holes (including
skylights) more than 6 feet (1.8 m) above lower
levels, by personal fall arrest systems, covers,
or guardrail systems erected around such holes.
1926.501(b)(4)(i)

Each employee on ramps, runways, and other
walkways shall be protected from falling 6 feet
or more to lower levels by guardrail systems.
1926.501(b)(6)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Each employee at the edge of an excavation 6
feet deep (1.8 meters) or more in depth shall be
protected from falling by guardrail systems, fences,
barricades when the excavations are not readily
seen because of a visual barrier. 1926.501(b)(7)(i)

Each employee at the edge of a well, pit, shaft,
and similar excavation 6 feet (1.8 meters) or
more in depth shall be protected from falling by
guardrail systems, fences, barricades, or covers.
1926.501(b)(7)(ii)

Each employee performing overhand bricklaying
and related work 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above
lower levels, on surfaces other than scaffolds,
shall be protected by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, or personal fall arrest systems, or shall
work in a controlled access zone. All employees
reaching more than 10 inches (25.4 centimeters)
below the level of a walking/working surface on
which they are working shall be protected by a
guardrail system, safety net system, or personal
fall arrest systems. 1926.501(b)(9)

Each employee engaged in roofing activities on
low-slope roofs with unprotected sides and
edges 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above lower
levels shall be protected from falling by guardrail,
safety net, or personal fall arrest systems or a
combination of a:

� Warning line system and guardrail system,

� Warning line system and safety net system,

� Warning line system and personal fall arrest
system, or

� Warning line system and safety monitoring
system.

On low-slope roofs 50 feet (15.2 meters) or less
in width, the use of a safety monitoring system
without a warning line system is permitted.
1926.501(b)(10)

Each employee on a steep roof with unprotected
sides and edges 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more
above lower levels shall be protected by guardrail
systems with toeboards, safety net systems, or
personal fall arrest systems. 1926.501(b)(11)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
26

Fall Protection, Falling Objects

When an employee is exposed to falling objects,
the employer must ensure that each employee
wear a hard hat and erect toeboards, screens, or
guardrail systems; or erect a canopy structure and
keep potential fall objects far enough from the
edge of the higher level; or barricade the area to
which objects could fall. 1926.501(c)(1) and (2)

Fall Protection, Wall Openings

Each employee working on, at, above, or near wall
openings (including those with chutes attached)
where the outside bottom edge of the wall opening
is 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above lower levels
and the inside bottom edge of the wall opening is
less than 39 inches (1 meter) above the walking/
working surface must be protected from falling by
the use of a guardrail system, a safety net system,
or a personal fall arrest system. 1926.501(b)(14)

Fire Protection

A fire protection program is to be followed
throughout all phases of the construction and
demolition work involved. It shall provide for
effective firefighting equipment to be available
without delay, and designed to effectively meet all
fire hazards as they occur. 1926.150(a)(1)

Firefighting equipment shall be conspicuously
located and readily accessible at all times, be
periodically inspected, and be maintained in
operating condition. 1926.150(a)(2) to (4)

A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 2A
(acceptable substitutes are a 1/2-inch diameter
garden-type hose not to exceed 100 feet capable
of discharging a minimum of 5 gallons per minute
or a 55-gallon drum of water with two fire pails),
shall be provided for each 3,000 square feet (270
square meters) of the protected building area,
or major fraction thereof. Travel distance from
any point of the protected area to the nearest
fire extinguisher shall not exceed 100 feet (30.5
meters). 1926.150(c)(1)(i) to (iii)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
27

The employer shall establish an alarm system at
the worksite so that employees and the local fire
department can be alerted for an emergency.
1926.150(e)(1)

Flaggers

High-visibility clothing

For daytime work, the flagger’s vest, shirt, or
jacket shall be orange, yellow, strong yellow-
green or fluorescent versions of these colors. For
nighttime work, similar outside garments shall be
retroreflective. The retroreflective material shall
be orange, yellow, white, silver, strong yellow-
green, or a fluorescent version of one of these
colors and shall be visible at a minimum distance
of 1,000 feet. The retroreflective clothing shall be
designed to identify clearly the wearer as a person
and be visible through the full range of body
motions. Part VI of the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices made applicable to construction
by 1926.201(a) and 1926.200(g)(2)

Hand-signaling procedures

The STOP/SLOW paddle, which gives drivers
more positive guidance than red flags, should
be the primary hand-signaling device. Flag use
should be limited to emergencies and at low-
speed and/or low-volume locations that can best
be controlled by a single flagger.

The following methods of signaling with STOP/
SLOW paddles should be used:

� To Stop Traffic – The flagger shall face traffic and
extend the STOP sign paddle in a stationary
position with the arm extended horizontally
away from the body. The free arm should be
raised with the palm toward approaching traffic.

� To Direct Stopped Traffic to Proceed – The
flagger shall face traffic with the SLOW paddle
held in a stationary position with the arm
extended horizontally away from the body. The
flagger should motion with the free hand for
traffic to proceed.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
28

� To Alert or Slow Traffic – The flagger shall face
traffic with the SLOW sign paddle held in a
stationary position with the arm extended
horizontally away from the body. The flagger
may motion up and down with the free hand,
palm down, indicating that the vehicle should
slow down.

The following methods of signaling with a flag
should be used:

� To Stop Traffic – The flagger shall face traffic
and extend the flag staff horizontally across the
traffic lane in a stationary position, so that the
full area of the flag is visible hanging below the
staff. The free arm should be raised with the
palm toward approaching traffic.

� To Direct Stopped Traffic to Proceed – The
flagger shall face traffic with the flag and arm
lowered from view of the driver. With the
free hand, the flagger should motion traffic to
proceed. Flags shall not be used to signal traffic
to proceed.

� To Alert or Slow Traffic – The flagger shall face
traffic and slowly wave the flag in a sweeping
motion of the extended arm from shoulder level
to straight down, without raising the arm above
a horizontal position.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Only approved containers and portable tanks shall
be used for storing and handling flammable and
combustible liquids. 1926.152(a)(1)

No more than 25 gallons (94.7 liters) of flammable
or combustible liquids shall be stored in a room
outside of an approved storage cabinet. No more
than three storage cabinets may be located in a
single storage area. 1926.152(b)(1) and (3)

Inside storage rooms for flammable and
combustible liquids shall be of fire-resistant
construction, have self-closing fire doors at all
openings, 4-inch (10 centimeter) sills or depressed
floors, a ventilation system that provides at least

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
29

six air changes within the room per hour, and
electrical wiring and equipment approved for
Class 1, Division 1 locations. 1926.152(b)(4)

Storage in containers outside buildings shall not
exceed 1,100 gallons (4,169 liters) in any one pile
or area. The storage area shall be graded to divert
possible spills away from buildings or other
exposures, or shall be surrounded by a curb or
dike. 1926.152(c)(1) and (3)

Outdoor portable tanks shall be located at least 20
feet (6 meters) from any building. 1926.152(c)(4)(i)

Storage areas shall be free from weeds, debris,
and other combustible materials not necessary to
the storage. 1926.152(c)(5)

Flammable liquids shall be kept in closed
containers when not actually in use. 1926.152(f)(1)

Conspicuous and legible signs prohibiting
smoking shall be posted in service and refueling
areas. 1926.152(g)(9)

Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)

Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists

Exposure to toxic gases, vapors, fumes, dusts,
and mists at a concentration above those
specified in Appendix A, shall be avoided.
1926.55(a) and 1926.55 Appendix A

Administrative or engineering controls must be
implemented whenever feasible to comply with
Threshold Limit Values. When engineering and
administrative controls are not feasible to achieve
full compliance, protective equipment or other
protective measures shall be used to keep the
exposure of employees to air contaminants
within the limits prescribed. Any equipment and
technical measures used for this purpose must
first be approved for each particular use by a
competent industrial hygienist or other technically
qualified person. Whenever respirators are used,
their use shall comply with 1910.134, made
applicable to construction by 1926.103. 1926.55(b)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
30

General Duty Clause

Hazardous conditions or practices not covered in
an OSHA standard may be covered under Section
5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970, which states: “Each employer shall
furnish to each of his employees employment
and a place of employment which are free from
recognized hazards that are causing or are likely
to cause death or serious physical harm to his
employees.”

Grinding

All abrasive wheel bench and stand grinders
shall be equipped with safety guards that cover
the spindle ends, nut and flange projections, and
are strong enough to withstand the effects of a
bursting wheel. 1926.303(b)(1), (2), and (c)(1)

An adjustable work rest of rigid construction shall
be used on floor and bench-mounted grinders,
with the work rest kept adjusted to a clearance not
to exceed 1/8-inch (0.3 centimeters) between the
work rest and the surface of the wheel.
1926.303(c)(2)

All abrasive wheels shall be closely inspected and
ring-tested before mounting to ensure that they
are free from cracks or other defects. 1926.303(c)(7)

Portable abrasive wheel tools used for external
grinding shall be provided with safety guards,
except when the wheels are 2 inches (5
centimeters) or less in diameter or the work
location makes it impossible (then a wheel
equipped with safety flanges shall be used).
1926.303(c)(3)

Portable abrasive wheel tools used for internal
grinding shall be provided with safety flanges,
except when the wheels are 2 inches (5
centimeters) or less in diameter or the wheel is
entirely inside the work. 1926.303(c)(4)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
31

Hand Tools

All hand and power tools and similar equipment,
whether furnished by the employer or employee,
shall be maintained in a safe condition. Employers
shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand
tools. 1926.300(a) and 1926.301(a)

Wrenches shall not be used when jaws are sprung
to the point that slippage occurs. Impact tools
shall be kept free of mushroomed heads. The
wooden handles of tools shall be kept free of
splinters or cracks and shall be kept tight in the
tool. 1926.301(b) through (d)

Electric power operated tools shall either be
approved double-insulated, or be properly
grounded in accordance with Subpart K of the
standard. 1926.302(a)(1)

Hazard Communication

Employers shall develop, implement, and
maintain at the workplace a written hazard
communication program for their workplaces.
Employers must inform their employees of the
availability of the program, including the required
list(s) of hazardous chemicals, and material safety
data sheets required. 1910.1200(e)(1) and (e)(4)
made applicable to construction by 1926.

The chemical manufacturer, importer, or
distributor shall ensure that each container of
hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace is
labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity
of the hazardous chemical(s), the appropriate
hazard warnings, and the name and address of
the chemical manufacturer, importer, or other
responsible party. 1910.1200(f)(1) made applicable
to construction by 1926.59

The employer shall ensure that each container of
hazardous chemicals in the workplace is labeled,
tagged or marked with the following information:

� Identity of the hazardous chemical(s) contained
therein, and

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

� Appropriate hazard warnings, or alternatively,
words, pictures, symbols, or combination
thereof, which provide at least general
information regarding the hazards of the
chemicals, and which, in conjunction with the
other information immediately available to
employees under the hazard communication
program, will provide employees with specific
information regarding the physical and health
hazards of the hazardous chemical. 1910.1200(f)
(5) made applicable to construction by 1926.59

Chemical manufacturers and importers shall
obtain or develop a material safety data sheet for
each hazardous chemical they produce or import.
Employers shall have a material safety data
sheet for each hazardous chemical they use.
1910.1200(g)(1) made applicable to construction
by 1926.59

Employers shall provide employees with
information and training on hazardous chemicals
in their work area at the time of their initial
assignment, and whenever a new hazard is
introduced into their work area. Employers shall
also provide employees with information on any
operations in their work area where hazardous
chemicals are present, and the location and
availability of the written hazard communication
program, including the required list(s) of
hazardous chemicals, and material safety data
sheets required by the standard. 1910.1200(h)
(1) and (2)(i) through (iii) made applicable to
construction by 1926.59

Employers who produce, use, or store hazardous
chemicals at multi-employer workplaces shall
additionally ensure that their hazard communication
program includes the methods the employer will
use to provide other employer(s) with a copy
of the material safety data sheet for hazardous
chemicals which employees of other employer(s)
may be exposed to while working; the methods
the employer will use to inform other employer(s)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
33

of any precautionary measures for the protection
of employees; and the methods the employer will
use to inform the other employer(s) of the labeling
system used in the workplace. 1910.1200(e)(2)
made applicable to construction by 1926.59

Hazardous Waste Operations

Employers must develop and implement a written
safety and health program for employees involved
in hazardous waste operations. At a minimum, the
program shall have an organizational structure, a
comprehensive workplan, standard operating
procedures, a site specific safety and health plan
(which need not repeat the standard operating
procedures), the training program, and medical
surveillance program. 1926.65(b)(1)

A site control program also shall be developed and
shall include, at a minimum, a map, work zones,
buddy systems, site communications – including
alerting means for emergencies – standard
operating procedures or safe work practices, and
identification of the nearest medical assistance.
1926.65(d)(3)

Training must be provided for all site employees,
their supervisors, and management who are
exposed to health or safety hazards before they
are permitted to engage in hazardous waste
operations. 1926.65(e)(1)(i)

Head Protection

Head protective equipment (helmets) shall be
worn in areas where there is a possible danger of
head injuries from impact, flying or falling objects,
or electrical shock and burns. 1926.100(a)

Helmets for protection against impact and
penetration of falling and flying objects shall meet
the requirements of ANSI Z89.1-1969. Helmets for
protection against electrical shock and burns
shall meet the requirements of ANSI Z89.2-1971.
1926.100(b) and (c)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
34

Hearing Protection

Feasible engineering or administrative controls
shall be utilized to protect employees against
sound levels in excess of those shown in Table D-2.

When engineering or administrative controls fail
to reduce sound levels within the limits of Table
D-2, ear protective devices shall be provided and
used. 1926.52(b) and .101(a)

Plain cotton is not an acceptable protective device.
1926.101(c)

In all cases where the sound levels exceed
the values shown in Table D-2, a continuing,
effective hearing conservation program shall be
administered. 1926.52(d)(1)

OSHA considers the following topics to be
valuable in a hearing conservation program:

� Monitoring employee noise exposures (to
determine if sound levels exceed those shown in
1926.52 Table D-2 at the right),

� Using engineering, work practice and
administrative controls, and personal protective
equipment measures (see “Training and Hazard
Control” 1926.21(b)(2)),

� Fitting each overexposed employee with
appropriate hearing protectors 1926.101(b),

� Training employees in the effects of noise and
protection measures (see “Training and Hazard
Control” 1926.21(b)(2),

� Explaining procedures for preventing further
hearing loss, and recordkeeping and reporting.

