An Editing W orkflow
Here is an 。udine of the basic steps t o a fi nished,
print ed digi阻l ph。tograph using Photosh。p.
1 Open 伽 而le and save a dupli叩 Use
File>Save As and give a new name to the
version with which you’H be working. Make
sure y。ur original, raw file is archived prop-
erly (see page 133.)
2 Rotate and aop the im咿叫eed萨of巾
frame are exactly where you want them. By
croppingy。u can choose an aspect ratio more
suited to your vision than the one dictated by
your car口e阻’s sensor or the film、 frame.
3 Retoucl’ (page 102
or spots. Scans generally require retouching ;
photographs captured with a digital camera
may not.
4 Add a Levels o r C…叫ustment layer.
Use it to set the black and white points
and the overall color balance (pages 94- 97).
Rem凹巾er that with a句ustment layers you
can make m。re changes later. Make general
adjustments first , then fine-tune them after
your other adjustments have been made.
5 Make o由町 ove时l 吨ustments AC…
adjustment layer in the Luminosity m。de
lets you a句ust tones and contrast without
affecting col。r A Hue/ Saturation adjust-
menr layer is often useful to reduce the color
bias of some scanners and digital cameras or
to increase the vibrancy 。fselected colors.
6 M挑e l归l 叫ustme附 Whe he ov
image has been improved, if certain areas
need individual attention, make a selection
and add an adjustment layer with the selec-
110 IM A G E E D ITING
tton m pl缸e (page 98). Both the selection
(automatically saved as a layer mask) and
the a句山tment can be later edited. Add as
many individual adjustments as you need,
but keep in mind each one adds to the file
size, ma1也s each successive step ta1也 a little
longer, and fills your storage space faster.
Save the full-si时， layered file before conrinu-
ing on to resize, the next step.
7 R臼ize h配essary. 川ps to know how
you’H be using a picture-on a magazine
page, in a 飞Xfeb display， 。r making it into
a poster-to know how big a file and how
much res。lution you need. Some printers
make the best print if the file matches their
native resolution, often 300 or 360ppi.
8 Sh叩n the b础gro川a阳印u叫
to use the ph。tograph for a different appli-
cation or print it at a different si时， go back
to the unsharpened full-size fi le with all its
layers, resize and sharpen a copy for each use.
See pages 104-105.
9 Soft proof and print your ph叫raph (see
page 118). Flatten the layers before printing,
emailing，。r exporting to the 飞Xfeb. Think of
your first print as a test. Are there changes
to ma1何？ If so, use the History palette to go
back to the sharpened, layered version
1 Q Make 副y ne倒S町而时叫ustme附
飞J 如fa1忧a final print. Once you are satisfied
with the print, go back to the full-sized ver-
sion of the file if you resized it for printing,
make the same final changes, and save it.

Dionisio Conzalez. Pau·
listona乓iun阳da, 2006.
Digital tools let Conzal，曰
”怨自t伪efu阳reofa
city. He photographed the
irregular ne.也hborhoods and
chaotic shan伊·ownso(Sao
Paulo, Brazil that are giving
way 阳 demolition and re-
building by the goν·ernn
–
7古rough d饭tal man伊ula
tion, he prop。•ses a recycling
“intervention” that inserts
旦哩men缸 that appear阳be
modernist structures into the
thr，臼阳ned spaces
A workflow for thιkind
ofimagemaking mays阳，t
with workflow soβvare for
importing and organizing
the elements, but the final
assembly depends on the
l吧yers and compositing tools
available 巾 Photoshop.
Y o u r editing w o r k w m ay be mo陌 e俯cient
if you u se a wo忡f臼ow applica tion. Adobe
Photosh。P is used by professi。nals in many are缸
besides ph。tography; it se凹·es ct飞e graph ic 缸ts, the
p riming ind ustty, and video, as well as fields s uch
as medicine and science. As a resu lt, it h剖 numer­
o us featu res that you probably won ‘t need. It was
constructed to let images become whatever anyone
can unagme, o ne at a ti me
Work何ow so仕ware h as b e e n tailor ed to t h e
b asic tasks o f pho tog raphe rs, so one of these
programs may do ever严hing your work requires.
Usi ng eit h er program, all editi ng decisi。ns listed
o n the opposi te page can be applied in any order
and re-adjusted a t an y ti me before you p rint o r
export a fi le. C hanges in such qualities as color,
ligh tness, and satu ration may be brush ed on
。r applied t h roug h a mask. Sharpen ing m ay be
applied in s tages, some during import, som e to
the im age you see and man ipulate o n the m on i-
tor, and m。re later fo r o utput. Size, shape, an d
resolut ion decisi。ns a re applied on ly to the fi n-
ish ed product, n ot to t h e o riginal file.
Adjustmen臼 and se忧ings may b e saved as
a preset and applied s im ultaneously to a grou p
of images. These presets may be applied when
you dm，，吼load your images o r later, co a selected
group . With 。nly a couple commands, a wedding
pho tographer may turn hund reds of pictures from
one m凹nory card into sepia-toned black and white
as they are imported, an d prin t them臼asequence
of two-by-three-in ch pro拙， twelve to a sheet of
letter-size paper, wi th a n umber un der each small
image and the photographer’s copyright and con-
tact information at the bottom of each sheet. Your
own workflow can be customized an d saved.
c…ER 5 圄11 1

Ethics αnd Digital Imαging
J ust because 归u ca n alt町 an im耶shou ld
you? Digital methods haven’t substantially
changed the laws or eth ics of ph。tography, it has
simply become much easier to violate them . Now
that alm ost anyone can make extensive changes
in a photograph that are som eti mes im possible
to detect, t he limits of acceptability are constantly
tested and debated.
Has photography lost any claim on accurate
representati。n of reality? For a 1982 National
Geographic cover, digital image editi ng was used
to m ove one of the Pyramids of Giza a little for
the cover photograph so it would better fit the
magazine’s vertical forma t. \Vhen some readers
o均ected, the change was defended剖 being m erely
” retroactive reposi tioning,” the same as if the ph。－
rograph er had s imply changed position before
taking t he shot. \Vas it different? T he magazi ne
eliminated th is practice.
Pho叫oumalists usu ally follow fairly strict
rules concerning p h o tog r a phic a lterations.
Generally, they agree that it’s acceptable to lighten
or darken parts of an image. However, many news-
papers don’t allow t h e use of d igital editing to,
say, rem。ve a distracting teleph。ne pole or, worse,
to i nserts。methi ng new.
Advertisers often take considerable leeway
with illustrations. We have come to expect exag-
geration in advertising, as long as t he products
are no t m isrepresented. Few people would o均ect
to the altered photograph, above right, even when
the advertiser doesn ‘ t mention a change. But
would the same image be acceptable with out
explanation if it ran with a news story?
Photographs in fash ion advenising are often
digitally retouched to make th e models appear
th inner. Is it possible that exposure to these ideal-
ized images contributes to eati ng disorders?
W o rkin g photo g r a ph e r s a r e conce rn e d
a bout fi n a n cial m atte rs, and reasonably so.
Wh en your efforts result in som ething you can
sell, you probably t hink it is stealing if som eon e
11 2 IM A G E E D ITI NG
uses what you have made wit h out asking. H。w
can you protect your rights wh en images are eas-
ily accessible electron ically? How can you collect
fees for use of your work wh en images, after t hey
leave your hands, can be downloaded or scanned
altered, and t hen incorporated in a publicat ion?
飞When, if ever, is it acceptable fo r someone to ta!忧
your image and use it wi thout permission 。r pay-
m en t? T h e law is continually redefined by court
cases. Each new copyright in台ingement lawsuit
m akes the line a little clearer but t h ere are s till
m o re questions t han answers
One of these photojour-
nalists is not really there.
7百is photograph of all the
members of the pho阳agency
VII was originally commis-
sioned for a magazine. By
the time it was selected for
the camera company’s ad,
one of the members had been
rep归ced. The new member,
“ the far right, was shot in
the same New York cafe in
the same position as the man
he replaced, then added to
the picture d饭tally.
. ”…’”’·.’‘._ …”’h.iob.8. t 41，”’””向·．。”“时，.. c.’”. :;;; ” —..
VIL二工艺工＝：－：.注τ二』工翩翩＿＇：..：工；－：：＝.画 ：：二＝~－·－：：－－ ..；：：：；二－工画…·
－···叫帽E巾..四..~牛 目．．．．．．．．坤”、．“”’跑 4 『…… -· ca””…帽 、. . ….
’”””’”’跚跚… 喃喃’”””啊’”’··
Matthew Brady. Sherman and his staff, 1865. Altering the guest list is not new. This widely
distributed photograph of William Tecumseh Sherman and all his generals (above 缸”， taken
just after 伪e Civil War ended, includes General丹·antis P. B阳市at the far right. Blaiι however,
missed the sittin阜 so Bra司y photographed him separately lateι pasted a 阳tout 巾归a print of the
group (abo时F也ht), and rephotographed 伪ecomp出ite to make a new negati，时

1：，“白， F肺、~《. Ila，伊
句.， J时尚品旧自（u,；.户，d
，.，ψ.，“，.：.咽，，d /’,,n,.,,•’
Joan Fontcuberta. 舟。’” Sputn巾， 1997.
Many of Fontcuberta’ s works tamper with
reali纱. In Sputn战， he fabricated a gallery
installation and invented a booιlength s阳,yin
which the existence of a Soviet cosmonaut lost
巾平,ace duri，，飞g a shuttle mission 且coν-ered up
byem切rrassed officials.
Above, using a real So町etgo时rnment
photograph (bottom), the artist added the as-
tronaut (actually Fontcuberta himself) 巾归 the
image (top) . In his sto饥he redefines the top
photo as the or，也’inal one and the bot.阳mpho阳
as the one altered by the goν·ernment. 7百e 、町－
dence” appeared so real that the 时，ibitdrew
protests from a Russian ambassador. Reality is
whatever you can Pho阳shop it归be.
D igital editing r aises e由ical questions in the
fine ar岱 as well. It is easy to scan a p hotograph
fro m a magazine or d ownload o ne fro m the
Internet and to incorpo rate all o r part of it in your
own work. Perhaps you intend to cri ticize or com-
m en t o n consumerism by “ q u oting” recogn izable
pieces of advertisi ng in a mo nt age. Artists’ appro-
priation of copyrig h ted material-incorp。rating
an image as a form of critiq ue-has been a widely
debated to pic an d conti nues to be the su均ect of
legal battles.
Copyrig ht laws h ave certain built-in excep-
tions called j』ir use; amo ng them is ed ucational
work. Wh at you ma!也 for a class p roject by “ bor-
rowing” som eone else’s work m ay be protected ,
bu t if you t ry to sell it in a galle1y o r dis tribu te it
on your Web s ite you m ay be i n日i·inging o n som e-
one’s copyrig ht.
Remember 由at a ny phot og raphs you post
on socia l m e d ia a re avai lable to b e copied by
anyone. Copyright protectio n is broad and not
tenibly co mplex, bu t what is and what is n ot pro-
tected m ay not be obvious. In the United States,
your ph。rographs are protected by copyrig h t as
soon as you ’ve made t hem, bur th e protectio n is
s t ronger if you register you r copyrig ht wi th the
government. To use your ph otograph legally,
som eone must h ave your permissio n , and gen er-
ally you can 四pect to n egotiate and be paid a
ri:ryal，σfor an y commercial use. Be careful what
you agree to when you up load you r pictures o n
a ph oto-sharing site like Facebook o r Instagram .
如fany images posted o nline are defined as
气。yalty-free,” wh ich does n ot necessarily mean
that they can be used without perm issio口， but
that o ne agreement or fee wi ll cover all cur-
rent and futu re uses. T h e alternate is “ righ ts
m anaged ,” which m eans the copyrig h t holder
on ly releases a very specifi c use of an image, for
example, on the cover of one paperback edition
of a novel in English sold on ly in North Am erica.
Photogra p hs made fo r the U.S. government
are said to be in t h e p“bl』c domain, alo ng wi th, in
general, anything made before 1923, and may be
used fo r an y p urpose wi t hout permission.
c…ER 5 圄113

曰 际J
TeuN Hoc Ks I Printers and Drivers ………. 116
υ回归d, 2000. Dute，也 a而且 Hodes makes I
I Paoers and Inks . . . ……… 117 如协es first, 曲”。栩栩曲回首阳t I t’
sets in whi Proof Profile>Selected Recipe), then you
can do all your editing wh ile in t he soft proof
mode. Both let you ma k e most of these san1e out-
p ut c h oices fo r printing.
1 ＇＂阳
work 。n.
2 Ch。 叭刷＞Pr s叫＞Cust。m a n
select a profi le for your pri n ter and pape I
from the d isplayed lis t. Set Intent: Perceptual
and ch eck “ Use Black Poi n t Com pensatio n.”
蜀 ，）｝－
h阳时』唰恤岳叩
价－c.、…，”
“唰M·-·U!豆豆坠旦
’…陶巾，
如蛐啊’倒－cs亟豆豆
s－－阳喻’”相
。”阳，。”掏”“暴fl•Scr.”。
g纯阳“·－臼阳
“””J41’ … 确也
i画
二二二B
ξ3ζ3
C豆豆：〉
C豆豆〉
:!l C豆豆二〉
E呈阳鸭”
118 PRINTING AND DISPLAY
自筐－·当B
叩阳山 山…』』··
3 凶 y。ur image as needed. Turn o n t h e
printer a n d load th e paper selected in s tep 2.
4 Choose File>Pri叽 then select yo…叩E
settings. The Doc1m
s uch as Adobe RGB (1998), is your wor king
space (page 82). In Printer Pr吧卢’le and Inten.t
ma!也 the same selectio ns you used for y。ur
Proof Setup (step 2).
时阴阳 ’剧创阳”” 嗣曰
份．”旬，， 例”…附属……..协”‘ …
τ刷陈CJ回刷刷d
….. －＠豆豆豆豆J!:i •..崎明白
f衡阳•ts.ti，刷 …
二十
~画面Z一丽岳阳ε楠，…；呻· ‘ －－－－－『
”··’“……..
”….轩” ’ 酌”“唱··”·－，刷刷 峙’
’”制”“’• I ODolot 毛阳’
C.怜’”。de l Ofl’… Calor …..翻翻－赠’l ”
(M阳农 民·$确a躏睛 ’如”’嗡………而 ….
巳弘肺阳晰m
c…，，加世
已闹剧，＿..
C肉”剑阳呻
(!)a[:)~ ~ζ至3
s Choose Print Settings ro 臼l…he pri
s paper si挝， and orientation. Ph otoshop use
icons t。 help you choose an orientati。n;
5。metimes W。rds describe the onentati。n­
Lands，臼，pe for h orizon tal, Portrait for vertical.
6 由。。” Print S川臼for Adju伽ent un伽
ColorM，刷agemen; and Photoshop Manag臼Colo町
under Color Handling. T h ese tell the pri n ter
ro accept your profile and output sett ings
wi tho u t alteratio n. O t he1wise, your pri n ter
will mak e color and contrast c h anges based
o n an average. C h oose a pri n ter resolu tio n;
h igher 阳。lutions yield fi n er-lookin g prints
b u t lon ger p rinting times. Wh en eve1yth ing is
set, select Pηnt ag臼n, a n d enjoy.
例．唰..嗣．
－二丑 ，
胁” ‘ －－咽cl
‘-ltlll
’白阳…
＆ －叫“… l .. ~呻
一…呵呵恤
“‘W崎－－”崎陶蝇·忡，． ~
阳帽”翻”主哩·＝ －」~
. . ”司”….,
】叫』~可
叫－”··“曲”…·
’…… … 翩。”町·..
咄
–
－…叩阳.，，……….
J离

x Rez Studios, Inc. N也ht
View of Chi，臼，go from the
Penthouse of Hotel 71,
2007. Panoramic pho阳－
graphs can be assembled
from smaller elements.
This one－阳greatly increase
resolution-was made from
seve的’Of hundred separate
exposures made around
a 360’ field. Be臼use it
is pie出dt句；ether卢仰，
images made 巾a circle,
theendpoin臼are arbitrary
and parts of the scene may
appear more than once.
The original file 臼n make
a high如detailed print more
than five meters wide. It is
dis pi吧yed with other extreme
resolution photographs on a
M句b site that a/lo附却oming
in to see a close-up of a’!Y
part of the frame: xR，自由m
Pαnorαmic Photogrαphs
D ig ital p h o t o g r a phy h as m a d e pan o ramic
p hotograph y more p o p u la r . In the recent past,
还you wan ted to ma k e p hotograp h s in pan o ramic
sha pes you h a d only a few optio ns. You could
c rop away part of a picture and then enlarge the
rest, re d ucing its quality. You cou ld invest in a
specialized, and usua lly expensive, camera. O r
you cou ld take several p ictures a n d d isplay th e m
S由－by-side-either E巾ng to h陆 the ed ges o r
m a king t h e joi n in g a ppear intentional. Now the re
is a n o ther optio n .
So食ware makes it easy to pie c e tog e t h e r
in d ividua l exposure s to ma k e a si n g le larger
image. Called stitching, the proced u re can be left
to Ph otosh o p (File>Aurom ate> Phorom erge) or to
。ne 。f several aftennarl

