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The Primary Problems

Educational Relevance

Transition to Higher Education for Students With Autism:
A Systematic Literature Review

Alison Nuske, Fiona Rillotta, and Michelle Bello

Flinders University

Amanda Richdal

La Trobe University

This study is a systematic literature review of the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum
disorder (ASD) and their family members in higher education, with a particular focus on transition.
Systematic searches were conducted across six databases: Medline, CINAHL, ProQuest, PsycINFO,
Scopus, and Informit. Published articles (n ï¿½ 11) describing the experiences of transition to higher
education, from the perspectives of individuals with ASD and their family members, were reviewed. The
bioecological theory model was used as a framework for examining the complex interactions between
elements at the individual, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
levels, and how they impact on the studentâs experience of transition to higher education.

Finding

showed that individuals with ASD experience challenges associated with: core and associated charac-
teristics of ASD, self-disclosure and awareness, and mental health and wellbeing. Family members
reported significant challenges associated with systemic policies, which impacted on their ability to
support their family member with ASD. It is highlighted that an individual and flexible approach to
transition support, and increased academic and professional staff awareness and understanding of ASD,
are critical to the transition experience of students with ASD in higher education.

Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, higher education, postsecondary education, transition, university

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by difficulties
with social communication skills, and a pattern of restricted or
repetitive behavior, interests, or activities (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). Most recent prevalence rates suggest approx-
imately 1 in 68 children have ASD and an increase in this prev-
alence rate has been reported in the United States over the past 20
to 30 years (Christensen et al., 2016). The prevalence of ASD in
adults has been reported in two English studies as approximately 1
in 100 (Brugha et al., 2011; Brugha et al., 2016). ASD is the
current diagnostic category outlined in the Diagnostic and Statis-
tical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSMâ5; Ameri-
can Psychiatric Association, 2013); however, other terminology
such as autism, Aspergerâs syndrome, high functioning autism,
autism spectrum condition, and pervasive developmental disorder
not otherwise specified (PDDNOS) have also been used to de-
scribe individuals with characteristics along this spectrum. For the
purposes of this review, the term ASD will be used throughout.

Inclusion of students in higher education from diverse back-
grounds, including those with disabilities, has been increasing
(Brett, 2016; Katsiyannis, Zhang, Landmark, & Reber, 2009;
Swart & Greyling, 2011). Changes to education and disability
legislation internationally, have resulted in a significant shift to-
ward promoting increased opportunities for individuals with a
disability, including ASD, to engage in higher education (Brett,
2016; Ebersold, 2008; Katsiyannis et al., 2009). The introduction
of legislation such as the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth

)

in Australia, the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) in the
United States, and the Disability Discrimination Act (1995) in the
United Kingdom has been a driving force behind changes to higher
education policy and increased focus on inclusive practice over the
past three decades (Brett, 2016; JÃ¤rkestig Berggren, Rowan, Berg-
bÃ¤ck, & Blomberg, 2016; Katsiyannis et al., 2009; Pumfrey, 2008;
VanBergeijk, Klin, & Volkmar, 2008). The Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), adopted by the
United Nations in 2006, has also played a significant role in
influencing disability legislation internationally. The UNCRPD
highlights the importance of improved educational opportunities
for individuals with disabilities (JÃ¤rkestig Berggren et al., 2016;
Morley & Croft, 2011).

It has been reported that the number of individuals with ASD
enrolling in higher education has been increasing (Barnhill, 2016;
Bell, Devecchi, Mc Guckin, & Shevlin, 2017). This may be be-
cause of the increasing inclusion of individuals with disabilities
within higher education (Brett, 2016; Ebersold, 2008; Katsiyannis
et al., 2009), as well as the increase in prevalence of ASD over the
past 20 to 30 years (Cox et al., 2017; Gelbar, Smith, & Reichow,
2014). It is also predicted that the number of individuals with ASD

This article was published Online First February 25, 2019.
Alison Nuske, Fiona Rillotta, and Michelle Bellon, Disability and Com-

munity Inclusion, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Flinders Uni-
versity; Amanda Richdale, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School
of Psychology & Public Health, La Trobe Universit

Alison Nuske completed this work during her doctoral studies under the
supervision of the other three authors.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Alison
Nuske, Disability and Community Inclusion, College of Nursing and
Health Sciences, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001,
Australia. E-mail: alison.nuske@flinders.edu.au

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Journal of Diversity in Higher Education
Â© 2019 National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education 2019, Vol. 12, No. 3,

280

â295
1938-8926/19/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000108

280

mailto:alison.nuske@flinders.edu.au

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000108

seeking to enroll in higher education is likely to continue to rise
(Kuder & Accardo, 2018; Pinder-Amaker, 2014; Thierfeld Brown
& Wolf, 2014). Thus, it is necessary to further examine and
synthesize the literature available across existing studies to better
understand the experiences of students with ASD and their family
members during the transition to higher education. Further re-
search is also needed to explore the experiences of these studen

to develop appropriate and effective support strategies during their
transition to higher education.

Difficulties with social communication skills; a preference for
structure and difficulty managing changes to routines; difficulties
with executive functioning skills, such as planning and problem
solving; and sensory sensitivities, associated with ASD often cre-
ate significant challenges in primary and secondary educational
settings (Fleury et al., 2014). These same difficulties can also
create unique challenges in the higher education setting, where
routine and structure is often lacking, educational spaces are often
much larger and overwhelming, and access to support requires an
increased level of self-awareness, and a reliance on a studentâs
ability and willingness to self-disclose (Adreon & Durocher, 2007;
Knott & Taylor, 2014) and to seek support.

There is a wide range of literature on the barriers to, and
facilitators for individuals with ASD while undertaking studies in
higher education (Barnhill, 2016; Brown & Coomes, 2016; Knott
& Taylor, 2014; Kuder & Accardo, 2018; VanBergeijk et al.,
2008); however, there is a paucity of research that has focused
specifically on the transition period. In addition, there are limited
studies that explore the experiences of individuals with ASD in
higher education directly (Alverson, Lindstrom, & Hirano, 2015;
C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Baric, Hemmingsson, Hellberg, &
Kjellberg, 2017; Bell et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Madriaga
& Goodley, 2010; Mitchell & Beresford, 2014; Van Hees, Moy-
son, & Roeyers, 2015).

Literature investigating the experiences of students with disabil-
ities in higher education has highlighted a range of difficulties and
barriers. For students with ASD, many of these difficulties relate to
the need for self-disclosure, self-awareness and a desire to âfit in,â
often resulting in a delay in seeking or accessing disability support
services (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Bell et al., 2017; Cox et al.,
2017). As Hewitt (2011) highlights, this may in fact be the first
time that the student has been required to advocate for themselves
to access supports or accommodations. Disclosure to disability
services is the first step in successfully accessing services and
supports (Rocco, 2001); however, research has shown that some
students may be reluctant to disclose their disability (Adreon &
Durocher, 2007; A. H. Anderson, Carter, & Stephenson, 2018;
Shattuck et al., 2014), and this may result in delayed access to
services. For this reason, a broad definition of âtransitionâ has
been considered for this review, to encompass the transition into
and the first year of studies in higher education.

Family members, in particular parents, play a significant role in
supporting and advocating for an individual with ASD, especially
during their primary and secondary educational years (Volkmar,
Reichow, & McPartland, 2014). Previous studies exploring needs
and facilitators for individuals with ASD attending higher educa-
tion have also highlighted the importance of family support in the
pursuit of higher education (Zeedyk, Tipton, & Blacher, 2016).
However, research exploring the experiences of parents or other
family members during the transition to higher education for

students with ASD is lacking (C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Bell et
al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond, Meadan, & Pickens,
2017; Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013). There-
fore, studies that have examined the perspectives of family mem-
bers during this transition have also been included within this
review.

The experiences of students with disabilities in higher education
have been an expanding area of focus in educational research in
recent years (Lang, 2015). There has also been an increase in the
number of studies focused on the experiences of students with
ASD enrolled in higher education. A number of systematic reviews
into these experiences have been conducted over the past 5 years
(A. H. Anderson, Stephenson, & Carter, 2017; Gelbar et al., 2014;
Toor, Hanley, & Hebron, 2016; Zeedyk et al., 2016), with varying
focus and purpose. In particular the study conducted by Toor et al.
(2016), examined the literature on the experiences of students with
ASD, their family members and staff in the higher education
setting. This review identified the facilitators, obstacles, and needs
of individuals with ASD in accessing higher education. While not
specifically focused on transition itself, it highlights the transition
period as a significant aspect of studentsâ successful participation
in higher education. The latest article reviewed by Toor and
colleagues, was published in 2015. Since this time, a number of
additional studies have been conducted exploring these experi-
ences for students with ASD and their family members. In addi-
tion, the study conducted by Toor et al. (2016) excluded studies
with a quantitative or mixed methods design. While the purpose of
only including studies with a qualitative design was to ensure that
all included studies had directly explored the experiences of indi-
viduals with ASD in this transition process, exclusion of mixed
methods studies may have resulted in relevant qualitative data
being excluded from their evaluation. To gather a wide range of
literature on the subject, the current review has, therefore, included
articles with a qualitative or mixed methods approach to ensure
qualitative discussion of experiences are not overlooked.

Another review, conducted by Sims (2016), was geographically
limited, only including research conducted within the United King-
dom. While differences in educational practice between the United
Kingdom and other countries was cited as the reason for this
limited geographical scope, one can argue that, given the paucity
of literature on the subject, a systematic review of studies con-
ducted with an international perspective is warranted. Regardless
of systemic differences between various countriesâ higher educa-
tion systems, the needs and experiences of individuals with ASD
and their families are likely to be similar across international
boundaries. This in turn can assist in the development of recom-
mendations for best practice globally and identification of areas for
future research.

As a result of the increase in the number of students with ASD
likely to be enrolling in higher education, and the growing research
being undertaken in this area, it is critical for higher education
institutions (HEIs) to develop an in depth understanding of the
experiences of these students to implement best practice transition
support strategies. Systematic review methodology is designed to
do just this; provide an analysis and synthesis of current available
knowledge within a specific area. Bearman et al. (2012) highlight
the benefits of systematic review methodology, in particular as it
relates to the higher education sector and acknowledges the limited
uptake of this methodology within this setting. While Bearman et

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281AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

al. (2012) recognize the challenges in undertaking this methodol-
ogy, they also identify the importance of the systematic review in
potentially increasing the quality of future research conducted in
the field.

Aim

The first aim of this review is to provide an update of current
research, with a focus on the transition experiences of students
with ASD, and the experiences of their family members during this
time.

An additional aim was to further understand the experiences of
individuals with ASD and their family members in their transition
to higher education, to inform best practice strategies for support-
ing students with ASD in their first year in higher education. The
review question is: What are the experiences of individuals with
autism spectrum disorder and/or their family members regarding
transition to higher education?

From the available literature on transition to higher education
for students with ASD, there does not appear to be a standard
practice or approach to transition or orientation to university for
students with ASD. In policy development and implementation, it
is important to consider the views of those effected by these
decisions; therefore, the goal of this systematic literature review is
to provide an analysis and synthesis of available studies that have
investigated the experiences of students with ASD and/or their
family members. This will provide an important insight into these
experiences, which in turn can help to inform future policy and
intervention decisions in relation to this complex transition pro-
cess. To better understand the complex systems and interactions
involved in this transition process, a bioecological systems theory
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979) framework has been adopted to explore
and describe the outcomes of the studies reviewed.

Method

A systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA
guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009). System-
atic searches were conducted across six databases during August
of 2017: Medline, CINAHL, ProQuest limited to articles only,
PsycINFO, Scopus, and Informit.

Searches were conducted using a combination of free text and
subject headings terms (such as MeSH terms) and were combined
using Boolean operators. Examples of subject heading terms are
provided in Table 1 and Table 2. The free text search terms used

included synonyms for each keyword such as: Autism spectrum
disorder OR Asperger; higher education OR further education OR
tertiary education OR postsecondary education OR university OR
college; transition.

The primary focus of this review was on studies that included a
qualitative component to their investigation of the experiences of
individuals with ASD or their family members in their transition to
higher education. For this reason, mixed-methods studies were
included to ensure that relevant articles or experiences were not
overlooked. Articles were excluded if they contained less than
10% qualitative data on the experiences of individuals or their
family members in the transition to higher education. Articles were
also excluded if less than 10% of the participants had ASD or were
the family member of an individual with ASD. Articles in which
less than 10% of the data described transition experiences (i.e.,
commencing in higher education, first year of higher education)
were also excluded.

References returned through the search strategy outlined above
were downloaded into the systematic review software Covidence.
Using this software, articles were screened by title and abstract, by
two independent reviewers (AN and MB) Where there was uncer-
tainty about whether a specific article met the eligibility criteria,
the full article was included for detailed review against the inclu-
sion criteria. Conflicts were resolved through discussion between
the two reviewers and an agreement was made as to the inclusion
of these articles.