For more information: OSHA describes hearing
conservation program requirements for general
industry in the General Industry Occupational
Noise Exposure standard 1910.95(c) – (o).

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Table D-2 – Permissible Noise Exposures –
1926.52(d)(1)

Duration per day, hours: Sound Level/dBA slow response

8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

1 1/2 102

1 105

1/2 110

1/4 or less 115

Exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not
exceed 140 dB peak sound pressure level.
1926.52(e)

Heating Devices, Temporary

When heating devices are used, fresh air shall be
supplied in sufficient quantities to maintain the
health and safety of workers. 1926.154(a)(1)

Solid fuel salamanders are prohibited in buildings
and on scaffolds. 1926.154(d)

Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers and
Signs, Signals, and Barricades)

Hoists, Material and Personnel

The employer shall comply with the
manufacturer’s specifications and limitations.
1926.552(a)(1)

Rated load capacities, recommended operating
speeds, and special hazard warnings or
instructions shall be posted on cars and platforms.
1926.552(a)(2)

Hoistway entrances of material hoists shall be
protected by substantial full width gates or bars
that are painted with diagonal contrasting colors
such as black and yellow stripes. 1926.552(b)(2)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
36

Hoistway doors or gates of personnel hoists shall
be not less than 6 feet 6 inches (198.1 meters)
high and shall be protected with mechanical locks
that cannot be operated from the landing side
and that are accessible only to persons on the car.
1926.552(c)(4)

Overhead protective coverings shall be provided
on the top of the hoist cage or platform.
1926.552(b)(3) and (c)(7)

All material hoists shall conform to the
requirements of ANSI A10.5-1969, Safety
Requirements for Material Hoists. 1926.552(b)(8)

The requirements of 1926.1431 apply when one
or more employees are hoisted using equipment
covered by Subpart CC, Cranes and Derricks in
Construction.

Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)

Housekeeping

Form and scrap lumber with protruding nails and
all other debris shall be kept clear from all work
areas. 1926.25(a)

Combustible scrap and debris shall be removed at
regular intervals. 1926.25(b)

Containers shall be provided for collection and
separation of all refuse. Covers shall be provided
on containers used for flammable or harmful
substances. Waste shall be disposed of at
frequent intervals. 1926.25(c)

Illumination

Construction areas, aisles, stairs, ramps, runways,
corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas
shall be lighted to not less than the minimum
illumination intensities listed in Table D-3 while
any work is in progress. 1926.26

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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Table D-3 – Minimum Illumination Intensities
in Footcandles

Footcandles: Area of Operation

5……..General construction area lighting

3……..General construction areas, concrete
placement, excavation, waste areas,
accessways, active storage areas, loading
platforms, refueling, and field maintenance
areas

5……..Indoor warehouses, corridors, hallways,
and exitways

5……..Tunnels, shafts, and general underground
work areas (Exception: minimum of 10
footcandles is required at tunnel and shaft
heading during drilling, mucking, and scaling.
Bureau of Mines- approved cap lights shall be
acceptable for use in the tunnel heading)

10…….General construction plant and
shops (e.g., batch plants, screening plants,
mechanical and electrical equipment rooms,
carpenters shops, rigging lofts and active store
rooms, barracks or living quarters, locker or
dressing rooms, mess halls, indoor toilets, and
workrooms)

30…….First-aid stations, infirmaries, and offices

1926.56(a)

Jointers

A jointer guard shall automatically adjust itself
to cover the unused portion of the head and the
section of the head on the working side and the
back side of the fence or cage. The jointer guard
shall remain in contact with the material at all
times. ANSI 01.1-1961, section 4.3.2, incorporated
by reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
38

Ladders

A ladder (or stairway) must be provided at all
work points of access where there is a break in
elevation of 19 inches (48.2 centimeters) or more
except if a suitable ramp, runway, embankment,
or personnel hoist is provided to give safe access
to all elevations. 1926.1051(a)

Portable and fixed ladders with structural defects –
such as broken or missing rungs, cleats or steps,
broken or split rails, or corroded components –
shall be withdrawn from service by immediately
tagging “DO NOT USE” or marking in a manner
that identifies them as defective, or shall be
blocked, such as with a plywood attachment that
spans several rungs. Repairs must restore ladder
to its original design criteria. 1926.1053(b)(16), (17)
(i) through (iii) and (18)

Portable non-self-supporting ladders shall have
clear access at top and bottom and be placed at
an angle so the horizontal distance from the top
support to the foot of the ladder is approximately
one-quarter the working length of the ladder.
1926.1053(b)(5)(i) and (b)(9)

Portable ladders used for access to an upper landing
surface must extend a minimum of 3 feet (0.9
meters) above the landing surface, or where not
practical, be provided with grab rails and be secured
against movement while in use. 1926.1053(b)(1)

Ladders must have nonconductive siderails if they
are used where the worker or the ladder could
contact energized electrical conductors or
equipment. 1926.1053(b)(12)

Job-made ladders shall be constructed for their
intended use. Cleats shall be uniformly spaced not
less than 10 inches (25.4 centimeters) apart, nor
more than 14 inches (35.5 centimeters) apart.
1926.1053(a)(3)(i)

Wood job-made ladders with spliced side rails
must be used at an angle where the horizontal
distance is one-eighth the working length of the
ladder. 1926.1053(b)(5)(ii)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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Fixed ladders must be used at a pitch no greater
than 90 degrees from the horizontal, measured
from the back side of the ladder. 1926.1053(b)(5)(iii)

Ladders must be used only on stable and level
surfaces unless secured to prevent accidental
movement. 1926.1053(b)(6)

Ladders must not be used on slippery surfaces
unless secured or provided with slip-resistant feet
to prevent accidental movement. Slip-resistant
feet must not be used as a substitute for the care
in placing, lashing, or holding a ladder upon a
slippery surface. 1926.1053 (b)(7)

Employers must provide a training program for
each employee using ladders and stairways. The
program must enable each employee to recognize
hazards related to ladders and stairways and to
use proper procedures to minimize these hazards.
For example, employers must ensure that each
employee is trained by a competent person in the
following areas, as applicable:

� The nature of fall hazards in the work area,

� The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining,
and disassembling the fall protection systems to
be used,

� The proper construction, use, placement, and
care in handling of all stairways and ladders, and

� The maximum intended load-carrying capacities
of ladders used.

In addition, retraining must be provided for each
employee, as necessary, so that the employee
maintains the understanding and knowledge
acquired through compliance with the standard.
1926.1060(a) and (b)

Lasers

Only qualified and trained employees shall be
assigned to install, adjust, and operate laser
equipment. 1926.54(a)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
40

Employees shall wear proper (antilaser) eye
protection when working in areas where there is a
potential exposure to direct or reflected laser light
greater than 0.005 watts (5 milliwatts). 1926.54(c)

Beam shutters or caps shall be utilized, or the
laser turned off, when laser transmission is
not actually required. When the laser is left
unattended for a substantial period of time – such
as during lunch hour, overnight, or at change of
shifts – the laser shall be turned off. 1926.54(e)

Employees shall not be exposed to light intensities
in excess of the following: direct staring – 1
microwatt per square centimeter, incidental
observing – 1 milliwatt per square centimeter, and
diffused reflected light – 2 1/2 watts per square
centimeter. 1926.54(j)(1) through (3)

Employees shall not be exposed to microwave
power densities in excess of 10 milliwatts per
square centimeter. 1926.54(1)

Lead

Each employer who has a workplace or operation
covered by this standard shall initially determine if
any employee may be exposed to lead at or above
the action level of 30 micrograms per cubic meter
(30 µg/m3) of air calculated as an 8-hour time-
weighted average. 1926.62(d)(1)(i)

The employer shall assure that no employee is
exposed to lead at concentrations greater than 50
micrograms per cubic meter (50 µg/m3) of air
averaged over an 8-hour period (the permissible
exposure limit PEL). 1926.62(c)(1)

Whenever there has been a change of equipment,
process, control, personnel, or a new task has
been initiated that may result in additional
employees being exposed to lead at or above
the action level or may result in employees
already exposed at or above the action level
being exposed above the PEL, the employer shall
conduct additional monitoring. 1926.62(d)(7)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
41

Training shall be provided in accordance with the
Hazard Communication standard and additional
training shall be provided for employees exposed
at or above the action level. 1926.62(1)

Prior to the start of the job, each employer shall
establish and implement a written compliance
program. 1926.62(e)(2)(i)

Where employees are required to use respirators,
the employer must implement a respiratory
protection program. 1910.134(b) through (d)
(except (d)(iii)), and (f) through (m) made
applicable to construction by 1926.62(f)(2)(i)

Where airborne concentrations of lead equal or
exceed the action level at any time, an initial
medical examination consisting of blood sampling
and analysis shall be made available for each
employee prior to initial assignment to the area.
1926.62 Appendix B, viii, paragraph (j)

Lift Slab

Lift-slab operations shall be designed and planned
by a registered professional engineer who has
experience in lift-slab construction. Such plans
and designs shall be implemented by the
employer and shall include detailed instructions
and sketches indicating the prescribed method of
erection. 1926.705(a)

Jacking equipment shall be capable of supporting
at least two and one-half times the load being
lifted during jacking operations. Also, do not
overload the jacking equipment. 1926.705(d)

During erection, no employee, except those
essential to the jacking operation, shall be
permitted in the building or structure while jacking
operations are taking place unless the building
or structure has been reinforced sufficiently to
ensure its integrity. 1926.705(k)(1)

Equipment shall be designed and installed to
prevent slippage; otherwise, the employer shall
institute other measures, such as locking or

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
42

blocking devices, which will provide positive
connection between the lifting rods and
attachments and will prevent components from
disengaging during lifting operations. 1926.705(p)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Each system shall have containers, valves,
connectors, manifold valve assemblies, and
regulators of an approved type. 1926.153(a)(1)

Every container and vaporizer shall be provided
with one or more approved safety relief valves or
devices. 1926.153(d)(1)

Containers shall be placed upright on firm
foundations or otherwise firmly secured.
1926.153(g) and (h)(11)

Portable heaters shall be equipped with an
approved automatic device to shut off the flow of
gas in the event of flame failure. 1926.153(h)(8)

All cylinder connectors shall be equipped with
an excess flow valve to minimize the flow of
gas in the event the fuel line becomes ruptured.
1926.153(i)(2)

Storage of liquefied petroleum gas within
buildings is prohibited. 1926.153(j)

Storage locations shall have at least one approved
portable fire extinguisher rated not less than
20-B:C. 1926.153(l)

Medical Services and First Aid

The employer shall ensure the availability of
medical personnel for advice and consultation on
matters of occupational health. 1926.50(a)

When a medical facility is not reasonably
accessible for the treatment of injured employees,
a person qualified to render first aid shall be
available at the worksite. 1926.50(c)

First-aid supplies when required should be readily
available. 1926.50(d)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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In areas where 911 is not available, the telephone
numbers of the physicians, hospitals, or
ambulances shall be conspicuously posted.
1926.50(f)

Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment

All vehicles in use shall be checked at the
beginning of each shift to ensure that all parts,
equipment, and accessories that affect safe
operation are in proper operating condition and
free from defects. All defects shall be corrected
before the vehicle is placed in service. 1926.601
(b)(14)

No employer shall use any motor vehicle,
earthmoving, or compacting equipment having an
obstructed view to the rear unless:

� The vehicle has a reverse signal alarm distin-
guishable from the surrounding noise level, or
the vehicle is backed up only when an observer
signals that it is safe to do so. 1926.601(b)(4)(i)
through (ii) and 602(a)(9)(i) through (ii)

Heavy machinery, equipment, or parts thereof that
are suspended or held aloft shall be substantially
blocked to prevent falling or shifting before
employees are permitted to work under or
between them. 1926.600(a)(3)(i)

Noise (See Hearing Protection)

Personal Protective Equipment

The employer is responsible for requiring the
wearing of appropriate personal protective
equipment in all operations where there is an
exposure to hazardous conditions or where the
need is indicated for using such equipment to
reduce the hazard to the employees. 1926.28(a)
and 1926.95(a) through (c)

Employers must provide most personal protective
equipment at no cost to employees. 1926.95(d)(1),
see 1926.95(d)(2) through (6) for exceptions

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
44

OSHA requires employers to provide and for
employees to use specific types of personal
protective equipment in specific standards
throughout 29 CFR 1926. These standards
include, but are not limited to:

� Foot protection. 1926.96

� Head protection. 1926.100

� Hearing protection. 1926.101

� Eye and face protection. 1926.102

� Respiratory protection. 1910.134 made
applicable to construction by 1926.103

� Safety belts, lifelines, and lanyards. 1926.104

� Safety nets. 1926.105

� Working over or near water (life jackets).
1926.106

� Personal fall arrest system. 1926.502(d)

� Protective equipment for use during electrical
work. 1926.416 and 1926.9

Head, hearing, eye and face, safety nets, fall
protection, and working over or near water are
covered in detail in this digest.