AN ARCHIVING
WORKFLOW
FOR RAW FILES
1 . DOWN LOAD FILES
direccly from che came阳 or
chrough a card reader.
2 . RENAME FI LES. Use a
logical syscem chac will still
be useful after y。u have
50,000 phocographs.
3. ADD BULK META•
DATA. Bulk mecadaca
(for example, your name,
concacc 川formaci。n,and
copyrighc) is whac goes on
all your ph。cog阳phs
4 . CONVERT CAM ERA
RAW FI LES TO DNG
ify。u ch。ose (page 85).
s。me applicacions lee y。u
d。 icall-c。nve町， rename,
and append mecada国－as
you download
5 . ADD IND IVIDUAL
KEYWORDS . With mosc
applicaci。ns you can display
a large number 。f image
chumbnails and apply a k町－
w。rd co a selecced group
6. APPLY RATINGS.
Decide which image，。f
se明白I similar 。nes，’S che
one w。πh recurning co.
Give a higher ra口ng z。 che
besc 。f che sh。。E
7 . SAVE TO A SECOND
HARD DRIVE lfy。u have
a mirror RAID (cexc, righc},
chis happens aucomacically.
After saving a s.,cond copy
。feve叩ching, you can re岛p
mac your came阻’s mem。叩
card co use again
8 . BACK UP ON TWO
OPTICAL D匹KS 。r a
chird hard drive. Score
disks in a c。。I , d叩， dark
place for maximum life.
Don气 SC。re your backups
in che same place as your
compucer Give each disk
a unique name s。 you can
file and fi nd ic eas，忡， for
example, Photos 2014-045
9. ADD TO YOUR
IMAGE CATALOGING
DATABASE as s。on as
you wrice the 制自由。pCt·
cal disks, so ic can keep
crack 。f che c。pies in your
。而tne scorage syscem
Archiving Imαges αnd Prints
W ith digital photographs you can have
more than one original. An d, because they ta!也
u p little a ctual s p a ce, it m akes sen se to have sev-
e ral copies of everythin g. Prints, slides, a nd nega-
t ives have always been vulnerable to catastroph ic
loss or dam age, as well as to d egradation over
t ime. Im age fi les that a re d igi tal can be stored
u nch anged fo r the fo reseeable fu ture and-impor-
tan tly-th ey c an be d u p licated exactly. You can
dramatically redu ce your chances ofl oss by k eep-
ing copies of all your image fi les.
Have a backup strategy t hat you can stay
with . D。n’t wait until you h ave lost som e impo r-
tan t images before you m ake and stick to a plan
for arch iving your work.
It is m ost conven ient to h ave all your fil es
。nline, which m ean s t hey are s aved o n one o r
m ore hard d rives tha t are powered up a nd con-
n ected to the co mputer wh enever you work. But
h ard drives can fail; to be s a fe you shou ld also
h ave a t least w。 additional copies of everyth i吨，
and p referably th ree or m。re.
The best syste m, a t a m in im u m, is to make a
second cop y of all your raw fi les on another hard
d rive as soon as they a re renam ed and tagged (and
Prints should be kept in archival如，xes.
Elegant archival portfolio boxes like the
clamshell design on the left make a beautiful
pr，出en阳tion but may be 阳oexpensi，昭for
regu归r storage. Simpl，电 acid-free, card·
boards阳rage boxes, shown on the right, are
as safe. L吨·er sizes are made from acid-free
corrugated臼rdboard 阳 be morer也’id.
before you have erased them fro m the m e mory
ca叫） a时， shortly thereaf町， make w。 more cop-
ies on external h ard d rives o r o n re movable m ed ia
s u ch as op tical-CD , DVD, o r BO (Blu-ray)-d isks.
A secon d copy of everyth ing o n a local h ard d rive
（。ne that ’s in t h e same locatio n as you r main
com p u ter) lets you resto re fi les q u ickly in case of
a primary d rive failure 。r o ther data loss; t h e cop·
ies on rem ovable or p ortable dis k s ca n be k ep t in
two di仔erent location s to p rotect you in case of
a disaster s u ch as fi re o r the丘 Cloud-based stor-
age, re m ote storage that is accessed throug h the
Internet, is a lso useful fo r keepi n g off-si te back-
ups. You will also wan t to have a naming, organiz –
in g, a n d b ackup strategy for fin ished d凹ivative
fi les a nd fo r th。se in p rogress.
A RAID array can help ma k e local storage safer .
RAID is a n a c ron ym for redundant array of inex-
pen s ive (or independen t) d isks. You can use your
com put町、。perating system to format, o r initial-
2时， two d is k drives for RAID level 1, ca lled mirror-
ing. Once fo rmatted this W吼 the two d rives a c t
like one-you see o nly one icon fo r the d rive, a n d
you write to and read fro m it n o rmally. Bu t, invis-
ibly, all data is written simultane。usly E。 both..
T h is ki n d of syst n is called fou
it creates red u n d ant data; if 。ne d rive fails, all its
data 口iscs, iden tically, on the 。ther drive.
Prints (and film) are more c hallenging t o
store than dig ital image fi les because they a re
p h ysical o悖cts and , most often , u n ique. A stable
environme n t, especially o n e with cool tem pera-
tures a nd low humid ity, will p rolo n g the life of
dig ital prin ts as well as t radition al p h otograph ic
materials. Paper must b e p rotec ted fro m acid ity.
Unfortunately, most paper made fro m wood p ulp
is left a cidic aft盯 manufacture; look ins tead for
acid-free in kjet printing paper and mat bo缸d
(u s ually m ade fro m cotton rag) that are ava il-
able fro m specialty re ta ilers. Those same reta il-
ers (search fo r archival s upplies) can also provide
s table, chemically neutral p lastic b ags, sleeves, a n d
boxes s ized fo r p rints, d isks, slides, o r negatives.
CHAPTER 7 H 133

PAU L D’ AMATO I Qualities of Ligh t. ……… … 136
Isela， αic:ago, 1993· I From direct阳d咖sed …… …. 136
Simple Portrait
Lighting …. ………… …. 144
Existing Light . ……….. …. 138
Use what’s available . ……. …. 138
Using Artificial Light ….. …. 146
Photolamp or flash ……… …. 146
The Main Light ……….. …. 140
The strongest source of light .. …. 140
Fill Ligh t ….. ……….. …. 142
Mor e about Flash ……… …. 148
How to position it ………. …. 148
切惚·hten shado削 ……… …. 142 Using Flash .. ………… …. 150

In this chapter yo,i’Ll leαrn …
• the qualities of natural light-the soze 。fthe source,
its direction, c。l。r, and ,ntens,ry-and the effect
that changing these qualities will have on y。ur
phot。graphs.
• to duplicate the qualities 。f natu甩l light with
aπifoc,al light that you can c。ntrol.
• to understand the differences between electronic Aash
and continuous light, and to use a camera-mounted
Aash unit to make correctly exp。sed images.
Carry Winogrand. Los Angeleι 1969. Light it叫＇｛can
sometimes be the subject of伪e picture. Winogrand often
photographed comp！＜臼interactions that we all see e时,yday
but seldom notice. Here, in addition 阳the mix of people on the
street, a reflection from a s阳mwindow makes it appear there
are two suns. Winogrand said, “I photograph to see what the
photograph will look like. »
Usin ht 8
darken the sky, o r you change p。sition s。 y。ur su均ect is lit from ~；甜！~sc:
behind, or you move from a brigh t a rea to the s h ade, your p ictures will
ch a n ge as a result. Light chan ges indoors, coo: your subject may move closer
to a s unny window，。E you m ay t u rn o n overhead lig h ts or decide to use a flas h
to light your photograph .
Lig h t can affect 巾 feeling of the ph。tograph s。 that a subject appears,
fo r example, b rilliant and crisp, h azy a n d so丘， stark or romanci巳 Ifyou mak e
a point of observing the ligh t on your s u bject, you wi ll soon learn to p redict
how it wi ll look in you r ph。tographs, a n d you will find it easier to use existing
light o r to arrange the lig h ting yourself to get just the effect you wane.
135

Qi飞alities of Light
FROM DIRECT TO DIFFUSED
L ight can range from direct and contras句
to diffused 四d sof址， whether indoors or 。Ut.
A n d w h e ther you control the ligh t o n your s ubject
or accept w h at is th e re, you should recogn ize th e
d iffe ren ces. H ere’s how to identi今 these d ifferent
qualities oflig h t a nd p redict h ow they w ill look in
you r p h otograp h.
Direct ligh t is high in c ontrast . It crea tes
bright highlig h ts a n d d ark shad ows w it h har d ,
o r s h arp, e d ges. Ph otogra p hic m a terials, both
digital and fi lm , h a ve limited dynamic range
(latit叫e) a nd cannot reco rd d e t ails in very
ligh t a n d ver y dark a reas a t t h e sam e ti m e.
D irec tly lit a reas may a ppear brilliant a nd b o ld ,
w ith s hadowed o n es a lmost entirely black . If you
are photographi n g in d irect lig h t , you m ay want
to a dd fi ll ligh t ( p ages 142- 143) to ligh ten shad-
ows. Beca use direct lig ht is o丘en q ui t e brig ht,
you can use a s m all a p erture to g ive p lenty
o f depth 。f fi eld , a fast s hutter speed to stop
m o t ion, o r b oth , if the lig h t is b righ t e n o u gh.
T h e s u n o n a clear d ay is a commo n source of
direc t lig h t . Indoors, a flash or p h oto lamp p。int­
ed d irectly at your su均ect ( that is, n ot bo unced
off anoth er s urface) also provid es d irect lig ht.
Direcεlight
Dorothea Lange. Woman of the High Plains, Childr，出sCoung,, 7注明， 1938.
Compare the qualities of light in th臼epic- Directional/d，狲sed light-definite shad，棚，
but softer edged than in direct I，也ht. Diffused
l也ht-indirect and soft.
tures and阶e effect it has on the su怡出 Direct
fight-contrasg,, with hard-edged shado附
Pro.iect: THE sAME su町ECT I N D I FFER ENT 川HT
PROCEDURE Photograph the same pe归。n in several d ifferen t
lighting situat i。ns. F。r example，。n a sunny day begin by photo-
graphi ng 。utdoors in the sun T叩n。t tow。rk a t noon when the
sun is directly overhead Light usually appears m。re interesting in
the m。rni ng 。r a仕ernoon when the sun is aεan angle to the su均ect
Make severa l exposu陀s in each situation.
Worl< 陀latively close: head-a nd-shoulders rather than full伦n寥hviews. Fi陌t, have the sun behind your back, s。 it shines directly int。 the person’s face Then move y。ur su同ect so the sun is shining on him 。r her from the side. Then have the sun behind the pers。n, so he or she is backlit. (Page 72 tells how to meter backlit scenes.) Make several ph。tographs in di侃』sed natural light, for 四ample, under a tree 。r in the shade of a bu ilding. Make some ind。。目， with the pe归。n illuminated by light c。ming from a wind。w. 1 36 USING LI GH T As a compa rison to sunlight in the morning or aftern。。n, y。u could als。 make some photographs 目n。on w ith the su同ect lit by the sun overhead to see why it is not recommend ed . Select the best poπrait in each type of light . HOW DID YOU DO? What d。 y。u see thaε is di仇rent a mong the vari。u s ph。tographs? Is there m。re t四ture visible in s。me sh。臼P Do the shad。ws seem too dark in some? (Pages 142- 143 tell h。w to use fi ll light to make shad ows lighter.) How d oes the light affect t he mod eling ( the appearance of v。lume）＿ 。f the fa ce? Light not only changes the way subjects a ppear in a p h。tograph, it can cha nge the way we perceive or 也el a bo ut them . Do some 。f the portra its appear so仕er? Harsher? M。re dramatic >

Tina Barney. Mom, 1996.
Di侃,sec! Ugh拿
Sage Sohier. Girl Being Prepared for a Horse Sho叫 Sandwich, NH, 2004.
D irection al/ d iffi』sed lig ht is interm ediate in
contrast. Ir is partly d irect an d partly di仔used.
Sh adows are present, bur t hey a re softer an d n or
as dark as those casr by direct light.
You will encou nter di recrional/ diffused lighr
。n a ha勾F day when the sun ’s rays are somewhar
scattered so light comes from the su1-r。unding
sky as well as fro m the su n. A shaded area, such as
u nder t rees o r along the shady side 。fa building,
can have direction al/ diffused light if the lighr is
bouncing o nto the scene primari ly from one di rec-
tion. Indoors, a skylighr or other large wi ndow
can give th is type of light if the sun is not shin-
ing direct妙。n the SU均ecr. Lighr fro m a flas h or
photo lamp can also be direcrional/ diffused if ir is
softened by a rranslucenr diffusi ng material placed
in front of rh e light or if it is bounced 。ff another
surface such as a wall or an u mbrella reflector.
Di佩』sed ligh t is low in contr ast. Ir bath es
subjects in ligh t from all sides so that shadows
a re weak or even absent. Colors are less br illianr
t h an they are in d irect ligh t an d are likely to be
pastel or m u red in tone. Because diffused light is
likely to be di m mer rhan direct ligh t, you m igh t
n ot be able to use a s m all apertu re with a fas r
sh utter speed.
A heavily overcast day creares diffused ligh r
because t h e ligh r is casr even ly by rhe who le
dome of t h e sky rath er rhan , as it is o n a
sun ny day, mostly by t he s m all d isk of t h e su n.
In doors, diffu sed ligh r can be creared with a ve1y
broad s。urce of light used close to t he s ubjecr
(such as ligh r bounced into a large umbr ella
reflector) p lus addirio nal fi ll light. (Page 143 top
shows a吵box-anorher broad sourc←u时 in
a lighting setup.)
CHA PT ER 8 I!’需 137

Existing Light
USE WH A丁’S AVAILABLE
D o n ’t w a it for a s u n ny d ay to g o phot o
g raphing . You can E丛《e p ictures even if t h e ligh t
1s d im: indoors, in t h e ram or snow, at dawn or
dusk. If you see a scene that appeals to you, you
can find a way co ph otograph it.
A h igh ISO is u seful when light is d im. It w ill
help you sh。。t a t a fast enough s hutter speed
to s top m。tion or at a small enough aperture to
give adequate depth of fie ld. A t ripod can steady
a camera for long exposures.
John Collier. Grandfather Romero, 99 years old,
Trampaι NewM时co, 1943. Use the light you
fi, d if you can; it usually looks the most believable.
T,y 阳make some伪ing out of what is already there
138 US ING LIGHT
before thinking of changing anything. The l信仰in this
room from one small window is simple and effective.
….