The same reviewers conducted an autonomous review of the full
text versions of potentially relevant studies using the eligibility
criteria outlined above. Reviewers recorded reasons for exclusion
using the Covidence software. Any disagreements in determining
eligibility of an article was resolved by discussion between the two
reviewers. Reference lists of all articles selected were also hand
searched to identify additional articles for inclusion. Hand searches
were conducted in two key journals in ASD and in disability and
diversity in higher education: Focus on Autism and Developmental
Disabilities; Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders;
Journal of Diversity in Higher Education; and Journal of Further
and Higher Education.

Bioecological Theory and Transition to
Higher Education

Previous literature reviews conducted within this area have not
used a theoretical framework in analyzing study findings; how-
ever, given the complex elements involved in the transition to

Table 1
Medline Search Terms

1. Exp Autistic Disorder/
2. Exp Autism Spectrum Disorder/ or exp Asperger Syndrome/
3. (autisï¿½ or aspergerï¿½ or ASD or ASC).tw.
4. 1 or 2 or 3
5. Exp Universities/
6. Exp Vocational Education/
7. (universitï¿½ or collegeï¿½ or higher education or further education or postsecondary education or postsecondary education or postsecondary education

or tertiary education or TAFE or vocational education).tw.
8. 5 or 6 or 7
9. (transitionï¿½ or preparï¿½).tw.

10. 4 and 8 and 9

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282 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

higher education for individuals with ASD, the bioecological the-
ory model provides a useful framework for exploring these expe-
riences in more depth. Therefore, studies examined in the current
systematic review will be discussed using the bioecological theory
model as a framework to consider the impact of the complex and
interrelated systems within which the student engages.

Bioecological theory was originally developed by Urie Bron-
fenbrenner to explore the ecology of human development (Bergen,
2008). Bronfenbrenner arranges the ecological environment within
which an individual exists into four systems. At the center of these
systems is the individual themselves, surrounded by the people and
settings within which they directly interact (microsystem), while
the mesosystem describes the complex interactions between two or
more of these people or settings (Bergen, 2008; Bronfenbrenner,
1979). The exosystem refers to the settings not directly related to
the individual, but within which events may occur that affect the
individualâs development (Bergen, 2008; Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
More broadly, at the macrosystem level, cultural or societal factors
may also impact on the individualâs development (Bergen, 2008;
Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner later added a fifth system,
the chronosystem, that includes historical contexts and events that
may impact on the individualâs situation (Bergen, 2008). In revis-
ing the bioecological theory, Bronfenbrenner sought to emphasize
the interactive and dynamic nature of human development and
place a greater emphasis on the individual component (Bergen,
2008).

Ecological transitions occur throughout the life span, whenever
the personâs position is altered because of a change of ârole,
setting, or bothâ (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 26). The transition to
higher education involves not only a significant change in setting,
but also a significant shift in role, with increased expectations.
Within higher education settings, the individual with ASD is now
required to self-advocate, request support, and in many cases, live
independently or away from home for the first time (Zeedyk et al.,
2016).

As Pinder-Amaker (2014) highlights, a complex interaction
occurs in the studentâs educational environment, between the in-
dividual, family members, educational staff, and other profession-
als (mesosystem); relevant policies and legislation (exosystem);
and cultural and societal beliefs about the inclusion of individuals
with ASD (macrosystem), which may impact directly on outcomes
for the individual when they commence higher education. In
addition, these factors may be influenced by significant changes in
history during the individualâs life span (chronosystem), for ex-

ample, the adoption of the UN Conventions on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2006).

Adapted from Pinder-Amakerâs (2014) example of the bioeco-
logical theory model of development applied to individuals with
ASD in education, Figure 1 illustrates specific elements of each of
these systems as they apply to individuals with ASD, in the higher
education setting.

Findings

Database searching resulted in the identification of 587 studies
after duplicate removal and screening (see Figure 2). An additional
10 studies were identified through hand searching reference lists
and journal indexes. After title and abstract screening, 526 articles
were excluded as they did not meet inclusion criteria. A further 60
articles were excluded during full-text article review for the fol-
lowing reasons: not primary research study (32); not focused on
transition (10); not focused on higher education (5); no or less than
10% qualitative component (4); no or less than 10% inclusion of
individual or family perspectives (4); wrong population (i.e., less
than 10% of participants were individuals with ASD or family
members) (3); focus on pretransition expectations (1). After inde-
pendent review and consensus by AN and MB, 11 articles were
agreed upon for inclusion within this review.

Quality of Study Methodology

Using the McMasters Critical Review form: Qualitative Studies
(Letts et al., 2007), articles that met the inclusion criteria were
assessed for methodological quality by two reviewers (AN and
MB). The studies reviewed ranged in quality score from 11 to 19
points (maximum possible score 21), on the McMasters critical
appraisal tool (see Table 3). Of these 11 studies, the highest score
(19), was achieved by two studies (Baric et al., 2017; Dymond et
al., 2017), with one study scoring only 11 points (PeÃ±a & Kocur,
2013).

Two studies had evidence of a clearly described decision trail
supporting auditability of the studies (Baric et al., 2017; Dymond
et al., 2017). Only three studies clearly identified a theoretical
perspective within which their studies were framed (Alverson et
al., 2015; Baric et al., 2017; Madriaga & Goodley, 2010) and only
three studies clearly identified the assumptions and biases of the
researcher (Baric et al., 2017; Dymond et al., 2017; Madriaga &
Goodley, 2010). The two studies with the lowest quality scores

Table

PsycINFO Search Terms

1. Exp Autism Spectrum Disorders/
2. (autisï¿½ or aspergerï¿½ or ASD or ASC).tw.
3. 1 or 2
4. Exp COMMUNITY COLLEGES/ or exp COLLEGES/
5. exp Higher Education/
6. (universitï¿½ or collegeï¿½ or higher education or further education or post-secondary education or postsecondary education or postsecondary education

or tertiary education or TAFE or vocational education).tw.
7. 4 or 5 or 6
8. Exp SCHOOL TRANSITION/ or exp TRANSITION PLANNING/
9. (transitionï¿½ or preparï¿½).tw.

10. 8 or 9
11. 3 and 7 and 10

283AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

(Madriaga & Goodley, 2010; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013) did not address
rigor in data collection strategies and demonstrated limited evi-
dence of trustworthiness.

Study Characteristi

Articles within this review were all published between 2010 and
2017. Four studies were conducted in the United States, 2 in the
United Kingdom, 2 in Sweden, 1 in Belgium, 1 in the Republic of
Ireland, and 1 in Australia. An overview of the studies is presented
in Table 4.

Study designs included grounded theory (C. Anderson &
Butt, 2017; Madriaga & Goodley, 2010; Van Hees et al., 2015),
phenomenology (Alverson et al., 2015; Baric et al., 2017),
naturalistic inquiry (PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013), and case study
(Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012). Data were collected using inter-
views in 10 of the studies and by focus groups in one study.
Four studies did not specifically state a study design (Bell et al.,
2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; Mitchell &
Beresford, 2014).

Participant characteristics are outlined in Table 5. There were a
total of 180 participants across the 11 studies, of these a total of

158 participants were individuals with ASD or family members of
individuals with ASD. Other participants included staff; individu-
als with a diagnosis other than ASD; or individuals who were not
attending a HEI. These participants have not been discussed in this
review. A total of 92 individuals with ASD (M ï¿½ 71, F ï¿½ 21)
participated in the studies reviewed. Parents made up a total of 64
participants, across 10 of the studies, with one study (Alverson et
al., 2015) including an unclear number of family members as
participants. Only two studies included a sibling of an individual
with ASD as a participant.

Key findings from each of the studies were categorized accord-
ing to the bioecological theory model discussed earlier and are
presented in Table 6. Results indicate the experiences of transition
to higher education by individuals with ASD and their family
members are complex and varied and are now examined within the
framework of the bioecological theory model.

Individual.
Challenges related to the characteristics of ASD. Six studies

described issues related directly to the core characteristics of ASD.
Challenges reported during the transition to higher education in-
cluded: social communication difficulties (Bell et al., 2017; Cai &

Figure 1. Bioecological theory model of transition to higher education. Adapted from Pinder-Amaker (2014).
See the online article for the color version of this figure.

284 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; Mitchell & Beresford, 2014;
Van Hees et al., 2015); sensory processing difficulties (Cai &
Richdale, 2016; Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012; Van Hees et al.,
2015); and the need for structure and routine (Cai & Richdale,
2016; Van Hees et al., 2015). Difficulties related to characteristics
associated with ASD included: executive functioning difficulties
(Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; Simmeborn Fleis-
cher, 2012; Van Hees et al., 2015); and difficulties with indepen-
dent living skills (Dymond et al., 2017; Mitchell & Beresford,
2014; Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012).

While challenges experienced by students with ASD were sim-
ilar across a number of studies, two studies also highlighted the
importance of considering the difference in manifestation of these
core characteristics of ASD for each individual (Alverson et al.,
2015; Madriaga & Goodley, 2010). Strengths and unique skills
associated with the core characteristics of ASD, such as strong

memory, dedication, focus, and an eye for detail were also high-
lighted by Van Hees et al. (2015).

Self-awareness/disclosure. Self-awareness and disclosure were
also identified as key requirements for transition to higher education
and were highlighted across five studies (Alverson et al., 2015; Cai &
Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013; Van
Hees et al., 2015). Alverson et al. (2015) found that levels of
self-awareness varied significantly among participants. Issues
relating to disclosure across the studies reviewed included:
doubts about the benefits of disclosing (Van Hees et al., 2015),
deficits in self-determination skills or initiative to seek help
(Dymond et al., 2017; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013), or a lack of
acceptance to seek support until a crisis or significant challenge
had arisen (Cai & Richdale, 2016; Van Hees et al., 2015).

Mental health and emotional wellbeing. Experiences of in-
creased levels of stress and anxiety were reported by participants

Figure 2. PRISMA flow diagram for articles identified through database searches.

285AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

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as
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P
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D
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Y
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Y
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Y
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pr
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?

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Y
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di

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co
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bu

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ry

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lo
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pr
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Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
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Y
Y

T
ot

al
17

16
19

14
16

19
12

15
11

14
16
T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is
co
py
ri
gh
te
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by
th
e
A
m
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ic
an
P
sy
ch
ol
og
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al
A
ss
oc
ia
ti
on
or
on
e
of
it
s
al
li
ed
pu
bl
is
he
rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
ti
cl
e
is
in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe
rs
on
al
us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du
al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.

286 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

Table 4
Overview of Studies Included in Review

Study (design) Method(s) Future research recommendations Limitations

Alverson et al. (2015)
(Phenomenology)

Semi-structured interviews
(twice, 6â12 months apart)

More extensive longitudinal and
experimental studies.

Small sample size.
Sample selection represents only

one portion of those with
ASD (before 2013 diagnostic
criteria change).

(protocol derived from special
education, transition and ASD
literature)

Family background
questionnaire ï¿½ field notes

Participants from narrow
demographic.

No longitudinal data to explore
college completion.

Anderson and Butt (2017)
(grounded theory)

Unstructured interviews Larger, more diverse samples. Small convenience sample.
Open-ended questions Investigate practices, policies and

programs associated with success.
Only included white, high

income.
Limited number of young adults

with ASD (7) included.
Baric et al. (2017)

(hermeneutical)
Semi-structured interviews
Open-ended questions

To understand preparatory transitional
activities and services during
compulsory school which support
move to employment or enrolling in
HE.

Limited number of participants
with ASD in university
studies setting.

All participants from
community-based vocational
training centers.

Only individual view (parents,
teachers not included).

Bell et al. (2017) (not stated) Semi-structured interviews
(twice, pretransition and
posttransition)

Tracking students through postsecondary
education to identify quality of
transition process, appropriateness of
support, and whether students become
socially integrated.

Limited scope

Cai and Richdale (2016) (not
stated)

Semi-structured focus groups Research into providing appropriate
educational support and into social
supports.

(9 with students, 6 with family
members)

(themes derived from literature
relating to needs of students
with ASD in higher education)

Questionnaire
Dymond et al. (2017) (not

stated)
Semi-structured interviews
(questions derived from literature

relating to postsecondary
students with disabilities and
information gathered from
university support staff)

Explore whether experience of parents
(and university personnel) consistent
with experiences of students with
ASD.

One large public research
university with a history of
providing disability
accommodations.

Case studies of specific students ï¿½
parents ï¿½ university personnel ï¿½
support providers.

Examine perspective through lens of
students with ASD themselves.

Examine relationship between university
experience and postuniversity
outcomes.

Only parents of students
registered with Disability
Services eligible to
participate.

Small sample size
Unable to include students with

ASD due to insufficient
number of participants.

Researchers undertaking study
affiliated with the university
being investigated.

Madriaga and Goodley (2010)
(grounded theory/dialectical
and cyclical)

Interviews (over 12 month
period)

Mitchell and Beresford (2014)
(not stated)

Semi-structured interviews.
(topic guides piloted with
young people with ASD)

Explore cost effectiveness of school/
college links, extended visits to
college campus.

Self-selecting sample.
Presence of parents/carer during

approx. half of interviews.
PeÃ±a and Kocur (2013)

(naturalistic
inquiry/emergent design)

Semi-structured interviews. Include voice of students with ASD to
understand transition from their point
of view.

Sample only included highly
educated, middle-class
families from one county.

Did not include voice of
students with ASD.

