Open the instructions file for instructions and write 4 full pages I uploaded the sample to help you understand it better, the rest of the files is the notes of what they took in class you will need them to write this assignment.
Class Concept Identification Project
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This assignment involves identifying concepts in several environments that relate to the topics addressed throughout this course.
You will make five (5) entries that illustrate your recognition of class concepts in various areas that make you think about the content taught in class in some way.
These entries will come from five different sources including:
1. A real life interaction or discussion between people (including yourself or not)
2. A social media site (Insta, Facebook, Snapchap, Reddit, TikTok)
3. A news source (news article, news media site)
4. A movie or television program
5. A song(lyrics that reflect class concepts)
Your entries should relate to at least five (of the six) DIFFERENT topics we cover in class (sexism, racism, classism, ageism, ableism, or heterosexism.) These should be recorded by using the following format (You must use these headings in your paper, failure to do so will result in losing 1 point per entry for structure):
Topic: To which of the following : sexism, racism, classism, ageism, ableism, heterosexism (or homophobia or transphobia) is this entry related?
Description: Briefly describe the source of your entry along with the main components that relate to your analysis of that source.
Two ways relates to class concepts: In order to receive a “good” on the content portion, you must make a clear connection to the class material by using two specific terms/concept to connect to examples s and giving a description of WHY
this is exemplified in your choice. (This should be minimum 1/2 page)
Insight gained: A short paragraph (minimum 1/4 page) discussing your thoughts or feelings after thinking about the entry.
These entries must be typed out (12 point font, double-spaced, 1 inch margins) and submitted to Bb.
Structure: ____(follows format, 1) _____(does not follow format, 0)
Mechanics: ____(no major grammar errors or typos, 1) ____(contains errors, 0)
I have posted some samples entries from previous semesters so that you can see what is expected on Bb below this assignment. These entries are representative of what is needed to receive the full points.
Topic: Homophobia
Description:
My roommate for college is a gay man and a really good friend of mine. When I went back to my hometown from college, I told some friends that my new roommate was gay. One of the guys stated, “I would NOT be able to live with a gay guy. He’ll look at you while you change and think about you. I would be afraid he would try to make a move. That really sucks for you.”
Relation to class material:
Two class concepts which relate to this incident are heterosexism and the luxury of oblivion. In our notes, Gregory Herek defined heterosexism as “the ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationships, or community.” My roommate is a completely normal person, and you would never know his sexual orientation unless he told you. Because he is gay, others may automatically assume the worst about him and deny his non-heterosexual identity. My hometown friends thought being gay is ‘unnatural’ and thought of him as some sort of creep.
This incident also relates to the luxury of oblivion. My roommate has had to deal with these messages throughout his life that his sexual orientation is abnormal and wrong. Finding love for him could be considered deviant by many in society. As a heterosexual, I never have to deal with questioning my preferences or being judged for liking a certain gender.
Insight gained from incident:
This interaction made me sad and question why people have homophobic beliefs. It is absurd that people judge another person for liking the same sex. We only have one life, so why judge someone for finding love and trying to be themselves? It is also very frustrating, because people will define my roommate by his sexual orientation. For example, when I say “my roommate,” people have asked, “which one? The gay one?” I believe much more must be done to lessen the stigma related to the LGBTQ+ community. However, I think that my generation is doing a much better job of being inclusive.
Topic: Racism
Description:
In the wake of George Floyd’s death and the explosion of the Black Live’s Matter movement, rapper Lil Baby released a song titled “The Bigger Picture” as a response to black people’s treatment in America. One of the lyrics in particular stood out to me: “We just some products of our environment, how the f**k they gon’ blame us? You can’t fight fire with fire I know, but at least we can turn up the flames some. Every colored person ain’t dumb, and all whites not racist. I be judging by the mind and heart, I ain’t really into faces.”
Relation to class material:
This song relates to the concepts of racism and oppressive practices like redlining. In class, we learned that racism is a system in which one race maintains power over other groups. We also talked about how many people are not openly racist but support a system which strongly benefits whites over other groups. In the song lyrics, Lil Baby acknowledges that all whites are not racist, but he believes whites must recognize the system of racism in America and work towards change. He relates the Black Lives Matter of today to the Civil Rights Movement through his message. By stating, “You can’t fight fire with fire I know, but at least we can turn up the flames some,” Lil Baby acknowledges that violence is not the answer but they can get their message across through protesting.
The song also relates to oppressive practices such as redlining. Areas which were redlined are still underserved and populated by minorities today. Many people today do not realize the history of redlining and believe that minorities just decide to live in poor communities together. This is why Lil Baby states, “We just some products of our environment, how the f**k they gon’ blame us?” People must come to realize that crime and poverty for minorities is a product of oppressive practices over time.
Insight gained from incident:
“The Bigger Picture” was a very powerful song to me. It makes me angry that blacks are treated so poorly in America because of the color of their skin. The poverty of minorities today is due largely to government policies. I think the push for black rights is amazing. Nobody should ever have to worry about their life when being pulled over by a police officer. In society, every race and ethnicity should feel welcomed. It is events like the George Floyd murder and stories portrayed by black individuals that make me realize our society has not come as far as I thought.
Topic: Classism
Description: An article titled “Class Differences” by Tori DeAngelis explained findings of the psychology behind class. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2015/02/class-differences
Relation to class material:
This relates to the concepts of classism and internalized classism. Classism involves a set of practices that assign value to people based on their socioeconomic status. Tori DeAngelis explains that social class is a lens in which we see ourselves and others. Our social class can determine our views and how we influence society. For example, researchers state that people of wealth tend to see the world as fairer, and they tend to endorse punishment over rehabilitation over criminal offenses. On the other hand, people of lower class may believe other people’s power tends to have more influence over their lives. Overall, lower class people are assigned to have less value by others in society.
Within a lower class, people develop internalized classism, which is acceptance and justification of classism by working-class and poor people. Researchers in the article state that lower class people believe social forces are outside of their control, so they must learn to rely on other people’s help. People of lower class may believe that they are in a permanent position, and they have to adjust to other people’s wishes so that they can survive.
Insight gained from incident:
This article really showed me how much one’s social class can influence their psychology. I can understand why it would be very hard for a person born into a lower class to live the “American Dream” and become wealthy. Not only are people of lower class born with limited resources, they also have to battle other people’s expectations of them. They eventually learn to have those same expectations for their selves. Also, it is usually wealthy people who have power to influence policy, so someone of a higher social class will have less compassion towards the lower class.
Topic: Ableism
Description:
My grandfather lost his leg in an accident at an early age. He has told me about how losing his leg has affected him in life. He is one of the strongest people I know.
Relation to class material:
My grandfather’s accident relates to the concepts of stereotypes and disabilities. He was born normally, and he lost his leg in an accident at the age of seventeen. As a result, he has had to wear a prosthetic leg for most of his life. Sometimes his leg would be painful, so he needed to use crutches to get around. It was very frustrating for him, because some people would apply stereotypes to him when out in public even though he lived a happy and fairly successful life. Even when he was not using crutches, people would rush to open doors for him. He did not want people’s pity, and he did not want people to think of him as fragile.
Also, many people fail to realize that being able-bodied can be temporary, and they treat people as if they will never obtain a disability. It has only been in recent years in which buildings have had adequate facilities for people of disabilities. During one of my brother’s football games in high school, the only two or three handicap spots available in the entire parking lot were taken. My grandpa parked in a handicap area which was for van accessibility. While it may not have been completely legal, there was an inadequate amount of handicap spots, and he could not walk very far. There was still enough room for someone to be dropped off for the game in the area. During the game, someone keyed his car for parking in that area even though he had a handicap license plate.
Insight gained from incident:
It is infuriating to me how our society views people with disabilities. People fail to realize that at some point in their own lives they may obtain a disability. I am glad we our moving towards more accessibility in buildings, however a stigma still remains. People may think that people with disabilities cannot still live full or enriching lives. We need to start seeing all people as varying in abilities and welcome difference.
Topic: Ageism
Description:
An article titled “Workplace Age Discrimination Still Flourishes in America,” by Joe Kita explains that a large part of the population is over the age of 50 but age discrimination is still an issue today.
The article relates to the concepts of employment/employer perceptions and functionalism. In the notes, it is discussed that the positive traits that older employees provide are not the most important traits to employers. Also, the EEOC does not follow through on laws protecting older generations. In the article, it is stated that the EEOC is understaffed and has to deal with many other sorts of discrimination. Compounding this issue is the employer perceptions and lack of underreporting. The article goes on to argue that as we live in a youth-dominated society in the advent of technology, older generations are becoming more and more discriminated against. Employers believe the youth are better to hire, and older workers often fail to report discrimination in the workplace.
Age discrimination relates to functionalism, because younger people feel that older workers lose their function in society as they age and lose mobility. According to the article, a study found that older people who do not feel useful are three times more likely to develop and disability and four times more likely to die prematurely. Older people are discriminated against as they age, and this discrimination can lead to detrimental health effects.
Insight gained from incident
As a young person, I find it very easy to forget age discrimination is a common practice. I never hear about anybody winning age discrimination cases. Also, when I sit and think about ageism, there have definitely been instances where I have heard of ageism but just thought of it as normal. I have often thought “Well, of course you’re going to want a young person for the job.” I often fail to realize that people should not lose opportunities just because they grow older. Everyone ages, so it is only fair that everyone is given equality of opportunity.
HDF110
AGEISM
Matrix of Privilege/Oppression:
This concept speaks to the complexity of prioritizing positions of privilege and oppression and also balancing out which have the most impact on a person’s life. For example, people can be part of a privileged group in one area of their life, but be part of another subordinate group in some other area. In fact, we are all have membership in several groups…and there is no single “magic” formula that predicts how much an individual person will suffer or be disadvantaged as part of an underprivileged group…or how being a part of other privileged groups will make up for it.