Ken”eth Josephson. Chicago,
1961. Available light 臼n also
mean available shadow. 0卢en, the
play of light and shadow alone 臼n
be enough 阳make a great picture.
Assu句“毛 the {igu -es here are not
as impo刷nt as the arra咿ment
。rshapes made钞bi缸。（sunlight
piercing the overhead structure of
Chi，臼，go’sele时ted train.
David Alan Harvey. Easter Celebration in the
Mixtec Reion, 0剧:aca,M白白， 1992. In 田tremely
dim I也h电 start wrth 伪ehigh自t ISO your 阔，，，era
o伊rs (or an ultrafast fi阳 like F可i Neopan 1600)
Only阶e臼ndles illuminate this scene, which was le~
reddish by the photographer e昭n though the white
balan臼 could be adjusted 巾p出I-production. Brack-
eting is always a good idea in marginal I,拚tingsitua·
tions. Make several extra sho缸ifyou臼n, increasing
the 由：posu鸣 then decreasing it.
C H A PT ER 8 I!’需 139

The Mαin Light
THE STRONGEST SOURCE OF LIGHT
T he most realistic a nd usually t h e most
p leasing lighting resembles d aylight, the
ligh t we see most often: o n e main source oflight
from above creating a s ing le set of shadows.
Lighting seems unrealistic (although t here may
be ti mes wh en you will wan t that) if it comes
from below or if it comes from two or more
equally strong sources t hat produce shadows
going in d ifferent d irections.
S hadows define 由e lig hting. Although pho-
tograph ers talk about the quality of lig h t com ing
fro m a particular source, it is actually the s hadows
created by the ligh t that can m汰e an image harsh
orso丘， menacing or appealing. To a great extent,
the shadows determine th e solidity or v。lume that
shapes appear to have, the degree to wh ich E四ture
is shown , and s。meti mes t he mo。d or emo tion of
the picture.
The m ain Ii拚t, the brightest Ii阱t必川1g 。n
a SU均ect, creates t he st rongest shadows. If you
are t巾ng to set u p a ligh ting arrangemen飞 look
at the su均ect from camera position. Notice the
way the shadows shape o r model the su均已ct as
you move t he main lig h t around or as you change
the positi口n of the su同ect in 阳lat
main light. .
Direct ligh t from a 500-watt incandescent
lamp in a bowl-shaped metal reflector was used
fo r these photographs, with no oth凹 light sources,
producing shadows that are hard edged and dark.
Di rect sunligh t or direct flash will produce similar
effects. The light would be softer if it were bounced
onto the su均ect from another surface, such as an
umbrella reflector (shown o n p咿 145), o r if it
were diffused Fill l胁t (see pages 142- 143) would
lighten the shadows.
140 USING LI GH T
科
叫
l>晶
Frontlighti，咯 Here the main light 且p归自d close 阳 the lens，因呻en
a flash unit attached to the 臼mera ispo巾ted directly at 伪e subject.
Fewer shadows are ν’isible from camera position wi，阶 this仰eoflighting
than with others, and, as a result, forms seem flattened and t臼阳res less
pronounced. Many ne附photos and snapshots are front/it because it is
simple and quick 阳 shoot with the flash on the camera
d国
High 45。 I也hti.咯 ／（the main light is moν＇edh妙and to the side of
the camera, not precisely at 45。 but somewhere in 伪at 时cinity, shado附
model the face to a rounded shape and emphasize t臼tures more than
时阶front l也hting. This is often the main l也•ht pos’ition used in comme产
cial portrait studio耳 fill l也ht would then be added to lighten the shado回

~卸
d国
Side lighti略Amain ／也ht at about a 90。 angje to the camera will I,拚t
the SU句“ br也ht如on 。ne side and cast shado附across the other side.
When the sun is low on the horizon at sunset or sunrise, it can create side
lighting 伪at adds interest 阳归ndscapes and other outdoors臼nes. Side
l也•hting岳阳metimes used 阳dramatize a portrait.
4国
Backlighti,号 Here the light is moν·ed around farther to the back of
the SU怡ct than it is for side lighting. If the l也•ht was direc.吵behind the
subje，代价e entire fa臼would be 巾shadowwi.阶just the hair outlined
bya rim of也·ht. Back/.也htin阜 also called edge or rim lightin阜 is used in
mu/t，伊le-light setups 阳bring out texture or阳separate 阶e SU句ect from
the 切ckground.
－－捆
Top lighting. With the l也ht direct吻。时rhead, long dark shado回 are
cast M阳eye sockets and under nose and chin, producing an effect that is
seldom appealing for portraits. Unfortunate少， top lighting is not uncom-
’”。，，－outdoors at noon when the sun is overhead or indoors when the
main l敏t市 coming from ceiling fixtures. Fill ／，也•ht added 阳l也·ht，削阶e
sh ado阴阳n help β四 n田tpage)
m
川v：
一捆
Bottom lighting. 咿，ting that comes from below ／，。由distinctly odd
in a portrait. 7百位ιbe臼use light on people outdoors or indoors almost
never comes from below. This type of light 臼•sts unnatural shado附 that
often create a menacing effect. Some produ巾， howe时r-gjassware,
fore.κample-are effectiv，吵lit from belo叫 such lighting is often seen in
ad时rtisingphotographs.
C HAPTER 8 I!’需 1 41

Fill Light
TO LIGHTEN SHADOWS
Fm lig h t m akes s h a dows less d a rk by adding
light to them. Photographic materials can record
detail and texture in either brightly lit areas or
deeply shadowed ones but generally not in both
at the same time. So if important shadow areas
缸e much darker than lit areas-for 四ample, the
shaded s ide of a person’s face in a sunlit portrait-
consider whether addin g fill light wi ll improve
your picture. T he fill lig ht should not overpower
the main light but simply raise the lig ht level of
shadow areas so you can see clear detail in the
final image.
W h e n do you need fi ll ligh t? Negative films are
very sensitive to contrast; digital capture is some-
what less so. With either, as little as two stops
d能rence between lit and shaded areas can make
shadows ve1y dark. HOR (pages 74-75) can help
control excessive contrast but the su均ect must be
absolutely stationa1y; it can’t help when you are
photograph in g people.
In most portraits, a partly shaded subject that
has shadows two stops darker than the lit side of
the face will be contrasty but will still sho即 full
texture and detail everywhere. But when shadows
get to be three or more stops darker than lit areas,
在II light becomes useful. You can control contr出E
between highlights and shadows later, in editing,
but results are often better if you can lig hten
shadows by adding fill ligh飞 rather than t巾ng to
lighten a too-dark shadow later.
F ill ligh t o u t doors. It is easier to get a p leasant
expression on a person’s face in a sunlit outd。。I
portrait if the su均已ct is lit from the s ide 。r from
beh ind and not squinting into the sun. These
positions, however, can make the shad。wed side
of the face too dark. In such c臼es, you can add fill
light to decrease the contrast between the lit and
shadowed sides of the face (see rψt). You can
142 USING LI G HT
a lso use fill light outdoors for close-ups of flow-
ers or other relati ly small o均ects in which the
shadows would otherwise be too dark.
Fill ligh t in d oors. A sin g le photoflood or flash
used ind。ors 。ften produces a ve1y contrasty light
in which the shaded side of the face (or any other
subject) will be very dark if巾 lit side is exposed
n。rmally. Such light is likely to appear more con-
trascy than in a similar photograph lit by sunlight
because light from the sky acts as 自II light out-
doors. Notice how dark the shaded areas are in
the single-lig ht portraits on pages 140-141. You
might want such contrasty lighting for certain
photographs, but ordinarily fill light should be
added to make the shadows lighter.
Sou r ces o f fi ll light. A reflector, such as a
white card or cloth, is a good way to add fill light
indoors 。r out. An aluminized “s pace b lanket”
from a camping-supply store is easy to carry and
hig hly reflective. Convenient collapsing “ bounce
cards” are available from camera retailers that
cater to professionals. Hold ing a reflector at the
correct angle, usually on the opposite side of the
subject from the main light, will reflect s。me 。f
d飞emai口 light into d飞e shad。叽，S
A flash can be used for fill light ind。口rs
or outdoors. A un it in 、、，hich d飞e brightness 。f
d飞e flash can be adjusted is much easier to use
than one with a fixed output. Some flash units
designed for use with automatic cameras (or built
into the camera bod份 can be set to prov陆白ll
flash automatically.
In indoor setups, light from another ph。to­
flood can be used for fill light. To keep the fill
lig ht from overpowering the m副n light, the fill
can be far出er from the su均ect than the main
lig ht, oflesser intensity, bounced， 。r diffused. See
photographs opposite.
Front／，也-ht. The ma的face
is lit by sunlight sh巾ingdi­
rectfy on it. Facing someone
M归 the sun usually臼uses
an awkward squint against
the br也ht I，也·ht.
Backlight. Here he faces
away from the sun and has
a more re归xed expression.
Increasing the exp出ure
would l也·hten the shadowed
side of his face but make the
lit side very l也ht.
Back／.也ht plus fill light.
Here he still faces away from
the sun, but fill I.也•ht has been
added归 Ii%），阳n the shaded
side of the face. A reflection
of the bounce card appears in
hisgla自由 Such reflections
臼n be controlled by angling
the h臼d slight，护

Using a reflector for fill I也-ht. A M也e white cloth or card
臼n lighten shado阔的切cklit or side/it portraits by reflecting
onto 阶e shaded side of the suψct some of the il/un
–
from the ma巾light. Sometimes n时earbyo句iects will act as natu
rat reflectors, such as sa叫 sno叫 wateι or a light-colored wall.
7百e reflector臼n be clamped to a stand, held by an ass.岳阳nt, or
simp如propped up. 7百edo.且r the reflector is 阳 the sut庐吃 the
more light it will reflect into the shado晒 Be careful to keep it
out of the picture.
In 阶e臼：amp/eon阳也h; themai，，，也ht is on your lefi-
the sitter’s riif,ι The light is inside a如卢box, used to sofien
shadow edges. Clamped to a s臼nd on the opposite side of the
阳怡，ais 伪e reflecto.ι且metimes called a bounce臼M
For a portrait, t,y to angle the reflector to add enough fill
l也•ht so the shadowed side of the face is one 归 two stops darker
than the sunlit side. Here’s how to count the number of stops’
difl♀rence. Meter only伪e lit side and note 伪e shutte俨speed
and aperture settings. Meter only阶e shado附d side and note
the shutter speed and aperture. 7百e number off stops ( or
shutte问：peed settings) between the t附 exposures equals the
number of stops’ di如renee.
Using a pho阳flood for fill I也·ht- The photographer pla臼d
the main light at about a 45。 angle 阳 the lef飞 then positioned
a second photoflood on the right side of the camera so it
increased 阶ebr也htness of the shado附 This fill l也ht was
placed close to the 臼mera’s lens so it did not crea阳secondary
shado附 that would be visible from camera position. The main
light was pla臼d closer to 伪e subject so it would be stronger
than 伪e fill light.
Meter the lit side of the scene and the shaded side; then
adjust 阶el.也hts until the shaded side is one 归 two stops darker
than the lit side. To get an accurate reading, you must me阳r
each area separately without including阶e background or other
ar，臼s of different br，也•htness. !(you are photographing＿时少
smallo句；ec筒，you臼n use a spot meter or make substitution
readings from a pho归•graphicgray card positioned first on the
lit side, then on the shadowed side.
Using flash for fill light. To I.也•hten the shadows on the
subject’s face, the photographer attached a flash unit to her
camera. If the flash light is too bright, it 印，3 0时,power阶e
main ／也•ht and create an 川，，atura/ effect. To prevent 阶is, the
photographer set the flash for manual operation and draped
a handkerchief over the flash head to decrease the intensity of
阶e light. She could also have stepped back from the sut庐d
(al伪ough this附uld ha昭changed 伪e framing of the s，四ne), or,
时阶 some flash units, decreased阶el，也ht output of the flash.
The handkerchief also cha怨自阶equality of伪e light. Like
a small version of the soβbox pictured abo吨 it increases the
apparent size of the source and如s/igh吵如卢·ens the harshness
阶at usually results from small 臼mera-mounted flash units.
Many flash at臼chments and light modifiers are available坦1Ja­
rately to further alter the harshness 。fon-camera flash.
See your owner’s manual for instructions on how to set your
camera and flash for fill lighting. In general, for a subject that
is partly lit and partly shaded, decrease 伪ebr，也-htn醋。fthe
flash on the su侬d until it is one to two stops less than the 切sic
由:posure from the sun.