Simmeborn Fleischer (2012)
(case study)

Interviews. Small sample size.
(interview guides based on

interviews with young people
with ASD participating in
main study)

(table continues)

287AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

across five studies (C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Baric et al., 2017;
Cai & Richdale, 2016; Mitchell & Beresford, 2014; Van Hees et
al., 2015). In addition, preparation for transition, and timely,
appropriate support was recommended to minimize negative im-
pacts on mental health and wellbeing (Baric et al., 2017; Cai &
Richdale, 2016; Van Hees et al., 2015).

Microsystem. At the microsystem level, individuals with
ASD described within these studies had support from family
members, as well as professionals and staff within both the sec-
ondary school and postsecondary education settings.

Family support. All 11 studies addressed the significant role
played by parents during the transition period. Family members
were reported as playing a significant role in providing emotional
and psychosocial support to individuals with ASD during this
transition period (Baric et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016;
Dymond et al., 2017; Mitchell & Beresford, 2014; Van Hees et al.,
2015). Three studies also described parents taking on an active role
in supporting their son or daughter with disclosing or initiating
access to support services (Bell et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016;
PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013).

Professional support. Participants in three studies described
positive experiences associated with professionals involved in the
transition process (Bell et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Mitch-
ell & Beresford, 2014). Participants who took part in the study
conducted by Mitchell and Beresford (2014) described profession-
als as undertaking two specific roles: (a) supporting and engaging
with planning, and (b) providing information. The participants
reportedly valued support provided by professionals who were
honest, reliable, provided information that was clear and easy to
understand (written and verbal), and who had a knowledge and
understanding of ASD. The importance of professionalâs knowl-
edge of ASD was also echoed by parents in PeÃ±a and Kocurâs
(2013) study. Parents within this study reported feeling that faculty
members were unprepared for students with ASD and lacked
awareness or knowledge of the disability.

Mesosystem. At the mesosystem level, studies demonstrated
the importance of effective collaboration between all elements of
the microsystem, including family members, professionals, and
educational staff.

Collaboration. Six studies highlighted the importance of sec-
ondary schools, families and higher education staff working col-
laboratively together (Alverson et al., 2015; C. Anderson & Butt,
2017; Baric et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al.,

2017; Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012) to support the transition pro-
cess.

Exosystem. Issues related to the exosystem level were noted
in six studies (Alverson et al., 2015; C. Anderson & Butt, 2017;
Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013;
Van Hees et al., 2015). These issues predominantly revolved
around the impact of legislation relating to transition and higher
education.

Issues related to the influence of policy and legislation were
most commonly present in U.S. studies. Difficulties were associ-
ated with the implementation of transition support programs or
services as outlined within the Individuals with Disabilities Act
(IDEA; 2004). While it is a requirement of IDEA to implement a
formal postsecondary transition plan (VanBergeijk et al., 2008),
experiences of these processes varied greatly (Alverson et al.,
2015; C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Dymond et al., 2017). Where
participants experienced effective formal transition support they
developed clear postsecondary goals, eventually leading to suc-
cessful adaptation and adjustment to higher education (Alverson et
al., 2015; Dymond et al., 2017). However, some participants
described transition services that did not provide this same level of
coordination, experiencing a lack of formal planning, or effective
follow up of goals and plans (C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Dymond
et al., 2017). Australian participants reported similarly varied
experiences (Cai & Richdale, 2016). Where formal transition
planning was not evident, students consequently felt unprepared
for the transition to higher education (Cai & Richdale, 2016). In
Ireland, where formal transition planning is not mandated, formal
transition planning was lacking (Bell et al., 2017). Transition to
higher education or work was not specifically included in the
participantâs individual education plans, and in some cases this
resulted in students needing to find alternative pathways into
higher education as the result of undertaking courses that did not
lead directly to higher education opportunities.

Another exosystem element, which affected the experiences of
students and family members within three of these studies, was
that of privacy legislation (Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al.,
2017; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013). A number of parents reported barriers
presented by the implementation of privacy and confidentiality
policies within higher education settings in response to legislative
requirements. While these policies are implemented to protect the
individualâs privacy and confidentiality, it is also evident that
individuals with ASD rely heavily on support from family mem-

Table 4 (continued)

Study (design) Method(s) Future research recommendations Limitations

Van Hees et al. (2015)
(grounded theory)

Semi-structured interviews Examine perspectives of parents,
disability service providers, informal
support networks.

Possible selection bias.
Self-report qualitative data.

Parentâs potential role in student
transition to HE.

Use of standardized measures of anxiety
and stress.

Development of intervention services
which are evidence based and can
moderate impact of mental health
issues.

Note. ASD ï¿½ autism spectrum disorder.

288 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

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289AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

bers, in many cases to assist them in the process of disclosure, as
required to access necessary supports and reasonable adjustments
(Bell et al., 2017; Cai & Richdale, 2016; PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013). In
addition, Mitchell and Beresford (2014) found no evidence that
support provided by family members was unwelcome, which
raises the question of whether this legislation may in fact be
creating unnecessary barriers for students with ASD transitioning
to higher education.

Macrosystem and chronosystem. Discussion of macrosys-
tem and chronosystem elements of student experiences was absent
in these studies. Only three studies included within this review
were from the United Kingdom or Australia, where individualized
payment systems are already in place, it is interesting that none of
the participants described experiences associated with supports
accessed through these systems.

Methodological limitations of studies reviewed. Scores on
the McMasters Critical Review Form: Qualitative Studies (Letts et
al., 2007) varied significantly. A clearly defined theoretical per-
spective was missing from all but three of the included studies, and
only two studies clearly identified assumptions and potential bias
of the researcher conducting the study. Further research using a
clearly defined theoretical perspective and acknowledgment of
existing assumptions or bias may help to improve the quality and
interpretability of the research conducted.

The studies included in this review all had relatively small
sample sizes, which while appropriate to the case study method-
ology used in most, provided only a limited snapshot of the
experiences of individuals with ASD transitioning to higher edu-
cation. Participants in a number of studies were also recruited from
relatively narrow demographic groups (e.g., White, high income,
and middle class), which significantly limited the generalizability
of the results. In over half of the studies, participants were only
eligible if they could provide evidence of a formal diagnosis or if
they had already registered with their institutionâs disability ser-
vice. Therefore, individuals who identified as having ASD but had
not received a formal diagnosis were not represented in these
studies. The majority of studies also only explored the perspectives
of one group (individual, family, or staff/professionals), and did
not compare these perspectives simultaneously. Only three studies
included perspectives of both the individual and family members
concurrently (C. Anderson & Butt, 2017; Bell et al., 2017; Cai &

Richdale, 2016). Concurrent exploration of these perspectives may
have helped to clarify the issues experienced and determine
whether the perspectives of individuals with ASD and other mem-
bers of their support network are in fact similar. The inclusion of
siblings was also minimal, with only two studies including a
sibling when exploring perspectives of family members (Cai &
Richdale, 2016; Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012).

Discussion

This study extends upon previous research into the experiences
of individuals with ASD in higher education. In addition, this
review utilized the bioecological theory model to examine in
detail, the experiences of individuals with ASD, and their family
members, during the transition to higher education. The following
discussion will explore these findings in more detail, with consid-
eration of the ways in which the various elements of the bioeco-
logical theory model within which this transition exists, interact to
impact on the experiences of the individual and their family
member/s.

Bioecological Theory and Experiences of
Higher Education

Findings from these studies suggest the core and associated
characteristics of ASD may create additional challenges for stu-
dents with ASD when transitioning to higher education. In partic-
ular, difficulties associated with social-communication skills, ex-
ecutive functioning skills, and independent living skills may result
in students needing supports and accommodations beyond those
typically provided within higher education. In addition, the differ-
ences in manifestation of these characteristics of ASD for each
individual (Alverson et al., 2015; Madriaga & Goodley, 2010) will
necessitate an individualized approach to supports provided.

Regardless of diagnosis, no two individuals will have the same
difficulties, experiences or needs. This is particularly the case for
individuals with ASD who may exhibit the core and associated
characteristics of ASD across a broad spectrum. Students with
ASD are often provided with traditional adjustments such as
additional time in exams or tests, or an alternative setting within
which to sit these assessments, yet these adjustments may be

Table 6
Overview of Key Concepts Within Each Study Categorized Using the Bioecological Theory Model

Study

Individual Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem

Characteristics
of ASD

Self-awareness
and disclosure

Mental health
and wellbeing

Family
support

Professional
support Collaboration

Transition prog/
planning

Privacy
legislation

Not
addressed

Alverson et al. (2015) x x x x x
Anderson and Butt (2017) x x x x x
Baric et al. (2017) x x x x
Bell et al. (2017) x x x x
Cai and Richdale (2016) x x x x x x x x x
Dymond et al. (2017) x x x x x x x
Madriaga and Goodley (2010) x x
Mitchell and Beresford (2014) x x x x x
PeÃ±a and Kocur (2013) x x x x x
Simmeborn Fleischer (2012) x x x x
Van Hees et al. (2015) x x x x x x

Note. ASD ï¿½ autism spectrum disorder.
T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is
co
py
ri
gh
te
d
by
th
e
A
m
er
ic
an
P
sy
ch
ol
og
ic
al
A
ss
oc
ia
ti
on
or
on
e
of
it
s
al
li
ed
pu
bl
is
he
rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
ti
cl
e
is
in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe
rs
on
al
us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du
al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.

290 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

inappropriate or may not effectively address the specific needs of
this population (Barnhill, 2016; Brown & Coomes, 2016; VanBer-
geijk et al., 2008). For higher education to be truly inclusive,
institutions need to go beyond providing these traditional adjust-
ments, and consider the needs of the individual, to ensure all
students can participate fully within their educational setting. The
need for individualized approaches to support strategies was also
noted in the studies included within this review. For example, in
the study conducted by Madriaga and Goodley (2010) not all
participants felt that accommodations provided, were necessary or
appropriate. Some participants felt that the accommodations they
received benefited them, for example having a separate location
for sitting their exams or tests, allowed them to access adjustments
without having to disclose or explain their reasons for accessing
these to their peers; however, others felt that these arrangements
resulted in feelings of segregation.

Similar to recommendations made by Kuder and Accardo
(2018), this review highlighted the importance of the provision of
adjustments and supports which are individualized and address the
nonacademic needs of individuals with ASD. To appropriately
address the diverse needs of individuals with ASD, early engage-
ment with relevant disability service staff within the HEI is critical
to identify and implement effective and relevant adjustments and
supports in a timely manner. However, as studies within this
review have identified there are a number of individual and sys-
temic (exosystem) barriers that may make this process more chal-
lenging for individuals with ASD.

To access supports and accommodations within higher educa-
tion, a student must first identify and acknowledge their need for
these supports. Students must then disclose their disability to
relevant staff in order for supports and adjustments to be identified
and implemented (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Rocco, 2001;
Zeedyk et al., 2016), yet some students with ASD may not identify
as having a disability (Shattuck et al., 2014). Consistent with the
findings of A. H. Anderson et al. (2018), some participants within
the studies reviewed, delayed disclosing their disability to aca-
demic or professional staff within their HEI. Whether the decision
to delay disclosure is made because of difficulties with understand-
ing or navigating the process, or is a conscious choice by the
individual, the delay in disclosing and accessing support may
impact on the individualâs overall higher education experience
(A. H. Anderson et al., 2018). The need to develop skills in
self-advocacy and self-disclosure before commencing higher edu-
cation has been highlighted in previous literature (Barnhill, 2016;
Elias & White, 2018). However, it appears these difficulties con-
tinue to pose challenges, and there remains a gap between the skills
of individuals with ASD in disclosing and self-advocating, and the
expectations of the HEIs within which they are enrolling. While
emphasis should continue to be placed on developing effective
self-advocacy skills before commencing higher education, perhaps
HEIs should consider new strategies for engaging with students
with ASD who are transitioning into higher education, to provide
a more effective mechanism for self-disclosure and consequently
accessing relevant support and accommodations they may require.
Providing online mechanisms for disclosure and registration with
disability support services within HEIs or developing formal pro-
cesses that allow for effective parental support in the early stages
of transition, may help to address some of these disclosure related
difficulties.

As Pinder-Amaker (2014) suggests, the transitional years mov-
ing from secondary to postsecondary education, are a âpeak period
of onset of major psychiatric illnessesâ in typically developing
individuals (p. 126). The transition to higher education has also
been associated with an increase in stress and anxiety levels for
students with ASD (VanBergeijk et al., 2008). Therefore, it is not
surprising that the mental health and wellbeing of students, was
highlighted within a number of the studies reviewed. Cai and
Richdale (2016) suggest effective early preparation and planning,
which ensures timely access to supports, is important in minimiz-
ing the increases to stress and anxiety, which are commonly
reported by individuals with ASD during this transition period.
This was a recommendation also supported by Baric et al. (2017)
and Van Hees et al. (2015). It appears that formal transition
planning is linked to better adjustment and wellbeing in the tran-
sition to higher education, however, even in the United States,
where this was mandated through legislation, it was not always
implemented consistently or effectively. This demonstrates a sig-
nificant gap between legislation (exosystem) and implementation
(individual/microsystem). As such, there is clearly a need for
further investigation of how this legislation is being implemented,
with the aim of developing more effective links between the
legislative requirements and implementation of these programs to
improve the transition and adjustment of students with ASD to
higher education.