Powder-Actuated Tools

Only trained employees shall be allowed to
operate powder-actuated tools. 1926.302(e)(1)

All powder-actuated tools shall be tested daily
before use and all defects discovered before
or during use shall be corrected. 1926.302(e)(2)
through (3)

Tools shall not be loaded until immediately before
use. Loaded tools shall not be left unattended.
1926.302(e)(5) through (6)

Power Transmission and Distribution

Existing conditions shall be determined before
starting work, by an inspection or a test. Such
conditions shall include, but not be limited to,

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

energized lines and equipment, condition of
poles, and the location of circuits and equipment
including power and communications, cable
television, and fire-alarm circuits. 1926.950(b)(1)

Electric equipment and lines shall be considered
energized until determined otherwise by testing or
until grounding. 1926.950(b)(2) and .954(a)

Operating voltage of equipment and lines shall be
determined before working on or near energized
parts. 1926.950(b)(3)

Rubber protective equipment shall comply with
the provisions of the ANSI J6 series, and shall be
visually inspected before use. 1926.951(a)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Protective equipment of material other than
rubber shall provide equal or better electrical and
mechanical protection. 1926.951(a)(iv)

Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts)

Each powered industrial truck operator must be
competent to operate a powered industrial
truck safely, as demonstrated by the successful
completion of the training and evaluation.
1910.178(l)(1)(i) made applicable to construction
by 1926.602(d)

Training shall consist of a combination of formal
instruction (e.g., lecture, discussion, interactive
computer learning, video tape, written material),
practical training (demonstrations performed by
the trainer and practical exercises performed by
the trainee), and evaluation of the operator’s
performance in the workplace. 1910.178(l)(2)(ii)
made applicable to construction by 1926.602(d)

Power Transmission, Mechanical

Belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles,
drums, flywheels, chains, or other reciprocating,
rotating, or moving parts of equipment shall be
guarded if such parts are exposed to contact by

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
46

employees or otherwise constitute a hazard.
Guarding shall meet the requirement of ANSI
B15.1-1953 (R 1958), Safety Code for Mechanical
Power Transmission Apparatus. 1926.300(b)(2)

Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals

Employers shall develop a written plan of action
regarding employee participation and consult
with employees and their representatives on the
conduct and development of process hazards
analyses and on the development of the other
elements of process safety management.
1926.64(c)(1) through (2)

The employer, when selecting a contractor, shall
obtain and evaluate information regarding the
contract employer’s safety performance and
programs. 1926.64(h)(2)(i)

The contract employer shall assure that each
contract employee is trained in the work practices
necessary to safely perform his/her job. 1926.64(h)
(3)(i)

The employer shall perform a pre-startup safety
review for new facilities and for modified facilities
when the modification is significant enough to
require a change in the process safety
information. 1926.64(i)(1)

The employer shall establish and implement
written procedures to maintain the ongoing
integrity of process equipment. 1926.64(j)(2)

Radiation, Ionizing

Pertinent provisions of the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) Standards for Protection
Against Radiation (10 CFR Part 20) relating
to protection against occupational radiation
exposure shall apply. 1926.53(a)

Any activity that involves the use of radioactive
materials or X-rays, whether or not under license
from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, shall

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
47

be performed by competent persons specially
trained in the proper and safe operation of such
equipment. 1926.53(b)

Railings

Top edge height of top rails or equivalent guardrail
system members shall have a vertical height of
approximately 42 inches (106.6 centimeters), plus
or minus 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) above the
walking/working level. 1926.502(b)(1)

Guardrail systems shall be surfaced so as to
prevent injury to an employee, with a strength to
withstand at least 200 pounds (90 kilograms), the
minimum requirement applied in any outward or
downward direction, at any point along the top
edge. 1926.502(b)(3) and (6)

A stair railing shall be of construction similar to
a standard railing with a vertical height of not
less than 36 inches (91.5 centimeters) from the
upper surface of top rail to the surface of tread
in line with face of riser at forward edge of tread.
1926.1052(c)(3)(i)

Recordkeeping: Recording and
Reporting Requirements

All employers must report the death of any
employee from a work-related incident within
8 hours of learning about it or report within
24 hours any work-related inpatient hospitalization,
amputation or loss of an eye to the closest OSHA
office, or call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742). 1904.39(a)
and (b)(7)

If your company had more than 10 employees
at any time during the last calendar year, you
must keep the OSHA injury and illness records
using the OSHA Forms 300, 300-A, and 301 or the
equivalent form. 1904.1(a)(2) and 1904.29(a) and (b)(4)

If your company had 10 or fewer employees at
all times during the last calendar year, you do
not need to keep OSHA injury and illness records

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
48

unless OSHA or the Bureau of Labor Statistics
informs you in writing that you must keep these
records. 1904.1(a)(1)

Each recordable injury or illness must be entered
on the OSHA Forms 300 and 301 within 7 days of
receiving the information. 1904.29(b)(3)

OSHA injury and illness records must be kept
for all projects. If the project is 1 year or longer
a separate OSHA 300 log must be kept. If the
projects are less than 1 year, these projects may
be placed on one OSHA 300 log that covers all
short-term projects. These records may be kept
at a central location as long as the information is
transferred within 7 days. 1904.30(a), (b)(1) and (2)

The OSHA 300 log must be verified, certified by a
company executive, and posted at the end of each
calendar year. The log must be posted no later
than February 1 of the following year and remain
posted until April 30. 1904.32 (a) and (b)

The OSHA 300 and 301 logs must be kept for 5
years following the year to which they relate.
1904.33(a) and 1904.44

Reinforced Steel

All protruding reinforced steel, onto and into
which employees could fall, shall be guarded to
eliminate the hazard of impalement. 1926.701(b)

No employee (except those essential to the post-
tensioning operations) shall be permitted to be
behind the jack during tensioning operations.
1926.701(c)(1)

Reinforcing steel for walls, piers, columns, and
similar vertical structures shall be adequately
supported to prevent overturning and to prevent
collapse. 1926.703(d)(1)

Employers shall take measures to prevent
unrolled wire mesh from recoiling. Such
measures may include, but are not limited to,
securing each end of the roll or turning over the
roll. 1926.703(d)(2)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
49

Respiratory Protection

In emergencies, or when feasible engineering or
administrative controls are not effective in
controlling toxic substances, appropriate
respiratory protective equipment shall be provided
by the employer and shall be used. 1910.134(a)(1)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Employers must select a NIOSH-certified respirator.
The respirator must be used in compliance with
the conditions of its certification. 1910.134(d)(1)(ii)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Respiratory protective devices shall be
appropriate for the hazardous material
involved and the extent and nature of the work
requirements and conditions. 1910.134(d)(1)(i)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Employees required to use respiratory protective
devices shall be thoroughly trained in their use.
1910.134(k) made applicable to construction by
1926.103

Respiratory protective equipment shall be inspected
regularly and maintained in good condition.
1910.134(h) made applicable to construction by
1926.103

Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)

Rollover protective structures (ROPS) apply to the
following types of materials handling equipment:
all rubber-tired, self-propelled scrapers, rubber-tired
frontend loaders, rubber-tired dozers, wheel-type
agricultural and industrial tractors, crawler tractors,
crawler-type loaders, and motor graders, with or
without attachments, that are used in construction
work. This requirement does not apply to sideboom
pipelaying tractors. 1926.1000(a)(1)

Safety Nets

Safety nets must be installed as close as
practicable under the walking/working surface
on which employees are working, but in no case

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
50

more than 30 feet (9.14 meters) below such level.
When nets are used on bridges, the potential fall
area from the walking/working surface to the net
shall be unobstructed. 1926.502(c)(1)

Safety nets and their installations must be
capable of absorbing an impact force equal to that
produced by the drop test. 1926.502(c)(4)

Saws

Band Saws

All portions of band saw blades shall be enclosed
or guarded, except for the working portion of
the blade between the bottom of the guide rolls
and the table. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Band saw wheels shall be fully encased.
ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by reference to
construction by 1926.304(f)

Portable Circular Saws

Portable, power-driven circular saws shall be
equipped with guards above and below the base
plate or shoe. The lower guard shall cover the saw
to the depth of the teeth, except for the minimum
arc required to allow proper retraction and contact
with the work, and shall automatically return to
the covering position when the blade is removed
from the work. 1926.304(d)

Circular saws shall have a constant pressure
switch that will shut off the power when the
pressure is released. 1926.300(d)(3)

Radial Saws

Radial saws shall have an upper guard that
completely encloses the upper half of the saw
blade. The sides of the lower exposed portion
of the blade shall be guarded by a device that
will automatically adjust to the thickness of and
remain in contact with the material being cut.
1926.304(g)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
51

Radial saws used for ripping shall have nonkickback
fingers or dogs. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Radial saws shall be installed so that the cutting
head will return to the starting position when
released by the operator. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Swing or Sliding Cut-Off Saws

All swing or sliding cut-off saws shall be provided
with a hood that will completely enclose the upper
half of the saw. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Limit stops shall be provided to prevent swing or
sliding type cut-off saws from extending beyond
the front or back edges of the table. ANSI 01.1-
1961, incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Each swing or sliding cut-off saw shall be
provided with an effective device to return the
saw automatically to the back of the table when
released at any point of its travel. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Inverted sawing of sliding cut-off saws shall be
provided with a hood that will cover the part of the
saw that protrudes above the top of the table or
material being cut. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Table Saws

Circular table saws shall have a hood over the
portion of the saw above the table, so mounted
that the hood will automatically adjust itself to
the thickness of and remain in contact with the
material being cut. 1926.304(h)(1)

Circular table saws shall have a spreader aligned
with the blade, spaced no more than 1/2-inch
(1.27-centimeters) behind the largest blade
mounted in the saw. This provision does not

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
52

apply when grooving, dadoing, or rabbiting.
ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by reference to
construction by 1926.304(f)

Circular table saws used for ripping shall have
nonkickback fingers or dogs. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Feeder attachments shall have the feed rolls or
other moving parts covered or guarded so as
to protect the operator from hazardous points.
1926.304(c)

Scaffolds, General Requirements

Scaffolds shall be erected, moved, dismantled, or
altered only under the supervision and direction
of a competent person. 1926.451(f)(7)

Scaffolds are any temporary elevated platform
(supported or suspended) and its supporting
structure (including points of anchorage), used for
supporting employees or materials or both.
1926.450(b)

Each employee who performs work on a scaffold
shall be trained by a person qualified to recognize
the hazards associated with the type of scaffold
used and to understand the procedures to
control or minimize those hazards. The training
shall include such topics as the nature of any
electrical hazards, fall hazards, falling object
hazards, the maintenance and disassembly of the
fall protection systems, the use of the scaffold,
handling of materials, the capacity and the
maximum intended load. 1926.454(a)

Fall protection (guardrail systems and personal
fall arrest systems) must be provided for each
employee on a scaffold more than 10 feet (3.1
meters) above a lower level. 1926.451(g)(1)

Each scaffold and scaffold component shall
support without failure its own weight and at
least 4 times the maximum intended load applied
or transmitted to it. Suspension ropes and
connecting hardware must support 6 times the

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
53

intended load. Scaffolds and scaffold components
shall not be loaded in excess of their maximum
intended loads or rated capacities, whichever is
less. 1926.451(a)(1), (a)(4), (f)(1)

The scaffold platform shall be planked or decked
as fully as possible. 1926.451(b)(1)

The platform shall not deflect more than 1/60 of
the span when loaded. 1926.451(f)(16)

The work area for each scaffold platform
and walkway shall be at least 18 inches (46
centimeters) wide. When the work area must
be less than 18 inches (46 centimeters) wide,
guardrails and/or personal fall arrest systems shall
still be used. 1926.451(b)(2)(ii)

Access must be provided when the scaffold
platforms are more than 2 feet (0.6 m) above
or below a point of access. Direct access is
acceptable when the scaffold is not more than 14
inches (36 centimeters) horizontally and not more
than 24 inches (61 centimeters) vertically from the
other surfaces. Crossbraces shall not be used as a
means of access. 1926.451(e)(1) and (e)(8)

A competent person shall inspect the scaffold,
scaffold components, and ropes on suspended
scaffolds before each work shift and after any
occurrence which could affect the structural
integrity and authorize prompt corrective action.
1926.450 (b), 451(f)(3)

Scaffold, Bricklaying

Employees doing overhand bricklaying from a
supported scaffold shall be protected by a
guardrail or personal fall arrest system on all
sides except the side where the work is being
done. 1926.451(g)(1)(vi)

Scaffold, Erectors and Dismantlers

A competent person shall determine the feasibility
for safe access and fall protection for employees
erecting and dismantling supported scaffolds.
1926.451(e)(9) and (g)(2)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
54

Scaffold, Fall Arrest Systems

A personal fall arrest system consists of an
anchorage, connectors, a body harness, a
lanyard, and may include a deceleration device.
Anchorages used for attachment shall be capable
of supporting at least 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) per
employee attached or shall be designed, installed,
and used under the supervision of a qualified
person as part of a complete personal fall arrest
system which maintains a safety factor of at least
two. Personal fall arrest systems used on scaffolds
must be attached by lanyard to a vertical lifeline,
horizontal lifeline, or scaffold structural member.
1926.502(d)(15) and 1926.451(g)(3)

Vertical or horizontal lifelines may be used.
1926.451(g)(3)(ii) through (iv)

Lifelines shall be independent of support lines and
suspension ropes and not attached to the same
anchorage point as the support or suspension
ropes. 1926.451(g)(3)(iii) and (iv)

Employees must be tied off when working from
an aerial lift. Fall restraint systems or personal fall
arrest systems may be used. The use of personal
fall arrest systems must comply with Subpart M.
1926.453(b)(2)(v) and 1926.502(d)

Scaffold, Guardrails

Guardrails shall be installed along all open sides
and ends of platforms before the scaffold is
released for use by employees other than the
erection and dismantling crews. Guardrails are
not required on the front edge of a platform if the
front edge of the platform is less than 14 inches
(36 centimeters) from the face of the work. For
plastering and lathing, the distance is 18 inches
(46 centimeters) or less from the front edge. When
outrigger scaffolds are attached to supported
scaffolds the distance is 3 inches (8 centimeters)
or less from the front edge of the outrigger.
1926.451(b)(3) and (g)(4)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
55

The toprail for scaffolds must be 38 inches (0.97
meters) to 45 inches (1.2 meters) from the
platform. Midrails are to be installed approxi-
mately halfway between the toprail and the
platform surface. 1926.451(g)(4)(ii) and (iii)

Toeboards or other barriers are to be used to
protect employees working below. 1926.451(h)

When screens and mesh are used for guardrails,
they shall extend from the top edge of the
guardrail system to the scaffold platform, and
along the entire opening between the supports.
1926.451(g)(4)(v)

Crossbracing is not acceptable as an entire
guardrail system but is acceptable for a toprail
when the crossing point of the two braces is
between 38 inches (0.9 meters) and 48 inches
(1.3 meters) above the work platform and for
midrails when between 20 inches (0.5 meters) and
30 inches (0.8 meters) above the work platform.
The end points of the crossbracing shall be no
more than 48 inches (1.3 meters) apart vertically.
1926.451(g)(4)(xv)

Scaffolds, Mobile

Scaffolds shall be braced by cross, horizontal, or
diagonal braces, or a combination thereof.
Scaffolds must be plumb, level, and squared. All
brace connections must be secured. 1926.452(w)(1)

Each employee on a scaffold more than 10 feet
above a lower level shall be protected from falling
to that lower level by use of guardrail systems or
personal fall arrest systems. 1926.451(g)(1), (g)(1)
(vii), and (g)(4)

Scaffold, Planking

Scaffold planking shall be capable of supporting
without failure its own weight and at least 4 times
the intended load. Solid sawn wood, fabricated
planks, and fabricated platforms may be used as
scaffold planks, following the recommendations

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
56

by the manufacturer or a lumber grading
association or inspection agency. Tables showing
maximum permissible spans, rated load capacity,
nominal thickness, etc., are in Appendix A of
Subpart L (1)(b) and (c). 1926.451(a)(1)