Simple Portrαit Lighting
M any fin e portraits h a ve b een made u s ing
simple light ing setups. You don ‘ t need a com-
plicated ar rangement of ligh ts to make a good
p。rrrait. In fact, the s impler t he setup, the m ore
comfortable an d relaxed your subject is likely to
be. (See pages 166- 169 for m ore about ph。to­
graph ing people.)
Ou时oors, o pe n sha d e or a n overcast s ky
surrou nds a subject in soft, even lighting (photo-
graph opposi te, b。ttom). In open shade, the per-
son is o ut of direct s un ligh t, perhaps u nder a tree
or in t he shade of a buildi ng. Illu m ination comes
fro m light reflected from th e ground, a n earby
wall, or oth er surfaces. If th e sun is hidden by an
overcast or cloudy sky, ligh t is scattered over the
SU均ecr from t he entire sky. In sunligh t, shadows
may appear relatively bluish because t h ey are hid-
den from t he s un and illu minated o nly wi th light
fro m the sky.
144 USING LIGHT
Indo ors, window lig h t is a conven ient source
of light du ri ng the day (th is page, bottom). T he
closer your su bject is to the window, the brigh ter
the ligh t will be. If direct sunlight is sh ining
th rough the wi ndow an d falls on t h e subject,
contrast w ill be ve1y h igh: lit areas ve1y light,
unlit a reas very dar k. A small wi ndow will create
harder shadows than a large o ne. U nless you want
ext reme con trast, ir’s best to have the subject also
lit by indirect ligh t bounci ng off o t her surfaces. A
reflector opposi te t h e w indow can lighten sh ad-
ows by adding fi ll light to t h e s ide of t h e pers。n
fac ing away from the window.
A m a in light-photo何ood or 何ash-plus
re何ector fill is a si m ple setup when available
ligh t is inadequate (see opposi te top). Bouncing
the m ain light (s。metimes called the key ligh t)
into an u m brella reflector provides a softer light
than sh ining it directly onto the subject .
Amy Stein. ＼，＼斤，，dow#2,
200S. Window light can
be contras飞y unless other
windo町， as here, a nearby
l也·ht-colored wa吧。ra well-
placed reflectoιprovide fill.
Stein’s series D。mest1cat­
ed “e净lores our paradoxical
relation sh伊时阶 the ’wild. ” ’
Like the birds, the woman
looks at the world from inside
her geometric enclosure.

Sam Com en. Amy Adams for The New Y，。rkTimes,
Los Angeles, 2014. A main light plus reρector fill
is the simplest setup when you want to arrange the
lightingyourself. 7百e ma巾source of light here is from a
medium-sized如，ftbox pointed at the subject. A reflector
on 伪e。伪er side 。｛the SU侬ct bounces如me 。fthe
fightback 阳也·hten the shadows. αmenwasiven
about tweno/ minu阳阳shoot the staro{Tim Burton’s
Big Eyes in a hotel’s conferen臼 room.
John Weiss . Carry Temple阳”， San Diego Padres,
1984. In open shade outdoors, a buildin阜 tree,
orothero协d blocks the direct rays of the sun.
So卢er indirect lif!),t bounces onto the su怡cι Here,
the ballplayer was shaded 钞the dugout roof ηe
photographer hung a black cloth on the dugout wall
to pro时de a plain background.
C H A PT ER 8 I!’需 1 45

Using Artificiαl Light
PHOTOLAMP OR FLASH
Ar训cial ligh t sources let you bring your own
light with you when the sun goes down, w hen you
ph otograph in a relatively dar k room， 。E when
you need just a little m ore lig h t t han is avai lable.
Arti ficial sources are consistent an d never go
beh in d a clou d jus t when you’re ready to ta!也 a
picture. You can manip ula te them to produce any
effect you want-from lig ht t h at looks like natu ral
sun light to underlighting e仔ec臼 that are seldom
fo und in nature. 01日erent sources produce light
ofdi险阻nt color balances, each requ iring a d iffe r-
ent wh ite balan ce setting.
C ontinuously burning ( incandescent) lamps
s uch as LED bu lbs, t ungsten ligh ts, and q uartz
（。r halogen) lamps p lug into an electrical o utlet .
Because they let you see h。w t h e lig h t a仔ects th e
SU均已ct, they are excellent for portr出“， sti ll l治s,
and other station ary s山，jects that give you t ime to
adjust th e lig ht exactly. Determ in ing th e exposure
is easy: you met盯 the brightness of t he light j ust
as you do outdoors. Professional ph otographers
often refer t。 continuous sources as hot I.也hts.
Electronic 何ash or strobe is the m ost popular
source of portable lig h t. Power can com e from
eith er batteries, a rechargeable power pack, or an
electrical o utlet . Som e un i臼 are built into cam-
eras, bu t the m ore powerfol o nes, wh ich can light
o均eccs at a g reater distan ce, are a separate acces-
sory. Because elect ronic flash is fast eno ugh to
freeze most m。tion, it is a good choice w hen you
need to light u nposed shots or moving subjects.
Flash must be s归chronized with 由e cam-
e ra’ s shutter so th e flash of light occurs when
the shu tter is fully 。pen. 飞With most single-lens
refl四 can1eras that have a focal -plane shutter,
shutter speeds of l/60 sec. or slower will synch ro-
n ize with elect ron ic flash; some models have
shutters t hat syn chronize at h igher speeds, u p
to V300 sec. At sh utter speeds faste r than t h at, the
camera’s sh utter curtains are open only part of the
way at any time so o nly part of t h e sen sor would
be exposed. T h e fastes t shutter speed d uring
which th e curt ains open all the way is called the
146 USIN G LIGHT
sync speed. Caiτ1eras with leaf shutters synchr。nize
with flash at any sh utter speed. Somεtop-oιthe­
lir
speci白C camera m odel) can operate in h（坦b平时d
sync mode so the camera’s focal -plane shu tter
can be set for any sh utter speed. See your owner’s
m anual for details o n how to set the camera and
connect the flash ro it.
A utomat ic flas h units have a sensor that mea-
su res the amount ofl> 1t reflected by the su同ect
during the flash; the unit terminates the flash
when th e exposu re is adequ ate. Even if you have
an automatic u n it , s。metimes you will want to
calcu late an d set the flash exposure manu ally,
such as when the su均ect is ve1y close ro the flash
or very far from it and not wi t hi n the automatic
flash range. Like a utomatic foc us, automatic flash
units may give less accu rate results when your
su bject is not centered in th e frame. M。St dedi卜
cated flash models allow the came问 when set
fo r one of its auto-exposure modes, to control
the brightness of th e flas h automatically to add a
preset level of fi ll.
Determining your own exposu re with 何ash IS
different fro m doing so with o ther light sources
because th e flash of light is too brief to measure
with an ordi na1y light meter. Some professionals
use a h and-held light meter that can measure th e
brief burst of a flash, but you can also accurately
determine flash exposure using the histogram
display on the back of a d igital camera Use a
manual 四posure mode and test exposu res,
va1ying t he aperture, ISO, or flas h power set-
t ing. Because the farth er the su同ect is fro m a
given flash un it , the dimmer the light that it
receives, you can also calcu late y。ur flas h expo-
sure by knowi ng-or guessi ng-the subject’s
distance (opposite).
Automatic electronic flash is a standard accessory
for an au阳matic由p出ure 臼mera. The flash has a
light－旦时iti，时 cell and electronic circuitry that sets
the duration of the flash~ metering the amount of
light reflected by the sut庐dduring the 自：posure.

The inverse square law is the basis for flash
exposure 臼lculations. The farther that light traν岭，
the more the light rays spread out and the dimmer
the resulting illumination. 7百e law states that
at twice a gj时叫＇istance, an 。收ct re出i昭sonly
o，陪fourth the I也•ht (intensity of illumination is
巾versely proportional to 阶e square of the distance
from l也’ht tO SU句iect). In the illustration here, only
one-fourth the amount of light falls on an o与ect at
10卢 from a l也＇ht source as on an o向；ect at 5 ft.
from the sou町e
To calculate your own flash exposure,you need
to know two 伪ings: the distance the l也•ht travels 阳
the subject and the guide number (a ratinggjven
by 伪e ma阳｛acturer for the flash when used with
a specific ISO) . Divide the distance that the l也·ht
travels from flash unit to subject into the guide
number to give you the lens fstop you should use.
Some flash units have a calculator dial that will
do the division for you. Dial in the ISO and the
flash-to-su句；ect distance, and the dial will show the
correct fstop.
Bounce flash travels an extra distance. If you
are 臼lculating a bounce flash exposure, measure
the distance not from flash 阳 SU与ect but from flash
to reflecting surface to subject. In addition, open
the lens aperture an 臼tra one-half stop or full stop
toallowforl也ht absorbed by the reflecting surface.
Open even more if the reflecting su彷ce is not white
or very l信仰in 阳ne.
Some automatic flash units ha昭a head that can
be swiveled up or to the side for bounce flash while
the flash sensor remains pointed at the s吻丽而h
type of unit 臼n au阳matica／，ψ臼lculate a bounce
flash exposure be臼use no matter ，.响ere the head is
pointe~＇. 伪e sensor will read the light reflected from
the SU协ct toward阶e臼mera Some cameras can
measure flash light 伪rough the lens: these also can
be used au阳matica吵with bounce flash
。 5 仕 20 丘
X. the light
asat 5 丘
10 丘
14 the l唱ht
asat 5 丘
Manually Calculating a Direct Flash Exp。”re
Guide number is 80 with this fl ash unit used with ISO 100 fil m
曾三 布鲁 稽可
。 5 仕 20 丘1 0 仕
Guide number , 80
一一一一一－ . 卜stop – • 16
Distance from
由ash to su均ect
80 — a x
10
80 .
– a n
20
@@ 0
可16 f/ 8 f/ 4
Manually Calculating a Bounce Ras h Exposure
/ ~ Re而ectmg surface
sY ~年
/ //\\
J仨，.＿、…….
Gu ide nu mber _
• t-st。。
Distance fr。m ’
flas h m陀fleeting
sur缸e tO SU均ect
~ • 8
10
Open lens 。ne stop 。rm。re to
c。mpensate fo r hght absorbed
by refl ecting surface
f/8一》 f/5.6
C h a n g ing t h e s hutter s peed d o es not a仔ect
由e exp o s ure from a 何ash, as long 曰：r is
wit h in the a ccep table ran ge for synchr。nization
(the sync speed 。E slower).
You can determine the amo unt oflig ht fal lmg
o n th e su均ect by d ivid ing th e d is tance to t h e su b –
ject into the flash u n it’s outpu t (its gi.ide nmnb旷）
T h en you set th e aperture accordi咆ly (see illustra-
ti。ns above). Som e manufact川rs overrate gu由
n umbers a b it (in o rder to m ake the ir prod u cts
s。und mo re power ful than th ey actual抄 are), so
it’s a good idea to t ry out a new flash u n it with
s。me test exp osures o r a professio n al flas h m eter
before you use it fo r a n ything imp o rtant.
C HA PT ER 8 I!’需 1 47

More αbout Flash
HOW TO POSITION IT
per haps you can change your own position to
have the same effect. You can also modi今 the
fl ash so it m ore evenly reach es vari。us parts 。f
the scene, such as by bou ncing the lig ht o n to t h e
SU均ect 。r you can use more than 。ne flash u n it.
If none of t h ese options is possible, you s imply
have to work w it h the fact that those parts of t h e
scene t hat are fa rt h er fro m the fl ash will be darker
than those that are closer. U nless it is extrem e,
you can effectively co m pensate fo r uneven expo-
sure in editing. If you know the light falls off and
gets di m mer t h e fa rther it t ravels, you can at least
predict how t he flash will illu m inate a scene.
lig h t ge岱 dimmer the 也rther it t ravels.
Lig h t fro m any source-a w indow, a conrinu。usly
burning lamp, a fl ash-follows t he same general
rule: the light falls off (gets d im mer) th e farther
巾 lψE source is fro m an o均ect. You can see
and measure that effect if, for 四ample, you meter
o均ects that are near a brig ht lamp compared to
those that are farth er away. But ligh t from a flas h
comes and goes so fast that you can’t see the effect
of t he flash on a scene a t the t ime you are ta!。ng
the picture.
同ash portrai臼. In one way, flas h is easy to use for
portraits: the flash of light is so fast that you don’t
have to wony about th e subject blurring because
it moved during the exposure. Bur t he ligh t fro m
the flash is so quick (1/1刷sec. o r shorter） 巾tyou
can ’t really see what th e su bject looks like when lit.
Howev凹， with some practice you can predict the
qualities 。f lig ht t hat are typical of different flash
positions. Sho叭响。n the opposite page are some
si mple lighti ng semps for portraiture.
A 何ash-lit scen e m ay not be evenly illumi-
n ated . Because light from a fl ash gets di mmer
the farther it travels, you h ave to use a smaller
lens apert ure fo r subjects close to th e fl ash, a
wider ap盯ture for su bjects farther away. There are
several ways to determine t he correct exposure for
a SL均ect at a given d istance (pages 146- 1 4乃 But
w hat do you do if different parts of t he same scene
are at different distances fro m th e fl邵阳
Someti mes you can rearrange the su均ect,
such 臼 the people in a group p。rtrait , so all are
more or less at the sam e distance fro m the flash;
When obje出 are at different distances
from a flash, those that are closer will be
l也ighter than those that are farther a协‘，·a
Notice how dark the back of the room i. ·s: ,
e时n阶e dots tail is darker than his head.
T,y 阳position the m出t important pa础。fa
阳·ne (or position the flash) so they are more
or less the same distance from the flash
Notice the dots unusually b时rght 电yes. In
a color photograph they would appear red.
Red-eye 且a reflection of the eye’s retina
through its lens and occurs when the flash is
mounted too close to the 臼mera’s lens The
retina’s surface 且covered with blood ve出·Is
that make 伪e reflected I，敏tred. Foran
自·ample of red吃ye in coloι see page 218.
只
伽
旱’伽
a
－3
US ING LIGHT 148

Direct flash on camera is simple and easy to use be臼use the
flash is attached to the 臼mera. The light shining straight at
阶e subject from camera position, however, tends to flatten out
roundness and gives a rather harsh look
‘阿
’
Flash bounced from above onto 阶e SU句iect gives a softer, more
natural light than direct flash . L也•ht can also be directed into a
large pie臼 ofwhite 臼rdboard or an umbrella reflector and then
bounced onto 阶e subject. Bouncing the flash cuts the amount
。fl也ht that reaches the subject. Some flash units au阳matically
compensate for this, or you 臼n make 伪e exposure adjustment
your四lf(see page 147)
气墨画
Direct flash o疗camera-usual如raised and 阳one side-
gi，时s more roundness and modeling than does flash on camera.
A 毛ynchronization ( or synφ cord lets you mo时 the flash away
from the camera To avoid a shadow on the wall, move the
subject away from it or raise the flash more.
@
Flash bounced from the side onto the su句；ect gives a soft,
flattering l也ht. You can use a light-colored wall, a large piece
of white cardboard, or an umbrella reflector. The closer the
subject ι to the reflector, the more distinct the shadows will
be. To avoid a shadow on the back wall, mo昭 the SU句；ect
away from it.
C H APTER 8 I!’需 1 49

Using Flαsh
150 USI N G LIGHT
Bruce Ci/den. Old Man at a Racetrack,
Ireland, 199丘 Flash can be unflatter-
ing, especially direct l也ht斤。ma built-in
flash or one attached 阳 the camera.
Gilden often shoo臼with his camera in one
hand and the flash in the other, connected
bya~nc白，d By moving伪el，吵tsource
away from the臼mera he creates shado削
阶at』归depth to his subje，ι
And, because of its 时可y short duration,
V,ooo sec. or I，阳，flash 臼，，al如呻阳rea
momentary expression. Gilden used this
image in A仕er the O ff, his坦ries on rural
racetracks in Ireland