Support from family members, in particular parents, was by far
the most common microsystem element described by participants
within these studies. Parents were seen to be providing supports
such as âcoachingâ and âencouragingâ (PeÃ±a & Kocur, 2013).
Other supports provided by parents included coordination of the
transition process, help with organization, and financial support
(Alverson et al., 2015; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017;
Mitchell & Beresford, 2014). These findings further demonstrate
the complex interaction between the individual and their support
networks, which exist within the microsystem level, to support
effective transition to higher education.

In addition to family members, participants also reported receiv-
ing support from professionals in roles across both the secondary
school (e.g., career guidance, teaching staff) and higher education
settings (e.g., disability services staff, counseling, and faculty
staff). In some situations, participants also described support pro-
vided by other external support services (e.g., therapists, psychol-
ogists, or counselors).

Similar to disclosure, collaboration can only occur when the
student has acknowledged and accepted the need for assistance
(Simmeborn Fleischer, 2012). Collaboration between family mem-
bers and HEI staff was also made more difficult as the result of
barriers imposed by relevant privacy legislation and institutional
policies (Cai & Richdale, 2016; Dymond et al., 2017; PeÃ±a &
Kocur, 2013). Elements such as these, at the exosystem level
appear relatively distant from the individual, yet their impact on
the individual and their support networks can be significant. As
Lester (2014) points out limited research has been conducted into
how individuals view and make sense of the relevant policies and
programs that have been developed to support their post school
transitions. Therefore, this is a key area for further consideration in
future studies.

Pinder-Amaker (2014) noted, societal beliefs about inclusion
and resulting emphasis placed on inclusive practice within higher

291AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

education may impact on individuals with ASD at the macrosys-
tem level. However, experiences related to macrosystem elements
were not discussed in the studies reviewed. While historical
events, such as the adoption of the UNCRPD may have influenced
the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education in
recent years, these chronosystem elements were also not discussed
by participants within the studies reviewed; therefore, warranting
further exploration.

Strengths and Limitations

This study included five major strengths. For the first time it: (a)
included an examination of the perspectives of both students with
ASD and their family members; (b) included a purposive focus on
the experience of transition to higher education; (c) included
qualitative data from mixed methods studies; (d) was conducted
within a theoretical framework, the bioecological theory model
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979); and (e) used the McMasters Critical Re-
view form: Qualitative Studies (Letts et al., 2007) to evaluate the
quality of the studies reviewed.

This review also extended upon the studies included in the
systematic review by Toor et al. (2016), with five articles in the
current review published since 2016. The focus on transition
experiences specifically and the inclusion of family members were
also unique to the present review.

Nevertheless, there are some limitations, which should be ac-
knowledged. While the critical appraisal tool used to evaluate the
included studies provided a valuable method of assessing the
quality of the studies, it did not necessarily allow for more in depth
consideration of methodological differences among studies. The
review was also limited to an exploration of published, peer
reviewed research articles. Additional, potentially relevant data
from theses and published reports, were excluded from this review.
Given this is a rapidly expanding area of investigation these
additional sources may have provided additional, valuable infor-
mation.

Recommendations for Future Research

Recommendations for future research identified within the in-
cluded studies are outlined in Table 4. Recommendations focused
on conducting longitudinal studies to explore outcomes of transi-
tion support and social integration; investigating the experiences of
individuals with ASD during their transition and studies in higher
education; and exploring the concurrent experiences of students,
staff, and family members. Given these recommendations, and the
limitations of these studies, future research should consider a
larger and more diverse participant group, exploring experiences
across a broad range of HEIs. Longitudinal studies should also be
considered, to further explore strategies and experiences that are
related to successful outcomes for students with ASD transitioning
into higher education. The lack of research providing data on
outcomes for students with ASD in higher education is also high-
lighted in recent reviews conducted by Kuder and Accardo (2018)
and Zeedyk et al. (2016). Future research may need to examine the
impact of transition processes, support and accommodations on
longer-term outcomes for students with ASD in higher education.
It should also explore the perspectives of individuals, family
members, professionals, and educational staff to develop a deeper

understanding of the needs and experiences of individuals with
ASD during this transition process. Given the complex nature of
this transition experience, the bioecological theory model provides
a valuable framework for further exploration of these experiences.

While a number of studies identified challenges directly linked
to the core characteristics of ASD; interestingly, there was limited
use of comparison groups within these studies. Further exploration
and comparison to other commencing student cohorts may help to
more clearly identify those experiences unique to students with
ASD. Van Hees et al. (2015) also suggested further exploration of
the impact of mental health issues using standardized measures
would provide the opportunity for further examination of the
impact of comorbid conditions such as anxiety and depression on
the transition process for individuals with ASD. Studies comparing
the experiences of students with ASD to those of students without
ASD, both with and without anxiety may provide additional clar-
ification concerning the contribution of these co-occurring condi-
tions.

Implications for Practice

It is important for those who work to support students with
disabilities in the higher education setting to be aware of the
complex interaction of elements, which affect the transition expe-
riences for individuals with ASD. Consideration needs to be given
to the challenges faced by individuals with ASD and their family
members during this transition process. For individuals with ASD
these challenges may relate to the core characteristics and associ-
ated characteristics of, and comorbid conditions associated with,
ASD; however, it is important to also acknowledge the unique
strengths and skills that these students also possess. It is imperative
that an individualized approach is taken, to ensure accommoda-
tions provided are effective and appropriate to meeting the specific
needs of each student (A. H. Anderson et al., 2018; Barnhill, 2016;
Brown & Coomes, 2016; Cai & Richdale, 2016; Madriaga &
Goodley, 2010; Van Hees et al., 2015). While traditional supports
and accommodations available for students with disabilities may
benefit some students with ASD, others may find these to be
unnecessary or irrelevant to their specific needs. This may require
consideration of implementing social communication and organi-
zational support strategies beyond those typically provided to
commencing students in higher education. This finding reiterates
previous recommendations that suggest students with ASD in
higher education may require supports beyond those typically
provided for students with disabilities that consider both academic
and nonacademic skills (Gelbar et al., 2014; Kuder & Accardo,
2018). An individualized approach may not only apply to the
accommodations made for students once they have enrolled and
commenced their studies. Individualized and targeted transition
support opportunities may also be beneficial for individuals and
their family members when preparing for and undertaking the
transition to higher education.

Ideally, staff who provide disability support and services within
HEIs should provide a first point of contact for students with ASD
who are seeking adjustments or accommodations to engage with
their studies. These staff should have a sound knowledge and
understanding of ASD and the needs of these students, and should
provide information in a clear and easy to understand format. The
provision of this information in a written format may provide

292 NUSKE, RILLOTTA, BELLON, AND RICHDALE

students with a valuable opportunity to discuss this information
with their relevant support networks such as family members or
professionals to better identify and voice their needs for support
within the higher education setting. Implementing these strategies
and providing the opportunity for simple and effective disclosure
to occur, is likely to lead to supports and strategies being imple-
mented in a timely and efficient manner. However, as Cai and
Richdale (2016) point out, this may require the provision of
additional staff and, thus, an increase in funding for disability
support services within higher education.

As highlighted in this review, consideration must be given to the
difficulties students with ASD may experience in expressing and
discussing the challenges they face or the supports they require
when commencing higher education studies. Disability service
staff within HEIs may need to consider developing an alternative
approach to providing assistance to students with ASD during this
transition period. This approach must be a careful balance
between the studentâs right to privacy, confidentiality, and
self-determination, and the identified need for additional parental
or family support in accessing services to manage difficulties they
may experience during their transition to higher education. Ways
in which family members of students with ASD can be involved in
the transition process without interfering with the growth and
development of the student as an adult learner within the higher
education setting also need to be addressed. Developing a new
approach may appear challenging when faced with institutional
policies and privacy legislation; however, delays in seeking the
required support and adjustments to successfully engage in higher
education may have a detrimental effect on these studentsâ higher
education experience.

The varied experiences of transition support programs described
by participants within these studies highlights the need for effec-
tive programs to facilitate the transition of students with ASD into
higher education. Further exploration of existing transition support
programs and identification of key stakeholders in this area may
help to define and improve future transition support practices.
Transition programs developed collaboratively between the sec-
ondary education and higher education setting, may also be ben-
eficial.

Conclusion

The present review updates our insights into a rapidly expanding
and significant area of research investigating the experiences of
students with ASD who are transitioning to higher education.
Additionally, this review explored the experiences of family mem-
bers, in supporting students with ASD during this period. By
examining the perspectives of individuals and their family mem-
bers using the bioecological theory model, this review demon-
strates the complex interactions, which impact on the experiences
of students with ASD in their transition to higher education. A
deeper understanding of the experiences of individuals with ASD
and their families during this transition period to higher education,
will allow HEIs to consider more targeted and effective ap-
proaches to transition for these students. This will lead to more
effective and successful transition experiences for individuals with
ASD who are commencing their studies in the higher education
setting, and inform more inclusive practices for supporting these
students.

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Received April 20, 2018
Revision received August 23, 2018

Accepted December 21, 2018 ï¿½

295AUTISM TRANSITION TO HIGHER EDUCATION

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088357614525435

Transition to Higher Education for Students With Autism: A Systematic Literature Review

Aim
Method
Bioecological Theory and Transition to Higher Education
Findings
Quality of Study Methodology
Study Characteristics
Individual
Challenges related to the characteristics of ASD
Self-awareness/disclosure
Mental health and emotional wellbeing
Microsystem
Family support
Professional support
Mesosystem
Collaboration
Exosystem
Macrosystem and chronosystem
Methodological limitations of studies reviewed

Discussion
Bioecological Theory and Experiences of Higher Education
Strengths and Limitations
Recommendations for Future Research
Implications for Practice
Conclusion
References

Successful Transition From Primary to Secondary School for Students
With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Literature Review
Mechthild Richter, Maria Popa-Roch, and CÃ©line ClÃ©ment

UniversitÃ© de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France

ABSTRACT
The transition from primary to secondary school is a sensitive phase in the
life of a child, especially within vulnerable groups such as children with
autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD characteristics, such as the refusal to
change or social interaction difficulties, present challenges to the transition
not only for the students themselves, but also for their parents and the
teachers involved in the transition process. For the literature review, 16
studies focusing on the primary-secondary transition for children with ASD
were selected. Based on criteria existing in the literature for students with-
out special needs, the selected articles were analyzed for identifying factors
that enable a successful transition for children with ASD. The literature
review confirms these criteria to a major extent, but also modifies and
adds new criteria, which involve all main stakeholders and the transition
preparation. Both are of crucial importance for students with ASD. These
new criteria enable the evaluation of the primary-secondary transition of
children with ASD and provide starting points for further research in order
to better understand and improve the situation of students with ASD in
mainstream education settings.

ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 8 February 2018
Accepted 4 November 2018

KEYWORDS

Autism spectrum disorder

;
inclusive education; primary-
secondary school;
stakeholders; transition

In several countries, such as France (MinistÃ¨re de lâÃducation Nationale, de lâEnseignement
SupÃ©rieur et de la RecherchÃ©, translation: Ministry for National Education, Higher Education and
Research [MENESR], 2014), Germany (Klemm, 2013), Finland, and Australia (Graham &
Jahnukainen, 2011), the number of students with special needs attending a mainstream school has
been rising remarkably over the last few decades. However, statistics show that in 2015, up to one-
third of primary school students with special needs in French mainstream education either did not
start a secondary mainstream education or did not finish it (MENESR, 2017).

Meanwhile, the prevalence rate for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been rising, mainly due
to changes and improvements in the diagnostics (Blumberg et al., 2013; King & Bearman, 2009; Lord
& Bishop, 2010). These developments indicate that more and more students with ASD are attending
mainstream education.

International research shows that the transition from primary to secondary school is often linked to
excitement, but also to stress and anxiety for both students and their parents (Bailey & Baines, 2012;
Hanewald, 2013; Mackenzie, McMaugh, & OâSullivan, 2012). Students with ASD are particularly
vulnerable in the transition phase, since they often have problems accepting and dealing with changes
in their daily routine (Adreon & Stella, 2001; Humphrey & Lewis, 2008; Jindal-Snape, Douglas, Topping,
Kerr, & Smith, 2006). Studies report that it is more likely for students with ASD to face social exclusion,
to become victims of bullying, and to have lower academic achievement than their classmates without
ASD at the mainstream secondary level (e.g., Evangelou et al., 2008; Foulder-Hughes & Prior, 2014;
Mandy et al., 2015; Wainscot, Naylor, Sutcliffe, Tantam, & Williams, 2008). That is why we assume that

CONTACT Mechthild Richter richterm@unistra.fr Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Sciences de lâEducation et de la
Communication, 7 Rue de lâUniversitÃ©, Strasbourg 67000, France.
Â© 2019 Childhood Education International

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
2019, VOL. 33, NO. 3, 382â398
https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2019.1630870

https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1080/02568543.2019.1630870&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2019-07-02

the transition from primary to secondary school plays a crucial role in the school career of a child with
ASD. While the literature does not define what a successful primary-secondary transition is, Deacy,
Jennings, and OâHalloran (2015) underline that transition is a long process, suggesting a transition
framework that starts two years before the school change and continues until one year after. In Dannâs
study (2011), parents report after the first term that the transition is not yet complete.