Some considerations on how some people are able to successfully navigate their lives in the face of the negative effects of the various struggles associated with being a member of an oppressed group…
Resilience:
A resilient individual is one that is able to adapt and, ultimately, even prosper from personal hardship or crisis. There is remarkable consistency across studies that indicate that four characteristics are essential in facilitating positive functioning and the well-being of its constituent members.
Affirming belief systems. How a person makes sense out of a crisis situation and gives it meaning. Optimism as a general way of looking at life. (“losers” or “victims,” vs. “heroic survivors”). Spiritual values and cultural heritage for support and to provide meaning to suffering.
Effective problem-solving skills and social competency: The ability to talk constructively about what is going on in a situation and in themselves, and to consider ways of dealing with what might be occurring, and to be open to feedback. Ability to balance emotions with cognitive skills.
Autonomy: Development of a strong sense of self and confidence in ones abilities and ability to work around limitations.
Availability of Resources: a person’s recognition that these resources exist and his or her ability and willingness to use them.
AGEISM
The term “ageism” was first used in 1968 and its definition was patterned after sexism and racism which were prominent discourses during this time. Ageism is a combination of three connected elements. Among them were prejudicial attitudes towards older people, old age, and the aging process; discriminatory practices against older people; and institutional practices and policies that perpetuate stereotypes about older people
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects certain applicants and employees 40 years of age and older from discrimination on the basis of age in hiring, promotion, discharge, compensation, or terms, conditions or privileges of employment. The ADEA is enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
Stereotypes/Myths about older people:
Older people are lonely, depressed, rigid, inflexible and unable to cope with the effects of aging. (age is not a determining factor…personalities tend to remain stable and this is a larger predictor of these attributes)
Older people become increasingly similar as a group as they age…and these “similarities” are perceived as negative traits
Older people are sick, frail, weak and dependent
Older people are cognitively and psychologically impaired (although there are gradual increasing losses in memory/attention ability as people age…only 7% of people in late adulthood fall into senility or dementia that significantly impairs their functioning.)
Older people would rather spend time alone or with small groups of other old people and not participate in social gatherings, especially those aimed at younger people. (voluntary disengagement)
Nonsexual
Burden on society, cannot contribute to societal growth
How do younger generations perpetuate these stereotypes/myths?
Lack of research
: Scholarly articles for racism 2,200+ and sexism 1,100+ and only 215 for ageism.
Social Institutions: Mainstream Media (movies, television, advertising, magazines, etc…) Industry aimed at “over the hill” (greeting cards, jokes, useless, etc…)
Infantilizing: Sometimes see older people as happy, light-hearted, or “cute” and treat them like children.
Employment: Research shows that even though there are laws protecting older employees, the EEOC does not follow through on those at anywhere near the same rate that they do with sexism or racism (example, out of almost 20,000 discrimination complaints brought to the EEOC in 2015, only 29 lawsuits were filed.) Employers have both positive and negative perceptions of older workers, however the traits most admired about older workers (attendance, punctuality, commitment to quality and judgement) were not the top ones valued by employers (enthusiasm, willingness to teach selves, “spark”, technologically savvy, initiative)
Unique features related to ageism:
Growth-From 1990-2030 (number of people over 65 years old is expected to double)
It is not static- Not one “number’ continually changes
“Double standard of agIng”-Intersectionality-aging tends to be perceived as more negative towards women than men.
Dating practices
Remarriage rates
Social definitions of attractiveness create body image issues for women
Unlike other subordinate groups, eventually if we live long enough, everybody will be a part of the group. So, given that we will someday be a part of the group, why do we stereotype have prejudices towards and discriminate against older people?
Age discrimination is one of the most “approved” forms of discrimination
Reasons for prejudice:
Fear- Older people represent the reality of declining health and mortality, which many people would rather avoid/deny evidence. Interaction with or seeing old people can arouse anxiety in people…
Functionalism- We put a high premium on mobility, productivity, etc…Older people are often seen as incompetent physically and/or mentally. Younger people feel that they will “slow us down.”
Increased geographic mobility and cultural ideas about individualism- As our world has become more “global”…people are moving further away, less extended family interaction…children socialize less with grandparents and older people in general, therefore they do not form positive thoughts/feelings about older generations. In general, American ideology is one more focused on individualism than collectivism.
Negative Repercussions of Ageism on the older AND younger generations:
Internalized gerontophobia- Fear of the aging process, older people, being old and belief that the stereotypes are true and that life has increasingly less value as people pass the midpoint of life.
Learned helplessness-Once people internalize all of the negative ideas/beliefs about aging, older people often just “quit trying” because they believe it is futile to try to remain relevant or a significant part of their past social/environmental interests. Often times, this results in older people “living down” to stereotypes/myths.
“Sandwich Generation”-A generation who basically has care taking responsibilities simultaneously for generations above AND below them.
ABLEISM
Language:
Ableism is a form of social prejudice combined with able bodied privilege that leads to discrimination and oppression against people with disabilities.
Disability has traditionally been identified as measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s ability (e.g. to walk, see, hear, learn, process, or regulate emotions)
It may refer limitations involving each or a combination of any of the following (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996):
· Physical
· Cognitive
· Emotional
· Developmental
· Sensory
Disability may be considered an umbrella term covering:
Impairments-
Problems in body function or structure
Activity limitations
– Difficulties encountered by an individual in executing a task or action
Participation restrictions- Problems experienced by an individual regarding involvement in life situations.
Diversability-There have been suggestions that this term would be a more appropriate description as ALL people are of varying and diverse abilities. Even the “able-bodied” status might be only temporarily so. People with “impairments” comprise a largely untapped resource in our society (because history had ignored the value they have to offer.)
While movement towards inclusive language is good, what are the limitations of simply changing words?
Are there any ways that this type of word, actually serves to perpetuate ableism?
QUESTIONS:
When you think of reactions to people in this group by society, what are some of the similarities or differences between them and other groups we have discussed?
What is the difference between a visible and an invisible disability and how they are viewed?
Handicap-The word handicap is not a synonym for disability. Rather, a handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adaptations made by both the individual and society (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000). Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. For instance, a person who uses a wheelchair would be much less “handicapped” in a building that is wheelchair accessible than one that is not.
People-First Language Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g. “a person with a disability,”,not “a disabled person”). Thus, people-first language tells us what conditions people have, not what or who they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include:
· avoiding generic labels (i.e. people with paraplegia rather than “Paraplegics” );
· emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined to a wheelchair);
· avoiding euphemisms (such as physically challenged) which are regarded as condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability;
· avoiding implying illness or suffering (has cerebral palsy is preferable to is a victim of cerebral palsy, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
Stereotypes:
· Courageous
· Needs protecting
· Fragile
· Unhealthy
· Are unable to live on their own
· Few work skills
· Dependent on others
· Don’t date or get married; Non-
sex
ual
· Don’t have children
· We develop stereotypes when we are unable, or unwilling, to obtain all of the information we need to make fair judgments about people or situations.
· Our society often unknowingly creates and perpetuates negative stereotypes, which often lead to unfair discrimination.
· People tend to stereotype when they lack personal relationships or significant experiences with certain groups of people and make uninformed assumptions based on limited information. For example, if people have little contact with people with disabilities they might consequently believe what they see on TV or hear from others.
· Without personal exposure to people with disabilities, many people never develop relationships and friendships or learn how to comfortably interact with persons with disabilities. Because of discomfort, many people may avoid people with disabilities, which increases their isolation further.
BASICS for communicating or interacting with people with disabilities:
· Don’t be afraid to make a mistake.
· Always BE RESPECTFUL.
· Don’t make assumptions about what a person can or cannot do. Ask before giving assistance. If you offer help and the person says “no,” don’t insist. If the answer is “yes,” ask how you can best help, and follow directions.
· If someone with a disability is accompanied by another individual, address the person with a disability directly rather than speaking through the other person.
· Treat adults as adults.
· Expect diversity of preferences and opinions.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
[
(ADA)- A law that was enacted by the
U.S. Congress
in 1990. It was
signed into law
on July 26, 1990, by
President George H. W. Bush
, and later amended with changes effective January 1, 2009
The ADA is a wide-ranging
civil rights
law that prohibits, under certain circumstances,
discrimination
based on
disability
. It affords similar protections against discrimination to
Americans with disabilities
as the Title VII
Civil Rights Act of 1964
, which made discrimination based on
race
,
religion
, sex, and national origin illegal.
Disability is defined by the ADA as “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity.”
The determination of whether any particular condition is considered a disability is made on a case by case basis. To be protected under the ADA, a disability must be considered a substantial (as opposed to minor) impairment. This would include impairments that significantly limit speaking, seeing, hearing, walking, performance of manual tasks, breathing or similarly major life activities.
Also, the person must be qualified to adequately perform the essentials of the job, whether or not he or she requires a reasonable accommodation, in order to be covered by the ADA. That means a person must fulfill the requirements for the job (education, experience, skills, etc.) and must be able to perform the essential functions of the position.
Employers may not refuse to hire a person if the disability limits him or her from performing tasks that are not considered essential to the job. Individuals who use drugs illegally are not protected by the ADA, Visual impairment which is correctable by prescription lenses is also not included.
Reasonable Accommodation: ADA rights include access to reasonable accommodations, such as changes or adjustments to the workplace, that help an individual with a disability do his or her job and enjoy the benefits afforded to employees without disabilities. By stipulating a “reasonable” accommodation,
ADA regulations do not require measures that would create an undue hardship in difficulty or expense.
