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The Trial of Galileo

73 years after his death in a 1616 decree the Catholic Church condemns Copernicanism.

False in philosophy and also heretical in religion to hold heliocentric views

Heretical = violation of central church doctrine, the doctrine being denied or violated must be taught in the Bible and agreed on by church experts

Evidence for being taught in the Bible in various books such as Ecclesiastes 1.5

“The Sun also riseth and the Sun goeth down and hasteth to his place where he rose”

1616 Decree
The 1616 ruling meant that if a Catholic publicly taught that Copernicanism was true they were guilty of heresy.
Copernicanism could be taught as an hypothesis to aid astronomy but no more.
Sincere private belief in Copernicanism may have been possible because the ban had not been delivered Ex Cathedra ie: highest level of sanction from the Pope
At Galileo’s trial he claimed he had only taught Copernicanism as an hypothesis. This position was not believable.

Heresy in a 1616 Theological Context
Need to put the ‘1616 decree’ into context ie: Why it wasn’t simply an attack on (Science) Natural Philosophy
Galileo and his opponents agreed that both the Bible and Natural Philosophy (Science) contain truths.
But this raised questions:
(a) What to do if they appear to be in conflict ?
(b) What kind of truths eg. moral allegories vs historical scientific truths ?
(c) When should Biblical descriptions about nature be treated literally or figuratively eg: note Ecclesiastes quote from earlier slide also mentions the Sun as ‘He’?
(d) What if there is disagreement between Natural Philosophers (Scientists) about the certainty of some of their ‘scientific’ truths
(e) Who gets the final say over these interpretations ?

Reading the Bible: Literal and Textual Interpretation
This last point is particularly sensitive at this time because of the Reformation (and so called ‘Counter Reformation’).
Traditionally the Catholic viewpoint was that the Church would provide expert opinion and official interpretation about the ‘appropriate’ reading of Biblical truths.
This could lead to questions about the legitimacy of the Church;s administration and the authority of the Pope.
Alternatively, Protestantism (more in theory than in practice ie: Church leaders still crucial in interpreting scriptural meaning) suggested that the facts are simply in the Bible and there to be read.
This opened up more room for multiple readings, but also conflict, because the Bible doesn’t allow multiple truths.
Galileo’s desire to provide his own framing on how to read the Bible re: Natural Philosophy looked dangerously Protestant.

Audience to the 1616 Decree
Galileo’s work is drawing popular attention to Copernicanism but has a variety of audiences who react to his claims and his personality in different ways.
(a) Liberal Catholics: aristocrats, merchants, noblemen, lawyers, younger scholars esp. in cities such as Venice. …. Mainly supportive.
(b) Jesuits, order set up by the Church to counter Protestantism (Key players in the Counter Reformation) church intellectuals/spin doctors. Galileo interesting to them but some were critical favouringTycho, were concerned that Galileo pushed his case beyond the evidence…. Mixed reception some support some opposition.

The Church a Powerful Political Elite
(c) Church Elite (The Church more like Govt’s of today than modern church). Cardinals and other officials and administrators play political and spiritual roles: Galileo had befriended some of these power brokers eg: Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, double edged sword for Galileo.
Such groups need to maintain authority/prestige Galileo assumes too much familiarity and presumes too much status…. Need to remind Galileo of his place.
(d) The Pope: Paul V not interested in intellectual disputes or public debate between Galileo and Aristotelians. Back up the ‘status quo’ and silence Galileo…. Needs to keep the peace.

Traditionalists
(e) Aristotelian Professors and Dominicans ie traditional order in Church.
Copernicanism threatened these traditionalists and University scholars.
Opposing Galileo and Copernicanism on theological grounds provided a vehicle for attempting to bolster their threatened intellectual/cultural status.
Galileo challenged these establishment figures for his whole career… Revenge !!

Galileo’s ‘overconfidence’?
During 1612-1616 Galileo worked hard on promoting himself and Copernicanism. When it was ‘leaked’ to him that during a dinner party conversations of one of his patrons, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, that arguments were made that Copernicanism was unfounded heresy he jumped to his defence by writing a long letter the Grand Duchess Christina.
This letter was intended for wider distribution and in it Galileo outlined his theological position re: Copernicanism.
Wasn’t officially published until after his trial as ‘Letter to Castelli’.

‘Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina’
This letter was ultimately used against Galileo by his critics.
Very famous in the History of Science and regularly subject to Whig ‘out of context’ readings.
Easy to forget that the letter is written from An early 17th Century context by a devout Catholic Natural Philosopher not a 21st Century Scientist.

Themes
Bible is not a ‘Scientific textbook’ and was written for the common person
Church can only rule on heresy re: morals and faith and not matters of science
Two truths cannot contradict one another and there is truth in Science and the Bible
If Science can prove something to be true “by observation and demonstration” the Scriptures should be re-interpreted to fit with scientific truth

No simple Dichotomies between Science and Religion
Galileo is not setting up a simple dichotomy between Science and Religion nor promoting Science at the expense of Religion rather he is hoping that the Catholic Church will endorse his reading of Copernicanism as its official view. In doing this, he is telling the Church where they should set the lines between figurative and literal readings of the Bible ( which means he is encroaching on their turf), and he is treating his views as scientifically proven, something that was challenged by his Dominican and Aristotelian Opponents and viewed with caution by even more open minded Jesuits.