Scaffolds, Supported

Supported scaffolds are platforms supported by
legs, outrigger beams, brackets, poles, uprights,
posts, frames, or similar rigid support. The
structural members, poles, legs, posts, frames, and
uprights, shall be plumb and braced to prevent
swaying and displacement. 1926.451(b) and (c)(3)

Supported scaffolds poles, legs, posts, frames,
and uprights shall bear on base plates and mud
sills, or on another adequate firm foundation.
1926.451(c)(2)

Either the manufacturer’s recommendation or the
following placements shall be used for guys, ties,
and braces: install guys, ties, and braces at the
closest horizontal member to the 4:1 height and
repeat vertically with the top restraint no further
than the 4:1 height from the top:

Vertically

Every 20 feet (6.1 meters) or less for scaffolds less
than 3 feet (0.9 meters) wide;

Every 26 feet (7.9 meters) or less for scaffolds
more than 3 feet (0.9 meters) wide;

Horizontally

At each end;

At intervals not to exceed 30 feet (9.1 meters)
from one end. 1926.451(c)(1)(ii)

Scaffolds, Suspension (Swing)

Each employee more than 10 feet (3.1 meters)
above a lower level shall be protected from falling
by guardrails and a personal fall arrest system
when working from single or two-point suspended
scaffolds and self-contained adjustable scaffolds that
are supported by ropes. 1926.451(g)(1)(ii) and (iv)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Each employee 10 feet (3.1 meters) above a
lower level shall be protected from falling by a
personal fall arrest system when working from a
boatswain’s chair, ladder jack, needle beam, float,
or catenary scaffolds. 1926.451(g)(1)(i)

Lifelines shall be independent of support lines and
suspension ropes and not attached to the same
anchorage point as the support or suspension
ropes. 1926.451(g)(3)(iii) and (iv)

A competent person shall inspect the ropes for
defects prior to each workshift and after every
occurrence which could affect a rope’s integrity,
evaluate the direct connections that support the
load, and determine if two-point and multi-point
scaffolds are secured from swaying. 1926.451(d)
(3)(i), (d)(10), (d)(18), (f)(3)

The use of repaired wire rope is prohibited.
1926.451(d)(7)

Tiebacks shall be secured to a structurally sound
anchorage on the building or structure.
1926.451(d)(3)(ix)

Tiebacks shall not be secured to standpipes,
vents, other piping systems, or electrical conduit.
1926.451(d)(3)(ix) and (d)(5)

A single tieback shall be installed perpendicular to
the face of the building or structure. Two tiebacks
installed at opposing angles are required when a
perpendicular tieback cannot be installed.
1926.451(d)(3)(x)

Only those items specifically designed as
counterweights shall be used. Sand, gravel,
masonry units, rolls of roofing felt, and other such
materials shall not be used as counterweights.
1926.451(d)(3)(ii) and (iii)

Counterweights used for suspended scaffolds
shall be made of materials that can not be easily
dislocated. 1926.451(d)(3)(ii)

Counterweights shall be secured by mechanical
means to the outrigger beams. 1926.451(d)(3)(iv)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
58

Signs, Signals, and Barricades (See
Flaggers)

Construction areas shall be posted with legible
traffic signs at points of hazard. 1926.200 (g)(1)

Barricades for protection of employees shall
conform to Part 6 of the Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices. 1926.202

Silica

Appropriate engineering controls, personal
protective equipment, respirators, and work
practices shall be used to protect employees from
crystalline silica. 1926.55(a) and (b) and OSHA
National Emphasis Program on Crystalline Silica
1/24/2008

Stairs

A stairway or ladder must be provided at all
worker points of access where there is a break in
elevation of 19 inches (48.3 centimeters) or more
and no ramp, runway, sloped embankment, or
personnel hoist is provided. 1926.1051(a)

Except during construction of the actual stairway,
skeleton metal frame structures and steps must
not be used (where treads and/or landings are to
be installed at a later date), unless the stairs are
fitted with secured temporary treads and landings.
1926.1052(b)(2)

When there is only one point of access between
levels, it must be kept clear to permit free passage
by workers. If free passage becomes restricted,
a second point of access must be provided and
used. 1926.1051(a)(3)

When there are more than two points of access
between levels, at least one point of access must
be kept clear. 1926.1051(a)(4)

All stairway and ladder fall protection systems
must be provided and installed as required by
the stairway and ladder rules before employees

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
59

begin work that requires them to use stairways
or ladders and their respective fall protection
systems. 1926.1051(b)

Stairways that will not be a permanent part
of the structure on which construction work is
performed must have landings at least 30 inches
deep and 22 inches wide (76.2 x 55.9 centimeters)
at every 12 feet (3.6 meters) or less of vertical rise.
1926.1052(a)(1)

Stairways must be installed at least 30 degrees,
and no more than 50 degrees, from the horizontal.
1926.1052(a)(2)

Where doors or gates open directly onto a
stairway, a platform must be provided, and the
swing of the door shall not reduce the effective
width of the platform to less than 20 inches (50.8
centimeters). 1926.1052(a)(4)

Except during construction of the actual stairway,
stairways with metal pan landings and treads
must not be used where the treads and/or
landings have not been filled in with concrete or
other material, unless the pans of the stairs and/
or landings are temporarily filled in with wood or
other material. All treads and landings must be
replaced when worn below the top edge of the
pan. 1926.1052(b)(1)

Stairways having four or more risers, or rising
more than 30 inches in height (76.2 centimeters),
whichever is less, must have at least one handrail.
A stairrail also must be installed along each
unprotected side or edge. 1926.1052(c)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical
members, or equivalent intermediate structural
members must be provided between the top
rail and stairway steps of the stairrail system.
1926.1052(c)(4)

Midrails, when used, must be located midway
between the top of the stairrail system and the
stairway steps. 1926.1052(c)(4)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
60

The height of handrails must not be more than 37
inches (93.9 centimeters) nor less than 30 inches
(76.2 centimeters) from the upper surface of the
handrail to the surface of the tread in line with face
of riser at forward edge of tread. 1926.1052(c)(6)

When the top edge of a stairrail system also
serves as a handrail, the height of the top edge
must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor less
than 36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of
the stairrail system to the surface of the tread, in
line with face of riser at forward edge of the tread.
1926.1052(c)(7)

Temporary handrails must have a minimum
clearance of 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) between
the handrail and walls, stairrail systems, and other
objects. 1926.1052(c)(11)

Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings
must be provided with guardrail systems.
1926.1052(c)(12)

Steel Erection

Each employee engaged in a steel erection activity
who is on a walking/working surface with an
unprotected side or edge more than 15 feet (4.6
meters) above a lower level shall be protected
from fall hazards by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning
device systems or fall restraint systems.
1926.760(a)(1)

Connectors more than two stories or 30 feet (9.1
meters) above a lower level, whichever is less,
shall be protected by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning
devices systems, or fall restraint systems.
1926.760(b)(1)

Connectors at heights over 15 feet and up to 30
feet above a lower level shall be provided with
a personal fall arrest system, positioning device
system, or fall restraint system and wear the
equipment necessary to be tied off; or be provided
with other means of protection from fall hazards in
accordance with 1926.760(a)(1) and 1926.760(b)(3)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Training shall be provided for all employees
exposed to fall hazards. Special training shall be
provided to connectors, workers in controlled
decking zones, and those rigging for multiple lifts.
1926.761(c)

Steel erection begins when written notification
that the concrete in the footings, piers, and walls
or the mortar in the masonry piers and walls
has attained the strength to support the loads
imposed during steel erection. 1926.752(b)

Shear connectors (such as headed steel studs,
steel bars or steel lugs), reinforcing bars,
deformed anchors or threaded studs shall not
be attached to the top flanges of beams, joists or
beam attachments so that they project vertically
from or horizontally across the top flange of the
member until after the metal decking, or other
walking/working surface, has been installed.
1926.754(c)(1)

Columns shall be anchored by a minimum of four
anchor rods (anchor bolts). 1926.755(a)(1)

Solid web structural members shall be secured
with at least two bolts per connection before being
released from the hoisting line. 1926.756(a)(1)

Open web joists must be field bolted at each end
of the bottom chord before being released from
the hoisting line. 1926.757(a)(1)(iii)

Decking shall be laid tightly and secured.
1926.754(e)(5)

Controlled decking zones shall be clearly marked
and access limited to only those employees
engaged in leading edge work. 1926.760(c)(2) and (3)

Cranes used in steel erection shall be inspected
prior to each shift by a competent person. Routes
for suspended loads shall be planned to ensure no
employee is required to work directly under
the load except for connecting or hooking or
unhooking. Hooks with self-closing latches shall
be used. All loads shall be rigged by a qualified
rigger. Multiple lifts shall hoist a maximum of five
members. 1926.753(c)(1)(i), (d)(1) and (e)(1)(ii)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
62

Storage

All materials stored in tiers shall be secured to
prevent sliding, falling, or collapsing. 1926.250(a)(1)

Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear and in
good repair. 1926.250(a)(3)

Storage of materials shall not obstruct exits.
1926.151(d)(1)

Materials shall be stored with due regard to their
fire characteristics. 1926.151(d)(2)

Tire Cages

A safety tire rack, cage, or equivalent protection
shall be provided and used when inflating,
mounting, or dismounting tires installed on split
rims, or rims equipped with locking rings or
similar devices. 1926.600(a)(2)

Toeboards

Toeboards, when used to protect workers from
falling objects, shall be erected along the edge of the
overhead walking/working surface. 1926.502(j)(1)

Toeboards shall be capable of withstanding,
without failure, a force of at least 50 pounds (222
N) applied in any downward or outward direction
at any point along the toeboard. 1926.502(j)(2)

A standard toeboard shall be at least 3 1/2 inches
(9 centimeters) in height and may be of any
substantial material either solid or open, with
openings not to exceed 1 inch (2.54 centimeters)
in greatest dimension. 1926.502(j)(3)

Toilets

Toilets shall be provided according to the
following: 20 or fewer persons – one facility; 20 or
more persons – one toilet seat and one urinal per
40 persons; 200 or more persons – one toilet seat
and one urinal per 50 workers. 1926.51(c)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

This requirement does not apply to mobile crews
having transportation readily available to nearby
toilet facilities. 1926.51(c)(4)

Training and Inspections

The employer shall initiate and maintain such
programs as may be necessary to provide for
frequent and regular inspections of the job
site, materials, and equipment by designated
competent persons. 1926.20(b)(1) through (2)

The employer should avail himself of the safety
and health training programs the Secretary
provides. 1926.21(b)(1)

The employer shall instruct each employee in the
recognition and avoidance of unsafe conditions
and in the regulations applicable to his work
environment to control or eliminate any hazards
or other exposure to illness or injury. 1926.21(b)(2)

The use of any machinery, tool, material, or
equipment that is not in compliance with any
applicable requirement of Part 1926 is prohibited.
1926.20(b)(3)

The employer shall permit only those employees
qualified by training or experience to operate
equipment and machinery. 1926.20(b)(4)

Underground Construction

The employer shall provide and maintain safe
means of access and egress to all work stations.
1926.800(b)(1)

The employer shall control access to all openings
to prevent unauthorized entry underground.
Unused chutes, manways, or other openings shall
be tightly covered, bulkheaded, or fenced off, and
shall be posted with signs indicating “Keep Out”
or similar language. Complete or unused sections
of the underground facility shall be barricaded.
1926.800(b)(3)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
64

Unless underground facilities are sufficiently
completed so that the permanent environmental
controls are effective and the remaining
construction activity will not cause any
environmental hazard or structural failure within
the facilities, the employer shall maintain a
check-in/check-out procedure that will ensure
that aboveground designated personnel can
determine an accurate count of the number
of persons underground in the event of an
emergency. 1926.800(c)

All employees shall be instructed to recognize
and avoid hazards associated with underground
construction activities. 1926.800(d)

Hazardous classifications are for “potentially
gassy” and “gassy” operations. 1926.800(h) The
employer shall assign a competent person to
perform all air monitoring to determine proper
ventilation and quantitative measurements of
potentially hazardous gases. 1926.800(j)(1)(i)(A)

Fresh air shall be supplied to all underground
work areas in sufficient quantities to prevent
dangerous or harmful accumulation of dust,
fumes, mists, vapors, or gases. 1926.800(k)(1)(i)

Washing Facilities

The employer shall provide adequate washing
facilities for employees engaged in operations
involving harmful substances. Washing facilities
shall be near the worksite and shall be so
equipped as to enable employees to remove all
harmful substances. 1926.51(f)

Water, Working Over or Near

Employees working over or near water, where the
danger of drowning exists, shall be provided with
U.S. Coast Guard-approved life jackets or buoyant
work vests. 1926.106(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
65

Welding, Cutting, and Heating

Employers shall instruct employees in the safe use
of welding equipment. 1926.350(d) and 1926.351(d)

Proper precautions (isolating welding and cutting,
removing fire hazards from the vicinity, providing
a fire watch) for fire prevention shall be taken in
areas where welding or other “hot work” is being
done. No welding, cutting, or heating shall be
done where the application of flammable paints,
or the presence of other flammable compounds
or heavy dust concentrations creates a fire hazard.
1926.352(a) through (c) and (f)

Arc welding and cutting operations shall be
shielded by noncombustible or flameproof
screens to protect employees and other persons
in the vicinity from direct arc rays. 1926.351(e)

When electrode holders are to be left unattended,
the electrodes shall be removed and the holder
shall be placed or protected so that they cannot
make electrical contact with employees or
conducting objects. 1926.351(d)(1)

All arc welding and cutting cables shall be
completely insulated and be capable of handling
the maximum current requirements for the job.
There shall be no repairs or splices within 10 feet
(3 meters) of the electrode holder, except where
splices are insulated equal to the insulation of
the cable. Defective cable shall be repaired or
replaced. 1926.351(b)(1) through (2) and (4)

Employees performing such operations in
the open air shall be protected by filter-type
respirators in accordance with the requirements of
1910.134, except that employees performing such
operations on beryllium-containing base or filler
metals shall be protected with air line respirators in
accordance with 1910.134. 1926.353(c)(3)

Fuel gas and oxygen hose shall be easily
distinguishable and shall not be interchangeable.
Hoses shall be inspected at the beginning of each
shift and shall be repaired or replaced if defective.
1926.350(f)(1) and (3)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
66