Reasonable accommodations may include the following: •Flexible or modified work schedules •Adjustment of training materials and employee policies •Providing new or modifying existing equipment •Making the workplace more accessible by people with disabilities •Job restructuring •Reassignment to another position •Providing interpreters
ADA: Disabilities & Employee Rights: The ADA covers employment practices such as recruitment, hiring, firing, promotions, training, job assignments, benefits, pay and all other employment-related activities. Retaliation by an employer for asserting your ADA rights also is prohibited, as is discrimination based on a relationship with an individual with a disability. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces ADA regulations among employers with 15 or more employees. The U.S. Department of Justice enforces ADA regulations in state and local government programs, regardless of how many employees are in the organization.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) (IDEA) is a
United States federal law
that governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention,
special education
, and related services to children with disabilities. It addresses the educational needs of children with disabilities from birth to age 18 or 21 in cases that involve 13 specified categories of disability.
The IDEA is “spending clause” legislation, meaning that it only applies to those States and their local educational agencies that accept federal funding under the IDEA. While States declining such funding are not subject to the IDEA, all States have accepted funding under this statute and are subject to it. Under IDEA, disabled students must receive a free public education that meets the following criteria:
·
Special education and related services should be designed to meet the unique learning needs of eligible children with disabilities, preschool through age 21 (Michigan extends this to age 26, beyond federal requirements)
· Students with disabilities should be prepared for further education, employment and independent living.
Prior to revisions, the IDEA was known as the EHA statute (The Education for All Handicapped Children Act) was enacted in 1975, U.S. public schools educated only 1 out of 5 children with disabilities. Until that time, many states had laws that explicitly excluded children with certain types of disabilities from attending public school, including children who were blind, deaf, and children labeled “emotionally disturbed” or “mentally retarded.”
At the time the EHA was enacted, more than 1 million children in the U.S. had no access to the public school system. Many of these children lived at state institutions where they received limited or no educational or rehabilitation services. Another 3.5 million children attended school but were “warehoused” in segregated facilities and received little or no effective instruction.
As of 2006, more than 6 million children in the U.S. receive special education services through IDEA.
SES and Social Class Concepts
Classism: The institutional, cultural and individual set of practices and beliefs that assign differential value to people according to their socioeconomic class; and an economic system that creates excessive inequality and causes basic human needs to go unmet.
Internalized Classism: Acceptance and justification of classism by working-class and poor people, such as feelings of inferiority to higher-class people, hostility and blame toward other working-class or poor people, and beliefs that classist institutions/policies are fair are all examples of internalized subordination. Feelings of superiority to people lower on the class spectrum than oneself, a sense of entitlement, rationalizations of classist policies and institutions on the part of middle class and people on the upper end of the class spectrum are examples of internalized domination. Both internalized subordination and internalized dominance are manifestations of internalized classism.
Socioeconomic Status (SES) versus Social Class: They are closely related (often used interchangeably), but have a distinction…
Socioeconomic status (SES) Used to measure a person’s work experience and of an individual’s or family’s economic and social position relative to others, based on education, occupation, income (and accrued wealth or net worth)
Socioeconomic status is typically broken into five categories, high SES (upper, capitalist, “super rich”) upper? “middle SES, lower middle SES, and low SES to describe the three areas a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, the following four variables are often used: Income, Education, Occupation, and Accrued Wealth/Assets (Net Worth)
Social Class- Is the more social sphere or “culture” of the classes. Class has direct consequences on lifestyle. Lifestyle includes tastes, preferences, values, and a general style of living. These lifestyles could quite possibly affect educational attainment, and therefore status attainment. Class lifestyle also affects how children are raised and perpetuates class for future generations.
Status: Social status can be understood as the degree of honor or prestige attached to one’s position in society.
Class Discussion:
What IS the “American Dream?”
What are our cultural “messages” regarding how to achieve the “American
Dream?” What are the impediments to doing that?
Myths about “Poor People”
POVERTY (What is it? How is it measured?)
Poverty Threshold- An income level below that which is needed to support families. In certain ways, this measure reflects family need-that is that people living below the poverty level threshold do not have adequate income to meet their family’s basic needs (food, shelter, clothing and heath care.) The poverty threshold is used to determine eligibility for various government programs (food subsidies, low income housing, free lunches, medicaid, etc)
The formula for developing the poverty threshold was done in the 1960’s based on a 1955 survey of costs and a minimally adequate food costs. Although adjusted for inflation, the formula has not changed. The problem with this is that housing, transportation and health care cost have changed significantly more than food costs. In the 1950’s, food costs were estimated to be 1/3 of a family’s expenses, today it is about 1/7.
CURRENT POVERTY GUIDELINES FOR 2019 (48 contiguous states and District of Columbia) are as follow:
A Living Wage is defined as the minimum amount of income necessary for a worker to meet their basic needs (food, shelter, clothing, and other “essential living requirements) without the need for government subsidies.
Living wage calculator:
http://www.livingwage.geog.psu.edu/
Persons in family/household
Poverty guideline
For families/households with more than 8 persons, add $4,420 for each additional person.
1
$12,490
2
$16,910
3
$21,330
4
$25,750
5
$30,170
6
$34,590
7
$39,010
8
$43,430
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MINIMUM WAGE AND LIVING WAGE
Minimum Wage: Hourly wage set by law. Federal law sets an overall minimum wage (currently $7.25 per hour.) States may pass legislature to increase that amount in their state, for example, Michigan has set its rate at $9.87 per hour.
RISKS OF LIVING IN POVERTY:
Lifelong poor physical health
Poor cognitive development and academic achievement
Mental illness
Impulsivity, aggression and antisocial behavior
Hostile family interactions
While these are obviously bad for the individuals living in poverty, how does this negatively impact society?
Intersectionality
Some comparisons for differences in poverty within race and sex/gender.
Race:
White (10%) Black (26%) Native American (25%) Hispanic (24%)
28 percent of white children – 11 million – live in low-income families
61 percent of black children – 6.2 million – live in low-income families
59 percent of Hispanic children – 10.8 million – live in low-income families
8 percent of Asian children – 1.0 million – live in low-income families
60 percent of American Indian children – 0.3 million – live in low-income families
Concentrated Poverty: Racial minorities are more likely to grow up in “concentrated poverty” were a large percentage of the community is poor whereas poor Whites often live in poorer parts of communities that have some income diversity and hence at least some access to resources that those in concentrated poverty have much less of (e.g., quality schools, safe places to play, etc.)
Redlining: Systematic denial of various services to residents of specific, often racially associated neighborhoods or communities, either directly or through the systematic raising of prices.
Sex/gender:
Women (head of household, no spouse) 30%
Men (head of household, no spouse) 17%
Matrix of Privilege/Oppression:
This concept speaks to the complexity of prioritizing positions of privilege and oppression and also balancing out which have the most impact on a person’s life. For example, people can be part of a privileged group in one area of their life, but be part of another subordinate group in some other area. In fact, we are all have membership in several groups…and there is no single “magic” formula that predicts how much an individual person will suffer or be disadvantaged as part of an underprivileged group…or how being a part of other privileged groups will make up for it.
HDF 110
GENDER PRIVILEGE and OPPRESSION
Some terms related to this concept…
Ambivalent Sexism- A theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components related to prejudice against women: “hostile sexism” and “benevolent sexism”
Hostile Sexism- Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about gender. It involves misogyny, in that it is an exagger ated prejudice towards women and femininity based on the belief that masculine attributes are more valuable and that women should be sub ordinate to men. Misogyny is usually regarded as directed against women by some men, but women can also harbor misogynistic views. Misogyny is often used to justify and reproduce the subordination of women by men (and sometimes women) resulting in social exclusion, dis crimination, belittling, sexual objectification and violence.
Benevolent Sexism-Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive (subjective to the person who is evaluating), but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly (e.g., the ideas that women need to be protected by men)
Patriarchy-In gender politics, the word patriarchy refers to any form of societal advantage that is given disproportionately to men. Many construe this to mean a gender hierarchy in which men dominate or exploit women, but that does not need to be the case.
Institutional Sexism- Is the oppression of women. It includes the negative prejudicial attitudes and stereotypes towards women along with historical, societal, and cultural elements where there is a continued imbalance of power, where men as a class are privileged over women as a class that lead to the power to discriminate against women. The important part often overlooked in this term is that sexism is prejudice and privilege
plus
power. Thus feminists reject the notion that women can be sexist towards men because women lack the institutional power that men have.
Feminism-
*We will discuss this definition in class.
A FEW KEY PEOPLE AND EVENTS RELATED TO THE MOVEMENT
TOWARDS SEX/GENDER EQUALITY ….
“First Wave”of the Women’s Movement (1848-1920)
KEY FOCUS: Women’s Suffrage, Property Rights,
In July of 1848 in upstate New York, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, met for tea with four women friends. When the course of their conversation turned to the situation of women, Stanton poured out her discontent with the limitations placed on her own situation under America’s new democracy. The American Revolution had been fought just 70 years earlier to win the patriots freedom from tyranny however women had not gained freedom even though they’d taken equally tremendous risks through those dangerous years. Stanton women believed that the new republic would benefit from having its women play more active roles throughout society. Stanton’s friends agreed with her, passionately. It is unlikely that this was the first small group of women to have such a conversation, but it was the first to plan and carry out a specific, large-scale program.
Declaration of Sentiments- Elizabeth Cady Stanton used the Declaration of Independence as the framework for writing this document. Stanton connected the concepts set forth in this document to the powerful American symbol of liberty. The same familiar words framed their arguments: “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
In this Declaration of Sentiments, Stanton carefully enumerated areas of life where women were treated unjustly. Stanton’s version read, “The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world.” Then it went into specifics: married women were legally dead in the eyes of the law.
Women were not allowed to vote
Women had to submit to laws when they had no voice in their formation
Married women had no property rights
Husbands had legal power over and responsibility for their wives to the extent that they could imprison or beat them with impunity
Divorce and child custody laws favored men, giving no rights to women
Women had to pay property taxes although they had no representation in the levying of these taxes
Most occupations were closed to women and when women did work they were paid only a fraction of what men earned
Women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law
Women had no means to gain an education since no college or university would accept women students
With only a few exceptions, women were not allowed to participate in the affairs of the church
Women were robbed of their self-confidence and self-respect, and were made totally dependent on men.