This leads to the question of how a transition from primary school to secondary school can be
successfully conducted with short- and long-term beneficial effects. This implies the need to clearly
define what a successful transition actually means. Evangelou et al. (2008) is the only recent study
that presents criteria for a successful transition from primary to secondary school. Students with
special needs are mentioned in the study, but they are not the main focus. Five aspects for
a successful transition were revealed: 1) developing new friendships and improving their self-
esteem and confidence, 2) having settled so well in school life that they caused no concerns to
their parents, 3) showing an increasing interest in school and school work, 4) getting used to their
new routines and school organization with great ease, and 5) experiencing curriculum continuity
(ibid.). These criteria served as a guideline for the literature review on students with ASD.

A substantive amount of studies address the transition from primary to secondary school in
general. However, when considering the transition for children with ASD, the literature is scarce: the
number of studies is low and quite limited in their regional scope. In this article, we seek to develop
criteria that describe a successful transition for students ASD and attempt to identify factors
influencing the transition, both positively and negatively, based on the existing literature.

Autism spectrum disorder

The term autism spectrum disorder was developed for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM) by the American Psychiatric Association (2013). The fifth and newest
edition of the DSM published in 2013 characterizes ASD as â[p]ersistent deficits in social commu-
nication and social interaction across multiple contextsâ and â[r]estricted, repetitive patterns of
behavior, interests, or activitiesâ (p. 1). These symptoms must be present in early childhood and
cause impairment in significant areas of life.

Children with ASD usually prefer to keep to their daily routine. They have difficulties under-
standing social conventions, such as how reciprocal friendships work or when it is adequate to talk
about a certain topic. In Humphrey and Lewisâ (2008) study, students with ASD report that it is
difficult for them to understand othersâ points of view. Gardner et al. (2014) analyzed peer-interaction
of students with ASD and observed behaviors such as talking over or interrupting conversation
partners. Difficulties in social communication and interaction, as well as repetitive patterns of behavior
or restricted interests, remarkably impact the everyday school life and the transition from primary to
secondary school (Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Humphrey & Lewis, 2008; Wainscot et al., 2008).

Comorbidities linked to ASD, such as sleeping problems, epilepsy, psychological disorders, and
gastrointestinal symptoms, frequently occur (Doshi-Velez, Ge, & Kohane, 2014; Mannion, Leader, &
Healy, 2013). Several studies (Adreon & Stella, 2001; Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Makin, Hill, &
Pellicano, 2017) also report a high sensitivity to noise, smells, or physical contact. These comorbid-
ities can also have an impact on the studentsâ everyday life at school.

As mentioned before, the prevalence rates for ASD is rising globally (Blumberg et al., 2013; King &
Bearman, 2009; Lord & Bishop, 2010). In the United States, it is currently estimated that 1 out of 110
children (1 out of 70 boys and 1 out of 315 girls) is on the spectrum (Lord & Bishop, 2010). In Germany,
the prevalence rate among children is unknown, but it is estimated to be 6â7 children out of 1,000, based
on international studies (Autismus Deutschland e.V., 2014). Estimates in France are 1 out of 100 children
(SecrÃ©tariat dâEtat AuprÃ¨s du Premier Ministre ChargÃ© des Personnes HandicapÃ©es, 2017).

The rising prevalence rates, as well as the rising numbers of students with ASD attending
mainstream schooling, depict a new phenomenon in society and education. This underlines the
need for and importance of understanding what factors contribute to or prevent a successful

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 383

transition to secondary schools for children with ASD. This is done by analyzing the existing
literature and identifying these factors.

Method

For this literature review, articles were selected from scientific databases (ERIC, Elsevier, and
Web of Sciences) and Google Scholar. These databases are important, well-known, and estab-
lished in the field of education. We started using keywords, such as autism, transition, primary,
secondary, inclusive education, and integrative education, in different combinations and in
German, English, and French â all in free text search. This was followed by a more elaborate
search (e.g., the detailed search terms for the Web of Sciences were: ((autism* AND trans* AND
(primary school OR elementary school) AND (secondary school OR middle school OR high
school))). A snowball search using the bibliographies of the 12 resulting articles completed the
search. The search was conducted in June 2018. Sixteen scientific articles were selected based on
the following criteria: 1) they focused exclusively on students with ASD, 2) they dealt with the
transition from a primary school to a secondary school, and 3) they included research on the
situation after the school change. We excluded studies that 1) focused on other school transitions,
2) dealt with the primary-secondary transition in general, 3) treated students with special needs
as a homogeneous group, and 4) included diagnoses other than ASD. The severity of the ASD
was not considered as a specific criterion, since the details on the diagnosis or severity were not
given in most of the studies. Finally, all articles taken into consideration were published in
English after 2000, reflecting the current situation in specific countries (e.g., Australia, Ireland,
USA; cf. Table 1). This is especially important since the development concerning inclusive
education of students with ASD is quite a recent issue in many countries.

The criteria proposed by Evangelou et al. (2008) and presented above were used as a guideline for this
literature review. They served as a lens through which the selected articles were read. In order to
systematize the literature, a concept matrix (Webster & Watson, 2002) was created. The concept matrix
is a tool to systematically structure the literature around concepts. It is a simple table that lists the articles
on one axis and the emerging concepts on the other axis. Ticking the box when an article covers a certain
concept provides a good overview of which concepts are common and crucial to each topic.

Results

Each of Evangelou et al.âs (2008) criteria presented above has been considered as one concept. New
concepts that emerged from the literature review but were not covered by Evangelou et al. (2008

)

were added (cf. Table 2).

The different concepts were analyzed using the selected articles. The results drawn from this
analysis are formulated into modified and extended criteria for a successful transition from primary
to secondary school for students with ASD.

A well-planned, child-centered, and inclusive transition process

The first concept that emerges in nearly all studies is transition planning. Transition planning includes
the decision process for choosing which school the student is going to attend and what type of
schooling is preferred. It also means transition activities, such as school visits or open days. A strong
focus lies on the different stakeholders and their participation in the transition planning process.

The most important decision families have to make is probably whether their child should attend
mainstream education or be schooled in a specialized institution. For example, in France, students
with special needs are enrolled either in ordinary classes or in specialized classes that are part of
ordinary school. Students who are not considered eligible for mainstream classes, or UnitÃ© LocalisÃ©e
pour lâInclusion Scolaire ([ULIS] special education classroom for students with special needs in

384 M. RICHTER ET AL.

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n
in
g

p
ro
ce
ss

,
an
d
st
ra
te
g
ie
s

th
at

su
p
p
or
t
th
e

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
52

g
ra
d
ua
te
s
of

th
e
Po
st

G
ra
d
ua
te

C
er
ti
fic
at
e/
D
ip
lo
m
a

in
SE
N
(A
SD

)

â
O
n
lin
e

q
ue
st
io
n
n
ai
re

â
Fo
rm

al
an
d
co
n

si
st

en
t

st
ru
ct
ur
e
of

th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

p
ro
ce
ss
n
ec
es
sa
ry

â
Fr
am

ew
or
k
fo
r
ed
uc
at
io
n
d
ep
ar
tm

en
ts
,
ag
en
ci
es
,

an
d
sc
h
oo
ls

D
ill
on

an
d

U
n
d
er
w
oo
d
(2
01
2)

U
n
it
ed

Ki
n
g
d
om

â
Is
su
es

an
d
co
n
ce
rn
s
of

p
ar
en
ts

d
ur

in
g
th
e

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
Ke
y
fa
ct
or
s
fo
r
a
su
cc
es
sf
ul

tr
an
sf
er

ex
p
er
ie
n
ce

â
Pr
e-
tr
an
si
ti
on

:
9
p
ar
en
ts

â
Po
st
-t
ra
n
si
ti
on

:
6
p
ar
en
ts

â
Se
m
i-
st
ru
ct
ur
ed

fo
cu
s

g
ro
up

in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
In
-d
ep
th

in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
In
d
iv
id
ua
l
so
lu
ti
on

s
ar
e
n
ec
es
sa
ry

â
Pa
re
n
ts

â
kn
ow

le
d
g
e
is
us
ef
ul

â
Sc
h
oo
ls
n
ee
d
to

h
av
e
kn
ow

le
d
g
e

ab
ou

t
A
SD

Fo
rt
un

a
(2
01
4)

En
g
la
n
d

â
Ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
of

ke
y
st
ak
eh
ol
d
er

s
in

re
g
ar
d
to

th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

â
5
st
ud

en
ts
w
it
h
A
SD

af
te
r

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
SD

Q
â
D
ia
ri
es

â
Se
m
i-
st
ru
ct
ur
ed
in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
Ke
y
to

g
oo
d
tr
an
si
ti
on

:
kn
ow

in
g
th
e
st
ud

en
t,

co
m
m
un

ic
at
io
n
w
it
h
an
d
b
y
al
l
in
vo
lv
ed
,

re
co
g
n
iz
in
g
ch
al
le
n
g
es
,
m

ak
in
g

ad
ju
st
m
en
ts

H
am

ilt
on

an
d

W
ilk
in
so
n

(2
01
6)

N
ew

Ze
al
an
d

â
Pa
re
n
t
p
er
sp
ec
ti
ve
s
of

ch
ild
re
n
w
it
h
A
SD

w
h
o
ar
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

in
g
fr
om

p
ri
m
ar
y
to

se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

â
5
p
ar
en
ts

â
Fo
cu
s
g
ro
up

d
is
cu
ss
io
n
s

â
Im
p
or
ta
n
ce

of
so
ci
al

in
te
g
ra
ti
on

â
In
fo
rm

al
co
n
ve
rs
at
io
n
s
ab
ou

t
sc
h
oo
l

im
p
or
ta
n
t

H
an
n
ah

an
d
To
p
p
in
g

(2
01
3)

Sc
ot
la
n
d

St
ud

en
ts
â
ex
p
er
ie
n
ce

d
ur
in
g
th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

to
se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

â
St
ud

en
ts
â

ex
p
ec
ta
ti
on

s
an
d

ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
of

se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l
â
St
ud

en
ts
â
an
d
p
ar
en
ts
â
vi
ew

s
of

th
e
su
p
p
or
t

â
9
m
al
e
st
ud

en
ts
w
it
h
A
SD

â
A
g
e:
11
;3
â
12
;4

â
Pr
e-
tr
an
sf
er
:

q
ue
st
io
n
n
ai
re

â
Po
st
-t
ra
n
sf
er
:

g
ro
up

in
te
rv
ie
w
s,

si
n
g
le

in
te
rv
ie
w
s
â
Tr
an
si
ti
on
ex
p
ec
ta
ti
on

s
n
eg
at
iv
e,
tr
an
si
ti
on

ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
p
os
it
iv
e

â
Im
p
or
ta
n
ce

of
in
fo
rm

at
io
n
,
tr
an
si
ti
on

ac
ti
vi
ti
es
,

an
d
su
p
p
or
t

H
eb
ro
n
(2
01
7)

En
g
la
n
d
,

W
al
es

â
Ex
p
an
d
th
e
ex
is
ti
n
g
re
se
ar
ch

b
as
e

â
G
ai
n
a
g
re
at
er

un
d
er
st
an
d
in
g
of

h
ow

st
ud
en
ts
w
it
h
A
SD

b
ec
om

e
p
ar
t
of

a
n
ew

ac
ad
em

ic
an
d
so
ci
al

co
m
m
un

it
y

â
28

st
ud
en
ts
w
it
h
A
SD

â
21

ty
p
ic
al
ly

d
ev
el
op

in
g
st
ud
en
ts

â
PS
SM

â
C
as
e
st
ud

ie
s

b
as
ed

on
in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
N
ee
d
to

p
ro
m
ot
e
so
ci
al

in
cl
us
io
n
b
y:
kn
ow

in
g
st
ud

en
ts
,
un

d
er
st
an
d
in
g
/a
cc
om

m
od

at
in
g
n
ee
d
s,

su
p
p
or
t
fo
r
an
d
co
m
m
un

ic
at
io
n
w
it
h
p
ar
en
ts
,

vi
g
ila
n
ce

to
so
ci
al

vu
ln
er
ab
ili
ty

Ji
n
d
al
-S
n
ap
e
et

al
.