Galileo as a Crypto-Protestant ?
In reinforcing his theological claims he also cited St Augustine who was regularly cited by Protestants.
To use Schuster’s term in ‘Introduction to the Scientific Revolution’(see tutorial readings). Galileo could be packaged as a ‘crypto –Protestant’ and amateur theologian by his opponents.

Dirty Deeds(Documents) Done Dirt Cheap !
At the time of the 1616 decree Galileo met with Cardinal Bellarmine who provided him with a certificate indicating that, whilst Copernicanism was heretical if treated as the literal truth, the decree was not directed at Galileo personally.
Galileo took this to mean there was some ambiguity/ room to move in terms of how far he go in arguing for/ teaching Copernicanism without being prosecuted.
In his later trial prosecutors would claim, to the contrary, that Galileo was actually specifically personally warned about possible heresy and they produced a document from their files containing this warning. They used this to suggest that Galileo had deliberately defied the Church.
There is strong evidence that this later document was a forgery added to the Vatican’s files to discredit Galileo.

Galileo Takes up the Challenge
Which ever interpretation, re: the status of Galileo’s warning and the wisdom of his interpretation, for the next 7 years (from 1616) Galileo became less overt in public lobbying for Copernicanism. This would change in 1623 when a new Pope was elected who Galileo had known previously as a Cardinal (Maffeo Barberini).
Galileo believed this would provide an opportunity to return to active public lobbying for Copernicanism and he directed his attention to writing the ‘Dialogue Concerning the Two Systems’. Its publication in 1632 would be the final trigger for Galileo’s trial.
See next slide front page of ‘The Dialogue’

The Trial
As noted in earlier lectures the ‘Dialogue’ was an overt defence of Copernicanism including arguments made by the Pope and Galileo’s opponents put in the words of a figure ‘Simplicio’ who lost every debate.
Galileo used his Church connections to get past original censors and got the text into print.
In 1632 Galileo summoned to Rome to face charges of heresy.
As noted in earlier slides whilst the Church could have tried him and won without it, the case was made stronger by the insertion of documents suggesting that Galileo was defiant towards the Church’s authority and he had expressly defied instructions not to promote the truth of Copernicanism.

Galileo’s recantation
In 1633 Galileo who was sick and going blind was found guilty of heresy and was forced to recant. He was not tortured but subjected to house arrest. This was in good conditions.
He was able to have some visitors (but with restrictions) and with the assistance of his students managed to complete his final major work on Natural Philosophy exploring the mathematics of motion.
He had originally been subject to the conditions that he spend considerable time each day reading and reciting religious texts but one of his daughters a nun managed to get a dispensation so she could read them on his behalf.
At his trial Galileo was forced to recite the following famous recantation (June 22, 1633) Concluding portion of Galileo’s Recantation (or Abjuration) (see next 2 slides) Source:  Giorgio de Santillana, The Crime of Galileo (University of Chicago Press 1955), pp. 312-313

I, Galileo, son of the late Vincenzo Galilei, Florentine, aged seventy years, arraigned personally before this tribunal, and kneeling before you, Most Eminent and Reverend Lord Cardinals, Inquisitors-General against heretical depravity throughout the entire Christian commonwealth, having before my eyes and touching with my hands, the Holy Gospels, swear that I have always believed, do believe, and by God’s help will in  the future believe, all that is held, preached, and taught by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. But whereas — after an injunction had been judicially intimated to me by this Holy Office, to the effect that I must altogether abandon the false opinion that the sun is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth is not the center of the world, and moves, and that I must not hold, defend, or teach in any way whatsoever, verbally or in writing, the said false doctrine, and after it had been notified to me that the said doctrine was contrary to Holy Scripture — I wrote and printed a book in which I discuss this new doctrine already condemned, and adduce arguments of great cogency in its favor, without presenting any solution of these, and for this reason I have been pronounced by the Holy Office to be vehemently suspected of heresy, that is to say, of having held and believed that the Sun is the center of the world and immovable, and that the earth is not the center and moves: 

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Therefore, desiring to remove from the minds of your Eminences, and of all faithful Christians, this vehement suspicion, justly conceived against me, with sincere heart and unfeigned faith I abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies, and generally every other error, heresy,  and sect whatsoever contrary to the said Holy Church, and I swear that in the future I will never again say or assert, verbally or in writing, anything that might furnish occasion for a similar suspicion regarding me; but that should I know any heretic, or person suspected of heresy, I will denounce him to this Holy Office, or to the Inquisitor or Ordinary of the place where I may be. Further, I swear and promise to fulfill and observe in their integrity all penances that have been, or that shall be, imposed upon me by this Holy Office. And, in the event of my contravening, (which God forbid) any of these my promises and oaths, I submit myself to all the pains and penalties imposed and promulgated in the sacred canons and other constitutions, general and particular, against such delinquents. So help me God, and these His Holy Gospels, which I touch with my hands. 
I, the said Galileo Galilei, have abjured, sworn, promised, and bound myself as above; and in witness of the truth thereof I have with my own hand subscribed the present document of my abjuration, and recited it word for word at Rome, in the Convent of Minerva, this twenty-second day of June, 1633. 