Seneca Falls and Backlash- Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott took their agenda to the Seneca Falls convention of 1848. There, almost 200 women met in a church in upstate New York to discuss “the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women.” Attendees discussed their grievances and passed a list of 12 resolutions calling for specific equal rights — including, after much debate, the right to vote.
Horace Greely (New York Tribune) First publicized the event as an ally to the movement, however, significant backlash ensued.
Stanton anticipated “misconception, misrepresentation, and ridicule.” Newspaper editors were so scandalized by the shameless audacity of the Declaration of Sentiments, and particularly of the ninth resolution, women demanding the vote!, that they attacked the women with all the anger they could summon. The women’s rights movement was only one day old and the backlash had already begun.
In ridicule, the entire text of the Declaration of Sentiments was often published, with the names of the signers frequently included. Just as ridicule today often has a squelching effect on new ideas, this attack in the press caused many people from the Convention to rethink their positions. Many of the women who had attended the convention were so embarrassed by the publicity that they actually withdrew their signatures from the Declaration. But most stood firm. And something the editors had not anticipated happened: Their negative articles about the women’s call for expanded rights were so livid and widespread that they actually had a positive impact far beyond anything the organizers could have hoped for. People in cities and isolated towns alike were now alerted to the issues, and joined this heated discussion of women’s rights in great numbers. (Legacy 98)
As women addressed the issues, the right to vote became a central issue and the women’s suffrage movement was born. The early women’s movement was firmly integrated with the abolitionist movement: The leaders were all abolitionists, and Frederick Douglass spoke at the Seneca Falls Convention, arguing for women’s suffrage. Women of color like Sojourner Truth, Maria Stewart, and Frances E.W. Harper were major forces in the movement, working not just for women’s suffrage but for universal suffrage. However, despite the immense work of women of color for the women’s movement, the movement of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony eventually established itself as a movement specifically for white women, one that used racial animus as fuel for its work.
It took 72 years from the time that Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her friends first met to 1920, when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed allowing women the right to vote.
Equal Rights Amendment was proposed shortly after, and has still not been ratified. The wording of the ERA was simple: “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.”
Second Wave of the Women’s Movement (1960s-1980s)
Key Focus: Reduce inequality in sex in the family and workplace, passing legislation addressing inequity, reproductive rights
Esther Peterson was the director of the Women’s Bureau of the Dept. of Labor in 1961. She considered it to be the government’s responsibility to take an active role in addressing discrimination against women. With her encouragement, President Kennedy convened a Commission on the Status of Women, naming Eleanor Roosevelt as its chair. The report issued by that commission in 1963 documented discrimination against women in virtually every area of American life. State and local governments quickly followed suit and established their own commissions for women, to research conditions and recommend changes that could be initiated.
In 1963, Betty Friedan published a landmark book, The Feminine Mystique. The Feminine Mystique evolved out of a survey she had conducted for her 20-year college reunion. In it she documented the emotional and intellectual oppression that middle-class educated women were experiencing because of limited life options. The book became an immediate bestseller, and inspired thousands of women to look for fulfillment beyond the role of homemaker.
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed, prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of sex as well as race, religion, and national origin. The category “sex” was included as a last-ditch effort to kill the bill. But it passed, nevertheless. With its passage, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was established to investigate discrimination complaints. Within the commission’s first five years, it received 50,000 sex discrimination complaints. But it was quickly obvious that the commission was not very interested in pursuing these complaints. Betty Friedan, the chairs of the various state Commissions on the Status of Women, and other feminists agreed to form a civil rights organization for women similar to the NAACP. In 1966, the
National Organization for Women
was organized, soon to be followed by an array of other mass-membership organizations addressing the needs of specific groups of women, including Blacks, Latinas, Asians-Americans, lesbians, welfare recipients, business owners, aspiring politicians, and tradeswomen and professional women of every sort.
Griswold v Connecticut (1965) Declared birth control legal for married women. (shortly after, another case declared it legal for single woman.)
Title X of Public Health Act of 1970 First federal program specifically designed to deliver federal family planning services to people from low SES and teens. This came about after concerns over the safety of current versions of the pill and IUDs as well concerns about Third World women and women from poor communities being used as “guinea pigs.” Still exists although chronically underfunded and being threatened to be defunded entirely)
During this same time, thousands of young women on college campuses were playing active roles within the anti-war and civil rights movement. Many were finding their efforts blocked by men who felt leadership of these movements was their own domain, and women’s roles should be limited to fixing food and running mimeograph machines. It wasn’t long before these young women began forming their own “women’s liberation” organizations to address their role and status within these progressive movements and within society at large.
The Equal Rights Amendment Is Re-Introduced
In 1972, the Equal Rights Amendment, which had languished in Congress for almost fifty years, was finally passed and sent to the states for ratification. To many women’s rights activists, its ratification by the required thirty-eight states seemed imminent. When the deadline for ratification came in 1982, the ERA was just three states short of the 38 needed to write it into the U.S. constitution. Seventy-five percent of the women legislators in those three pivotal states supported the ERA, but only 46% of the men voted to ratify.
Third Wave of the Women’s Movement (1980s to 2008):
Key Focus on the “Micropolitics” of gender inequity
New Complex Emerging Issues (these started to come about at the end of the second wave and contributed to the THIRD WAVE):
Women’s reproductive rights. Whether or not women can terminate pregnancies is still controversial forty five years after the Supreme Court ruling in Roe v. Wade affirmed women’s choice during the first two trimesters.
Women’s enrollment in military academies and service in active combat. Are these desirable?
Women in leadership roles in religious worship. Controversial for some, natural for others.
Affirmative action. Is help in making up for past discrimination appropriate? Do qualified women now face a level playing field?
Should businesses accommodate women’s family responsibilities, or should women compete evenly for advancement with men, most of whom still assume fewer family obligations?
Pornography and Prostitution. Is it degrading, even dangerous, to women, or is it simply a free speech issue?
Sexual harassment. Just where does flirting leave off and harassment begin?
Surrogate motherhood. Is it simply the free right of a woman to hire out her womb for this service?
Social Security benefits allocated equally for homemakers and their working spouses, to keep surviving wives from poverty as widows.
Fourth Wave- Present Day
What remains to be accomplished?
Sexual Harassment, Assault and Misogyny-Raising awareness and demanding consequences for sexual harassment, abuse, rape, “slut shaming.” The pressure for women to conform to a singular and unrealistic body type.
Increasing Role of Women in Government- Jeannette Rankin was the first woman elected to Congress, in 1916. By 1971, three generations later, women were still less than three percent of our congressional representatives. Today women hold only 20.4% of the seats in Congress (20% in the House, 23.4% in the Senate) and 25% of the state legislative seats. Yet, in the face of such small numbers, women have successfully changed thousands of local, state, and federal laws that had limited women’s legal status and social roles.
Business/Professional- Issues of advancement and equal pay for equal work across many occupations.
Family and Social- Issues around household and marital roles, childcare, sports, socialization of children.
Gender role- Denotes a set of behavioral norms that accompany a given gendered status (also called a gendered identity) in a given social group or system. Gender is one component of the gender/sex system, which refers to “the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sex into products of human activity, and in which these transformed needs are satisfied” Every known society has a gender/sex system, although the components and workings of this system vary widely from society to society.
Gender bias-Assumptions about what a woman or a man can or cannot do because of their gender. (i.e. Woman are better at caring for children than men. Men are more capable with regard to mechanics.)
Gender socialization-The process by which society rewards and/or punishes people for behaving in what is considered “normal” or “correct” gender constructs with regards to masculinity for boys/men and femininity for girls/women.
Discussion:
What are ways in which gender continues to be an
organizing factor around life in all the various microsystems in which
we interact?
HDF 110-RACISM
RACISM: Racism is a system in which one race maintains supremacy over another race through a set of attitudes, behaviors, social structures, and institutional power. Racism is a “system of structured dis-equality where the goods, services, rewards, privileges, and benefits of the society are available to individuals according to their presumed membership in” particular racial groups (Barbara Love, 1994. Understanding Internalized Oppression). A person of any race can have prejudices about people of other races, but only members of the dominant social group can exhibit racism because racism is prejudice plus privilege and the institutional power to enforce it.
RACISM AND WHITE PRIVILEGE
When did racial differences become relevant and how did white privilege develop in America?
Chapter 3 (Johnson text)
Whites themselves developed the idea of “whiteness” as defining a better or privileged class of people (socially constructed). They could do so because they were far greater in numbers. This idea justified slavery and other treacherous treatment of people who are different (Native Americans) from a moral standpoint (If they were seen as less than human…the treatment did not appear as offensive to the Constitution nor God…)
Some Key Exosystem Considerations relating to Black History
Dred Scott Decision(1857)- Dred Scott was the name of an African-American slave. He was taken by his master, an officer in the U.S. Army, from the slave state of Missouri to the free state of Illinois and then to the free territory of Wisconsin, living there for several years.
When the Army ordered his master to go back to Missouri, he took Scott with him back to that slave state, where his master died. In 1846, Scott sued for his freedom in court with the help of abolitionist lawyers, claiming he should be free since he had lived on free soil for a long time. The case went all the way to the United States Supreme Court.
In March of 1857, Scott lost the decision as seven out of nine Justices on the Supreme Court declared no slave or descendant of a slave could be a U.S. citizen, or ever had been a U.S. citizen. As a non-citizen, the court stated, Scott had no rights and could not sue in a Federal Court and must remain a slave.
At that time there were nearly 4 million slaves in America. The Court’s ruling affected the status of every enslaved and free African-American in the United States. The ruling served to turn back the clock concerning the rights of African-Americans, ignoring the fact that black men in five of the original States had been full voting citizens dating back to the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
The Supreme Court also ruled that Congress could not stop slavery in the newly emerging territories and declared the Missouri Compromise of 1820 to be unconstitutional. The Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery north of the parallel 36°30´ in the Louisiana Purchase. The Court declared it violated the Fifth Amendment of the Constitution which prohibits Congress from depriving persons of their property without due process of law.