(2
00
6)

Sc
ot
la
n
d

â
Pe
rc
ep
ti
on

s
of

st
ak
eh
ol
d
er
s
w
it
h
re
g
ar
d
to

cu
rr
en
t
ar
ra
n
g
em

en
ts
to

su
p
p
or
t
th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on
â
Pe
rc
ep
ti
on
s
of
st
ak
eh
ol
d
er
s
w
it
h
re
g
ar
d
to
d
ev
el
op

m
en
t
of

p
ra
ct
ic
e
fo
r
th
e
ef
fe
ct
iv
e

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
D
iff
er

en
ce

s
b
et
w
ee
n
st
ak
eh
ol
d
er
s

â
5
ch
ild
re
n
/y
ou

n
g
p
eo
p
le

w
it
h
A
SD
ab
ou

t
to

m
ak
e
th
e

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
A
g
e:
12
â
13

â
C
h
ild

,
p
ar
en
t(
s)
/c
ar
er
(s
),

p
ri
m
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l
or

co
m
m
un

ic
at
io
n
su
p
p
or
t
un

it
h
ea
d

te
ac
h
er

,
ot
h
er

p
ro
fe
ss
io
n
al
s

â
D
iff
er
en
ti
at
ed

in
te
rv
ie
w

sc
h
ed
ul
e
w
it
h

op
en

an
d
cl
os
ed

q
ue
st
io
n
s

â
El
im
in
at
io
n
of

d
el
ay
s
in

d
ec
is
io
n
-m

in
g
an

d
of

sc
h
oo
l
ex
cl
us
io
n

â
Lo
n
g
-t
er
m
,
st
ra
te
g
ic
d
ec
is
io
n
-m

ak
in
g

â
C
om

m
un

ic
at
io
n
w
it
h
al
l
in
vo
lv
ed

â
Fu
ll
ra
n
g
e
of

p
ro
vi
si
on

â
Pr
of
es
si
on

al
re
so
ur
ce

an
d
ti
m
e
av
ai
la
b
le

fo
r
tr
an
si
ti
on

(C
on
ti
nu
ed

)

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 385

Ta
b
le

1.
(C
on

ti
n
ue
d
).

A
ut
h
or
s,
Ye
ar
Re
g
io
n
O
b
je
ct
iv
e
Sa
m
p
le
Re
se
ar
ch
M
et
h
od
s
M
ai
n
Re
su
lt
s

M
ak
in

et
al
.
(2
01
7)

En
g
la
n
d

â
Po
te
n
ti
al
d
iff
er
en
ce
s
b
et
w
ee
n
tw
o
g
ro
up

s
in

te
rm

s
of

p
re
-t
ra
n
si
ti
on

co
g
n
it
iv
e
an
d

b
eh
av
io
ra
l
ch
ar
ac
te
ri
st
ic
s,
p
os
t-
tr
an
si
ti
on

su
cc
es
s,
ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
of

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
15

st
ud
en
ts
w
it
h
A
SD
â
Pa
re
n
ts

â
Te
ac
h
er
s

â
SR
S

â
Se
n
so
ry

Pr
of
ile

â
SC
A
S
fo
r
Pa
re
n
ts

â
EP
PS
E

â
Fa
ce
-t
o-
fa
ce

se
m
i-
st
ru
ct
ur
ed

in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
M
ai
n
ly
n
eg
at
iv
e
ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
of

tr
an
si
ti
on

d
ue

to
sy
st
em

ic
an

d
sc
h
oo
l

b
ar
ri
er
s

â
Su
p
p
or
t
fo
r
fa
m
ili
es

im
p
or
ta
n
t

â
C
h
ild
re
n
âs
vo
ic
e
im
p
or
ta
n
t

â
Ti
m
el
y
d
ec
is
io
n
s
b
y
ad
m
in
is
tr
at
io
n

â
Kn

ow
in
g
st
ud

en
ts

an
d
h
is
/h
er

n
ee
d
s

M
an
d
y
et

al
.
(2
01
5)
En
g
la
n
d

â
Fe
as
ib
ili
ty

an
d
ac
ce
p
ta
b
ili
ty

of
ST
EP
-A
SD

â
ST
EP
-A
SD

âs
ef
fe
ct
iv
en
es
s
fo
r
re
d
uc
in
g

b
eh
av
io
ra
l
an
d
em

ot
io
n
al
p
ro
b
le
m
s
at

sc
h
oo
l

â
In
ve
st
ig
at
e
w
h
et
h
er

an
y
te
ac
h
er
-r
ep
or
te
d

ef
fe
ct
s
g
en
er
al
iz
ed

b
ey
on

d
sc
h
oo
l

â
37

ch
ild
re
n

d
ia
g
n
os
ed

w
it
h
A
SD

â
Pu
b
lic

m
ai
n
st
re
am

sc
h
oo
l

â
M
ea
n
ag
e:
11
.4
7,

IQ
:
85
.2
4

â
SD

Q
â
SC
D
C

â
W
IS
C
IV

â
Po
st
-t
ra
n
si
ti
on

m
on

it
or
in
g

in
te
rv
ie
w
â
ST
EP
-A
SD

is
a
us
ef
ul

p
ro
g
ra
m
,
im
p
ac
ts

th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

â
O
ft
en

p
ar
ti
al
ly
im
p
le
m
en
te
d

â
M
ay

b
e
ef
fe
ct
iv
e
fo
r
re
d
uc
in
g
em

ot
io
n
al
an
d

b
eh
av
io
ra
l
p
ro
b
le
m
s

â
at

sc
h
oo
l
M
an
d
y
et

al
.
(2
01
6)

En
g
la
n
d

â
C
h
an
g
e
an
d

co
n
ti
n
ui
ty

fo
r
ch
ild
re
n
w
it
h

au
ti
sm

sp
ec
tr
um

d
is
or
d
er

tr
an
si
ti
on

in
g
in

m
ai
n
st
re
am

ed
uc
at
io
n
fr
om

p
ri
m
ar
y
to
se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l
â
28
st
ud
en
ts
d
ia
g
n
os
ed
w
it
h

A
sp
er
g
er
,
A
SD

,
or

p
er
va
si
ve

d
ev
el
op

m
en
t
d
is
or
d
er

â
A
D
O
S

â
W
IS
C
IV
â
SD

Q
â
Be
ck

Yo
ut
h

In
ve
n
to
ri
es

â
V
in
el
an
d
-I
I

â
SP
V
S

â
C
h
ild
re
n
w
it
h
A
SD

lik
el
y
to

h
av
e
si
g
n
ifi
ca
n
t

su
p
p
or
t
n
ee
d
s

â
Ri
sk

of
p
ee
r
vi
ct
im
iz
at
io
n
n
ot

h
ig
h
er

th
an

in
p
ri
m
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

Pe
te
rs
an
d
Br
oo
ks

(2
01
6)
U
n
it
ed
Ki
n
g
d
om

â
U
ti
liz
e
p
ar
en
ta
l
p
er
sp
ec
ti
ve
s
to

ex
p
lo
re

th
e
ex
p
er
ie
n
ce
s
of
st
ud
en
ts

w
it
h
A
S/
H
FA

at
se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

â
17

p
ar
en
ts

of
ch
ild
re
n
w
it
h

A
SD
at
se
co
n
d
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

â
Su
rv
ey

w
it
h
op

en
an
d
cl
os
ed

q
ue
st
io
n
s
â
Tr
an
si
ti
on

su
cc
es
s
is
m
ul
ti
fa
ct
or
ia
l

â
Re
q
ui
re
s:
p
re
-t
ra
n
si
ti
on

p
re
p
ar
at
io
n
,
kn
ow

in
g
th
e
st
ud

en
t,
tr
ai
n
in
g
fo
r
te
ac
h
er
s

St
on

er
et

al
.
(2
00
7)

U
n
it
ed

St
at
es

â
Pa
re
n
ts
âe
xp
er
ie
n
ce
s
an
d
co
n
ce
rn
s
re
la
te
d
to

th
e
tr
an
si
ti
on

â
Fa
ci
lit
at
or
s
an
d
b
ar
ri
er
s
to

tr
an
si
ti
on

â
8
p
ar
en
ts
:
b
io
lo
g
ic
al
p
ar
en
t

of
a
ch
ild

w
it
h
A
SD

,
m
ar
ri
ed

â
C
h
ild
w
it
h
A
SD

en
ro
lle
d
in

th
e
p
ub

lic
sc
h
oo
l
sy
st
em

at
p
re
sc
h
oo
l/
p
ri
m
ar
y
sc
h
oo
l

le
ve
l

â
M
ul
ti
p
le

in
te
rv
ie
w
s

â
O
b
se
rv
at
io
n
s

â
D
oc
um

en
ta
ti
on

â
Re
co
m
m
en
d
at
io
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386 M. RICHTER ET AL.

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JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 387

mainstream schools), attend socio-medical institutions. The issue of separate schooling is also crucial
in the international literature discussed in this article. Parents are in a constant struggle between
adequately responding to their childâs needs and not excluding him/her from the mainstream society
(Tobin et al., 2012). They often have the impression that the schools are not well enough prepared in
order to welcome and integrate their children with ASD (Stoner, Angell, House, & Bock, 2007; Tobin
et al., 2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Parents sometimes lack information on the different schools
and what kind of transition support can be provided. This can have diverse negative consequences:
parents choose a specialized institution, although they actually prefer a mainstream setting or they
are very anxious in regard to the transition and worried when their child is at school (Dillon &
Underwood, 2012; Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Makin et al., 2017).

An inclusive transition process has to take into account the voice of all stakeholders. The
childrenâs voice often goes unheard, according to recent studies (Deacy et al., 2015; Makin et al.,
2017; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). According to the literature, a close collaboration between students,
parents, primary school teachers, secondary school teachers, and other staff involved would be ideal.
Nevertheless, this is not often the case, due to time constraints, lack of trust, or administrative
struggles (Deacy et al., 2015; Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Hebron,
2017; Jindal-Snape et al., 2006; Makin et al., 2017; Stoner et al., 2007; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016).

Throughout the different studies, various transition activities are identified and evaluated. These
include visits to the secondary school, open days, meetings with future teachers, etc. Most schools
seem to offer this kind of activity, which is generally viewed as helpful (Cremin, Healy, & Gordon,
2017; Dann, 2011; Deacy et al., 2015; Hannah & Topping, 2013; Hebron, 2017). Studies focusing on
the parentsâ perceptions show that a single visit to the secondary school or a single meeting with
a future teacher is often not perceived as sufficient. Rather, it takes several meetings or visits in order
for the children to feel comfortable discovering the school and getting to know the staff (Deacy et al.,
2015; Hebron, 2017; Jindal-Snape et al., 2006; Peters & Brooks, 2016; Stoner et al., 2007; Tso &
StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Tobin et al. (2012) also mention that open days were not seen as adequate for
children with ASD. Some families report that their children had the opportunity to discover the
school building when no-one else was there; others had individual school tours with teachers
(Hebron, 2017; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016).

In case of sensory issues, which students with ASD often face, more challenging measures may be
necessary. Secondary schools can be very noisy due to the large number of students; smells and
narrowness can become problematic for students with ASD (Tobin et al., 2012). For example,
a school day in France can last until the late afternoon, thus sensory issues can become very stressful
throughout the day. Headphones or an isolated workplace could cancel out noise, some students
could use a silent room when everything becomes too much for them, extra time for classroom
changes could allow students to avoid noisy and crowded corridors (Cremin et al., 2017; Dann, 2011;
Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Makin et al., 2017). If sensory issues are known, they can be dealt with
before problems arise.

In general, all stakeholders involved should be able to express their concerns and ideas during the
transition planning process. Since the spectrum of autism disorders is broad, students with ASD are
an extremely heterogeneous group. Fortuna (2014) determines that there is no approach to
a successful transition from primary to secondary school that suits all students. Therefore, transition
activities individually tailored to the studentâs needs and abilities are highly recommended (Deacy
et al., 2015; Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Stoner et al., 2007; Tobin et al., 2012). In order to cater to
these high demands, the transition process has to be planned early with a long-term goal targeted by
all stakeholders.

Being an equal member of the class

According to Evangelou et al. (2008), the first criterion for successful transition is: âDeveloping new
friendships and improving their self-esteem and confidenceâ (p.16). Friendship and social inclusion

388 M. RICHTER ET AL.

are one of the biggest concerns students with ASD and their parents express with respect to the
transition. Several studies show that peer relationships are more important for the students than
academic or organizational concerns (Fortuna, 2014; Hebron, 2017; Makin et al., 2017).

Students in general, whether they are on the spectrum or not, wish to have friends in secondary
school, but the social difficulties, such as understanding social conventions, often encountered by
students with ASD, make friendships more complicated. The different studies show that some
students are very concerned about losing their friends from primary school who do not attend the
same secondary school (Hannah & Topping, 2013; Makin et al., 2017). Others did not manage to
establish reciprocal peer relationships while in primary school and either hope for an improvement
at secondary school or are anxious about upcoming conflicts (Dillon & Underwood, 2012). After the
transition, the picture does not change much: some students manage to make friends, others do not.
The studies show that the qualities of friendships differ enormously in terms of equality and
reciprocity. Making friends is hard work for many students with ASD (Dillon & Underwood,
2012; Makin et al., 2017; Peters & Brooks, 2016).

For some students with ASD, this leads to an increased identity struggle during secondary school.
The students perceive themselves as being different and see that as a source for the problems they
face (Makin et al., 2017). âFitting inâ is a big wish for many students with ASD (Cremin et al., 2017;
Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Self-esteem and confidence are closely linked
to peer relationships, as shown by Evangelou et al. (2008).

The concerns regarding integration and being an equal member of the class are legitimate. Many
studies (Dann, 2011; Evangelou et al., 2008; Mandy et al., 2015) see students with ASD as more likely
to become socially excluded or even bullied. It especially affects students who do not manage to
make friends, who are socially isolated and therefore more vulnerable (Dillon & Underwood, 2012;
Evangelou et al., 2008). It is a vicious circle, since inclusion and being part of a group of friends
could protect them from bullying and isolation (Dillon & Underwood, 2012). Some students have
already experienced bullying during primary school. According to Mandy et al. (2016), being bullied
in primary school does not mean a higher chance of being bullied during secondary school.
Nevertheless, Dillon and Underwood (2012) detected that students who are bullied at the beginning
of secondary school are still being bullied after the first term.