General mechanical ventilation, local exhaust
ventilation, air line respirators, and other
protection shall be provided, as required, when
welding, cutting or heating:

� Zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury,
or materials bearing, based, or coated with
beryllium in enclosed spaces,

� Stainless steel with inert-gas equipment,

� In confined spaces, and

� Where an unusual condition can cause an unsafe
accumulation of contaminants. 1926.353(b)(1),
(c)(1)(i) through (iv), (c)(2)(i) through (iv), (d)(1)
(iv), and (e)(1)

Proper eye protective equipment to prevent
exposure of personnel shall be provided.
1926.353(e)(2)

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes

Wire ropes, chains, ropes, and other rigging
equipment shall be inspected prior to use and as
necessary during use to ensure their safety.
Defective gear shall be removed from service.
1926.251(a)(1)

Job or shop hooks and links or makeshift
fasteners formed from bolts, rods, or other such
attachments shall not be used. 1926.251(b)(3)

When U-bolts are used for eye splices, the U-bolt
shall be applied so that the “U” section is in
contact with the dead end of the rope. 1926.251(c)
(5)(i)

When U-bolt wire rope clips are used to form
eyes, the following table shall be used to
determine the number and spacing of clips.
1926.251(c)(5)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
67

Table H-2 – Number and Spacing of U-Bolt Wire
Rope Clips – 1926.251(c)(5)

Improved plow
steel, rope diameter

(inches)

Number of clips
Drop Other

forged material

Minimum spacing
(inches)

1/2 (1.27 cm) 3 4 3 (7.62 cm)

5/8 (.625 cm) 3 4 3-3/4 (8.37 cm)

3/4 (.75 cm) 4 5 4-1/2 (11.43 cm)

7/8 (.875 cm) 4 5 5-1/4 (12.95 cm)

1 (2.54 cm) 5 6 6 (15.24 cm)

1-1/8 (2.665 cm) 6 6 6-3/4 (15.99 cm)

1-1/4 (2.79 cm) 6 7 7-1/2 (19.05 cm)

1-3/8 (2.915 cm) 7 7 8-1/4 (20.57 cm)

1-1/2 (3.81 cm) 7 8 9 (22.86 cm)

Woodworking Machinery

All fixed power-driven woodworking tools shall
be provided with a disconnect switch that can
be either locked or tagged in the off position.
1926.304(a)

All woodworking tools and machinery shall meet
applicable requirements of ANSI 01.1-1961, Safety
Code for Woodworking Machinery. 1926.304(f)

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights

Workers have the right to a safe workplace. The
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH
Act) was passed to prevent workers from being
killed or seriously harmed at work. The law
requires employers to provide their employees
with working conditions that are free of known
dangers. Workers may file a complaint to have
OSHA inspect their workplace if they believe that
their employer is not following OSHA standards or
that there are serious hazards. Further, the OSH Act
gives complainants the right to request that their

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
68

names not be revealed to their employers. It is also
against the law for an employer to fire, demote,
transfer, or retaliate in any way against a worker for
filing a complaint or using other OSHA rights.

If a workplace has unsafe or unhealthful working
conditions, workers may want to file a complaint.
Often the best and fastest way to get a hazard
corrected is to notify a supervisor or employer.
Workers or their representatives may file a
complaint online or by phone, mail, email or fax
with the nearest OSHA office and request an
inspection. A worker may also ask OSHA not to
reveal his or her name. To file a complaint, call
1-800-321-OSHA (6742) or contact the nearest
OSHA regional, area, state plan, or consultation
office listed at www.osha.gov. The teletypewriter
(TTY) number is (877) 889-5627. Written, signed
complaints submitted to OSHA area offices
are more likely to result in an on-site OSHA
inspection. Most online or unsigned complaints
are resolved informally over the phone with the
employer. Complaints from workers in states with
an OSHA approved state plan will be forwarded to
the appropriate state plan for response. Workers
can call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742) to request a
complaint form from their local OSHA office or
visit www.osha.gov/pls/osha7/eComplaintForm.
html to submit the form online. Completed forms
can be faxed or mailed to the local OSHA office
(provided at the end of this guide). Include your
name, address and telephone number so that
OSHA can contact you.

OSHA Assistance, Services and
Programs

OSHA has a great deal of information to assist
employers in complying with their responsibilities
under OSHA law. Several OSHA programs and
services can help employers identify and correct
job hazards, as well as improve their injury and
illness prevention program.

http://www.osha.gov

http://www.osha.gov/pls/osha7/eComplaintForm.html

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Establishing an Injury and Illness
Prevention Program
The key to a safe and healthful work environment
is a comprehensive injury and illness prevention
program.

Injury and illness prevention programs are
systems that can substantially reduce the number
and severity of workplace injuries and illnesses,
while reducing costs to employers. Thousands
of employers across the United States already
manage safety using injury and illness prevention
programs, and OSHA believes that all employers
can and should do the same. Thirty-four states
have requirements or voluntary guidelines for
workplace injury and illness prevention programs.
Most successful injury and illness prevention
programs are based on a common set of key
elements. These include management leadership,
worker participation, hazard identification, hazard
prevention and control, education and training,
and program evaluation and improvement. Visit
OSHA’s Injury and Illness Prevention Programs
web page at www.osha.gov/dsg/topics/
safetyhealth for more information.

Compliance Assistance Specialists
OSHA has compliance assistance specialists
throughout the nation located in most OSHA
offices. Compliance assistance specialists can
provide information to employers and workers
about OSHA standards, short educational
programs on specific hazards or OSHA rights and
responsibilities, and information on additional
compliance assistance resources. For more
details, visit www.osha.gov/dcsp/compliance_
assistance/cas.html or call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742)
to contact your local OSHA office.

Free On-site Safety and Health
Consultation Services for Small Business
OSHA’s On-site Consultation Program offers free
and confidential advice to small and medium-
sized businesses in all states across the country,

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
70

with priority given to high-hazard worksites.
Each year, responding to requests from small
employers looking to create or improve their
safety and health management programs, OSHA’s
On-site Consultation Program conducts over
29,000 visits to small business worksites covering
over 1.5 million workers across the nation.

On-site consultation services are separate from
enforcement and do not result in penalties or
citations. Consultants from state agencies or
universities work with employers to identify
workplace hazards, provide advice on compliance
with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing
safety and health management programs.

For more information, to find the local On-site
Consultation office in your state, or to request
a brochure on consultation services, visit
www. osha.gov/consultation, or call 1-800-321-
OSHA (6742).

Under the consultation program, certain
exemplary employers may request participation
in OSHA’s Safety and Health Achievement
Recognition Program (SHARP). Eligibility
for participation includes, but is not limited
to, receiving a full-service, comprehensive
consultation visit, correcting all identified hazards
and developing an effective safety and health
management program. Worksites that receive
SHARP recognition are exempt from programmed
inspections during the period that the SHARP
certification is valid.

Cooperative Programs
OSHA offers cooperative programs under which
businesses, labor groups and other organizations
can work cooperatively with OSHA. To find out
more about any of the following programs, visit
www.osha.gov/cooperativeprograms.

www.osha.gov/cooperativeprograms

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Strategic Partnerships and Alliances

The OSHA Strategic Partnerships (OSP)
provide the opportunity for OSHA to partner
with employers, workers, professional or trade
associations, labor organizations, and/or other
interested stakeholders. OSHA Partnerships are
formalized through unique agreements designed
to encourage, assist, and recognize partner efforts
to eliminate serious hazards and achieve model
workplace safety and health practices. Through
the Alliance Program, OSHA works with groups
committed to worker safety and health to prevent
workplace fatalities, injuries and illnesses by
developing compliance assistance tools and
resources to share with workers and employers,
and educate workers and employers about their
rights and responsibilities.

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)

The VPP recognize employers and workers
in private industry and federal agencies who
have implemented effective safety and health
management programs and maintain injury and
illness rates below the national average for their
respective industries. In VPP, management, labor,
and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively to
prevent fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a
system focused on: hazard prevention and control,
worksite analysis, training, and management
commitment and worker involvement.

Occupational Safety and Health Training
The OSHA Training Institute partners with 27 OSHA
Training Institute Education Centers at 42 locations
throughout the United States to deliver courses
on OSHA standards and occupational safety and
health topics to thousands of students a year.
For more information on training courses, visit
www.osha.gov/otiec.

http://www.osha.gov/otiec

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

OSHA Educational Materials
OSHA has many types of educational materials
in English, Spanish, Vietnamese and other
languages available in print or online. These
include:

� Brochures;

� Fact Sheets;

� Guidance documents that provide detailed
examinations of specific safety and health issues;

� Online Safety and Health Topics pages;

� Posters;

� Small, laminated QuickCards™ that provide brief
safety and health information; and

� QuickTakes, OSHA’s free, twice-monthly online
newsletter with the latest news about OSHA
initiatives and products to assist employers and
workers in finding and preventing workplace
hazards. To sign up for QuickTakes visit www.
osha.gov/quicktakes.

To view materials available online or for a
listing of free publications, visit www.osha.gov/
publications. You can also call 1-800-321-OSHA
(6742) to order publications.

Select OSHA publications are available in e-Book
format. OSHA e-Books are designed to increase
readability on smartphones, tablets and other mobile
devices. For access, go to www.osha.gov/ebooks.

OSHA’s web site also has information on job
hazards and injury and illness prevention for
employers and workers. To learn more about
OSHA’s safety and health resources online,
visit www.osha.gov or www.osha.gov/html/
a-z-index.html.

http://www.osha.gov/publications

http://www.osha.gov/ebooks

http://www.osha.gov

http://www.osha.gov/html/a-z-index.html

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
73

NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation
Program

Getting Help with Health Hazards
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) is a federal agency that conducts
scientific and medical research on workers’
safety and health. At no cost to employers or
workers, NIOSH can help identify health hazards
and recommend ways to reduce or eliminate
those hazards in the workplace through its Health
Hazard Evaluation (HHE) Program.

Workers, union representatives and employers
can request a NIOSH HHE. An HHE is often
requested when there is a higher than expected
rate of a disease or injury in a group of workers.
These situations may be the result of an unknown
cause, a new hazard, or a mixture of sources. To
request a NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation go
to www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/request.html. To find
out more, in English or Spanish, about the Health
Hazard Evaluation Program:

E-mail HHERequestHelp@cdc.gov or
call 800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636).

How to Contact OSHA

For questions or to get information or advice,
to report an emergency, fatality, inpatient
hospitalization, amputation, or loss of an eye, or to
file a confidential complaint, contact your nearest
OSHA office, visit www.osha.gov or call OSHA
at 1-800-321-OSHA (6742), TTY 1-877-889-5627.

For assistance, contact us.
We are OSHA. We can help.

It’s confidential.

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/request.html

mailto:HHERequestHelp@cdc.gov

http://www.osha.gov

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
74

OSHA Regional Offices

Region I
Boston Regional Office
(CT*, ME*, MA, NH, RI, VT*)
JFK Federal Building, Room E340
Boston, MA 02203
(617) 565-9860 (617) 565-9827 Fax

Region II
New York Regional Office
(NJ*, NY*, PR*, VI*)
201 Varick Street, Room 670
New York, NY 10014
(212) 337-2378 (212) 337-2371 Fax

Region III
Philadelphia Regional Office
(DE, DC, MD*, PA, VA*, WV)
The Curtis Center
170 S. Independence Mall West
Suite 740 West
Philadelphia, PA 19106-3309
(215) 861-4900 (215) 861-4904 Fax

Region IV
Atlanta Regional Office
(AL, FL, GA, KY*, MS, NC*, SC*, TN*)
61 Forsyth Street, SW, Room 6T50
Atlanta, GA 30303
(678) 237-0400 (678) 237-0447 Fax

Region V
Chicago Regional Office
(IL*, IN*, MI*, MN*, OH, WI)
230 South Dearborn Street
Room 3244
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2220 (312) 353-7774 Fax

Region

Dallas Regional Office
(AR, LA, NM*, OK, TX)
525 Griffin Street, Room 602

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Dallas, TX 75202
(972) 850-4145 (972) 850-4149 Fax
(972) 850-4150 FSO Fax

Region VII
Kansas City Regional Office
(IA*, KS, MO, NE)
Two Pershing Square Building
2300 Main Street, Suite 1010
Kansas City, MO 64108-2416
(816) 283-8745 (816) 283-0547 Fax

Region VIII
Denver Regional Office
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT*, WY*)
Cesar Chavez Memorial Building
1244 Speer Boulevard, Suite 551
Denver, CO 80204
(720) 264-6550 (720) 264-6585 Fax

Region IX
San Francisco Regional Office
(AZ*, CA*, HI*, NV*, and American Samoa,
Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands)
90 7th Street, Suite 18100
San Francisco, CA 94103
(415) 625-2547 (415) 625-2534 Fax

Region X
Seattle Regional Office
(AK*, ID, OR*, WA*)
300 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1280
Seattle, WA 98104
(206) 757-6700 (206) 757-6705 Fax

* These states and territories operate their own
OSHA-approved job safety and health plans and
cover state and local government employees as well
as private sector employees. The Connecticut, Illinois,
Maine, New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands
programs cover public employees only. (Private
sector workers in these states are covered by Federal
OSHA). States with approved programs must have
standards that are identical to, or at least as effective
as, the Federal OSHA standards.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
76

Note: To get contact information for OSHA area
offices, OSHA-approved state plans and OSHA
consultation projects, please visit us online at
www.osha.gov or call us at 1-800-321-OSHA (6742).