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Impact of Galileo’s trial
Astronomical research and cosmological speculation was hindered in Italy although many other areas of research continued quite strongly in areas such as dynamics and mathematics conducted by Galileo’s students.
In Protestant countries Galileo gained some sympathy as his treatment at the hands of the Church could be linked to anti-Catholic sentiments
Galileo himself was apparently disheartened as he had always hoped to reconcile his work with the Church.
Galileo retained support of a number of students who continued many areas of his work and were committed to preserving his reputation.
Galileo died in 1642 same year as Newton is born. His students/supporters hoped for big funeral event and monument but this was thwarted by the Pope. Galileo was buried in a closet size room in the Franciscan Church in Santa Croce. In 1737 his remains were moved to an elaborate tomb in the Cathedral(see next slide)

Broader Historiography
The Galileo affair has been regularly re-interpreted in various historical contexts especially as a symbol of the conflict between Science and Religion or the suppression of freedom of thought.
In these contexts the more specific details of the case are normally selectively reinterpreted or overlooked to help support more immediate political interests or drive ‘morality tales’.
Some famous examples include the so called Draper White ‘conflict thesis’ championed in the 19th century by William Draper and A.D. White and the famous play by Bertold Brecht ‘The Life of Galileo’ written mid 20th Century.

Warfare of Science vs. Religion ?
A.D. White ‘A History of the Warfare of Science and Theology on Christendom’ (1896) and J.W. Draper ‘ History of the Conflict between Science and Religion’ (1897).
That the entire history of science was one of a battle of science as a source of progress and enlightenment over dogmatic religion which was holding back human civilization and progress. Less general critique of theology but of dogmatic organised religion.
Draper was had been a supporter of Darwin and influential in early attempts to professionalize American Science he was deeply concerned with notions such as Papal Infallibility and directed much of his historical critique against the Catholic Church.
White was one of the founders of Cornell University in New York (which was the first private non-sectarian University in the USA) so was interest in setting up University outside of influences of organized religion something new at the time.

Bertold Brecht: The Life of Galileo
Brecht (1898-1956)famous German writer influenced by Marxist thought wrote a play using Galileo’s life and trial to explore issues surrounding Science and progress, ethics of Science, and the relationship between Science and Religion and questions of freedom of thought etc. Galileo recants so as to save himself but in the process this allows him to write his final works etc.
Play reflects many mid 20th century and ‘cold war’ themes/ anxieties about the role of science in society.
Made into a film in the 1970’s
Brecht even modified some of the content to be less optimistic about the progress of Science after WWII uses of Nuclear Weapons.

Galileo ‘still’ in the News
BBC News on line: Last Updated: Tuesday, 15 January 2008, 18:42 GMT
Papal visit scuppered by scholars
Anti-Pope slogans have appeared at La Sapienza
Pope Benedict XVI has cancelled a visit to a prestigious university in
Rome where lecturers and students have protested against his views on
Galileo. The Pope had been set to make a speech at La Sapienza University
on Thursday. Sixty-seven academics had said the Pope condoned the 1633
trial and conviction of the astronomer Galileo for heresy.
The Vatican insists the Pope is not “anti-science” – but in light of the protests
they have decided it would be better for him not to attend.
Galileo had argued that the Earth revolved around the Sun.
The Vatican says the Pope will now send his speech to La Sapienza, instead of
delivering it in person.
Landmark controversy.Pope Benedict was in charge of Roman Catholic doctrine in1990
when, as Cardinal Ratzinger, he commented on the 17th-Century Galileo trial.
In the speech, he quoted Austrian-born philosopher Paul Feyerabend as saying
the Church’s verdict against Galileo had been “rational and just”.

An old controversy has come back to haunt the Pope. Galileo’s inquisitors
maintained the scriptures indicated the Earth was stationary.
Galileo, a devout Catholic, was forced to renounce his findings publicly.
In 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret at the way Galileo had been treated.
“The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of
the Earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world’s structure
was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture,” he said.
The academics at La Sapienza signed a letter saying Pope Benedict’s views on
Galileo “offend and humiliate us”. They said it would be inappropriate for the
Pope to open their academic year on Thursday. It’s a good thing that
someone in Italy has the courage to say no to the Pope. Stefano, Cuneo,
Italy.
“In the name of the secular nature of science we hope this incongruous event
can be cancelled,” said the letter addressed to the university’s rector, Renato
Guarini.
In a separate initiative, students at La Sapienza organised four days of protest
this week. The first revolved around an anti-clerical meal of bread, pork and
wine, the BBC’s Christian Fraser reports from Rome. The banner at their lunch
read: “Knowledge needs neither fathers nor priests”.
Vatican Radio said the protest at La Sapienza had “a censorious tone”.

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Galileo’s middle finger: Is there a message?