Carl De Keyzer. GI.κ6. Krasnoyarsk, 2002. Flash fills
伪e shadows. Without the flash, shooting in阳阶e light like
this附uld put the su侬ct 巾silhouet.缸， the position of the
sun is revealed by 伪eshado附ofthe man and the building
coming toward the photographer. 7丁oe blur of movement
around the birds’ wings is the result of’”。ν·eme’” during the
由：posure and is noticeable here because the daylight provides
more of the overall exposure than the flash.
This photograph is from a selfassigned p.’可iect investigat-
ing Siberian prison 臼mpι former gulags, that was published
as 阶e book z。na
CHAPTER 8 I!’需 151

MARC PoKEMPNER I What’s in the Picture … …… . 154
Do附at T加e扭亏， 1974. I The edges or frame …… …… . 154
Formal: Setting them up . ….. … 168
The background …….. …… . 156 Photographing
Fo口皿…… ……….. …… . 158 the Landscape …… …… … 170
\Vhich parts are sharp . … …… . 158
Time and Motion
in a Photograph …… …… . 160
Photo.~raphing
the Cityscape ……. …… … 172
Depth in a Picture ….. …… . 162
Three dimensions become t阳o…. . 162
Photographing Inside …… … 174
Chaos into order . ……. …… . 163 Assembled
Photographing for Meaning .. . 164 to be Photographed . …… … 176
Portraits … ……….. …… . 166
I呐rmal: Findi哝them .. …… . 166
Responding
to Photographs ….. …… … 178

Seein~ Like αCαmerα 1重l 9
In this chapter you ‘LL leαrn …
• to break down your i ntu ,rive way of阻k, nga
pictu陀 i nto consci。us component parts-subject
and con四nt, framing and the edge, and the
fo陀ground/background relati。nshi p.
• to make considered dec凶。ns ab。ut h。wyour
camera settings, location, and subject will affect
the meaning of a photograph.
• h。wto discuss y。ur photog，目phs and those
。f others in ways that s。 beyond ” I like it”
。r “It’sg。。d ”
、－－”守·
piαures t r…h e w o r ld y
d飞eW。rid outside thei r edges, and mal
HOW DID YOU DO? Whaεworked best? What would n’t you o rd i-
na ri ly have d o ne?
CHAPTER 9 • 155

Whαt ’s in the Picture
THE BACKGROUND
S eeing t h e background . When you view a
scene, you see most sharply whatever you are look-
ing at directly, and you see less clearly o均ects in
the background or at the periphery of your vision.
If you are concentrating on something of inter-
est, you may not even notice o ther things nearby.
But th e camera’s lens does see them, and it sh。WS
u nselectively eve1yching wi thin its angle of view.
Unwanted or distracting details can be ignored by
the eye l。oking at a scene, but in a picture t hose
details are much more conspicuous. Before shoot-
ing, try to imagine how the scene wi ll look if the
SL句ect and background are given equal emphasis.
To reduce the effect of a distracting background,
you can shoot so that the background is 。ur of
foc us or change your angle of view as sh own in
the photographs at right. There is no rnle that
says you sh。uldn’t have a distracting background;
sometimes that can be exactly the point, as in the
picture opposi te. Just be aware of the different
way the camera sees.
T h e r elations h ip of s ubject to b ackgr o und
is ca lled figure/grou n d, or positive and negative
space, and these terms give you a way to talk about
why a picture works o r doesn’t work. Having a
vocabula1y for the way pictures are structured
(thei r fonnal qualities) d。esn’t n ecessari ly make
you a better photographer, but does allow you
to discuss these issues with o thers and to analyze
what you might be doing subco nsciously. See
pages 178-179.
156 SEE I NG LI KE A CAM E RA
Where’s the subject? The c/u阳rofo吵巾
in the bac/cground attrac臼the eye at least as
much as do the man and bird in the foreground.
/{the picture is about 伪e lo臼tion, then the
A less-intrusive background resulted w由en
the photographer simply moved 归a lower
vantage point and changed the angle fro’”
building can make a u且·(i,I contribution. But if
伪epho臼，graph is supposed阳be about the man
and his bi叫then the busy background seems an
unnec1血sary distraction
which she shot. The p归巾sky provides a clear
separation bet附en figure and ground, and
doesn’t distract 斤。m伪e subject.

Lee Friedlander. New York City, 19 7 4. M ak e sure
you look at the background of a scene as well as the
main subject of interest. If you aren’t paying attention,
you may lose your subject entirely. Con卢,sion of the
background and foreground, however, may itself be the
SU句ect. Here，丹iedlander uses ch阳。scuro, as artists
call patterns of l也·ht and dark, to suggest the intensity
Project: u川G THE BACKGROUND
。f/ife-even for a statue-in New York. The picture
is visually chaotic and ambiguous, but intentionally so.
Remember that the camera records everything wi.阶m
its angle of view with equal impo巾，ice, even if you are
looking on如at one su向；ect. A photograph 臼n render阶e
relation between a foreground ol庐ct and a background
very differently than you perceive it.
PROCEDURE Make p hot ographs in which the bac kground either
complements or contrasts with the su均ect For example, some。ne
descri bed in t he Pr。，ject b。x 。n page 155) as y。u t ry d i仇町、t posi-
t ions from which to photog日ph.
drinking coffee in fr.。nt 。f a large ornat e espress。 maker, an argu ing
couple in front 。fa smiling-face p。ster; a child by a “Library Closed ”
sign; a shopkeeper stand ing in front 。f a store.
Look through the viewfinder ( o r a viewing aid, like the 。ne
HOW D ID YOU DO? Compare several ofy。ur most successfu l
prints. c。u ld the ba句round be seen as clearly as the su均ect? What
d id the background c。ntribute?
CHAPTER 9 • 157

FψC us
WHICH PARTS ARE SHARP
Whe川ou see a scene y，…y…叫ly fo cus
on only o ne d istance at a ti me; objects at all oth er
distances are n o t as sharp. Your eyes automatically
adjust t heir focus as you lo。k from one 。均ect， 。g
pan of an object, to another. If you were at th e
scene sho叭响。pposite, bottom, y。u m ight look
at the wire rack and n o t notice you were seeing
the sai lors much less sharply. If you lo。ked at th e
sai lors your eyes would instantly refocus to see
them sharply. Bu t in a ph。tograph, differences in
the sharpness of o均ects at diffe阳1t distances are
immediately evident because focus relatio nships
are froze n at the ti me of exposure. Su ch differen ces
can be distracti ng o r they can add interest to th e
pho tograph , depending o n ho回y。U use t hem .
158 SEE I NG LIKE A CAMERA
Controlling 由e depth o f field. In some p hoto-
graphs you have little choice ab。ur depth of field
(the area 丘。m near to far w ith in which all 。均e.cts
appear acceptably sharp). For example, in di m
lig h t, or with a low ISO, or un der other condi-
ti。ns, t he depth of field may have to be very shal-
low in order to get any picture at all. But usually
you can control the depth of field to some extent,
as sh own o n pages 44-45. It is not necessarily bet-
ter to have everything sh arp, or th e background
o ut of focus, o r to follow any oth er rules, but it is
important to remember that in t he p hotograph
you wi ll notice what is sharp and what isn’E You
get to choose, and it is one 。fthe most importan t
choices you have.
Ian van Coller. Eastern
lcefield, Mt. Ki/iman-
jaro, Tanzania, 2016
Landscapes are o~en
photographed so that
everything is sharp from
foreground to background.
In this case, land in the
distance is rendered sha’?#
e时n though it is so斤ened by
low clouds.
Van Coller endured
an arduous five-day trek
阳 reach these remaining
ice fields at 19,000 feet for
hι series Th e Last Glacier,
that records par缸。fthe
earth ‘s environment threat-
ened by climate change.

Pro_ject:
USING DEPTH
OF FIELD
PROCEDURE As you
look at various su均ects,
t叩 to anticipate h。w
much depth of fie ld y。u
want, and how you can
increase （。r decrease)
the depth 。f fie ld t o get
more ( o r less）。fthe
photog日ph to appear
sharp. Page 45 sh。ws
how to use aperture
size， 而ocal length, and/
。r d istance t o do this
Make several phot。－
graphs of each scene,
using depth 。f fie ld in
d i民rent ways. See for
example, the landscape
on page 47. You m ight
have the entire scene
sharp, as shown, o r
for the same scene, the
river in 府。nt sharp and
the background out of
focus . How ab。ut j ust
the mountains in the
d istance in focus? Is
there some 。均ect you
can call attention t。
using shall。w depth 。f
fie ld that m ight be over-
looked with 凹e『γthing
in focus?
Kee p n。tes 。fy，。ur
aperture size, foca l
length, d istance, and
why you chose them, to
rem ind y。u later what
y。u d id
HOW DID YOU
。O? C。mpare your
results. Were you able
to get everyth ing sharp
when you wanted it that
way? When you wanted
something out 。f币OCUS,
was it 。ut of focus
en。ugh? Now that y。u
look a t the p时nts, do
you see a nything you
m ight try next t ime?
Elliott Erwitt. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York City, 1949. The illusion of depth is
enhanced when the foreground ι in sharp focus
and the background becomes gradually softer.
The gentle transition from near to middle
distance 归 background in this pho阳，graph
emphasiz，臼its realism
R吨y K. Metzk er. The
Loop: Chicago, 1958.
Here the background
is out of focus-but the
photographer wanted the
out-of-focus figu_n田阳be­
come the most impo刷nt
element. We naturally
g,ve more attention to
what is 巾阳，sand what
is close but there are
alw，吵怨自出ptions. 7百is
photograph pushes its
subject toward the edge
of recognizability. Even
further toward that edge
is the photograph on page
163， 叩 Both re时m
ourexpec臼t，。叫 putting
the foreground out of
focus and leaving the
background sharp
CHAPTER 9 • 159

Time αnd Motion in α Photograph
A p h o t ogra ph is a s lice o f t im e. Just as you
select the section that you want to photograph
out of a larger scene, you can also choose th e
section of time you want to re.cord. You can chink
of a photograph as ca1ving through rime, caking
a wide slice at a slow shu tter speed or a narrow
slice at a fas t shucter speed. In chat slice of rime,
th ings are movi ng, and, depending o n the shutter
speed, direction of the morion, and o cher factors
discussed earlier (pages 18-2 1), you can sh ow
o均ects frozen in mid-movement , blurred u nti l
they are almost unrecognizable, or blurred to any
extent in between
160 SE E I NG LIK E A CAM E RA
Blur p art of a picture for e mphas is . If t h e
SU均ecc moves a l川le d uring the 四posure (or if
by panning-see page 19-you keep 巾 subject
still and m ove t h e background) you create visual
in terest wi th t h e com parison. Use a t ripod to
keep the background ve1y sharp w hile your sub-
ject moves, as w臼 done in th e photograph below.
Rarely is it effective to have the entire image
blurred by motion, t h e way it wou ld be if you
used coo slow a sh utter speed or didn’ t h old t he
camera s teadi ly. But even a photograph that is
everywhere our of focus can be a visual treat; it is
up to you to m冰e it work.
Mik e M andel. Emptying
the Fridge, 1985. Expo-
sure time controls the
suggesti。”。fmotion. In a
reference to motion studies
made 良ye伊ciency experts
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
early in the 20–
tography was most po，户’缸， for its ability 阳
record a person For most of the 19伪 cent妒
,y, portraits were made only by pro向sionals
or very serious amateurs. George Eastman’s
1888 Kodak camera gave t阳general public
” w吨y 阳 memorialize themselves and others
nearly a’,y time, but getting the prints meant
sending 曲e r.amera away阳加e the film
inside it p”由:essed, and t./rat took time
The photobooth’s inventoηa Siberian immi·
grant named Ana归IJosepho, opened the first
~hotobooth on New Yo础 City’s Broadwa!
in 1925; it made eight portraits on a strip
。｛paper, in a阳时 e阳 minutes, for 25,
j出epho’s Pho阳•maton Studio was a sensa·
阳•n, there, over a quarter-mil/ion people
d伊•pedbehind 曲eα川·ain o( one of its
pho阳booths in 曲e first six months,
as many as 7, 500 a day
Daguerreotype ……….. …. 182
咀自igns on silver b咆ht”•••• •••• 182
Calo巧rpe ….. ………… …. 184
Pictures on paper •••••••••• •••• 184
Collodion Wet-Plate …… …. 185
Shaψand reproducible • ••••• •••• 185
Gelatin Emulsion/
Roll-Film Base ………. …. 186
Photograp.抄卢r everyone • ••• •••• 186
Co lor Photogr aphy ……. …. 187
Early Portraits ……….. …. 188
Early Travel Photograp h y . …. 190
Early Images of War …… …. 191
Time and Motion
in Early Photographs …. …. 192
The Photograph
副Document. ……….. …. 193
Photogr 3:phy
and Social Change … …… .. 194
Pho叫ournalism ….. …… .. 196
Photography甜Art
in the 19由 Century… …… .. 200
Pictorial Photogr aphy
and the Photo-Secession … .. 201
The Direct Image in Art ….. .. 202
The Quest for a New Vision . .. 203
Photography画Art
in the 1950s and 1960s ….. .. 204
Photography画Art
in the 1970s and 1980s ….. .. 206
Color Photography
Arrives-Again …… …… .. 208
Digital Ph otography .. …… .. 210
P陀·decessors •••••••••• •••••• •• 210
Becomes mainstream ••• •••••• •• 212

His tor Photo 10
In this chαpler yo1L’ll learn …
• ab。ut the unique era on history into which
photography was b。m
• the l i mi臼 that early photograph ic materials and
processes placed 。n the ki nds 。fphot。graphs that
c。uld be made.
• how ph。tograph_y_grew as an art form, and
。vercame opp。白tion from many d,rect,ons
Joseph Nicephore Niepce. View from His M币，，dow at Le Gras,
Saint-Loup-de-Varennes, France, c. 1826. Niepce produced
伪e world’s first photographic image-a view of the cour切rd
buildings on his estate in about 1826. It was made on a sheet
of pewter covered wi伪 bitumen of Judea, a kind of asphalt
that hardened when exposed to ／，也•ht; he 臼/led it a Heliograph
7丁oe unexposed, still-soβ bitumen was then dissolved, leaving a
permanent image. The exp出ure time was so long (eight hours)
that the sun moved across 阶e sky and illuminated both sides of
the courtyard.
p………川…川19由 century-
the electric ligh t , the safety pin, dynamite, and the automobile are
j us t a few others-and of all 。fthen飞 photography probably created
the most astonishment and delight. Today, most people take photographs
for granted, but early viewers were awed an d amazed by the objective records
the camera made.
Photography took over what previously had been 。ne 。fthe main func-
ti。ns of art-the recording of factual vis ual information, s uch as the shape
of an object, its s ize, an d its relation to o ther objects. Instead of having a
portrait painted, people had “ S un Drawn Min iatures” made. Instead of
for ming romantic n。tions of battles and faraway places from paintings,
people began to see firsthand vis ual reports. And soon photography became
an art in its 。wn right.
The camera obscura was the forerunner of t he m ode rn camera. It
was known that rays of lig h t passing through a pinhole for m ed an image.
The 1 0由 centmy Arabian scholar Alhazen described the effect and told how
to view an eclipse 。f the s un in a camera obscura (literally,“dark chamber”)
a darkened E。。m with a pinhole open ing to d飞e o utside. By d飞e time of
t he Renaissance, a lens had been fitted i nt。 the h ole to im prove the image ,
and t h e E。。m-sized device had been reduced to the size of a s mall box that
could easily be carried about The camera obscura became a drawing aid that
enabled an artist to trace an image reflected 。nro a sheet of drawing paper.
What rem ained to b e d iscovered was a way to fix t he cam era o bscur a
im age p e rm a n e ndy. T he darkening of certain s ilver compounds by expo-
sure to light had been obse1ved 臼 early as the 17由 cenru1y, but the u nsolved
and difficult problem 即臼 how to hair t his reaction so that the image would
n ot darken completely.
The first permanent picture was m ad e by J oseph Nic岳phore Niepce,
a gentleman inventor living in central France. He first experi m ented wi th
si lver chloride, wh ich he knew darkened o n exposure to ligh t, but t h en h e
turned to bitumen of Judea, a ki nd of asphalt that hardened when exp。sed
to ligh t. N记pce dissolved the bitumen in lavender oi l, a solvent used in var-
nishes, then coated a sheet of pewter wi th the mixture. He placed the sh eet
in a camera 。bscura aimed t h rough an open windo即 at h is courtyard and
exposed it for eig h t hours. The light form ing the image on the plate harden ed
the bitumen in bright areas and left it soft an d soluble in dark areas. N iepce
then washed t h e plate with lavender o il. T his removed the s till-soft bitumen
that had not been struck by light, leaving a permanent image of the scene
(left). Niepce named the process h eliography (from t h e Greek helios,“sun,”
and graph邸，“drawing”).
181