This section showed that good peer relationships are useful and necessary for a smooth and
successful transition. Nevertheless, research shows that students with ASD have more difficulties
making friends and are more likely to be excluded or bullied. Bullying is a major barrier to
a successful transition and students with special needs are more likely to become victims
(Evangelou et al., 2008). This is alarming and shows that parents and teachers have to consider
social issues before, during, and after the transition. Social support seems essential here in order for
the students to experience a successful transition.

Academic achievement

Surprisingly, academic achievement is a concept that seems to be less relevant for both students and
parents. Studies on the transition to secondary school show that students often begin with a high
level of motivation, but then experience a decline in grades at the beginning of secondary school
(Jindal-Snape et al., 2006). Students are concerned with the academic demands of secondary school
prior to the transition. They are afraid of not being able to cope with the new learning situation and
are worried about a big increase in homework or stricter teachers (Hannah & Topping, 2013; Peters
& Brooks, 2016).

Parents share this concern and are worried that academic and social problems will mutually
determine and influence each other (Tobin et al., 2012). The French Ministry of Education (MEN,
2011) published guidelines for the transition from primary to secondary school. These mainly focus
on academic and organizational aspects and less on social ones. This example from France

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 389

underlines a certain discrepancy between schools or teachers on the one hand focusing on academic
issues, and students and parents on the other hand worrying about social aspects.

This shows, in line with the previous section, that social concerns are greater among the students
than academic concerns. This also seems to be true for some parents, who state that their primary
concerns are not centered on the academic achievements of their child, but rather on social or
administrative aspects (Peters & Brooks, 2016).

Student-teacher relationship

The teachers, as key stakeholders, play an important role before, during, and after the phase of
transition. If the preparation did not include them, the secondary school teachers only come into
play after the actual transition, when the student has already started secondary school, even though
the participation of teachers in the transition process could have reduced anxiety (Hebron, 2017;
Jindal-Snape et al., 2006).

Many students with ASD are concerned about the number of teachers they will have to work with
while in secondary school; parents express similar worries (Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Tso &
StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Indeed, this means a significant change from primary school, where one teacher
teaches several subjects and spends a significant amount of time with the same group of students
while in secondary school; instead, different teachers are responsible for the different subjects. If
students with ASD are not able to establish positive relationships with many teachers, misunder-
standings or increased stress could be a result (Dillon & Underwood, 2012).

It becomes clear that a good understanding of ASD and some experiences with students with
ASD are useful in different ways: it increases parentsâ and studentsâ trust, helps teachers plan
their lessons accordingly, and gives teachers more confidence and self-efficacy (Tobin et al.,
2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). A wrong understanding or lack of knowledge, in contrast, can
lead to frustration on all sides. Students who are afraid of a teacher may refuse to go to school,
parents may become worried, and teachers may misunderstand ASD-specific behavior and
interpret it as opposing behavior or the result of bad parenting (Dillon & Underwood, 2012;
Tobin et al., 2012).

In general, this means that teachers are an important part of the support network of a student
with ASD. Even though many students with ASD do well in academics, they need teachers as
reference people they can talk to in case of problems (Dann, 2011; Fortuna, 2014; Makin et al., 2017;
Stoner et al., 2007). Furthermore, a good teacher-student relationship is beneficial in order to avoid
misunderstandings and frustration on both sides.

Reference persons

Besides the teachers, all other staff members (such as aides, social workers, and school nurses) who are
in regular contact with the students are important. Dillon and Underwood (2012) point out that one
staff member who does not adequately deal with or understand ASD is enough to reverse the studentâs
well-being at school. Fortuna (2014) explains that secondary school staff spends less time with the
students and, therefore, sometimes do not detect social problems that students may have. The
relationship to reference people among the schoolâs staff is as important as the student-teacher-
relationship, which means that a good understanding and handling of ASD is crucial (Deacy et al.,
2015; Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Fortuna, 2014; Hebron, 2017; Makin et al., 2017; Tobin et al., 2012).

The school staff serves as a network that provides access, support, and protection for students
with ASD if needed. Unstructured times, such as the lunch break, are often difficult for students with
ASD, especially when they are more isolated (Deacy et al., 2015; Peters & Brooks, 2016). Particularly
in countries such as France, where all-day schooling is usual (extracurricular activities take place in
the afternoon at school; OECD, 2014), staff members who are accessible outside of lessons are
important.

390 M. RICHTER ET AL.

To sum up, this means everybody in school should have access to training on ASD and
information about the student with ASD, not just the teachers (Cremin et al., 2017; Dann, 2011;
Dillon & Underwood, 2012). This is why all school staff involved should be part of the transition
process in order to get to know the student and to negotiate their role in both the childâs transition
and his everyday life at school (Deacy et al., 2015; Fortuna, 2014; Tobin et al., 2012). When teachers
primarily focus on academics, other school staff becomes important for non-academic affairs, such
as social interaction difficulties.

Navigating in the school building

Secondary schools are often much bigger than primary schools and frequent classroom changes are
normal. Due to these changes, many students (with or without ASD) are afraid of getting lost and
being late for class. They are aware that more independence and self-organization is required and
they are not sure if they can cope with it (Dann, 2011; Deacy et al., 2015; Hannah & Topping, 2013).
Like typically developing students, many students with ASD adapt very fast and do not have any
problems after the first few weeks. However, some are overwhelmed by the organizational demands
(Makin et al., 2017).

In several studies, students mention aids, such as maps or pictures of the school, that they
received either beforehand or when they entered secondary school. There are also visual timetables
to illustrate their daily structure, and diaries and planners to help them organize themselves
(Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Hebron, 2017; Makin et al., 2017; Stoner et al., 2007; Tobin et al.,
2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016).

In short, the navigation in the school building is a concern for many students with ASD before
the transition. Although most of them adapt easily, others may need individual measures in order to
feel more secure and manage navigation on their own or with support.

Cooperation and organization of team work

This section concerns both the cooperation of the primary and the secondary school, and also the
cooperation between the different staff members within the secondary school level. Most stake-
holders see the cooperation between primary and secondary schools as essential, while at the same
time acknowledging the lack of it (Deacy et al., 2015; Hebron, 2017; Jindal-Snape et al., 2006). The
main purpose of this cooperation seems to be the exchange of information about the student with
ASD. Some remain skeptical about this issue, preferring a fresh start for the student with ASD
instead of prejudices that could undermine the relationship between staff and student (Deacy et al.,
2015; Jindal-Snape et al., 2006). In most cases, passing on information from primary to secondary
school is considered useful in order to take certain measures for the studentâs school life (Dann,
2011; Deacy et al., 2015; Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Hebron, 2017; Jindal-Snape et al., 2006; Stoner
et al., 2007). In Makin et al.âs (2017) study, teachers from both types of school are aware of the
differences between primary and secondary school. However, Evangelou et al. (2008) criticize
schools for often not knowing enough about each otherâs work. This leads to a lack of continuity,
which is unfavorable for students with ASD.

Different studies suggest the value of having some kind of communication document that follows
the student through his school career. In the United States, for example, every student with special
needs has an Individualized Education Program (IEP), which is reviewed regularly. In the study
performed by Deacy et al. (2015), parents do not agree on whether the IEP should transition with
their children or not. In other countries, there is no formal document such as the IEP, which means
there is no formalized passing on of information (Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). In France, Le Livret
Personnel de CompÃ©tences ([LPC] translation: personal competency booklet) and the Projet
PersonnalisÃ©e de Scolarisation ([PPS] translation: individual schooling project) follow the student

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 391

through his school career. The latter one is only used for students with any kinds of diagnosed
special needs (MinistÃ¨re de lâÃducation Nationale, 2011, 2016).

Besides information about the student, cooperation between both schools could enhance the
academic and structural continuity in order to ease the transition of children having difficulties with
changes in their daily routines (Jindal-Snape et al., 2006; Makin et al., 2017). Tso and StrnadovÃ¡
(2016) argue for a clear division of roles and responsibilities among all stakeholders involved. This
does not end with the student entering secondary school. Hebron (2017) points out that a transition
plan conceived with all participating stakeholders proved to be a useful instrument for teachers and
parents in her study if this plan is used consistently and passed on to relevant staff.

To sum up, cooperation between primary and secondary school is vital for a successful transition and
has to take place before, during, and after the actual transition. This can ensure curriculum continuity,
which Evangelou et al. (2008) name as an important factor for a successful transition. Tobin et al. (2012)
also underline the importance of continuity, not only in academic terms, but also in terms of support
and communication. Makin et al. (2017) stress the importance of organizational continuity. When the
student has entered secondary school, all relevant staff has to be included in this cooperation in order to
work as a team that can provide consistent support and continuity for the student in transition. In
France, this means regular and constructive communication and collaboration between teachers, school
assistants, overseers, and, if involved, the ULIS-coordinator. As an educational team, they can provide
stability and orientation for the student with ASD at the new school.

Teachersâ well-being

It seems that it is mainly parents who claim to have good contact with the school; however, teachers
also benefit from a good teacher-parent-relationship (Hebron, 2017; Stoner et al., 2007). In order to
avoid âpower strugglesâ (Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016) between teachers and parents, it is useful to start
a collaborative relationship before the transition.

In several studies (Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Hebron, 2017;
Peters & Brooks, 2016), parents report a lack of expertise in dealing with students with ASD among
teachers. In some cases, this shortfall might be the result of a biased perception by skeptical parents.
But there are teachers admitting that they have difficulties: secondary school teachers in Jindal-Snape
et al.âs (2006) study are willing to receive training in order to better understand autism, to be able to
react to autistic behavior, and to integrate it in their lesson preparation.

If teachers do not feel sufficiently trained, it can have a serious impact: they probably do not
understand the studentâs behavior and the relationship to the child and his parents is strained, which
in turn leads to a lack of trust among the parents and frustration on the teacherâs side (Tobin et al.,
2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Many teachers have the impression that parentsâ expectations are not
realistic and they need considerable emotional support that the schools cannot offer (Hebron, 2017;
Tobin et al., 2012). A positive attitude toward teaching a student with ASD or a heterogeneous group
are important and can be enhanced by adequately preparing teachers for their task (Dann, 2011;
Jindal-Snape et al., 2006).

To sum up, in order to strengthen the teachersâ well-being during the transition process, they
should have access to adequate training or measures of staff development. They should be part of the
transition process from the beginning in order to enable mutual trust and a good working relation-
ship with the parents. Parents and teachers working together provide a consistent support network
for the student in transition.

Parenting

Parents are the link between the student and the new school. They facilitate the transition process
and are highly emotionally involved. According to Evangelou et al. (2008), students have experienced

392 M. RICHTER ET AL.

a successful transition when they have settled in so well âthat they cause â¦ no concern to their
parentsâ (p. 16).

Since transition experiences differ a lot, it is not surprising that parents in the different studies
value and assess their role differently. Several studies (Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Makin et al., 2017;
Stoner et al., 2007) underline that parents put their childrenâs well-being in the center of their
activities concerning the transition. They play different roles as protectors, interpreters, âfirefigh-
ters,â and animators, all at the same time. Parents often feel they have to fight a lot in order to make
themselves heard and be accepted as partners in the transition process by the schools (Hamilton &
Wilkinson, 2016; Tobin et al., 2012). In Dillon and Underwoodâs (2012) study, parents reported
being contacted by the school whenever the schools did not know how to deal with the child and
expected them to come and pick up the child. In other cases, the opposite is true: parents feel
ignored or not taken seriously (Makin et al., 2017; Tobin et al., 2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). Studies
show that parents have valuable knowledge about their children, which is very useful for the schools
(Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Fortuna, 2014; Hannah & Topping, 2013).

The more accessible teachers are to parents, the greater the satisfaction with the school (Hebron,
2017; Tobin et al., 2012). In order to avoid parents either being ignored or in constant alert, the level
of communication must be discussed. Furthermore, expectations concerning the different stake-
holdersâ involvement should be negotiated in order to avoid power struggles and disappointment
(Tobin et al., 2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016).

Summarized, several studies (Dillon & Underwood, 2012; Fortuna, 2014; Hamilton & Wilkinson,
2016; Makin et al., 2017; Tobin et al., 2012) show that the parentsâ well-being is challenged during
their childâs transition from primary to secondary school. There is a high level of stress, frustration,
and anxiety linked to the transition (ibid.). This is not beneficial for the child, the transition, or the
parents themselves. It is common that parents are anxious about this phase in the life of their child;
however, parents of children with ASD seem to be affected even more. This stress level can be
reduced, as previous research has shown, by starting the transition process on time and involving the
parents as equal partners.

Discussion and implications

The transition from primary to secondary school is a major event in a childâs school career. The
literature has identified students with ASD as a vulnerable group regarding this transition. This is
due to the characteristics of ASD, such as the refusal to change or social interaction difficulties, that
pose challenges to the transition. In order to understand their situation better, it is necessary to
define what a successful transition from primary to secondary school means for students with ASD.