Anti-slavery leaders in the North cited the controversial Supreme Court decision as evidence that Southerners wanted to extend slavery throughout the nation and ultimately rule the nation itself. Southerners approved the Dred Scott decision believing Congress had no right to prohibit slavery in the territories. Abraham Lincoln reacted with disgust to the ruling and was spurred into political action, publicly speaking out against it. Overall, the Dred Scott decision had the effect of widening the political and social gap between North and South and took the nation closer to the brink of Civil War.
Emancipation Proclamation- January 1, 1863- an executive order that was issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the civil war under his war powers. It proclaimed the freedom of 3.1 million of the nation’s 4 million slaves, and immediately freed 50,000 of them, with the rest freed as Union armies advanced. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln announced that he would issue a formal emancipation of all slaves in any state of the Confederate States that did not return to Union control by January 1, 1863. The actual order was signed and issued January 1, 1863; it named the locations under Confederate control where it would apply. He was able to use this authority as “Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy” under Article II, section 2 of the U.S. Constitution.
THE FOLLOWING AMENDMENTS ARE COLLECTIVELY KNOW AS THE RECONSTRUCTION AMENDMENTS:
Thirteenth Amendment-(Dec 18th 1865) Officially abolished and continues to prohibit slavery and involuntary servitude except as punishment for a crime. This along with the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were part of the reconstruction amendments. Even though President Lincoln had signed the Emancipation Proclamation, it did not address the border states and there was worry that people might argue that it was only a wartime measure.
Fourteenth Amendment-(1868) No state shall deprive a citizen of U.S. of life, liberty, pursuit of happiness…(contains the Due Process and Equal Protection clauses)
Fifteenth Amendment(1870)-Cannot deprive a person the right to vote based on color or race
“Separate but Equal Docterine”- a legal doctrine in United States Constitutional Law that justified systems of segregation. Under this doctrine, services, facilities and public accommodations were allowed to be separated by race, on the condition that the quality of each group’s public facilities was to remain equal. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890. This doctrine was upheld in the legal case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and continued to be the policy until the Supreme Court overturned it in 1954.
Jim Crow Laws-Enacted in southern states meant to further segregation and keep white services separate from black services (including schools, public works, etc.)
Brown vs. Board of Education
(1954) a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v Ferguson decision of 1896 which allowed state-sponsored segregation. The Supreme Court’s unanimous (9–0) decision stated that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” Segregation was ruled to be a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This ruling paved the way for integration and the civil rights movement.
African American Civil Rights Movement (1950’s and onward)-Initially a religious based movement, non-violence, civil disobedience.
Goals:
Desegregate Public Institutions
Fight Jim Crow laws
Address denial of economic opportunities and resources
Increase Blacks participation in voting
Increase participation of Blacks in public affairs
Address violent and terroristic acts towards Blacks
Montgomery, Alabama Bus Boycott- A political and social protest campaign that started in 1955 as a means to oppose the city’s policy of racial segregation on its public transit system. Many historically significant figures, such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Ralph Abernathy and others involved in the Civil Rights movement were involved in the boycott. The boycott resulted in a crippling financial deficit for the Montgomery public transit system, because the city’s black population who were the drivers of the boycott were also the bulk of the system’s paying customers. It started on December 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person, to December 20, 1956 when a federal ruling took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional.
Little Rock Nine- A group of Black students who were enrolled in Little Rock Central High (Chosen by the NAACP based on their excellent academic history) in 1957. Resulted in the “Little Rock Crisis,” in which the students were initially prevented from entering the previously all white school by the Arkansas Governor, Orval Faubus. Governor Faubus called the Arkansas National Guard in to prevent the students from entering school and mobs of protestors threatened the students and their families. The black students were finally allowed to enter following the intervention of President Eisenhower. This is considered to be one of the most important events in the African American Civil Rights Movement and began the movement toward public school integration.
Integration of University of Mississippi-In late September 1962, after a legal battle, an African-American man named James Meredith attempted to enroll at the University of Mississippi. Chaos briefly broke out on the Ole Miss campus, with riots ending in twodead, hundreds wounded and many others arrested, after the Kennedy administration called out some 31,000 National Guardsmen and other federal forces to enforce order.
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed, prohibiting employment discrimination on the basis of race, religion, national origin, or sex.
Selma-During the civil war, Selma was one of the main centers of weapons production for the confederacy. In the 1960’s Selma clung strongly to maintaining segregation even though the Court’s had ruled against it. Schools remained segregated, as well as many public places such as restaurants and movie theaters. Black individuals were still often beaten or arrested for sitting in “white sections.” Additionally, even though over half of the citizens in Selma were black, only around 1% were registered to vote as a result of overly cumbersome electoral laws that included required subjective literacy tests, and restrictive voting registration opportunities. As a result Black could not serve on juries or in local office. Several civil rights groups started organizing in 1963 to address the issue of segregation and voting rights. One positive result was the desegregation of the public library in Selma. In summer of 1964 a local judge issued an injunction barring more than three people to organize who were affiliated with one of the know civil rights groups and more than 41 prominent civil rights leaders including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. In January of 1965, Dr. King defied the injunction and spoke (by invitation at a local church.) Soon after, several civil rights groups decided to revive voting initiative attempts with negative results once again from local government. Soon after, leader decided to organize a march from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery to bring national attention to the issues of inequity in voting rights. The first March occurred on March 7, 1965 with approximately 600 marchers resulting in attacks from local authorities and state troopers driving the marchers back. This was covered by national press and television news. A second symbolic march led by Dr. King on March 9 was joined by 100s more people including several clergy members and nuns and included 1/3 white marchers. This effort was again met with violence and resistance. Finally, King and other leaders filed for protection for a third larger scale march from Selma to Montgomery and were granted it. The final march started on March 21, 1965 with approximately 3.200 participants and by the time the group reached Montgomery on March 25, the number had grown to 25,000 people. This helped increase public support for the cause and later that year, congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that provided federal oversight and enforcement for all citizens in jurisdictions that had a pattern of underrepresentation and discrimination in voting practices.
NATIVE AMERICANS
American Indian Wars Native Americans inhabited our country first. They had a highly developed and functional culture and religion before the arrival of Europeans. Their cultural was one that highly respected the natural environment. Wars resulted from multiple conflicts between American settlers or the federal government and the Native American people. These conflicts started from the time of earliest colonial settlement until approximately 1890. In some cases, wars resulted from conflicts and competition for resources between the European colonists and Native Americans. Resulting population pressure occurred as settlers expanded their territory, generally pushing indigenous populations northward and westward. As conflict between European populations developed, the opposing Europeans would sometimes enlist the help of tribes to join their side and fight against their opponents.
In addition to the conflict over land, European settlers along with the Federal government expected the Native Americans to abandon their own culture and adapt to the culture of Europeans in terms of language, education, religion, etc… Also, European Americans brought diseases to which Native Americans had developed no immunity.
Forced Assimilation- The cultural assimilation of Native Americans was an assimilation effort by the United States to transform Native American culture to European–American culture between the years of 1790–1920
Indian Relocation Act of 1830- A law that was passed by Congress on May 28, 1830, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson. It authorized the president to negotiate with Indian tribes in the Southern United States for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their homelands.
Trail of Tears is a name given to the forced relocation of Native American nations from southeastern parts of the United States following the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The removal included many members of the following tribes, who did not wish to assimilate: Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, among others, from their homelands to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. The Native Americans who chose to stay and assimilate were allowed to become citizens in their states and of the United States. The phrase “Trail of Tears” originated from a description of the removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831.
Many Native Americans suffered from exposure, disease and starvation on the route to their destinations. Many died, including 2,000-6,000 of 16,542 relocated Cherokee. European Americans and African American freedmen and slaves also participated in the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek and Seminole forced relocations.
Mexican Americans
Similarly, during the Mexican American War, the United States annexed land that had previously been Mexican territory. Also, during the Great Depression of the 1930’s The Mexican Repatriation program sought to have people of Mexican descent voluntarily return to Mexico, however, many were forcibly removed against their will. In total, up to one million persons of Mexican ancestry were deported, approximately 60 percent of those individuals were actually U.S. citizens. During times of economic growth and prosperity, immigrants are often welcome. During times of slow economic growth and recession, immigrants are seen as undesirable.
Ethnic Discrimination (Involved “white” discrimination towards other people who were “white”)- Legally sanctioned racism sanctioned privileges and rights for White Americans not granted to Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latin Americans are well documented throughout American history. European Americans (particularly Anglo Americans) have experienced privilege by law in matters of education, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time extending from the 17th century to the 1960s. During the heavy periods of immigration during the 18th and 19th centuries, many white non-Protestant groups immigrating from Europe – particularly Jews, Irish people, Polish and Italians – also suffered xenophobic exclusion and other forms of ethnicity-based discrimination in the American society. This was based primarily cultural and ethnic differences that included religion and language. Although Freedom of Religion is a cornerstone of our American ideology, Christian privilege continues to permeate our society.
Religious Privilege in America? Examples?
Immigration Act of 1917- Was passed over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. It created further categories that barred people from immigration: homosexuals, alcoholics, “feeble-minded,” and “physically defective.” Also barred people over the age of 16 who were illiterate. Created a head tax per immigrant. People from the “Barred Asiatic” zone were also barred from entering.
The Influence of Historic Events on Privilege, Prejudice and Discrimination- Often, wars between other countries, in which the United States has involvement have resulted in incidences in prejudice and discrimination here in our country. A couple of examples include Japanese Internment Camps and the increased prejudice and discrimination towards Arab or Muslim Americans following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.