NVCA

WA
AK

ND
MN

IN
IL

MS
AL GA

NH
VT

RICT

VA DC

TN
NC

OSHA-approved state plans (private sector and
public employees)

Federal OSHA (private sector and most federal employees)

OSHA-approved state plans (for public employees only;
private sector employees are covered by Federal OSHA)

OSHA-Approved State Plans

http://www.osha.gov

(800) 321-OSHA (6742)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

U.S. Department of Labor

For more information:

Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration

www.osha.gov (800) 321-OSHA (6742)

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records
Aerial Lifts
Air Tools
Asbestos
Belt Sanding Machines
Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)
Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica; and Hazard Communication)
Compressed Air, Use of
Compressed Gas Cylinders
Concrete and Masonry Construction
Confined Spaces
Cranes and Derricks
Demolition
Disposal Chutes
Diving
Drinking Water
Electrical Installations
Electrical Work Practices
Excavating and Trenching
Exits
Explosives and Blasting
Eye and Face Protection
Fall Protection
Fall Protection, Falling Objects
Fall Protection, Wall Openings
Fire Protection
Flaggers
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)
Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists
General Duty Clause
Grinding
Hand Tools
Hazard Communication
Hazardous Waste Operations
Head Protection
Hearing Protection
Heating Devices, Temporary
Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers and Signs, Signals, and Barricades)
Hoists, Material and Personnel
Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)
Housekeeping
Illumination
Jointers
Ladders
Lasers
Lead
Lift Slab
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Medical Services and First Aid
Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment
Noise (See Hearing Protection)
Personal Protective Equipment
Powder-Actuated Tools
Power Transmission and Distribution
Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts)
Power Transmission, Mechanical
Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals
Radiation, Ionizing
Railings
Recordkeeping: Recording and
Reporting Requirements
Reinforced Steel
Respiratory Protection
Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)
Safety Nets
Saws
Band Saws
Portable Circular Saws
Radial Saws
Swing or Sliding Cut-Off Saws
Table Saws

Scaffolds, General Requirements
Scaffold, Bricklaying
Scaffold, Erectors and Dismantlers
Scaffold, Fall Arrest Systems
Scaffold, Guardrails
Scaffolds, Mobile
Scaffold, Planking
Scaffolds, Supported
Scaffolds, Suspension (Swing)

Signs, Signals, and Barricades (See Flaggers)
Silica
Stairs
Steel Erection
Storage
Tire Cages
Toeboards
Toilets
Training and Inspections
Underground Construction
Washing Facilities
Water, Working Over or Near
Welding, Cutting, and Heating
Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes
Woodworking Machinery

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights
OSHA Assistance, Services and Programs

Establishing an Injury and Illness
Prevention Program
Compliance Assistance Specialists
Free On-site Safety and Health Consultation Services for Small Business
Cooperative Programs
Strategic Partnerships and Alliances
Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)
Occupational Safety and Health Training
OSHA Educational Materials

NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Program

Getting Help with Health Hazards
How to Contact OSHA
OSHA Regional Offices
OSHA-Approved State Plans

Electrical Safety
Unsafe condition

1
1926 Subpart K ‑ Electrical
This presentation is designed to assist trainers conducting OSHA 10-hour Construction Industry outreach training for workers. Since workers are the target audience, this presentation emphasizes hazard identification, avoidance, and control – not standards. No attempt has been made to treat the topic exhaustively. It is essential that trainers tailor their presentations to the needs and understanding of their audience.
This presentation is not a substitute for any of the provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 or for any standards issued by the U.S. Department of Labor. Mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Labor.
This presentation addresses electrical safety requirements that are necessary for the safety of construction employees and is divided into major divisions as follows:
Overview. Includes why electricity is dangerous and how it works.
Hazard / Controls. Covers the main hazards and explains the best ways to prevent these hazards from occurring.
General Planning and Controls.

Electricity – The Dangers
About 5 workers are electrocuted every week
Causes 12% of young worker workplace deaths
Takes very little electricity to cause harm
Significant risk of causing fires

2
Whenever you work with power tools or electrical circuits there is a risk of electrical hazards, especially electrical shock. Risks are increased at construction sites because many jobs involve electric power tools.
Electrical trades workers must pay special attention to electrical hazards because they work on electrical circuits. Coming in contact with an electrical voltage can cause current to flow through the body, resulting in electrical shock and burns. Serious injury or even death may occur.
Electricity has long been recognized as a serious workplace hazard, exposing employees to electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and explosions. In 1999, for example, 278 workers died from electrocutions at work, accounting for almost 5 percent of all on-the-job fatalities that year, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. What makes these statistics more tragic is that most of these fatalities could have been easily avoided.

What primarily causes electrocution?
Contact with overhead power lines
Contact with live circuits in panels
Poorly maintained cords and tools
Lightning strikes

Trained electrician servicing an electrical panel.

3
Trainer Notes:
Be sure to review all of items and point out that many operating engineers have been killed by contact with live overhead lines. This picture depicts a trained electrician with proper electrical PPE servicing an electrical panel. Stress with the class how only a trained electrician can work in a live electrical panel. They should always attempt to get the circuits shut down and locked out.

Four Main Types of Electrical Injuries
Shock
Burns
Falls due to contact with electricity
Electrocution (death)
Aftermath from contact with power lines

4
Trainer Notes:
The following text describes the fatality pictured in this slide:
In 2003, a 53-year-old construction worker was electrocuted and died when the forklift he was guiding hit an overhead powerline and became energized. The victim was connected to the forklift by a cable he was holding. The system arced to the grass and caught the grass on fire. The operator initially stayed in the cab until the fire spread to the forklift then jumped clear as instructed in prior training.

Working With Electricity At Heights
Many falls are caused by accidental contact with electricity
Be aware! Maintain safe working distances

Unsafe condition

5
Trainer Notes:
Workers need to be cautioned that the risks of electricity are greater while working at elevations because any contact with electricity, no matter how mild, can cause a physical reaction that can result in a fall. The situation is made more difficult because it may not be possible to shut off the electricity and it may be high voltage.
This would be a good opportunity to discuss the hierarchy of controls. Ask the class what controls they can think of and what level of the hierarchy they represent. Here are some possible answers:
Have the electricity shut down = Engineering control
Maintain a safe working distance = Administrative control
Wear personal fall arrest system = Personal protective equipment

Electrical Shock
An electrical shock is received when electrical
current passes through the body.
You will get an electrical shock if a part of your
body completes an electrical circuit by…
Touching a live wire and an electrical ground, or
Touching a live wire and another wire at a different voltage.

6
Electricity travels in closed circuits, and its normal route is through a conductor. Electric shock occurs when the body becomes a part of the circuit.
Grounding is a physical connection to the earth, which is at zero volts.
The metal parts of electric tools and machines may become energized if there is a break in the insulation of the tool or machine wiring. A worker using these tools and machines is made less vulnerable to electric shock when there is a low-resistance path from the metallic case of the tool or machine to the ground. This is done through the use of an equipment grounding conductor—a low-resistance wire that causes the unwanted current to pass directly to the ground, thereby greatly reducing the amount of current passing through the body of the person in contact with the tool or machine.

Shock Severity
Severity of the shock depends on:
Path of current through the body
Amount of current flowing through the body (amps)
Duration of the shocking current through the body,
LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT MEAN LOW HAZARD

7
Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
– The voltage of the current.
– The presence of moisture
– The general health of the person prior to the shock.
Low voltages can be extremely dangerous because, all other factors being equal, the degree of injury increases the longer the body is in contact with the circuit.
The resistance of the body varies based on:
The amount of moisture on the skin (less moisture = more resistance)
The size of the area of contact (smaller area = more resistance)
The pressure applied to the contact point (less pressure = more resistance)
Muscular structure (less muscle = less resistance)

Burns
Most common shock-related injury
Occurs when you touch electrical wiring or equipment that is improperly used or maintained
Typically occurs on hands
Very serious injury that needs immediate attention

8
Shock-related injuries include burns, internal injuries, and injuries due to
involuntary muscle contractions.
The most common shock-related injury is a burn. Burns suffered in electrical incidents may be one or more of the following three types.
Electrical burns cause tissue damage, and are the result of heat generated by the flow of electrical current through the body. These are one of the most serious injuries you can receive and require immediate attention.
Arc or Flash burns are caused by high temperatures near the body produced by an electrical arc or explosion. Attend to them immediately.
Thermal contact burns occur when skin comes in contact with overheated electric equipment, or when clothing is ignited by an electrical incident.

Hazard – Exposed Electrical Parts
Cover removed from wiring or breaker box

Control – Isolate Electrical Parts
Use guards or barriers
Replace covers
Guard live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more against accidental contact

10
Reference 1926.403(i)(2)
Except as required or permitted elsewhere in the subpart, live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more shall be guarded against accidental contact by cabinets or other forms of enclosures, or by any of the following means:
* By location in a room, vault, or similar enclosure that is accessible only to qualified persons.
* By partitions or screens so arranged that only qualified persons will have access to the space within reach of the live parts. Any openings in such partitions or screens shall be so sized and located that persons are not likely to come into accidental contact with the live parts or to bring conducting objects into contact with them.
* By location on a balcony, gallery, or platform so elevated and arranged as to exclude unqualified persons.
* By elevation of 8 feet or more above the floor or other working surface and so installed as to exclude unqualified persons.

Control – Isolate Electrical Parts – Cabinets, Boxes & Fittings
Conductors going into them must be protected, and unused openings must be closed

11
Reference 1926.405(b)(1)
Conductors entering boxes, cabinets, or fittings. Conductors entering boxes, cabinets, or fittings shall be protected from abrasion, and openings through which conductors enter shall be effectively closed. Unused openings in cabinets, boxes, and fittings shall also be effectively closed.
Covers and canopies. All pull boxes, junction boxes, and fittings shall be provided with covers. If metal covers are used, they shall be grounded. In energized installations each outlet box shall have a cover, faceplate, or fixture canopy. Covers of outlet boxes having holes through which flexible cord pendants pass shall be provided with bushings designed for the purpose or shall have smooth, well‑rounded surfaces on which the cords may bear.

Control – Close Openings
Junction boxes, pull boxes and fittings must have approved covers
Unused openings in cabinets, boxes and fittings must be closed (no missing knockouts)
Photo shows violations
of these two requirements

13
This one cautions against high voltage overhead. You don’t want to be raising the truck bed. It’s a temporary sign, but it is adequate and acceptable.

Overhead Power Lines
The #1 Killer

14
Trainer Notes:
Power lines are the number one killer of operating engineers when electricity is involved.

Why do overhead power lines pose a major problem?
Overhead lines are typically not insulated. Any covering is generally a weather protection, not insulation.
Over 90 percent of the contacts occur on overhead distribution lines
Operators are normally safe if they stay on the equipment
Ground personnel are over 8 times more likely to be killed

15
Trainer Notes:
Ask this question and then work through each bullet item, emphasizing key points:
Overhead lines are typically not insulated. The covering that a worker sees is generally to protect the line from weather, not to protect a worker from electrocution;
Over 90 percent of the contacts occur on overhead distribution lines, which is a real concern to crane operators;
Operators are normally safe if they stay on the equipment; and
Ground personnel are over 8 times more likely to be killed because contact with overhead lines on equipment usually provides a path to ground that can avoid the operator, but workers around the equipment are grounded and the current will flow through them.
Other points you can raise:
If you touch a power line, electricity will attempt to travel through your body.
When electricity travels through the body, it heats up and burns body tissue internally.
Electricity leaves the body violently, causing burns or even blowing an exit hole.

How do I protect myself from overhead power lines?
All equipment – ladders, scaffolds, cranes, trucks, forklifts, etc. – MUST maintain a minimum 10 foot clearance from 50 kV or less, including service entrance cable (unless insulated)
Add 4 inches for every kV over 50 kV

16
Trainer Notes:
OSHA’s standard requires that all equipment – ladders, scaffolds, cranes, trucks, forklifts, etc. – MUST maintain a minimum 10 foot clearance from 50 kV or less, including service entrance cable (unless insulated). As the voltage (and therefore the danger) increases, the distance must be increased by adding .4 inches for every kV over 50 kV. This awkward number came about because the original standard was in the metric system and 1 centimeter equals 0.4 inches. It is easier to understand the more protective guidelines from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI):
100 kV – 15 feet
350 kV – 20 feet
500 kV – 25 feet

The Ground May Be Energized!
Electricity decreases with the resistance of the ground
As potential drops, fields develop around the electrified machine
If you step across a line of unequal potential, you could be electrocuted

17
Trainer Notes:
Discuss the process of voltage decreasing by the resistance of the ground. Energy fields can be set up around the grounded object. If a person steps across two different levels of voltage or touches an object at a different level, electricity may pass through the body.

What do you do if contact with lines occurs?
Stay on the machine if possible
Warn all others to stay away
Notify power company immediately
Attempt to move away but assure line is not “connected”

18
Trainer Notes:
Emphasize that it is difficult for an operator not to panic when the boom contacts an overhead line, but these recommendations should be followed:
Stay on the machine if possible;
Warn all others to stay away;
Notify power company immediately; and
Attempt to move the equipment away but assure line is not “connected.”

Get away safely!
If you must get out, jump with your feet together
Do not touch the machine or outriggers
Hop or shuffle out of the area

19
Trainer Notes:
Point out the red circle and indicate that operators have saved their lives by following the guidance of jumping with their feet together. Emphasize that they need to land with their feet together and hop away. They need to avoid touching the equipment and particularly the outriggers at all costs – the results are almost always deadly!

Underground power lines present constant danger
Look for evidence of underground utilities
Call Dig-Safe, the utility company, or equivalent
If contact occurs, follow same procedures as for overhead lines
Exposed power lines

20
Trainer Notes:
This picture is an example of damaged and exposed power lines and cables.
Point out that contractors must:
Look for evidence of underground utilities;
Call Dig-Safe, the utility company, or equivalent; and
If contact occurs, follow same procedures as for overhead lines.
As an instructor, you may want to refresh yourself on the OSHA standard:
1926.651(b)(1) The estimated location of utility installations, such as sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water lines, or any other underground installations that reasonably may be expected to be encountered during excavation work, shall be determined prior to opening an excavation.
1926.651(b)(2) Utility companies or owners shall be contacted within established or customary local response times, advised of the proposed work, and asked to establish the location of the utility underground installations prior to the start of actual excavation. When utility companies or owners cannot respond to a request to locate underground utility installations within 24 hours (unless a longer period is required by state or local law), or cannot establish the exact location of these installations, the employer may proceed, provided the employer does so with caution, and provided detection equipment or other acceptable means to locate utility installations are used.

Overhead power lines
Photo courtesy of Robert Carr

21
Trainer Notes:
The potential hazard again is the risk of the cranes contacting power lines.
As background information, the photographer, Robert Carr, described this scene as:
“Two Manitowoc track-mounted lattice boom cranes with luffing booms supporting luffing jibs supporting fixed jibs on top. Cranes are servicing reconstruction of seating in stadium, from position outside and above stadium perimeter. Taken at The Big House, University of Michigan Stadium, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2006.”

Hazard – Defective Cords & Wires
Plastic or rubber covering is missing
Damaged extension cords & tools

22
Extension cords may have damaged insulation. Sometimes the insulation inside an electrical tool or appliance is damaged. When insulation is damaged, exposed metal parts may become energized if a live wire inside touches them. Electric hand tools that are old, damaged, or misused may have damaged insulation inside. If you touch damaged power tools or other equipment, you will receive a shock. You are more likely to receive a shock if the tool is not grounded or double-insulated.