Dα.guerreotype
“ DESIGNS ON SILVER BRIGHT”
N ews of N ie pce ’ s WO毗 国me t o t he atten-
t ion of a not h e r Fre n chman, Louis J a cques
Mand垂 Daguerre. Daguerre had been using
the camera obscura fo r sketch ing and had also
become interested in ttying to preserve its images.
He wrote Niepce suggesti ng an exchange of infor-
mation, and by 1829 had become his partner.
The mid-19由 century w as ripe for an inven-
t ion s uch as phot o g r a phy. Interest in this new
invention might have spread simply by a growing
interest in science, but ph。tography was more.
In 飞.Vestern countries, a rising m iddle class with
money to spend wanted pictures, especially fami ly
portraits, which, until then, o nly the rich had been
able to afford. In additio口， people were interested
in faraway places; they t raveled to these places
w hen they could and bought travel books and
pictures when they could n。t
N iepce did not live to see the impact that
ph otography was to have. He died in 1833, several
years before Daguen-e perfected a process that he
considered different enough fro m Niepce’s to
be ann。unced to t he world as the daguerreotype
(rig h t and opposite).
The resp onse t o t h e d agu e rreotype was
sensationa l. After experi ment ing for many years,
both wi th Niepce and alone, Daguerre was final ly
satisfied wi th his process, and it was announced
before the French Academy of Sciences on January
7, 1839. A French newspaper rhapsodized：。“What
fi neness in the strokes，飞.Vhat kno飞.vledge 。f chiar-
oscuro ! What delicacy! What exqu isi te fin ish!..
How admirably are the foresh。rtenings given: this
is Nature itself!”
Almost immediately after t h e process was
announced, daguerreotype s tudios were open ed
to provide “ Su n D rawn Miniatures” m a very will-
ing public. By 1853, an esti ma ted three million
daguerreotypes per year were being produced in
the Un ited S tates alone-mostly portraits bu t also
scenic vie飞，VS
182 HI S TOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Louis Jacques Mande Dague”•· Boulevard du Temple,
Paris, 1839. The busy streets of a Parisian boulevard
appear depopulated because of the long由，posure this
daguerre，。”e required. O吵a person getting a shoeshine n臼r
the corner of the sidewalk stood still long enough to be record-
ed; all the other people, horses, and 臼rriag，由had blurred so
much that no image of them appeared on the plate. The shut-
ter was pro切b如open for several minut，白， much less than the
eight hours required by Niep臼＇s he/iograph, and the results
were far superior-rich in detail and 归na/ity. The enthusiastic
reception of Daguerre’s process extended 阳poetry: “Light is
that silent artist / Which without 阶e aid of man / Des也rns on
silver br，也·ht/ Daguerre’s immortal plan. ”

Photographer Unknown. Emi如 Dickinson at se时nteen,
ι 1847. Daguerreotype. The daguerreotype reached
the height of its popularity in America. Millions of
Americans, famous and obscure, had their portraits
made. Although the exposure time was reduced to less
than a minute, it was still long enough to demand a quiet
dignity on the part of the su句；ect.
This portrait, taken by an itinerant daguerreotypist, is
the on如known f.hotograph of the 19血century poet Emily
Dickinson. Just like her poemι it seems direct on the sur·
face but elusive on more intimate le时Is Dickinson later
described herself as “small, like the wren; and my hair is
bold, like the chestnut burr; and my eyes, like the sherry
in the glass that the guest leaves.”
The daguerr eo type was made on a hig hly
polished surface of silver t hat was plated
on a copper s h eet. It was sensi tized by being
placed, silver side down, over a contai ner of iodine
c1ystals inside a box. Rising vapor from the iodine
reacted with the silver, producing the light-sensi-
tive compound silver iodide. During exposure in
the camera, the plate recorded a latent image: a
chemical change had taken place, bur no evidence
of it was visible. To develop the image the plate
was placed, silver side down, in another box con-
taining a dish of heated mercury at the bottom.
Vapor from the mercu1y reacted with the exp。sed
areas of the plate. Wherever light had s truck the
plate, mercury formed a frostl ike amalgam, or
alloy, with the silver. This amalgam made up the
bright areas of the image. Where no light had
s truck, no amalgam was formed; the unchanged
s ilver iodide was dissolved in s。diurn thi。sulfate
fix凹， leaving the bare metal plate, wh ich looked
black, to fo rm the dark areas of the picture.
The daguerreotype was very popu lar in its
time, but it was a tech nological dead end .
There were complaints about the difficulty of
viewing, for the h ighly reflective image could be
seen clearly only from certain angles. T h e mercury
vap。r used in the process was h ighly poisonous
and probably shortened t he life of more than o ne
daguerreotypist. Bue the most serious drawback
was that each plate was unique; there was n。 way
of producing copies 四cept by rephotographing
the original. The beautiful daguerre。巧’pe was
rapidly-and easily-eclipsed by a negative-posi-
tive process that allowed any number of p。sitive
images to be made fro m a single negative.
CHA PTER 10 也 183

Calotype
PICTURES ON PAPER
A n oth e r pho吨raphic process was
announced aJmost at once. On Janua1y 25,
1839, less th an three weeks after t he an nounce-
ment of Daguer陀、 process to t he French
Academy, an English amateur scientist，飞William
Henry Fox Talbot, appeared before the Royal
Institution of Great Britai n to announce that he
too had invented a way to perman en tly fix the
image of the camera 。bscura
T a lbot made h is im ages o n pape r . His first
experimen ts had been wit h negative silhou ett es
made by placing 。bjects on paper sensi tized with
s ilver ch loride an d exposing chem co light. T h en
he experi m ented wi ch images formed by a cam-
era obscura, exposing t h e ligh t -sens it ive coating
long enough for the image co become visible dur-
ing t h e exp。sure.
In June 1 840 T a lbot a nnounced a technique
t hat b ecam e 由e b asis of m o de rn phot o g r a-
phy: th e sensitized paper was exposed only long
eno ugh co produce a latent image, wh ich then was
chemically developed. To make che latent negative
image visible, Talbot used si lver iodide (the light-
sensitive element of the daguerreotype) treaced
wich gallo n itrate of silver. He called his invention
a calotype (after t h e Greek kalos, “beauciful,” and
typoι “1mpressio口”）
T albot realize d 由e value of phot o g raphs on
p a p e r rath e r t han on m etal: r ep ro ducibility.
He placed th e fully developed paper negative in
contact w ith an other sh eet of sensitized paper and
exposed boch co light, a pr。cedure now known as
contact printing. T h e dark areas of che negative
bl。cked che light 企om che oth er sheec of paper,
while the clear areas allowed ligh t through. T h e
result was a positive image on paper resembling
che tones of the original scene.
Because the print was made chrough the paper
of a negative, the calotype lacked the sharp detail
of the daguerreotype. Cal。巧’pes are beautiful-
che fibers in the paper producing a soft, slightly
cextured image that has been compared co a char-
coal drawing. Bu t the process didn’t d isplace che
o ne-of-a-kind daguerreotype until the transparent
negative appeared.
William H阳吃y Fox Talbot. 1』／bat’s Pho臼,graphic le~, an assistant copies an engraving. In the cen毗 Graces. At far r.也ht, the kneeling man holds a 旬’罗t
for the maker of this photograph 臼focus on. Talbot
gave assurance that ”the plates of the present附rlc
are imp -essed钞the ageng, of I，敏ta/one.”
岳阳blishment, 1846. The act,vities at Talbot’s Talbot himself prepares a camera 阳臼kea portra此
establishment near London are shown in this early At riiJ,t， 阶e man at the racks makes con归aprints
ca lo type 臼ken in two par由andpieced toge伪配 At whileano阶er photographs a s阳。P阳mof the Three
184 H I STOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Collodion Wet-Plαte
SHARP AND REPRODUCIBLE
T he coll odion we叩late proc阳 combined
t h e best featu re of t he d agu e rreo type-
shar p n ess-and t h e b est o f t he calotype-
r e producibility. An d it was m ore light sensi tive
t han eit her of them, wi th exposures as short as
five seconds. It combined so many advantages
t ha t despite its drawbacks vi rt ually all photogra-
p hers used it e。m its introduction in 1851 u ntil
t he com mercial availabi lity of the gelati n d1y plate
alm ost th ree decades later.
For some ti me, workers h ad been looki ng for
a s ubstance th at wou ld bin d light -sensit ive salts
to a glass plate. Glass was better than paper or
metal as a support for si lver ch lor ide because it
was textureless, t ransparent, and chemically inert.
O n e bi nding material was the newly invented
collodion (n itrocellulose dissolved in ether and
alcohol), which is sticky when wet, but soon d ries
into a tough, t ransparen t skin.
T he d isadvan tage of collodion was t hat the
p late h ad t o b e exposed a nd p r ocessed while
it was still wet. A m ixture of collodio n and
potassi u m iodide was p。ured onto th e middle
of t he p late. T h e photographer held the glass by
t he edges and tilted it back and forth and from
side to side until the su rface was evenly covered.
The excess collodion was poured back into i臼
The collodion wet-plate process had many advantages,
but convenience was not among them. The glass pla阳
on which the emulsion was spread had to be coated,
exposed, and de时loped before the emulsion dried, which
required transporting an entire darkroom to wherever the
photograph was to be made.
conram er. Then the plate was sensi tized by being
d ipped in a bath of si lver ni trat巳 It was exp。sed
for a latent image wh ile still damp, developed
in pyrogallic acid o r iron sulfate, fixed, washed,
and dried. All th is had to be don e righ t where the
ph otograph was taken, wh ich m eant that to take
a pictu re th e photographer had to lug a complete
darkroom alo ng (below).
C o llodion could b e used t o form e ithe r a
n egative or a positive im age. Coated on glass,
’E produ ced a n egative fro m wh ich a posi t ive could
be p rinted onto albu men -coated paper. If the
glass was backed wi th a dark material like black
velvet, paper, or paint, the image was transform ed
into a posi t ive, an ambrotype, a kind of imi tation
daguerreotype. Coated on dark ena meled metal it
also formed a posi tive image-t he durable, cheap
ti ntype popu lar in America for port raits to be
placed in albun凹， on campaign buttons, and even
on tom bs.
By d、e 1 860s, t he w o rld h ad mill io n s o f
pho t o g r a p h ic im ages; 25 years earlier the re
h ad been n one. Photograph ers were every-
wh ere-taki ng p。rtrai ts, going to war, exploring
d istan t p laces, and bringing home p ictu res to
prove it .
A Photographer in the Field, c. 1865
C HA PTE R 1 0 也 185

Gelαtin Emulsion/Roll-Film Bαse
PHOTOGRAPHY FOR EVERYONE
LJ ntil t h e 1880 s, few photogr aph s were
m a d e b y t h e gen e ral p u b lic. Almost eve1yone
had been ph。tographed at one time or an oth er,
certainly everyone h ad seen ph otograph s, and
probably m any people had thought of taking
pictures them selves. But the tech nical ski ll, the
m臼sive effort, and the expense and s heer q uan tity
of equ ip ment needed for t he collodion wet-p late
process restricted photograp hy to professionals
and t h e most dedicated amateurs. Even t hey co m-
plain ed of th e inconven ience of the process and
m ade many attempts to improve it.
Br t he 1 880s， 由e p erfection o f two tech –
n iq ues cre a t ed a 也st d ry p late and e lim in at-
ed t h e n eed for 由e 价agile g lass p late i臼elf.
The firs t development was a new gelatin emu lsion
in wh ich the light -sensit ive s ilver salts could be
s uspended. It was based on gelatin-a jellylike
s ubstance processed fro m cattle bones and hides.
It retained its speed when d1y , un like collodion
and cou ld be applied on the o ther invention-film
in rolls. Roll fi lm revolutionized photography by
maki ng it simple enough fo r anyone to enjoy.
Much o f the credit for p o pularizing p hot og-
raphy g oes to George Eastman, who began 部
a bank clerk in Rochester, New York, and built his
East man Kodak Company into one of the coun-
try’s foremost industrial enterprises. Almost from
th e day Eastman bought his fi rst wet-plate camera
in 1877, he searched fo r a simp ler way to ta!也 pic­
tu res. “ It seemed,” he said,“that one ough t to be
able to carry less than a pack-horse load. ”
Manype。ple had experimented wi th roll fi lm,
but Eastm an was the firs t to market it com-
mercially, wi th h is invention of the equipment
to m ass-produce fil m. The result was Eastman ’5
Am erican Film, a roll 。f paper coated wit h a
th in gelatin 凹nulsion. T he emulsi。n had to be
st ripped fro m its paper backing to provide a
negative that light could sh ine th rough fo r mak-
ing prints. Most photograp hers h ad t rouble wi th
th is operation, so the fi lm was usually sent to the
company fo r processing.
186 HI STO R Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY
Roll fi lm made p ossible a new ki nd of
C副nera-in四pensive, ligh t , and simple to oper-
ate-that made eve1yone a potential p hotogra-
pher. Eastman introdu ced th e Kodak camera in
1888. It came loaded with en ough fi lm fo r 100
pictures. When th e roll was used up, the owner
returned t he camera wi th the 四posed fil m sti ll
in it to the Eastman company in Rochester. So。n
the developed and printed photographs and t h e
camera, reloaded with fi lm , were sen t back to t h e
owner. The Kodak slogan was，咋ou push t he but-
ton, we do the rest ”
The Ko d ak camera b eca m e a n internationa l
sensation almost o vernig h t. Wit h the inven-
tion of a truly modern roll fil m (a transparent,
fl exible plas时， coated wi th a th in em uls ion and
sturdy enough to be used without a paper sup-
port), a new photographic era had begun. T h e
Eastman Kodak Com pany knew who would be
the m ain users of its products, and it di rected its
advertising accordingly:“A collection of these pic-
tu res may be made to fu rnish a pict。rial h istory 。f
life as it is lived by the owner, t ha t will grow more
valuable eve1y day that passes.”
Fredrick Church. Geo也e
Eastman with a Kodak,
1890. George Eastman,
who put the Kodak box
camera on the market and
thereby put photography
into everybo司r’s hands,
S阳，，ds aboard the 立5
Gall ia in the act of using his
invention. Roll film made
the 臼mera small enough
to carry easi吧y Fast gelatin
en”’/sions permitted ~ s-sec.
exposures so subjects did not
have to strain to hold still.