Model Minority”- refers to a minority ethnic, racial, or religious group whose members achieve a higher degree of success than the population average. It is most commonly applied to ethnic minorities. This success is typically measured in income, education, and related factors such as low crime rate and high family stability. Generalized statistics are often cited to back up their model minority status such as high educational achievement and a high representation in white collar professions (jobs such as medicine, investment banking, management consulting, finance, engineering, and law). People of Asian and Indian decent are most often associated with this label. Indians and Asian Americans may also be commonly stereotyped by the general public as being studious, intelligent, successful, elitist, brand name conscious, yet paradoxically passive.
The Model Minority refers to groups as a whole, not individuals members of a minority.
WHY DON’T DOMINANT GROUPS RECOGNIZE PRIVILEGE AS A PROBLEM AND WHY WOULD PEOPLE NOT WANT TO CHANGE AN UNFAIR SYSTEM?
Failure to recognize that it exists in the first place- Many people are content to live in blissful ignorance, and some people live in systems where they are somewhat “insulated” from the overt effects of privilege so they just do not see it and are even puzzled or angry about suggestions that it exists.
They do not have to- If they are not experiencing the effects personally or it is not evident in some large way, they do not feel compelled towards action. They are comfortable in the status quo of their lives.
They believe that it is strictly a personal problem (individualistic thinking)-
They believe that it is not the “system” that is the problem, but the individuals in certain groups are more likely to cause problems and “get what they deserve” they will even quickly point out “white people go to prison too…it is all about individual choices…”
They want to hang onto their privilege- They recognize that they would be giving something up and that maybe some things would be more difficult (more competition, more work, etc…)
They have internalized prejudice ideas – They believe the negative things about a group or groups and may even be openly hostile towards those groups.
Fear- They are afraid of unconscious feelings of guilt surfacing if they acknowledge the problems or of anger or rejection that may be directed towards them by members of the dominant group for “stirring up trouble”
Individualism
: How it affects the way we see prejudice and privilege:
Limits our understanding of the social world as just being about people, human nature, good and bad attributes, personalities, etc…which in turn makes problems in the world someone’s “fault.” The consequences of individualistic thinking involve people either feeling blamed or deciding “other people are racist, sexist, etc…but since I am not, it is not my problem…”
“The Tin Cup” approach…essentially is the idea that if you appeal to people’s general sense of goodness they may make attempts to do “individual” deeds or take action aimed at “helping” underprivileged people or groups.
Problems with this?
Depends on a person’s motivation and own circumstances at any given time to continue investment in action/s to change.
May continue to position people as those with power (even power to help) and those as subordinate to the privileged groups…creates yet another divide…”us” and “them” and as long as that continues, there will always be a dominant group and a subordinate group with great power inequities.
In terms of treatment of people, every individual has a choice about how to treat other people. And individuals can choose to treat people equally, with respect, kindness, etc…and while that makes a difference in the lives of those people with whom they come in contact it does not solve the overall problem of privilege.
THE OVERALL PROBLEM WITH THE TIN CUP APPROACH IS THAT IT DOES NOT EFFECT FUNDAMENTAL LONG TERM OR SYSTEMIC CHANGE
It takes the involvement of all people in a given system (and the recognition that privilege is a problem for EVERYone, not just those who are denied it or are denying it to others) to make systemic change.
HOW WE TAKE OURSELVES OUT OF THE EQUATION OF PRIVILEGE:
Deny and Minimize- Focus on “how much better things are these days…” Point out the exceptions (tokenism), Point out that “everyone can have anything they want if they just work hard enough…” Focus on the benefits of being part of a subordinate groups (“they actually get things we don’t…)
Blame the Victim- Focus on all the negative stereotypes of different groups and point out if they just acted more like the dominant group they would be better. Magnify the negative actions of the minority groups, especially as they pertain to ways in which they have endangered others.
Euphemisms (Calling it Something Else)- Normalizing it by labeling it in ways that everyone can relate to: “Women are from Venus, Men are from Mars.” Especially true in terms of systems of sexism as there seems to more permission to “playfully” poke fun of stereotypical ideas because most people’s microsystems involve these type of family relationships, between mother and father, sisters and brothers, etc.
It is Better this Way- Using denial and labeling to promote the idea that people actually want to be separated and would rather be around their own kind, or that men and women like the way things are…it is tradition that the man is stronger and takes care of the woman and that the woman is more nurturing. Another way this happens is when people point to segregated neighborhoods, places of worship, recreation, etc as a sign that the marginalized groups prefer to live their lives separate from the majority groups.
I Am One of the Good Ones- Focus on your individual good intentions and behavior towards people of subordinate groups. Only “bad” people in society are the perpetrators of racism, sexism, homophobia, etc. c.
It Does not Count if You Do not “Mean” it- Denies the actual consequences to the subordinate group by stating that it is only a problem when people do overtly bad things to people. Does not recognize the powerful nature of stereotyping and prejudice through everyday interactions and socialization.
HDF 110
Prejudice, Privilege and Oppression
Jane Elliott: A Class Divided (brown eyes/blue eyes)
What was Rodney King’s question?
What are some common answers to this question or to the question as to why it is difficult to end prejudice in the world?
People are naturally afraid of the unfamiliar
People are SO different from one another that it is amazing that people coexist even as well as they do.
When people assume there are certain “absolute” values and that everyone must subscribe to those, lest we contribute to the “downfall” of society. An example “There is only ONE natural sexual orientation (based on specific definitions) making anything else unnatural and therefore unacceptable to society.”
Some version of “survival of the fittest” (Johnson, 2017)
Most Answers to this question fall under the broad category of “HUMAN NATURE”
The main problem is that by merely accepting these as true at face value (which many people do) is that is automatically gives us the idea that we are helpless to change it in any real way. It also fails to appreciate evidence to the contrary of each statement, namely:
People have a natural curiosity about the world around them demonstrated from the time we are young and continuing throughout life. Difference is socially constructed…unless the “difference” is perceived as a problem, we do not have a problem with differences.
It is not differences with which people necessarily have a problem, it is the MEANING people subscribe to these differences. When the differences are closely related to our closely held ideas or values,
people often see them as threatening. There are as many differences within groups as between groups. Taking any one group, whether it be race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation or ability status and assuming if we just kept these groups together everybody would get along because they are “alike” ignores the many other attributes of people that contribute to successful and/or unsuccessful interactions between people.
There is biological evidence to the contrary, and even in terms of religion, not all scholars (even of Christianity) concur that homosexuality is a sin. Furthermore, in terms of oppressing people on the basis of “sinful” behavior there is a very “uneven” privilege.
The idea that it is just about “trying hard” or that if everyone just “wanted it badly enough” or “worked hard enough” we can all have the same things, overlooks environmental and systemic roadblocks present that preclude things from happening.
Before we start defining main concepts for the course…
What is the view of the author of our textbook (Johnson) on use of terminology when discussing matters related to oppression?
Stereotype:A preconceived or oversimplified generalization about an entire group of people without regard for their individual differences. While often negative, stereotypes may also be complimentary. Even positive stereotypes can have a negative impact however, simply because they are broad generalizations. The stereotypes we hold form the basis of our prejudices.
Prejudice: an unconscious or conscious dislike about real (or suspected) differences
Discrimination: The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often on the grounds of perceived differences. This can happen between individuals or groups.
Privilege-Exists when a group has something of value that is denied to others simply because of the groups they belong to (or are perceived to belong to) rather than because of any of their actions.
“The luxury of obliviousness”-
If you are part of the dominant group, you do not have to be aware of all the problems faced by the underprivileged or marginalized group… while if you are not part of the dominant group you have to constantly be aware of things. Examples?
TWO TYPES OF PRIVILEGE (Peggy McIntosh):
Unearned advantage: When only certain groups benefit from things that everyone in society should automatically have (safety, belonging, equity for contributions in society, general freedoms, access to benefits of living in our society, etc…)
Conferred Dominance: Includes the above, but gives one group power over another or others. The Dominant group defines what are the appropriate norms for a given situation and is able to enforce them through socialization of systems. Leads to the ability to discriminate.
*Any time you are able to move through your life and not be labeled as an outsider, who is excluded or included with restrictions, you are enjoying privilege.
Privilege occurs when things are systematically allowed for one person or group of people while they are denied to others.
Privilege as a Paradox:
• Although privilege is received by individuals, you are not granted privilege because of the kind of individual you are. People are privileged when they are perceived as having membership in privileged social groups or categories.
• Being part of a privileged group does not mean that you FEEL privileged or do not have struggles, whereas being part of a subordinate group does not mean you will not experience success or good things in life.
• You CANNOT give up your membership in a privileged group…it is not your individual decision.
Tokenism: A concept that involves giving minorities (generally, those who have assimilated)some access to power, so that majorities think “Well, if __________ made it and has achieved success, everyone in that group can…”
Cultural Appropriation: Occurs when members of the dominant culture take elements from a culture of people who have been systematically oppressed by that dominant group. (How is this different from simply “sharing” or “exchanging” culture or assimilation?)
Microaggression: A term that relates to common daily instances that occur resulting in negative, prejudicial, pejorative, insulting or hostile messages directed at marginalized groups. These can be instances that occur in verbal or non-verbal communication, behaviors directed towards a person/people directly or that serve to disrespect the experience of marginalized groups, and environmental displays. Microagressions can be intentional or unintentional.
Power- *See French and Raven’s Six Bases of Power (separate attachment)
Oppression
: combination of prejudice with privilege and power. When people with power have prejudices against someone, they may oppress (hold back or hurt) that person. Oppression refers to the subordination of a given group or social category by unjust use of force, authority, or societal norms in order to achieve the effects noted above. Psychological perspectives on racism, sexism and other prejudices are often studied as individual beliefs which, although not necessarily oppressive in themselves, can lead to oppression.
Institutionalized oppression results in society when prejudice and privilege is exerted through power structures and becomes imbedded in social systems, are codified in law or policy and become parts of a culture.