Hazard – Damaged Cords
Cords can be damaged by:
Aging
Door or window edges
Staples or fastenings
Abrasion from adjacent materials
Activity in the area
Improper use can cause shocks, burns or fire

Unsafe condition

23
Reference 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(I)
The normal wear and tear on extension and flexible cords at your site can loosen or expose wires, creating hazardous conditions. Cords that are not 3-wire type, not designed for hard-usage, or that have been modified, increase your risk of contacting electrical current.

Grounding
Grounding creates a low-resistance path from a tool to the earth to disperse unwanted current.

When a short or lightning occurs, energy flows to the ground, protecting you from electrical shock, injury and death.

24
Grounding is a secondary method of preventing electrical shock.
Grounded electrical systems are usually connected to a grounding rod that is placed 6-8 feet deep into the earth.
Grounded – connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
Grounded, effectively (Over 600 volts, nominal.) Permanently connected to earth through a ground connection of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient ampacity that ground fault current which may occur cannot build up to voltages dangerous to personnel.
Grounded conductor. A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded.
Grounding conductor. A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes.

Hazard – Improper Grounding
Tools plugged into improperly grounded circuits may become energized
Broken wire or plug on extension cord
Some of the most frequently violated OSHA standards

Unsafe condition

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The most frequently violated OSHA electrical regulation is improper grounding of equipment and circuitry. The metal parts of an electrical wiring system that we touch (switch plates, ceiling light fixtures, conduit, etc.) should be grounded and at 0 volts. If the system is not grounded properly, these parts may become energized. Metal parts of motors, appliances, or electronics that are plugged into improperly grounded circuits may be energized. When a circuit is not grounded properly, a hazard exists because unwanted voltage cannot be safely eliminated. If there is no safe path to ground for fault currents, exposed metal parts in damaged appliances can become energized.
Extension cords may not provide a continuous path to ground because of a broken ground wire or plug.
Electrical systems are often grounded to metal water pipes that serve as a continuous path to ground. If plumbing is used as a path to ground for fault current, all pipes must be made of conductive material (a type of metal). Many electrocutions and fires occur because (during renovation or repair) parts of metal plumbing are replaced with plastic pipe, which does not conduct electricity.

Control – Electrical Protective Devices
Automatically opens circuit if excess current from overload or ground-fault is detected – shutting off electricity
Includes GFCI’s, fuses, and circuit breakers
Fuses and circuit breakers are overcurrent devices. When too much current:
Fuses melt
Circuit breakers trip open

26
To prevent too much current in a circuit, a circuit breaker or fuse is placed in the circuit. If there is too much current in the circuit, the breaker “trips” and opens like a switch. If an overloaded circuit is equipped with a fuse, an internal part of the fuse melts, opening the circuit. Both breakers and fuses do the same thing: open the circuit to shut off the electrical current
The basic idea of an overcurrent device is to make a weak link in the circuit. In the case of a fuse, the fuse is destroyed before another part of the system is destroyed. In the case of a circuit breaker, a set of contacts opens the circuit. Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker can be re-used by re-closing the contacts. Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to protect equipment and facilities, and in so doing, they also provide considerable protection against shock in most situations. However, the only electrical protective device whose sole purpose is to protect people is the ground-fault circuit-interrupter.

Power Tool Requirements
Have a three-wire cord with ground plugged into a grounded receptacle, or
Be double insulated, or
Be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer

27
Common Examples of Misused Equipment = OSHA Violations
* Using multi-receptacle boxes designed to be mounted by fitting them with a power cord and placing them on the floor.
* Fabricating extension cords with ROMEX® wire.
* Using equipment outdoors that is labeled for use only in dry, indoor locations.
* Attaching ungrounded, two-prong adapter plugs to three-prong cords and tools.
* Using circuit breakers or fuses with the wrong rating for over-current protection, e.g. using a 30-amp breaker in a system with 15- or 20-amp receptacles. Protection is lost because it will not trip when the system’s load has been exceeded.
* Using modified cords or tools, e.g., removing ground prongs, face plates, insulation, etc.
* Using cords or tools with worn insulation or exposed wires.

Preventing Electrical Hazards – Tools
Inspect tools before use
Use the right tool correctly
Protect your tools
Use double insulated tools
Double Insulated marking

28
* Use tools and equipment according to the instructions included in their listing, labeling or certification.
* Visually inspect all electrical equipment before use. Remove from service any equipment with frayed cords, missing ground prongs, cracked tool casings, etc. Apply a warning tag to any defective tool and do not use it until the problem has been corrected.

Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist
Tripped circuit breakers or blown fuses
Warm tools, wires, cords, connections, or junction boxes
GFCI that shuts off a circuit
Worn or frayed insulation around wire or connection
Unsafe condition

29
There are “clues” that electrical hazards exist. For example, if a GFCI keeps tripping while you are using a power tool, there is a problem. Don’t keep resetting the GFCI and continue to work. You must evaluate the “clue” and decide what action should be taken to control the hazard.
There are a number of other conditions that indicate a hazard.
Tripped circuit breakers and blown fuses show that too much current is flowing in a circuit. This could be due to several factors, such as malfunctioning equipment or a short between conductors. You need to determine the cause in order to control the hazard.
An electrical tool, appliance, wire, or connection that feels warm may indicate too much current in the circuit or equipment. You need to evaluate the situation and determine your risk.
An extension cord that feels warm may indicate too much current for the wire size of the cord. You must decide when action needs to be taken.
A cable, fuse box, or junction box that feels warm may indicate too much current in the circuits.
A burning odor may indicate overheated insulation.
Worn, frayed, or damaged insulation around any wire or other conductor is an electrical hazard because the conductors could be exposed. Contact with an exposed wire could cause a shock. Damaged insulation could cause a short, leading to arcing or a fire. Inspect all insulation for scrapes and breaks. You need to evaluate the seriousness of any damage you find and decide how to deal with the hazard.
A GFCI that trips indicates there is current leakage from the circuit First, you must decide the probable cause of the leakage by recognizing any contributing hazards. Then, you must decide what action needs to be taken.

Lockout and Tagging of Circuits
Apply locks to power source after de-energizing
Tag deactivated controls
Tag de-energized equipment and circuits at all points where they can be energized
Tags must identify equipment or circuits being worked on

30
Reference 1926.417:
(a) Controls. Controls that are to be deactivated during the course of work on energized or de-energized equipment or circuits shall be tagged.
(b) Equipment and circuits. Equipment or circuits that are deenergized shall be rendered inoperative and shall have tags attached at all points where such equipment or circuits can be energized.
(c) Tags. Tags shall be placed to identify plainly the equipment or circuits being worked on.
(d) Lockout and tagging. While any employee is exposed to contact with parts of fixed electric equipment or circuits which have been de-energized, the circuits energizing the parts shall be locked out or tagged or both.
Case study
An electrician was removing a metal fish tape from a hole at the base of a metal light pole.
(A fish tape is used to pull wire through a conduit run.) The fish tape became energized, electrocuting him. As a result of its inspection, OSHA issued a citation for three serious violations of the agency’s construction standards.
If the following OSHA requirements had been followed, this death could have been prevented.
• De-energize all circuits before beginning work.
• Always lock out and tag out de-energized equipment.
• Companies must train workers to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions

Preventing Electrical Hazards – Planning
Plan your work with others
Plan to avoid falls
Plan to lock-out and tag-out equipment
Remove jewelry
Avoid wet conditions and overhead power lines

31
Make your environment safer by doing the following:
Lock and tag out circuits and machines.
Prevent overloaded wiring by using the right size and type of wire.
Prevent exposure to live electrical parts by isolating them.
Prevent exposure to live wires and parts by using insulation.
Prevent shocking currents from electrical systems and tools by grounding them.
Prevent shocking currents by using GFCI’s.
Prevent too much current in circuits by using overcurrent protection devices.

Avoid Wet Conditions
If you touch a live wire or other electrical component while standing in even a small puddle of water you’ll get a shock.
Damaged insulation, equipment, or tools can expose you to live electrical parts.
Unsafe condition

32
A damaged tool may not be grounded properly, so the housing of the tool may be energized, causing you to receive a shock.
Improperly grounded metal switch plates and ceiling lights are especially hazardous in wet conditions. If you touch a live electrical component with an uninsulated hand tool, you are more likely to receive a shock when standing in water. But remember: you don’t have to be standing in water to be electrocuted. Wet clothing, high humidity, and perspiration also increase your chances of being electrocuted.
Use extra caution when working with electricity when water is present in the environment or on the skin. Pure water is a poor conductor, but small amounts of impurities, like salt and acid (both are in perspiration), make it a ready conductor.

Avoid Wet Conditions
Improperly grounded metal switch plates & ceiling lights are especially hazardous in wet conditions.
Wet clothing, high humidity, and perspiration increase your chances of being electrocuted.
Unsafe condition

What if I work in wet conditions with electricity?
Avoid working in wet conditions, whenever possible
Use approved electrical equipment for wet conditions
Do not stand in wet areas and operate electrical equipment
How many unsafe acts can you identify?

34
Trainers Notes:
Remind the class that, based on Ohms Law, working in wet conditions greatly reduces the resistance and puts workers at increased risk of electrocution. Using the hierarchy of controls, the highest level of protection comes from eliminating the hazard: avoid working in wet conditions, whenever possible. If that can’t be done, using approved electrical equipment can help.
Ask the class how many things they can see that are wrong in this picture. Make sure they note the patched cord running through the puddle.

Preventing Electrical Hazards – PPE
Proper foot protection (not tennis shoes)
Rubber insulating gloves, hoods, sleeves, matting, and blankets
Hard hat (insulated – nonconductive)

35
Personal protective equipment (PPE) should always be the last line of defense against a hazard. If the hazard is unavoidable, and cannot be addressed in any other safe manner, then employees must be fitted with proper PPE.
Safety shoes should be nonconductive and protect your feet from completing an electrical circuit to ground. They can also protect against open circuits of up to 600 volts in dry conditions. These shoes should be used with other insulating equipment and in connection with active precautions to reduce or eliminate the potential for providing a path for hazardous electrical energy.
When it is necessary to handle or come close to wires with a potential live electrical charge, it is essential to use proper insulating PPE to protect employees from contact with the hazardous electrical energy.
Specific types of hard hats are needed when performing electrical work.
A “Class B” Electrical/Utility type hard hat protects against falling objects and high-voltage shock and burns.

Preventing Electrical Hazards – Proper Wiring and Connectors
Use and test GFCI’s
Check switches and insulation
Use three prong plugs
Use extension cords only when necessary & assure in proper condition and right type for job
Use correct connectors

36
If the polarity is reversed on a GFCI, the lights will test good, but the press to test button will not trip the circuit.

Training
Deenergize electric equipment before inspecting or repairing
Using cords, cables, and electric tools that are in good repair
Lockout / Tagout recognition and procedures
Use appropriate protective equipment
Train employees working with electric equipment in safe work practices,

37
1926.21(b)(2)
De-energizing Electrical Equipment.
Accidental or unexpected starting of electrical equipment can cause injury or death. Before ANY inspections or repairs are made, the current must be turned off at the switch box and the switch padlocked in the OFF position. At the same time, the switch or controls of the machine or other equipment being locked out of service must be securely tagged to show which equipment or circuits are being worked on.
Employees shall be trained in and familiar with the safety-related work practices that pertain to their respective job assignments.

What if someone gets electrocuted?
Look first, but don’t touch
Turn off the source of electricity if possible. If not, move the source away from you and the affected person using a non-conducting object
Get Emergency Medical Services there
Try not to touch burns
If qualified, start basic first aid and CPR as necessary until EMS arrives

38
Trainer Notes:
Ask the class if anyone has been on a job where someone got a serious shock. Stress that quick and appropriate action is needed to save the victim AND to be sure you aren’t also a victim. These common sense recommendations should be reviewed because during an emergency it is easy to do the wrong thing.
Look first. Don’t touch the victim because current can still be flowing through his or her body.
Turn off the source of electricity if possible. If not, move the source away from you and the affected person using a non-conducting object.
Get EMS there.
Try not to touch burns.
If you are qualified, start basic first aid and CPR as necessary until EMS arrives.

Construction Safety
Unit V Assignment – Electrical Hazards

Student Name:

Date:

Instructions:

Each of the following slides contains a construction site photo that depicts one or more electrical hazards. There is also an electrical theory math slide following the photo slides.

Examine each photo, and answer the questions in the notes section of each slide. Make sure to also move the red arrow (provided in the bottom left corner of each slide) to point toward the location of the hazard. Also, provide an answer in the notes section of the electrical theory math slide. Show your work for the calculation that you are asked to perform.

Save the completed presentation, and upload it to Blackboard.

Be sure to put your name at the top of this first slide!

Figure 1
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA], n.d.-a)

Identify and describe the electrical hazard in this photo. Move the arrows over the photo to indicate the locations of the hazard.

What OSHA construction standard(s) could be cited?

What would you recommend to correct the hazard?
2

Figure 2
(OSHA, n.d.-b)

Identify and describe the electrical hazard in this photo. Move the arrow over the photo to indicate the location of the hazard.

What OSHA construction standard(s) could be cited?

What would you recommend to correct the hazard?
3

Figure 3
(OSHA, n.d.-c)

Identify and describe the electrical hazard in this photo. Move the arrow over the photo to indicate the location of the hazard.

What OSHA construction standard(s) could be cited?

What would you recommend to correct the hazard(s)?

Figure 4
(OSHA, n.d.-d)

Identify and describe the electrical hazard in this photo. Move the arrow over the photo to indicate the location of the hazard.
What OSHA construction standard(s) could be cited?

What would you recommend to correct the hazard?

Figure 5
(OSHA, n.d.-e)

Identify and describe the electrical hazard in this photo. Move the arrow over the photo to indicate the location of the hazard.
What OSHA construction standard(s) could be cited?

What would you recommend to correct the hazard(s)?

Electrical Theory Math Quiz
Calculate the current (in amperes) flowing through the following two circuits given the following:
Voltage = 125
R1 = 15 Ohms
R2 = 20 Ohms
R3 = 5 Ohms
Be sure to show your work!
Hint: You will find guidance on how to complete this calculation in the unit lesson.