Evangelou et al. (2008) developed criteria in order to describe and measure a successful transition
in general. These are, to a major extent, congruent with the findings from the literature review
focusing on students with ASD. Most issues that are of concern for typically developing students are
of similar concern for students with ASD. However, it is obvious that ASD brings its own challenges,
meaning that several aspects mentioned in the literature on transition in general do not have the
same importance for students with ASD or have not been researched sufficiently yet. In a study by
Van Rens, Haelermans, Groot, and van Den Maassen Brink (2018), criteria such as gender, social
status, or ethnicity are identified as influential indicators for a successful transition of typically
developing students. Gender is not considered a factor in the selected articles since the prevalence of
ASD is much higher among boys than girls (Lord & Bishop, 2010). Social status and ethnicity are
also factors that are not considered in the studies on children with ASD. Therefore, some criteria
have to be adapted and modified in order to correspond with students with ASD.

The first criteria in Evangelou et al.âs (2008) study is the students âdeveloping new friendships and
improving their self-esteem and confidence.â This goes together with the concept of respected
membership in the class that was revealed from the literature review (cf. Table 3).

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 393

The second one, âhaving settled in so well in school life that they caused no concerns to their
parents,â is aimed at parents. Therefore, it is similar to the criteria of parentsâ well-being in the
literature review (cf. Table 3). Since the literature review shows that parents of children with ASD are
highly involved in the transition process and have to deal with the school directly (Dillon &
Underwood, 2012; Stoner et al., 2007; Tobin et al., 2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016), this criterion
could be modified in order to adapt it to the reality of parents of children with ASD. As such, it
would be âParents are familiar with the school and its staff and see it as a good place for their childâ
(cf. Table 3). This is important due to students and parentsâ high levels of anxiety, revealed in the
literature, and is crucial to home-school collaborations (Dann, 2011; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016).

âShowing an increased interest in school and school workâ is the third point in Evangelou et al.
(2008, p. 16). This has not really been an issue in the selected studies since the social aspects were seen
as more important by many than the academic aspects (Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Makin et al.,
2017). Still, academic achievement has a role to play in the transition from primary to secondary
school. âAcademic achievement continues at the same level or slightly lowerâ (cf. Table 3) is a less
distinct criterion, but more realistically reflects the reality of students with ASD who are in transition.

Students âgetting used to new routines and school organization with great easeâ has been a major
issue for all stakeholders. It goes together with students knowing how to navigate in the new school
building and knowing their reference persons and how to find them. Expecting âgreat easeâ is probably
too much to ask from students with ASD who are more likely to encounter difficulties due to ASD
(Adreon & Stella, 2001; Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016; Hannah & Topping, 2013; Hebron, 2017; Makin
et al., 2017; Tobin et al., 2012). If they manage to get to know the building well and establish good
relationships with their reference persons, that is already a substantial success (cf. Table 3).

The last criterion in Evangelou et al. (2008) is âexperiencing curriculum continuity,â which has
also been an important topic in the literature review. This mainly targets primary and secondary
schools that should work together in order to enable curriculum continuity, and also the teamwork
between the different staff members at the secondary school level. Therefore, a reformulation may
make this factor more distinct: âCooperation and teamwork organization ensure continuity in the
learning processâ (cf. Table 3).

Other issues that became apparent in the literature review were not addressed by Evangelou et al.
(2008), such as the overarching topic âtransition planning.â Transition planning has enormous
importance for the transition of students with ASD. An early start, the involvement of all stake-
holders, and a plan that leads all stakeholders through the transition phase are essential, as the
different studies have shown.

Another issue underlined by the literature on students with ASD is the student-teacher relation-
ship and the well-being of teachers in their job. The literature review has shown that students with
ASD need more support in order to effectively manage the transition phase. Therefore, teachers play
an important role. A positive student-teacher relationship is beneficial for a smooth transition
(Dann, 2011; Hebron, 2017; Stoner et al., 2007; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016) and should be added to
the list of criteria.

Some studies (Jindal-Snape et al., 2006; Tobin et al., 2012; Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016) revealed that
teachers do not feel sufficiently prepared to meet the expectations of parents and students. There is
often a lack of knowledge about ASD or a lack of experience with students with ASD. This can lead

Table 3. New criteria for a successful transition from primary to secondary school for children with ASD.

A well-planned, child-centered transition process involving all key stakeholders has been applied when:
â¢ The student is a respected member of the class.
â¢ Academic achievement continues at the same level or slightly lower.
â¢ The student and its teachers have a positive relationship with each other.
â¢ The student knows the new school building and its reference persons well.
â¢ Cooperation and teamwork organization ensure continuity in the learning process.
â¢ Teachers feel self-efficient and satisfied in their daily work.
â¢ Parents are familiar with the school and its staff and see it as a good place for their child.

394 M. RICHTER ET AL.

to difficult student-teacher relationships and cause stress and frustration to parents and the teachers
themselves (Adreon & Stella, 2001; Flavier & ClÃ©ment, 2014; Stoner et al., 2007; Tobin et al., 2012;
Tso & StrnadovÃ¡, 2016). When evaluating a successful transition process, teachers have to be
considered as criterion, too. They should feel self-efficient and satisfied in their daily work in
order to support the student during the transition (cf. Table 3). The teachersâ perspectives and the
role of academic aspects during the transition were missing in the article selection, which has to be
considered as a weakness. However, a recent French study shows that teachers working with students
with ASD have a higher risk of burn-out (Boujut, Popa-Roch, Palomares, Dean, & Cappe, 2017). The
literature review has shown that teachers are important stakeholders in the school life of a child with
ASD. In further research, their role should be better considered.

Table 3 summarizes the results of the literature review by providing both the criteria of Evangelou
et al. (2008) and the modified and added criteria for a transition from primary to secondary school
for children with ASD.

In order to measure the success of a transition from primary to secondary school for students
with ASD, it is necessary to have a measuring tool. The above listed criteria can serve as a basis to
develop research instruments in order to give substantive and objective insight about the success of
a transition from primary to secondary school for a child with ASD and for the other stakeholders. It
can moreover identify enabling factors as well as obstacles that the stakeholders can potentially face
during the time of transition. Since the criteria include the perspectives of all main stakeholders
(students, parents, teachers, and other school staff), they give a holistic image of the complex
situation from different perspectives. The literature review has shown that it is easier for typically
developing students to meet these criteria, whereas they pose difficulties to students with ASD.
Nevertheless, the challenges during the transition are the same for all students, which means the
criteria could also probably be used for the transition of children without ASD. Furthermore, these
criteria allow the evaluation of existing transition programs such as the STEP-ASD (Mandy et al.,
2015). In addition, new tools could be created based on the criteria.

There is a need for more studies on the primary-secondary transition of children with ASD
using bigger samples, different research methods and expanding to different regions (Fortuna,
2014; Hannah & Topping, 2013; Humphrey & Lewis, 2008; Makin et al., 2017). Fortuna (2014)
and Hannah and Topping (2013) stress the need of both longitudinal studies and large-scale
studies including all stakeholders involved. In fact, several studies were qualitative studies with
very small samples (e.g., Dillon & Underwood, 2012: N = 12; Hamilton & Wilkinson, 2016:
N = 5; Hannah & Topping, 2013: N = 9). Quantitative data from a bigger sample could provide
a larger image of the situation in this very same context. The criteria allow for such studies and
also for comparative studies between different education systems, which is especially interesting
since all of the selected studies focus on only one geographical region (e.g., Ireland, England,
New Zealand). We can assume that students with ASD in France have similar experiences
compared to students in the UK, but due to the differences between the education systems,
there might also be differences.

The rising number of children with special needs in mainstream schools in many countries leads
to new phenomena and situations. The assessment of the transition from primary to secondary
school for children with ASD is a new phenomenon in France and other countries, which until now
had remained unknown and, to some extent, neglected. The literature shows that there is a need for
understanding and efficiently handling this phase of the school career. This could result in implica-
tions for educational policies or changes in the educational system in order to better support
students with ASD during their transition to secondary school.

In short, this literature review developed criteria for a successful transition from primary to
secondary school for children with ASD based on the existing literature. These criteria show that
a long-term systematic approach to the transition, which includes the perspective of all stakeholders,
is necessary. Based on these criteria, new research instruments can be developed and can facilitate
further research on the primary-secondary transition.

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 395

Limitations

The selected criteria offer the perspectives of children, parents, and teachers on the transition from
primary to secondary school. However, it has been shown that the transition process is very complex
and involves even more stakeholders. These additional stakeholders, such as school aides, nurses,
and therapists, are only marginally reflected in the criteria.

Literature reviews on a general student population, like Van Rens et al. (2018), consider criteria
such as social status or ethnicity. Depending on national legislation, these types of data may be
difficult for researchers to access. They have been neglected in the selected studies; as we know from
educational research that these criteria may have an impact on educational careers in general,
however, one can assume that they also have an impact on the transition.

Furthermore, the major part of the selected studies has been done in English-speaking indus-
trialized countries, mainly the UK. These countries share a history of education policies, values, and
systems that is particular. Other areas of the world are less or not at all reflected in the selected
studies, which only allows for a limited perspective on the subject.

Conclusion

The literature has shown that there is a lack of studies that provide longitudinal data on large
samples in different education systems. The results could inform schools, families, and education
policymakers about how to improve the transition from primary to secondary school for students
with ASD in mainstream education settings.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

This work was supported by the Initiative dâExcellence and the GIS Education et Formation [GIS-E&F-2017#1].

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Abstract

Autism spectrum disorder
Method
Results
A well-planned, child-centered, and inclusive transition process
Being an equal member of the class
Academic achievement
Student-teacher relationship
Reference persons
Navigating in the school building
Cooperation and organization of team work
Teachersâ well-being
Parenting
Discussion and implications
Limitations
Conclusion
Disclosure statement
Funding
References

The Primary Problems

The article “Teacher Preparation to Deliver Evidence-Based Transition Planning and Services to Youth with Disabilities” by Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) addresses some issues surrounding young people living with disabilities. The first topic raised in the article is illiteracy affecting most youth living with disabilities. Solberg et al. (2014) argue that all individuals should access quality education regardless of their physical health. Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) advise governments to improve infrastructure in learning institutions to accommodate learners living with disabilities. Educating young people with disabilities lowers a country’s illiteracy levels and increases its productivity because they participate in various production activities. The second issue is increased unemployment for people living with disabilities. Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) argue that some employers despise individuals living with disabilities at workplaces, reducing their employment chances. The authors advise governments to create additional and safe employment opportunities for people living with disabilities to enhance their economic growth and improve their mental health. The article’s last issue is the independence levels that people living with disabilities have. Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) argue that most people living with disabilities depend on their friends and relatives to obtain fundamental needs, such as food and clothing. Governments should expand educational programs for people living with disabilities to enhance their economic growth and increase their independence.

Educational Relevance

The article is relevant to people living with disabilities since it describes important measures of improving their living standards. For instance, fostering the students’ social and cognitive development by equipping them with relevant knowledge improves their socialization skills and enhances their community participation. Morningstar and Mazzotti (2014) define community participation as the operational activities outside the school environments that require students to utilize academic knowledge and skills to perform. Increasing the independence of learners living with disabilities independence by improving their self-care skills, financial management skills, and independent living techniques through education, reducing their dependency levels. Education helps learners living with disabilities to survey employment opportunities and improve their economic standards. Promoting the individuals’ self-determination skills is valuable since education exposes learners to skills, such as problem-solving, goal setting, risk-taking, and decision-making skills, improving their autonomy. The article is useful since it demonstrates relevance to youth living with disabilities by equipping them with socialization skills to improving their living standards.

Other Websites

The resource relates to additional websites discussing improving the living standards of youth living with disabilities. For instance, it has a website for practice descriptions and research practices to help teachers plan lessons for starters to select the relevant information to teach learners living with disabilities. The website guides instructors on the skills and knowledge to equip the students that can help to enhance their cognitive growth and foster their productivity. For example, instructors should teach various problem-solving skills to help students conquer most of the challenges they encounter. Furthermore, it suggests that instructors should inform learners about appropriate career paths and job creation skills to create employment opportunities and enhance their economic growth. Additionally, the websites inform teachers about the importance of accommodating learners with individual needs, such as those living with disabilities, to enhance teaching and learning collaboration. Overall, the article is useful in describing the issue because it offers additional websites relevant in exploring the topic to enhance its readers’ effective understanding of the content.

References

Morningstar, M. E., & Mazzotti, V. (2014). Teacher preparation to deliver evidence-based transition planning and services to youth with disabilities (Document No. IC-1). University of Florida, Collaboration for Effective Educator, Development, Accountability, and Reform Center.

https://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/transition-planning

Solberg, V. S., Richards, C., Vanbruinswaardt, C., Chen, Z., & Jarukitisakul, C. (2014). Supporting students with special needs in their transition from schools to higher education. Centre for Advancement in Inclusive and Special Education (CAISE Review), 2, 26-45.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zi_Chen8/publication/270679161_Supporting_students_with_special_needs_in_the_transition_from_school_to_higher_education/links/55e5b65408aec74dbe74a008/Supporting-students-with-special-needs-in-the-transition-from-school-to-higher-education

http://dx.doi.org/10.12796/caise-review.2014V2.004

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