Horizontal Hostility is the manner in which an oppressed group comes to use against itself the methods of the oppressor. For example, sometimes members of marginalized groups hold an oppressive view toward their own group, or start to believe in negative stereotypes of themselves and act on them.
Intersectionality Recognizes that the interconnected nature of the various marginalized groups in society and how interlocking systems of power impact those who are most vulnerable in society and can have a magnifying effect on subordinate groups.
Cycle of Oppression:
Myth-
Stereotypes and prejudices along with the “reasons” people give for the existence of them.
Socialization
– How systems (at all levels) reinforce prejudices. As people move through their various environments, they are “taught” how to think in negative ways about group differences and how to attribute negative ideas to certain groups.
Internalization-
When people individually and collectively begin to believe in the superiority of certain groups over others, dominant groups become privileged.
Behavior –
People individually and collectively (groups, organizations) begin to act on their beliefs that certain groups are superior over others. (discrimination, oppression, institutionalization)
HDF110
IDEAS CONCEPTS AND THEORIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO UNDERSTANDING PRIVILEGE AND OPPRESSION
What is the difference between race, ethnicity and culture?
RACE
ETHNICITY
CULTURE
Before we continue to explore the concept of culture…a brief lesson in systemic thinking…
Five Levels of Systemic Environments (Bronfenbrenner,1979)
Microsystem- The developmental context nearest the individual and represents those interactions in which people are directly involved (family, school, friends, church, community, neighborhood)
Mesosystem- Contains the elements present in the Microsystem, but concentrates on the interaction between them (i.e. How does the church affect the family? What is the relationship between the school and the neighborhood?)
Exosystem-Consists of the fabrics of society in which policies are made and ultimately have an impact on the microsystem and the individual. Examples include educational systems, religious systems, economic systems, media and technology, political system, legal system, etc…
Macrosystem- Recognizes that a society has a set of overarching cultural values and beliefs that establish implicit and explicit rules about what or what is not acceptable behavior. American Culture vs. Middle Eastern Culture.
Chronosystem- Reflects changes that happen over time (women’s rights, definition of family or marriage, social and economic discrimination) Or the impact of the historical time in which a person lives on their development.
Back to thinking about culture…
Some common Misconceptions that White Americans have about culture:
Culture is Foreign-This idea is based on the belief that culture is derived from another country or society…basically, that it is “imported” from somewhere else.
Culture Belongs to Someone Else-There is research evidence that many white Americans attribute culture to others in society, but not to themselves. This definition implies that there is no discernable American Culture, which is untrue. (O’Connor, 1993)
Culture is Exotic-Many people believe that culture only encompasses unusual practices such as body painting in India, Native American pow wows, etc…rather than seeing local voting practices, a county fair, or high school sports events as culturally significant.
Culture and Ethnicity are Synonymous-While ethnicity likely influences culture, it is only ONE of many factors that influence a person’s cultural identity. On a personal level, is the sense that a person has of being part of their ethnic community including family experiences passed down from one generation to the next. Culture is a multi-dimensional construct that also includes additional identifiers such as social class, gender, location, and membership or identification with other subgroups.
Culture Should Be Color Blind or “I Don’t See Color” -A common approach is to emphasize the similarities “we are all the same” between people and to ignore the differences. This can be done by well-meaning people in that that believe everyone should be treated equally. Unfortunately, NOT noticing somebody is black ignores the rich history and culture, just as ONLY noticing somebody is black ignores their individuality.
Culture is Primarily External-Many people think that culture consists simply of the artifacts or outward appearance or behavior of a particular group. People often point specifically to clothing, appearance, housing types or location, food items and rituals. These identifiers link people together and separate them from us. A “sameness” is assumed if you are in that group. This way of seeing culture does not appreciate the inner feelings, thoughts, or experiences of the people in a group and fails to recognize the influence and interaction of other cultural groups to which a person belongs.
Culture is ACQUIRED and EVOLVES Over time:
Culture is learned-Learned through the reactions of others in the group to people adhering to the norms of that group or going against them. Rewards and/or punishment direct people’s behavior. The rewards and punishment can be tacit or tangible.
Culture is shared-The members of the group often agree on the main/salient points concerning what is important in the culture.
Culture contains variations among people in the same culture group-Not everyone in the same cultural group shares all of the belief of that group. People can belong to several cultural groups at a time, and the values between them might not be the same.
Culture is adaptive-It is possible for culture to adapt over time to accommodate changes in the environment (at several levels) People over time eliminate traditions and rituals and add new ones.
HDF 110
DEFINITION OF TERMS FROM LECTURE:
What is the difference between race, ethnicity and culture?
Race refers to classifications of humans into large and relatively distinct populations based on factors such as ancestry and sharing a common phenotype or appearance (race traditionally is defined by a person’s color, features and hair.) This system is not necessarily accurate all the time but nonetheless recognized by many. Examples include Black, White, Indian, Native American, and Asian. Race is socially constructed as by itself it does not define actual biological groups but rather socially defined categories.
Ethnicity is generally understood as including your nationality or where the national boundaries of your ancestors lie. Nationality/ancestry may include: “German,” “Nigerian,” “Pakistani,” “Mexican,” “Cherokee,” “Japanese,” etc. May also include a person’s primary language and his/her religious affiliation.
Culture has to do with the way groups of people do things. For example, consider the celebration of Christmas. What are some of the common things that Americans who celebrate Christmas do? What about in Argentina? (children put their shoes on the porch and look for gifts in them on Christmas Day.) How are dating rituals different in the United States versus India? The differences in the answers to these types of questions are examples of customs or ways people do things, which is defined by culture.
EVERYONE has a culture…and it is influenced by ethnicity as well as membership in several other groups. Culture defines the accepted behaviors, roles, interpretations, and expectations of a social group. Culture also, gives people a sense of identity and provides distinctiveness between each group.
Discriminationand Oppression Related to the LGBTQ+ Community
Sex-The biological organs and processes that identify somebody as male or female.
Intersex-Individuals born with any of several variations in sex characteristics including gonads, genitals, sex hormones or chromosomes that do not fit typical definitions for male and female.
Gender-Societal proscriptions about what is considered male appropriate “masculine” behavior or female appropriate “feminine” behavior. Gender Expression is how people demonstrate societal proscriptions for gender in their day to day lives.
Gender Identity is a person’s internal sense of being male or female.
Genderqueer/Nonbinary- Terms for gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine and do not adhere to the binary gender constructions that society has imposed. People who identify as Genderqueer may express combinations or masculinity or femininity that overlap, are fluid or are neutral.
Sexual Orientation- “Sexual orientation” is a term used to describe a person’s romantic, emotional or sexual attraction to another person. This is separate from gender identity.
History of the use Heterosexual/Homosexual labels -The term “homosexual” was first coined in the 1800s to categorize those who engaged in same-gender sexual behavior as sick or deviant (Bullough, 1994; Donovan, 1992). Over the years the term “homosexuality” has been associated with sin, criminal behavior, uncleanliness, and mental illness (Donovan, 1992; Hunter, Shannon, Knox, & Martin, 1998; Pierce, 2001) – all of which serve to place LGBT people in the subordinate role of being categorized as “deviant” individuals who are marginalized by mainstream society.
Using the term “homosexual” is one way that perpetuates the power of the majority group by creating “symbolic opposites.” The term “heterosexual” is used to describe the more powerful majority group and that the term “homosexual” is then the more negative hierarchical opposite, and is even seen by some as the “enemy” of “heterosexuality.” This type of hierarchical and opposing term serves to perpetuate a negative discourse about LGBT people.
In 1991 the American Psychological Association’s Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns published a set of guidelines for avoiding heterosexual bias in language, and discouraged psychologists from using the term “homosexual” because of its negative connotations with psychopathology and its primary focus on the sexual aspect of a person’s identity. Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Pansexual or Queer are the preferred labels when preferring to one’s non-heterosexual orientation.
Homophobia and Heterosexism
The term “homophobia” was first coined in the late 1960s by George Weinberg, a heterosexual psychoanalyst who used the term to describe heterosexual people’s fear, contempt, and hatred of LGBTQ people. “Heterosexism” is a term that emerged after “homophobia,” and shares more in common with other terms like racism and sexism that focus on multiple levels of prejudice and oppression experienced by a group of people. Gregory Herek, a psychologist who has conducted a great deal of research on negativity and stigma directed toward LGBT people, has defined heterosexism as “the ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any non-heterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationships, or community” Heterosexism emphasizes the power that major social institutions possess, and the way this power is used to subordinate any non-heterosexual lifestyle.
Heterosexism as a Form of Oppression- Given that heterosexism serves to subordinate and stigmatize LGBTQ people, it can be viewed as a major oppressive force in the lives of LGBTQ people. Celia Kitzinger (1997) suggests that because of the pervasiveness of heterosexism, “Lesbians and gay men are oppressed in almost every aspect of our lives” (p. 204). This oppression is experienced at multiple levels of analysis (as described in Chapter One), including the personal, interpersonal or relational, and social or community. Although LGBTQ people may experience heterosexism and oppression in multiple forms within these various ecological systems, Gregory Herek (1992) and Ski Hunter and her colleagues (1998) assert that heterosexism is manifested in two primary ways: through societal customs and institutions (cultural heterosexism) and through individual attitudes and behaviors (psychological heterosexism).
Some forms of heterosexism within these categories are blatant and vengeful, whereas others may be more subtle (regardless of whether or not they are intentional), and may be perpetuated without the oppressor’s conscious recognition that she or he is being heterosexist. Many non-LGBTQ people are not aware of the heterosexist nature of most societies since heterosexist language, icons, images, and messages are so pervasive within various realms of our existence. For example, LGBTQ people are traditionally non-existent in mainstream advertising. How many television commercials or magazines ads have you seen that include a same gender couple purchasing a car, or having a meal with their children, or sharing a tender kiss?