Circuit #1: Series
Circuit #2: Parallel

Reference
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-a). Figure 1 [Image]. From Recognize any hazard(s)? [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/electrocution/electr_hazrec.ppt
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-b). Figure 2 [Image]. From Recognize any hazard(s)? [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/electrocution/electr_hazrec.ppt
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-c). Figure 3 [Image]. From Recognize any hazard(s)? [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/electrocution/electr_hazrec.ppt
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-d). Figure 4 [Image]. From Recognize any hazard(s)? [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/electrocution/electr_hazrec.ppt
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-e). Figure 5 [Image]. From Recognize any hazard(s)? [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/electrocution/electr_hazrec.ppt

Unit Assignment

The instructions will appear on the first slide of the presentation. Be sure to save the presentation to your computer first in order to be able to edit the presentation and add your responses in the notes section for each slide. Once you have completed the assignment, save your changes.

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

2. Apply Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards and related practices to construction.
2.1 Identify types of welding and related hazards on a construction site.
2.2 Identify electrical safety standards and work practices.
2.3 Identify standards and work practices for safe use of scaffolds.
2.4 Identify the requirements for design and use of stairs and ladders on construction sites.

4. Examine methods used to control common construction hazards.
4.1 Analyze hazards that contribute to construction accidents.

Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

2.1
Unit V Lesson
Required Readings
Unit V Assessment

2.2
Unit V Lesson
Required Readings
Unit V Assessment

Unit V Lesson
Required Readings
Unit V Assessment

2.4
Unit V Lesson
Required Readings
Unit V Assessment

4.1

Unit V Lesson
Required Readings
Unit V Assessment
Unit V Assignment

Reading Assignment

Click here to access the OSHA Construction Industry Digest and read the sections indicated below.

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (2014). Construction industry digest [Brochure]. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2202

– Electrical Installations, pp. 18-19
– Electrical Work Practices, pp.19-20
– Ladders, pp. 38-39
– Scaffolds, General Requirements, pp. 52-57
– Stairs, pp. 58-60
– Welding, Cutting, and Heating, pp. 65-66

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). Electrical Safety [PowerPoint presentation].
Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/harwoodgrants/grantmaterials/fy2009/sh-19504-09

UNIT STUDY GUIDE

Welding and Electrical
Safety, Scaffolds, Ladders,
and Stairs

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2202

https://www.osha.gov/harwoodgrants/grantmaterials/fy2009/sh-19504-09

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Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). Scaffolds [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from

https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). Stairways and ladders [PowerPoint presentation], slides
1-13. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). OSHA fact sheet: Controlling hazardous fume and
gases during welding [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA_FS-
3647_Welding

Unit Lesson

In this unit, we continue our investigation of the hazards common to many construction projects.

Welding and Cutting

Installation and modification of pipes and steel structures and cutting of metals are common tasks in
construction. These tasks rely upon high temperatures to melt metal. The most common types of welding and
cutting use gas or electricity to generate the high temperatures necessary. Gas welding uses a mixture of
flammable gas and oxygen to create a flame and is often used for welding iron, steel, cast iron, and copper
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration [OSHA], n.d.-b). Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is a
common type of arc welding. TIG welding uses an electric arc to heat metals and an inert gas such as helium
to shield the weld area from air. Fire and burns are two of the more obvious hazards associated with all
welding. In addition, each type also has its own specific hazards that must be controlled. The fuel and oxygen
for gas welding are supplied in compressed gas cylinders. The cylinders, whether full or empty, must be
handled and stored to prevent damage. Similarly, the inert gas used in TIG welding must be handled and
stored safely. Fuel gases and oxygen must be stored in separate areas (OSHA, 1993). TIG welding
equipment must be properly grounded; cables, connectors, and electrode holders must be adequately
insulated to prevent worker contact with the high levels of electric current used.

Regardless of the process used, the high temperature needed to weld metals generates a wide variety of air
contaminants that can be hazardous to the workers using the welding equipment as well as workers in the
vicinity of the welding operations. There are many factors that impact the level of hazard to which workers can
be exposed (OSHA, n.d.-b):

(Almeida, n.d.)

https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA_FS-3647_Welding

3
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 type of welding process,

 base metal and filler metals used,

 welding rod composition,

 location (outside, enclosed space),

 welder work practices,

 air movement, and

 use of ventilation controls.

Each welding operation must be evaluated and a determination made on the type of respiratory protection
and other PPE that may be required.

Electrical Safety

OSHA has listed electrocutions as one of the construction industry’s “Fatal Four,” accounting for nearly 9% of
construction fatalities (OSHA, n.d.-a). If you tour a construction site, you are likely to find many standards
violations and unsafe practices in the installation and use of temporary wiring, electric power tools, and
flexible extension cords. Electrical shock due to inadequate grounding is a common occurrence. There are
two ways to comply with the OSHA requirements for grounding temporary electrical installations: Provide and
use ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), or use an assured equipment grounding conductor program.

A GFCI is a portable, fast-acting circuit breaker that detects small circuit imbalances and can interrupt the
power in as little time as 1/40 of a second (Johnson, 2013). An assured grounding conductor program is a
written program developed by the employer and includes the elements listed below(OSHA, n.d.-b):

 a competent person to administer the program;

 daily visual inspections of equipment and cords;

 continuity tests of the equipment, grounding conductors, receptacles, and extension cords every three
months; and

 documentation of all inspections and tests.

Using GFCIs will protect employees and is certainly easier to do, but it will not uncover damage and defects in
equipment that can result in lost productivity and additional expense. If a piece of equipment keeps tripping a
GFCI and no action is taken to identify and remedy the electrical fault, workers are more likely to stop using
the GFCI. Inspections and testing are a best practice for the construction industry and should be part of any
electrical safety effort.

Click on the image below for practice in identifying electrical hazards.

It is important to take electricity seriously. It is also important to understand a little bit about the properties of

electricity and electrical circuits to understand how a person might become electrocuted.

There are three characteristics of electricity that are good to know if one is to have a full appreciation of how
electricity works. These include voltage, resistance, and amperage. Using water flow as an analogy, voltage

https://online.waldorf.edu/CSU_Content/Waldorf_Content/ZULU/EmergencyServices/OSH/OSH3401/W15Ec/UnitV_LessonActivity.ppsx

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

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works a bit like pressure in a water line. The key difference is that, rather than being the force that drives
water molecules through a pipe, voltage drives electrons through a conductor.

Keep in mind that the number of electrons flowing through a conductor can be hampered by other
parameters, such as the size of the conductor and how much resistance there is in the conductor. Given our
water analogy, a lot of pressure in a very small pipe will limit how much water can flow. Likewise, numerous
bends in the pipe, bottlenecks, and the smoothness of the inside of the pipe can impact flow as well. Indeed,
pipe smoothness, bottlenecks, and number of bends create resistance in a water pipe.

Resistance from an electrical perspective is measured in ohms (Ω). Basically, some materials conduct
electricity better than others. Metals such as gold, aluminum, and copper are good conductors. The latter two
are frequently used in electrical wiring because of this property. Materials like wood and rubber, however, do
not conduct electricity well. They are resistant. Often, resistors are purposely included in circuits to control
current and to keep from overloading a circuit.

Current is another important characteristic of electricity that needs to be considered. It is often designated
with the letter I. Current is measured in amperes (or amps or A for short) and basically reflects how much

electricity is flowing through a circuit. Actually, amperes are the main concern when it comes to electrocution
because the amount of current is what causes electrocutions—as can be seen below.

Going back to our water line analogy, it is apparent that the amount of water flow is also related to the
diameter of the line and the pressure. Likewise, amps are related to resistance and voltage according to the
basic formula below.

 amps = voltage/resistance or A = V/Ω

Considering this simple relationship, let’s do a simple problem.

Suppose a circuit has a voltage of X volts (V) and a resistance of Y ohms (Ω). Would the amperes be
sufficient to kill a person?

Using our equation above, which is an algebraically rearranged version of Ohm’s law, how many amps would
flow through a toaster plugged into a 120 V circuit with a resistance of 25 Ω?

Effects of electrical current in the human body
(Fowler & Miles, 2009)

(Fowler & Miles,
2009)

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Our answer to this problem would be A = 120/25, which would be 4.8 A. This would be 4,800 milliamperes
(mA) and would result in death.

Other arrangements of the formula above are as follows:

 voltage = amps X ohms or V = A ● Ω

 ohms = voltage/amps or Ω = V/A

Electrical Circuits

Now that we have some familiarity with Ohm’s law, let’s consider another aspect of electrical circuits that
relates specifically to resistance. You will note that a given electrical circuit often runs more than one item,
and the resistance from each item on the circuit subsequently needs to be considered.

Also, there are two configurations for electrical circuits. The first configuration is a series circuit. Generally,
this means that the resistance sources (e.g., light bulbs) are in a linear series along the circuit. A lot of old-
fashioned Christmas light strands were wired in a series, and since the electricity completing the circuit had to
flow through each bulb, when one bulb burned out, the entire strand would go out.

Below is a diagram of a series circuit where R represents resistance points (e.g., light bulbs).

In a series circuit, resistance is cumulative; therefore, R (total) = R1 + R2 + R3. Thus, if the following is true…

 R1 = 3 Ω

 R2 = 2.5 Ω, and

 R3 = 3.5 Ω

…the total would be 3 + 2.5 + 3.5 = 9 Ω of total resistance.

Parallel circuits are a bit different, however, and are designed to make sure electricity is constantly supplied to
all of the items in a given circuit—even if one stops working. Below is a diagram of a parallel circuit.

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Again, let’s consider each resistance source (R1, R2, and R3)—a bulb for simplicity’s sake (they can also be
motors, blenders, machines, etc.). Note, in this case, that even if one of the bulbs goes out, the electricity will
still find its way back to the electrical source through the other pathways, and the circuit would be complete.

Total resistance, however, is added differently for parallel circuits. The formula for calculating cumulative
resistance in a parallel circuit is shown below.

So, for a situation where we have the elements listed below…

 R1 = 3 Ω
 R2 = 2.5 Ω, and

 R3 = 3.5 Ω,

…we would end up with the equation below.

 1/R(total) = 1/3 + 1/2.5 + 1/3.5

 1/R(total) = .33 + .4 + .29

 1/R(total) = 1.02 Ω-1.

Taking the inverse of both sides, we get R(total) = 0.98 Ω.

Given this information, if we know the amperage of the power source and the resistance, we can figure out
the circuit amperage. If we know the amperage, we can figure out the voltage. If we either know or calculate
the amperage, we can determine if there is a significant electric shock hazard. In addition, if you refer back to
the table presented above, it does not take very many amps to stop a heart from beating.

I hope that an understanding of electrical hazards and a basic understanding of electrical fundamentals will
help to provide you with some foundations for you to build upon as a safety professional. Electric shock
hazards are very serious issues to contend with at construction sites. It is good to have a solid understanding
of electrical hazards—especially when working at construction sites where you have multiple trades running a
wide variety of electrical tools.

Scaffolds

Scaffolds are the most frequently used elevated work platform in construction. Falls represent 36% of
construction fatalities, and unsafe scaffolds are a major contributor to this statistic (OSHA, n.d.-a). Additional
hazards include bad planking, scaffold collapse, tools or debris falling from the platform, and electrocution
(contact with power lines). Scaffolds can be supported from below by load-bearing poles and legs and frames,
or suspended from above by ropes and cables. Truck-mounted aerial lifts are also classified as scaffolds
(OSHA, n.d.-c). Regardless of the type, some specific rules govern the use of all scaffolds:

 Competent person is required for erection, moving, dismantling, and inspection

 Employees must be trained on safe scaffold use

 Guardrails or personal fall arrest systems required if more than 10 ft. high

 Scaffold platform must be fully planked

 Safe access to scaffold platforms must be provided (OSHA, 2014)

Stairs and Ladders

Like scaffolds, unsafe or improper use of stairs and ladders is a significant factor in fatal falls in construction.
As construction (or demolition) progresses, worksite elevations change. Workers must be provided safe
access to all levels on a construction site. A stairway or ladder must be provided at any point of access where
there is an elevation break of 19 inches or more (OSHA, 2014). Stairways with four or more risers must have

Formula for calculating cumulative resistance

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title
at least one handrail. Open sides of stairs must be protected by a stair rail (which includes a mid-rail or
screen), and open landings and platforms must be protected by a guardrail.

Portable ladders present a significant challenge to the safety professional. Sometimes, objects and structures
on construction sites are mistaken for ladders. Pallets, boxes, inverted paint buckets, and even heavy
equipment have been known to look like ladders to some workers. Even when ladders are identified correctly,
they are not always inspected for damage or defects, or they are used incorrectly. Stepladders are used as
access ladders, workers stand on the top step of a stepladder, straight ladders are not long enough to safely
access a rooftop, ladders are not secured, metal ladders are used around energized power lines, and workers
carry heavy tools and materials up and down ladders. Some basic rules, such as the ones listed below, can
reduce the risk of falls from ladders (OSHA, n.d.-d):

 ladder inspection by a competent person,

 use of the correct ladder for the job,

 use of the correct angle and supports,

 not overloading, and

 training workers in safe ladder use.

For scaffolds, stairs, and ladders, if it is not possible to install guardrails to protect employees from falls, then
personal fall arrest systems must be used. These devices will be coved in greater detail in Unit VIII.

References

Almeida, A. (n.d.). Arnaldo Almeida’s safe cartoons [Image]. Retrieved from
http://www.almeidacartoons.com/Safe_toons1.html

Johnson, D. (2013). DeWALT construction safety and OSHA handbook. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar.

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. (2009). Electrical safety: Safety and health for electrical
trades: Student manual (Rev. ed.). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2009-
113/pdfs/2009-113

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-a). Commonly used statistics. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/oshstats/commonstats.html

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-b). Controlling hazardous fume and gases during
welding. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA_FS-3647_Welding

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-c). Scaffolds [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.-d). Stairways and ladders [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved
from https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (1993). Gas welding and cutting. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10696

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2014). Construction industry digest. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2202

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Construction Safety

QUESTION 6

Briefly explain three ways that exposure to welding fumes can be reduced in an outdoor working environment. Which of the three would be the most efficient? Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

QUESTION 7

Describe how electrical shock can contribute to falls on a construction site. Provide at least two examples. Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

QUESTION 8

What is the difference between a handrail and a stair rail? When are they required? Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

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Briefly explain three ways that exposure to welding fumes can be reduced in an outdoor working environment. Which of the three would be the most efficient?
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

Describe how electrical shock can contribute to falls on a construction site. Provide at least two examples.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

What is the difference between a handrail and a stair rail? When are they required?
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.