Alfred T. Palmer. ＼，＼巾men
War M血rker事， circa 1942.
Kodachrome transpar·
ency fjlm was introd11ced
for 16mm movie cameras m
1935, and for the 35mm
still photography market in
1936. It was the first acrn·
ra饵，；nexpens，时， ea9’·阳－
1/S鸟 and reliable method for
er，甜ting color photographs.
Color Photogrαphy
D aguerre him self kn ew t hat only one t hing
was n eeded to make his wonderfu l in vention
complete-co lor. After several false starts, one
。f the first successes was d凹nonstrared in 1861
by the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell.
He had three negatives of a tartan ribbon made,
each through a different color fi lter-red, green,
and blue. Positive black-and呐1ire transparencies
were made of the three negatives and projected
through red, green, and blue filrers like those on
the camera. \Vhen the three images were superim-
posed, they produced an image of the ribb。ninits
original colors. Maxwell had dem。nstrared addi-
tive color mixing, in which colors are produced by
adding together varying am。unrs of light of the
three primary colors, red, green, and blue.
In 1869, a n even m o re signi衍cant 由eory
was m a d e pub lic by two Frenchmen, Louis
Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working
independently of each other. Their process, sub-
tractive color mixing, is the basis of present-day
color photography. Colors are created by com-
bining cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes (the com-
plements of red, green, and blue). The dyes sub-
tract colors from the ” white” light that contains
all colors.
T h e 筒，st commercially suαessful color was
a n additive process. In 1907, two French broth-
ers, Antoine and Louis Lum iere, marketed their
Autochrome process. A glass plate was covered
with tiny grains of potato starch dyed red-orange,
green, and violet, in a layer only one starch grain
thick. Then, a light-sensitive emulsion was added.
Light struck the emulsion after passing through
the colored grains. The emulsion beh ind each
grain was exposed on ly by light from the scene
that was the same color as that grain. The result
after development was a full-color transparency.
Kodachrome, a subtractive process, m ade
color phot og raphy practical. It was perfected
by Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky, two
amateur photographic researchers who eventually
joined forces with Eastman Kod冰 research scien-
tists. Their collaboration led to the introduction in
1935 of Kodachrome, a single sheet of film coated
with three layers of emulsion, each sensitive to
one prima1y color (red, green，。r blue). A single
exposure produced a color image (left).
In the 1940s, Koda!< introduced Ektachrome, which allowed photographers and small labs to process slides, and Kodacolor, the first color negative film. Today it is di仔icult t o imagi ne photo graphy without co lor . Amateurs make photographs by the millions each day, and the ubiquitous snapshot is always in color. Commercial and pub lishing markets use color almost exclusively. Digital cameras always start by capturing a color image; anyone who wants a black-and-white end product must discard the color information. Even photojournalism, documentary, and fine- art photography, which had been in black and white for most of their hisro厅， are most often now m co lor C HAPTE R 1 0 也 187 Eαrly Portrαits P eople w a n ted portrai岱. Even when 出po­ s ure rimes were long and having o ne’s pm trait taken meant sitting in bright su nligh t for several minutes with eyes watering, trying n o t co blink or move, people flocked to portrai t s tudios to have their likenesses drawn by “ the sacred radiance of the Sun.” Images of aim。st every famo us person who had not died before 1839 have come down to us in portraits by photographers such as Nadar and Julia Margaret Cameron (right). Ordin ary people were photographed as well-i n Plumbe’S Nari。nal Daguerrian Galle厅， where hand-cine- ed “ Patent Premiu m Coloured Likenesses” were made, and in cut-rate shops where double-len s camer臼 took them " two at a pop.” Small portraits called carres-de-visice were immensely popular in the 1860s （。pposi ce). For pioneers moving 飞;t'est in Am凹ica, the pictures were a link to the fam ily and friends they had left behind. Two books went West wit h t he pioneers-a Bible and a photograph album. Photogr a phs h a d a n almost m ystical pres- e nce. After seeing some dagu erreotype portrai臼， the poet Elizabeth Barrett wrote to a friend in 1843，“Several 。fthese wonderful portraits. . like engravings-only 四quisi te and delicate beyond the work of graver-have I seen lately-longing to have such a memorial of eve1y Being dear to me in the world It is n ot merely the likeness wh ich 1s precious in such cases-but th e association and the sense of n earness involved in t he t hing t h e fact of the ve1y shadow of the person lying there fixed for ever! . I would rather have such a m emorial of o ne I dearly loved, than t he noblest artist's work ever produced. I do not say so in respect （。r d isrespect) to Art, but for Love’s s冰e 飞;trill you u nderstand?-even if y。u wi ll not agree?” 188 H I STOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY Julia /1,旬’-garet Cameron. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, 1865. Cameron photographed her friends and peers, the well- known and the well-born, in Victorian England. Tennyson fol/o附d William Words附rth as the Poet Laureate of Great Britain and Ireland from 1850 until his death in 1892 F呐。阳，grapher Unknown. Woman in Costume. Pho阳，grapher Unknown. Andre Adolphe Disderi. Ca时·es­ de-visite were taken with a camera 伪at exposed only one section of the photographic p归te at a time. Thus the customer could strike several different poses for the price of one. At leβι shown a print before it is cut 巾归 separate pictures. People collected cartes-de-visite 时 albums, inse时ing pictures of themselves, friends, relatives, and famous people like Queen Victoria . One album cover advised: "Yes, thι is my Album, but learn ere you look;/ that all are expected 阳 add to my book. / You are welcome 阳 quiz it, the penalty is, / that you add your own Portrait for other军阳 quiz." Andre Adolphe Disderi, who popularized these multiple portraits, is shown above on a 臼rte-de-visite. Carte portraits became a fad when Napoleon Ill stopped on the way 归 war 阳 pose for cartes-de－νisite at Disderi's studio. C H A PTE R 1 0 也 189 Eαrly Trαvel Photogrαphy E art~ travel photographs m et a d e m a nd for pictures of far awa y p la ces. In th e mid- 19由 century, the world seemed full of u nexplored wonders. S teamships and railroads were making it possible for more people to travel, but distant lands s till seemed exotic an d mysterious and peo - p ie were h u ngry for photographs of them. There had always been drawi ngs po rtraying unfami lia r p laces, but they were an artist' s personal vision. The camera seemed an extension of one’sown visio n; travel photographs were accepted as real an d fai thfu l images. The N ear East w as of s p eciaJ interest. Not on ly was i t 础。tic, b u t its biblical associa tions and ancien t cul tures m ade it even mo re fasc inating. 飞.Vithin a few mo n ths of the 1839 annou ncem ent of D aguerre’s process, a p hotograph ic team was in Egypt . “ We keep d agu erreotypi ng away like lions," they reported, “ and from Cairo h ope to sen d home an interesting ba tch.” Because there was n o way to reproduce the d ag ue!'reotypes d irectly, they were traced a nd reproduced as copperplate e n gravings. W ith the inventio n of t h e calotype a nd later th e collodion processes, a ctual p ictures from t h e Near East were soon availa ble. 1 90 H I S TORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY πmothyH. 。’＇Sullivan. 8归ck Canyon, Colorado River, 1871 . Expeditions 阳pho­ tograph distant pla&es were /aun&hed as soon as the invention of photography was announ&ed. In addition to all the materials, chemicals, and knowledge needed to coat, expose, and pro白血伪eir photographs in remotepla出毛自：peditiona,y photographers also had to have considerable fortitude. TimothyH. O’'Sul/ivan, whose dark，。。’” 。n a boat appears at left, described an ar，臼 臼/led the Humboldt Sink: ’'It was a pretty lo臼tion 归 work in, and viewing there was as pleasant work as could be desired; the on如drawback was an unlimited m - the most 叩racious and particula瓦Jy poison ous mosqui阳臼 that we met ‘ν'ith during our e,’tire trip. Add 阳 this. . frequent at阳cksof that most ener、'Oting of all fevers, known as the ’mountain ail,’and you will see why 、ve did not work up more of that country. ” The most s p ectac ular scene ry of由e w estern U nited S tates was not much phot o g r a phe d until the la te 1 860s. Explo rers a n d a rtists h ad been in the Rocky Mou ntain a rea lon g before t h is ti me, b u t the ta les th ey cold of the region and the sketc h es they m ade were o丘en thought to be exaggerations. After the Civi l 飞.Var, wh en severa l government 口pedi tions set o u t to explore and m ap t h e West, p hotograp h ers a ccompan ied t h em, not a lways to t h e delig ht of the o ther m embers of the expedi tions. “The ca m era in its s t ron g b。x was a h eavy lo a d to car1y u p th e rocks,'’ says a descripti。n 。fa Grand Canyon trip in 187 1, “ but it was noth ing to t h e chem ical and plate-ho lder box, which in t u rn was feathe rweig h t C。mpared to the im itation hand 。rgan which served for a darkroom. Th is dark box was th e special sorrow of t h e expedition .. " C iv il War ph。rographers T imoth y H. 0 ’Su llivan (a bove and opposite) and Alexander G ardner bo th went 飞:Vest wit h governmen t - sponsored 四pedi tions. W illiam Henry Jackson’s p h otograph s of Yellowstone helped con vince Con gress to set the a rea aside as a natio nal park, as d id the photographs of Yosemite made by Carleton Eugene 飞X/atkins. Eαrly Imαges ofWαr Timothy H. 。’＇Sullivan. A Harvest of Death, Get.切切，-g, ）吵 1863. The first realistic view of war was shown by Civil War pho- 阳•graphers such as Brady, Gardne巧 and o’'Sullivan {rt沪纱. Oliver Wendell Holmes had been on the battlefield at Antietam searching for his wounded son and later saw 阶e photographs Bra吵made there: “Let him w加剧拍出阳know what war is look at this series of illustrations. It was so nearly l放e 时siting the battlefield to look over these views, that all the emotions 臼cited 钞 the actual s拗t of the stained and sordid scene, strewed with rags and wrec缸， came back归叫 and we buried them in the recesses of our cabinet as 附would ha昭 buried the mutilated remains of the dead they 归o vivi<功’-epresented. " P hotographs gave war scen es a u t hority, and made t h em m o re immediate for those at h o m e. Un t il photography’5 invention, wars seemed remote and rather exciting. People learned of war from delayed n ews accounts or even later from the tales of returning s。ldiers or e。m paintings or poems. The disastrous Brit is h campaigns in the Crimean War of the 1850s were t h e fi rst con- fl icts to be extensively photographed. T he ill- fated Charge of the Ligh t Brigade against Russian forces in 1854 was only o ne of the catastrophes; 。fficial bungling, disease, starvation, and 四po­ sure took more British lives than did t h e enemy. However, Roger Fenton , t h e 。fficial photogra- pher (who had been introduced to photography o n ly three years earlier), generally depicted the war with scen ic an d idealized images. Photographs from 由e American Civil War were the 而rst to show the reality of war (above). Mathew B. Brady, a successful portrait photographer, conceived the idea of sending teams to photograph the war . No pho tographs were made during a battle; it was E。。 hazardous. T h e collodion process requ ired up to several secon ds’ exposure and the glass plates had to be processed on the spot, wh ich made the photographer’s dark- room-wagon a target for enemy gunners. Alth。ugh Brady hoped to sell his photographs, th ey often showed what people wanted only to fo rget. Brady took only a few, if any, ph。tographs h imself, and some of his men （川口ander Gardner and T imothy H. 0 ’Sullivan among t hem) broke with him and set up thei r o叭响 。peration. But Brady’s idea and personal investment launched th is invaluable documentation 。f Am erican h istory. CHAPTER ，。 然 191 Time αnd Motion in Eαrly Photographs T he earliest photographs 陀quired v町 long exposures. Today, photographers using modern cameras consider a o ne-second exposure relatively long. Bue photographers using earlier processes had to work with much slower maceri- als, and an exposure 。f several seconds was con- sidered quite shore. People or objects that m oved during the expo- s ure were blurred or, if the exp。sure was long en o ug h , d isappeared completely. Busy streets sometimes looked deserted (page 182) because m。St pe。ple had not stayed s till long enoug h to register an image. Stereographic photographs were the first to show action as it was taking place, with peo- ple in midstride or horses and carts in m。tion. This was possible because the sh。此－focal-length lens of the stereo camera produced a bright, sharp image at wide apertures an d thus could be used with very brief exposure times. These “mstantaneous” phot。graphs revealed aspects of motion that t h e unaided eye was not able to see. s。me of the arrested motions were so d仔erent from the conventional artistic represen- tations that the photographs looked wrong. A gal- loping h。rse, fo r example, had often been dra飞m w ith all fo ur feet off th e ground-the front legs extended forward and h ind legs extended back. Eadweard Muybrid ge was a pion eer in motion studies. When h is ph。tographs of a gallopi ng horse, published in 1878, showed that all fo ur of its feet were off the ground on ly when they were bu nched u nder the ho rse’s belly, some people thought that 如fuybridge had altered the ph otographs. Using the n ew, fast gelati n-si lver em ulsio n and a specially E。nstructed multi-lens cameras, Muybridge compiled many stud ies of different animals and h umans in action (righ t, bottom) that were distributed w陆ly. 192 HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY Platt D. Babbitt. Joseph A昭·,y Stranded on Rocks in the Niagara Rive.巧 1853. Tl』is is 刷刷，fy eX4mple of a news photograph, unusual because newsworthy even臼rarely held Eadw，田rd Muybridge. Motion Stu很ι 1885 Capturing motion became technically pos- sib/e as the sensitivity of photographic emulsions increased. M吧ybridge’s project Animal L。com。口。n analyzed 阶emo时ments still for the long缸”•sur，臼a daguerreot;伊 required. Th且 unlucky man was stranded cling- i喀阳a log afier a boating accident; his situa- tion held him motionless enough 臼 be recorded. 。｛humans and many animals. M吧ybridge often used seν·era/ cameras 与ynchronized 阳 work toge阶er so that each stage of a move- ment could be recorded simultaneously from different angles. Karl 8/ossfeldt. Nigel/a Damascena Spinnenkopf, ι 1932. 8/ossfeldt’s rigor- ous plant studies inf/u- enced generations of artists Each 平ecimen in the long 坦ries was presented alone against a neutral background 且 the plant forms could be considered without any hint of the decisions or interpre阳－ tions of an artist. Published as a book in 1929, hι imag­ es were studied by pa巾臼甩， ar而tects, d，田驴ers, and others who inco’pora阳d nature's ideas into their own The Photogrαph αs Document Eugine A贯get. Quai d说’,jou, 6am, Pa时， 1924. Eugine Atget artfully revealed the essence of Paris while seeming merely to document its 缸阳rnal appearance. A silent street along伪e Seine in the 臼吵mornin阜时阶 i臼graceful trees, moored ba馆出， and如βlight 写peaks of the pervasi时charm and architectural harmony of the city. P ho tog r a phs C甜 be d ocume nts o n many leve ls. Most snapsh ots record a particular scene to help the part icipants rem em ber it later. A news ph otograp h implies that this is what you would have seen if you had been t h ere y。urself, alt h o ug h digital ph otography continues to ch ip away at th is belief (see page 112). O n ano ther level, a p hotograph can reco rd reality whi le at t he sam e t ime recording t he p hotograp her's commen t o n that reality. Lewi s 飞V H ine said of h is work : “ I wanted to show the t h ings t ha t h ad to be cor- rected. I wanted to s how t h e th ings that had to be appreciated.” Hi s statem en t describes the use of photograp hy as a fo rce fo r social change an d a s tyle that came to be known as document a1y (see pages 194- 195). Eugene Atget’ s w o rk wen t b eyond simple r ecords, alth。ugh h e cons idered h is p h oto- g raphs to be d ocuments. A sig n o n his d oor read “ Docum en ts p our Artistes.” Atget m ade thousands of photograp hs in the early 1900s, of the streets, cafes (le丘， top), shops, m o numents, parks, and people of the Paris he loved . H is pic- tures won h im lit tle notice during h is lifetime; he barely m an aged to eke o ut a livi ng by sell ing prints to art is ts, arch itects, and o thers who want - ed visual records of the city. Many ph otographers can record the external ap pearance of a p lace, but Atget conveyed the atm osp here and m ood of Paris as well. Ka rl B lo ssfe ld t's phot o g r a phs of p lan ts r ej e ct ed commentary, as well as sentiment, to be as straigh t fo1ward and fac tual as possible (left). He has been associa ted with the New O bjectivity m ovement (Neue Sachlichkeit}, that applied si milar goals to a range of m edia. August Sand er attempted to record an entire peop le- the cit izens of pre-World War II Germ any-i n utterly factual portraits m eant to show society’s classes an d not individual char acter. Later, Bernd and Hilla Becher applied si m ilar fo rmal and proced ural rigo r to p hotograph ing industrial s tructures, and were teachers to a gen eratio n of notable a rtists whose artistic lineage can be traced di rectly back to Blossfeldt. CHAPTER ，。 然 193 Photogrαphy αnd Sociαl Chαnge Photogr叩hy s oon went 衔。”’ document­ ing t h e w orld t o docu m enting it fo r a cau se. Jacob Riis, a Danish-born newspaper reporter of the late 19由 centmy, was o n e of the first to use ph otography for social change. Riis had been writing about the g rinding brutality 。flife in New York Ci旷s tenem en ts and slums and began to take picmres (righ t, cop) to show, as h e sa风what “ no mere description could, the m isery and vice that he had n o ticed in h is ten years of experience . and suggest the direction in which good m ight be done.” To take photographs inside t he t en e- mencs at night, Riis used magnesium powd凹 ign ited in an open pan co provide ligh ting in the dark rooms. The techn ique was the fo rerunn er of the modern flash Lewis W. Hi ne was a trained sociologist with a passionate social awareness, especially 。f the abuses 。f chi ld labor 。ight, bottom). T his evi l was w idespread in t h e early 20th century, and Hine documented it co provide evidence fo r reformers. With sarcastic fury he wrote of 削opportunities’ fo r the child and the family co ... relieve th e over- burdened manufacturer, help h im pay h is rent, s upply his equipment, ta!也 care of h is rush and s lack seasons, and h elp him to keep down his wage scale. ” Lewis Hi.，皿 Sadie Pfeifer, 48 Inches H也h, Has Worked Half a Year, Lanu,ster Cotton Mills, Lancaster, South Carolina, 1908. Lewis Hine documented the abuses of child labor between 1908 and 1921, making 5,000 pictures for the National Child Labor Committee. One foreman casually dismissed accidents, such as children getting caught in the machinery. “Once 巾 a while a 卢nger ι mashed or a foot, but it doesn' t amount to anything ” 194 H I ST O RY OF P H O T O G R APH Y Jacob Riis. Home of Italian Rag Picker, Jersey Street, 1894. Riis used his camera 阳 expose the slum conditions of New York City. His phot，怨raphs led 阳 housing ’·egulations that outlawed overcrowded quarters and windowless rooms Dorothea Lange. M也rant Mother, Californ巾， 1936. Lange' s work rev臼Is herempa阶!Y for her拥向；e.出－ She had a unique ability to photograph p四，pfe at the moment that their e叫pressions and ges，阳r田rev田led their Ii闹剧d feelings. Her photograph of a mother of seven w由o tried 臼support her children 句’pick句p臼•s, was one of those that came to symbolize the 1930s Depre.且ion. The photog r a phers of t h e Farm Security Adminis t r a tion recorded t h e D e pressio n o f t he 193 0s, wh en the nation’s en ti re economic s tructure was in deep t rouble and far m famil i e s were in p缸ticular n eed, Assistan t S巳crerary of Agriculmre Rexford G. Tug飞飞 g。vernment's program 。f aid to fa rmers was expensive and controversial. To p rove both the extent of the problem and the effectiveness of the cure, he appointed Roy Sttyker to supervise p ho- tograph ic coverage of the program . Stryker recruited a remarkable band of ta!- enc, including D orothea Lange (le丘， top), Walker Evans (page 173), Russell Lee (page 16 1, top), Marion Post Wolcott, Arthu r Ro thstein (left, bot- tom), Gordon Par ks, and Ben Shahn. The p horog- rap hers of t he Farm Security Administrati。n pro- duced a m onumen tal collection 。f im ages sh ow- ing the plight of “ on e th ird of a nation ” during the Dep ressio n. Arthur Rothstein. Dust Storm, Cimarron County, Oklahoma, 1936. Rothstein was 伪e firrt photographer Roy Stryker hired 阳document 伪e plight of people during 伪e Depression. Du斤’怒that period, drought turned parts of Oklahoma into a dust bowl. Here, the building and fence posts are almost buried 巾 drifts of sand. Rothstein later wro阳 that while taking阶e picture，何I could hardly breathe because dust was everywhere." CHA PTER 10 也 195 Photojournαlism W hatever the news …t-fro m a prize- fight to a war-we expect to see p ictures of it. Today we ta!也 ph。tojournalism fo r granted, bur news and pictures were not always partners. Drawings and cartoons appeared only occasion- ally in the drab 18出－century press. T he 19由 cen­ tury saw the growth of illustrated newspapers s uch as the Illustrated London News and, in Am erica, Harper's ＼串＇eekly, and Fra价 Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper. Because the various tones of gray needed to reproduce a ph。tograph could nor be printed simultaneously with ordinary type, pho- tographs had to be converted into drawings and then into woodcuts before they could appear as news pictures. T he photograph merely furnished material fo川he artist. The h a lfto ne process, perfected in t h e 1 88 0 s, perm itted p h oto g r aphs a nd typ e to be pri nted togeth e r, and ph。tographs became an expected addi tion to news stories. “These are no fancy sketches," t he Illustrated American prom- ised, “they are the actual life of the place repro- duced up。n paper.” T he p h oto essay, a seq ue n ce o f p h o t ographs p lus b rief textu a l mate rial, came o f age in t he 1930s. It was pi。neered by Stefan Lorant in European picture magazines and later in America by a score of publications such as Li庐 and I』ok. Today, the heyday of the picture magazi ne has passed, du e in pal't to competition from televi- s ion . But photographs remain a m叮or s。urce of our information abou t the world and photo essays have returned o n the Internet. The halftone process converts the continuous shades of gray in a pho阳•uaph (ri劲。巾归distinct units of black and white that can be printed with 巾k on paper ( far right). 196 H I ST ORY OF P H O T O G R A PH Y Erich Salomon. Visit of Prime Min ister MacDonald to Berlin, 1931. Not until the 1920s did photographers get a small camera able 阳 take pictures easily in dim I也·ht. Ea吵cameras were relati时如bu／凯 and the slowness of available films meant that using a camera indoors required a blinding burst of flash powder. The 卢刚 ofthe small 臼meras, the Ermanox，阳be followed soon by the Leica, had a lens so fast-f/2-that unobtrusive, candid shooting finally became practical. Cameras began to infiltrate places where they hadn’t been before, and the public began to see real people 巾 thene附 Erich Salomon was one of the pioneers of 阶is practice, with a 非自由l talent for dress - ing in (ormal clothes and crashing diplomatic ga伪erings-sometimes shooting through a hole in his bowler or di：结uising his 臼mera within a bouquet. He o卢·en recorded those in power while they were preoc，阳，pied with other matter>, such as at this 1931 meetin~ of
German and British statesmen In tribute to
Salomon, the French fore.驴 ministeι Aristide
Briand, is said to have remarke叫i “There are
just three things necessary for a League of
Nations conference: a际νfore驴secre臼ries,
a table, and a Salomon ”