Luxury of Oblivion-At the most basic level, most heterosexual women and men have never been forced to question their sexual attraction to, or love for, members of the opposite gender, since they assume that their affectional feelings and emotions are just a “natural” or “normal” part of being a woman or man. For many LGBT people, on the other hand, these feelings of sexual desire and love for a person are often questioned on a daily basis, as they are constantly bombarded with messages regarding the deviance of the feelings and emotions that to them are “natural” and “normal.”
What are some other examples of the Luxury of Oblivion afforded to straight individuals?
POLICY AND LEGAL ISSUES
Employment Protection for Gays and Lesbians-
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
does not enforce the protections that prohibit discrimination and harassment based on sexual orientation, status as a parent, marital status and political affiliation. However, other federal agencies and many states and municipalities do.
Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 (CSRA), as amended, prohibits federal employees who have authority to take, direct others to take, recommend or approve any personnel action from discriminating against applicants and employees on the bases of race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, disability, marital status or political affiliation and from discriminating against an applicant or employee on the basis of conduct which does not adversely affect the performance of the applicant or employee. The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) has interpreted the prohibition of discrimination based on “conduct” to include discrimination based on sexual orientation.
An Executive Order was signed on May 28, 1998, amending the above to provide a uniform policy for the federal government to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation. Executive Order 11478 section 1 reads:
It is the policy of the government of the United States to provide equal opportunity in federal employment for all persons, to prohibit discrimination in employment because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, handicap, age, or sexual orientation and to promote the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a continuing affirmative program in each executive department and agency. This policy of equal opportunity applies to and must be an integral part of every aspect of personnel policy and practice in the employment, development, advancement, and treatment of civilian employees of the federal government, to the extent permitted by law.
Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) is a proposed bill that has been attempted during every congress since 1994 in the United States Congress that would prohibit discrimination against employees on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity by civilian, nonreligious employers with at least 15 employees. To date, this has still not been passed.
Bostock v Clayton County, Georgia (2020)- The Supreme Court held that firing individuals based on their sexual orientation or transgender status violates Title VII’s protection based on sex.
Sodomy Laws- Made a variety of sexual acts illegal. They were only loosely defined, but generally referred to oral or anal sex or beastiality. While they often targeted sexual acts between persons of the same sex, many statutes used definitions broad enough to outlaw certain sexual acts between persons of different sexes as well, sometimes even married persons, however these laws were rarely used against heterosexual people. . In 1986, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of these laws, Prior to 2003, Fourteen states still had these laws on the books, however in 2003 the Supreme Court struck them down as unconstitutional. The effects of these laws were not only the crime itself, but it carried over into employment, parenting, and the marriage argument for gays and lesbians.
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) 1996
Federal act that was enacted as a result of Hawaii’s move towards legalizing gay marriage. The main effects of this act were listed in the following sections:
Section 2. Powers reserved to the states
No State, territory, or possession of the United States, or Indian tribe, shall be required to give effect to any public act, record, or judicial proceeding of any other State, territory, possession, or tribe respecting a relationship between persons of the same sex that is treated as a marriage under the laws of such other State, territory, possession, or tribe, or a right or claim arising from such relationship.
Section 3. Definition of marriage
In determining the meaning of any Act of Congress, or of any ruling, regulation, or interpretation of the various administrative bureaus and agencies of the United States, the word ‘marriage’ means only a legal union between one man and one woman as husband and wife, and the word ‘spouse’ refers only to a person of the opposite sex who is a husband or a wife.
In United States v. Windsor (2013), the U.S. Supreme Court declared Section 3 of DOMA unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
The evolution towards the legalization of gay marriage was fraught with backlash every step of the way, which required ongoing challenges in court as gay and lesbian people would secure marriage licenses and then have states enact legislation to nullify marriage legality.
As of June 26, 2015
Same sex marriage became legal nationwide when the United States Supreme Court ruled (Obergefell v. Hodges) that state-level bans on same-sex marriage are unconstitutional. The court ruled that the denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples and the refusal to recognize those marriages performed in other jurisdictions violates the Due Process and the Equal Protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution.
Transgender- For non-transgender people, there is no difference between their gender identity and their physical sex. Transgender is an umbrella term used to describe people whose gender identity, gender expression or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. For example, someone born male may not feel much or any connection to what our culture has defined as being “masculine” and may instead strongly identify with what is considered “feminine.” Some transgender people’s sense of difference is so strong that they believe that they were assigned the wrong sex at birth and have a desire to alter their physical identity until it matches their gender identify using sex reassignment therapy and/or surgery.
Pronoun use- The use of pronouns becomes confusing for many as there are basically only three pronouns in the English language; “her” referring to females and “him” referring to males and “it” referring to objects. Some people who identify as transgender or non-binary prefer the use the term “they” “their” or “them” which is gender neutral. Because this is technically a plural term, there have been suggestions for gender neutral pronouns such as the neutral “zie (to use instead of “he” or “she”) or “hir” (instead of “him” or “her.”) Several new terms have continued to emerge in the lexicon of gender studies. Dead naming is a term that refers to someone intentionally or unintentionally referring to someone by the name they used before they transitioned. Cisgender which is a term used specifically for people whose gender identity matches their assigned sex.
In terms of interacting with transgender people, one thing that is important to remember is to start by not presuming anything—like anyone else, transgender people have individual desires about the language they choose for themselves, including both how they describe themselves and what pronouns they use. Once you learn the language someone prefers, embrace it, as more and more publications, workplaces, and schools are beginning to do.
Discrimination Issues- Transgender people may be discriminated against in many areas of their lives. Discrimination can range from having housing denied, to being unable to secure marriage/partner benefits, to being labeled and assumed to be a gender with which one does not identify.
Some unique considerations and history concerning Transgender Identity- No one has a definitive answer about what causes transgender identity, but there are many theories. Some believe it may be caused by the bathing of a fetus by opposite birth sex hormones while in utero, or perhaps by some spontaneous genetic mutation, which is also one of the theories of the origin of homosexuality. Due to the intensity of their gender dysphoria, some people who are transgender come to feel they can no longer continue living in the gender associated with their physical (birth) sex. Until more recently, transgender individuals were described as having “gender identity disorder” (GID) – being deemed a mental illness by the American Psychiatric Association. Medical professionals tend to believe that transgender is both a medical and mental health condition that may require treatment rather than simply labeling it as a mental illness.
Recently, GID was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (“DSM-V”). In the DSM-V, there is a category for “gender dysphoria” which identifies the discomfort that a person feels when his or her gender identity differs from his or her sex assignment. There is disagreement among transgender leaders about the effect of removing the original GID category. Some wanted it removed because they felt it stigmatized transgender people and provided a pretext for discrimination against them. They also believe it may cause harm to children when parents seek treatment for a child when the child may merely be expressing gender variance. Some transgender people believe it is not the condition but society’s rigid approach to sex and gender that are problematic. Others want GID to remain because a GID diagnosis in some states could qualify as a disability, for which medical coverage could be available and to which disability discrimination provisions could apply.
HDF 110
French and Raven’s Six Bases of Power (1959,1965)
Legitimate power
Also called “positional power,” it is the power of an individual because of the relative position
and duties of the holder of the position within an organization or society. Legitimate power is
formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various
attributes of power such uniform a title, or an imposing physical office.
Referent power
Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty and a
desire to follow. It is based on the personality, charisma and interpersonal skills of the power
holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, and this admiration creates
the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Here the person under power desires to identify with
these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and
patrioticm count towards an intangible sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars
to defend the honor of the country. This is the second least obvious power, but the most effective.
Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, for
example. The charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the
endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena.
Abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power,
placing them in a situation to gain personal advantage at the cost of the group’s position. Referent
power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect. When
combined with other sources of power, however, it can help a person achieve great success.
Expert power
Expert power is an individual’s power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the
organization’s needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually
highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified.
When they have knowledge and skills that enable them to understand a situation, suggest
solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, then people tend to listen to
them. When individuals demonstrate expertise, people tend to trust them and respect what they
say. As subject matter experts, their ideas will have more value, and others will look to them for
leadership in that area.
Information power-
Involves the ability to control information or create a narrative about information to suit one’s
purposes. Closely related to Expert power in that people regard the powerholder as having
superior knowledge about certain areas needed by others to reach a goal. Informational power is
based on the potential to utilize information. Providing rational arguments, using information to
persuade others, using facts and manipulating information can create a power base. How
information is used – sharing it with others, limiting it to key people, keeping it secret from key
people, organizing it, increasing it, or even falsifying it – can create a shift in power within a
group.
Reward power
Reward power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material rewards, it
refers to the degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind such as
benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions or increases in pay or responsibility. This power is
obvious but also ineffective if abused. People who abuse reward power can become pushy or be
reprimanded for being too forthcoming or ‘moving things too quickly’. If others expect to be
rewarded for doing what someone wants, there’s a high probability that they’ll do it. The problem
with this basis of power is that the rewarder may not have as much control over rewards as
maybe required. Supervisors rarely have complete control over salary increases, and managers
often can’t control promotions all by themselves. And even a CEO needs permission from the
board of directors for some actions. So when somebody uses up available rewards, or the
rewards don’t have enough perceived value to others, their power weakens. (One of the
frustrations of using rewards is that they often need to be bigger each time if they’re to have the
same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given frequently, people can become
satiated by the reward, such that it loses its effectiveness).
Coercive power
Coercive power is the application of negative influences. It includes the ability to demote or to
withhold other rewards. The desire for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld that
ensures the obedience of those under power. Coercive power tends to be the most obvious but
least effective form of power as it builds resentment and resistance from the people who
experience it. Threats and punishment are common tools of coercion. Implying or threatening
that someone will be fired, demoted, denied privileges, or given undesirable assignments – these
are examples of using coercive power. Extensive use of coercive power is rarely appropriate in
an organizational setting, and relying on these forms of power alone will result in a very cold,
impoverished style of leadership.
French, J. R. P., Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright and A. Zander. Group
dynamics. New York: Harper & Row.
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