,
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时，制叫．··旧’ 户·
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‘叫“m刷
“……. …卢’‘’
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【…··．愧’‘·”’… ”
·－，的呵，，、川“”
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平，.’叩－··…·’… a.. ….”…，．伽……………… ~ .. ，－伽．．．！‘！岛，叫咱冽－－“愧
讥I, Eugene Smith. 舟。，，， Span ish Village, 1951. The pho阳
essay-pictur，臼p阳 supporting text-was the mainstay
of mass-circulation picture magazin臼 such as life and
t。。K Above are t,咽pag，由from ”’Spanish “llage,”photo-
graphed for U鱼岛y WEug，臼e Smith, w由自e picture essays are
un.阳’如ssed in 伪eirpo附randpho臼，graphic beauty.
CHAPTER 10 也 1 97

Photojournαlism (continued)
Photojournalists were 由e 侃rst t o e mbra ce
digital phot o g r a phy. T h e news is now.
Ph otographers o n l。cati。n n eed co get pictures
from the middle of the action to t he editors’ desks
as rapidly as possible. Fi lm requires t ransportatio n
to a lab, devel。pment, drying, an d proofing before
anyone can tell wh ether t he pictures can be used.
T h e length of a roll lim its the n umber of photo-
graphs th at can be 四posed qu ickly. And it is easy
for info rmation about a picm re’s conten t to get
separated from the p icture itself.
The Associated Press (AP) began t r a n s-
mi忧ing conve nt ional photographs digitally
b efor e 1 980 . T h eir system was used to d istrib-
ute pictu res to editors at d iffere nt newspapers.
In the m id-90s practical digital cameras began to
appear in the han ds of a very few photographers.
T he can1eras were specially m odified 35m m SLRs,
the same m。dels m any ph。tojournalists were
already using, and were very expensive. By 200 1
nearly half of all jou rnalists used d igital cameras;
today virtually all d。．
Ashley Gilbertson. Baghdad, Iraq, 2004,
Ci/be巾。” has photographed &onflict in
Whiskey Ta鸣。 Foxtrot, records not o吵the
drama of scenes like 阶is, but also the people
Iraq sin&e 2002, on a臼盼ment for a var时吵
。fpub/i，臼tions and as a personal project. He时，
an Iraqi’s at阳mpt阳田tinguish the 卢mbu m ing
in a van ends spectacular如 Gilbertson ‘s book,
that are 臼ught up in the conflict. George
Packer, writing in The New Yorker, said that
warpho阳,graphy 臼n 毡阴阳ck 阶eir subjects
the humanity 伪at the war is taking away.”
198 HISTOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Alfred Eisens臼edt. Ethiopian Soldier, 1935.
War and social i呼ustice are among伪e
stap1’苗。fnews photography. 7百e饨st
ofthesepho问graphs go beyond the simple
recording of an e时nt. 7百ey become symbols
of the time in which they occurred.
In 1935, when the overw\elmingforce of
a modern, mechanized Italian army invaded
an ill-prepared Ethiop巾， Eisenstaedt focused
on the feet of a barefoot E阶iopian soldier.
Susan Meise/as. Awaiting Counterattack
by the Guard, Ma阳，ga伊a, Nicaragua,
1978. During the Sandinista revolt in
Nia1rag1将a, Susan Meise/as pho曲,graphed
these men at a barricade awaiting attack
句ygovernment troops. She had to decide
whether 臼 stay and continue photographing
or 曲 lea时阳make the deadline for publica-
tion. “A a do阳menta,y phot，络rapheιl
附uld have liked归stay, but I had to leave
臼get the pictur，出out. It was the first time
that Ir，臼lized what it means to be a pho曲－
journalist and d，臼／ with a d臼d/i，盹”
C H A PTE R 1 0 也 1 99

Photogrαphy αs Art in the 19th Century
W部 it j u st a photograph o r w剖 it art?
Almost from the moment of its birth, photog-
raphy began st冰ing 。ut claims in areas that
had long been reserved fo r painting. Portrai臼，
still lifes, landscapes, n udes, and even allegories
became photographic subject matter.
At the rime, the most famous and commer-
c1ally the most successful of th。se intending t。
elevate photography to an art was Henry Peach
Robins。n Robins。n turned o ut many illus tra-
t ive and allegorical composite photographs.
T h ese were carefully plotted in advance and com-
bined several negatives to form the final print
(rig h t , top). Robinson became the leader of a
so-called High Art m ovement in 1 9由－century
photography, which advocated beauty and artistic
effect no matter ho即 it was obtained. Robi nson
advised:“Any dodge, trick and conjuration of any
kind is open to the photographer’S use.”
By t h e 1 880s, a new m o vem ent ch a m pio ned
natl』 ralism a s a rtistic phot o g r a phy. Its leader,
Peter Henry Emerson, felt t hat true ph otograph ic
art was possible o nly through exploiti ng the
camera’s ability to capture reality in a direct way
(right, bottom). He scorned th e pictorial school
and its composite printing, cosrumed models,
painted backdrops, and sentimental views of
daily life.
Emerson laid do叭响 h is own rules for what
he called naturalistic photography: simplicity of
equipment; no “ fak ing” by means oflighti ng, pos-
ing, costumes, o r props; free composition wi thout
reliance on classical rules; and no retouching. He
also promoted what he believed was a scientific
foc using technique that imita ted the way the eye
perceives a scene: sharply focused on the main
SU悖ct, wi th t h e foregro und and especially the
background slightly 。ur of focus.
His ideas influenced a new gen eratio n of pho-
tograph ers wh o no longer felt the need to imitate
painti ng bur began to explore photography 臼m
art in its 。叭响 right.
200 H I S T O RY O F P H O T O G R APH Y
Henry Peach Robinson. Fading A叫y, 1858. Henry
Peach Robinson’s H也h Art pho阳，graphy was inspired by
romantic literature. He de时loped a composite photographic
technique that allowed him 阳pro御自 imagina,y s，四nes.
Fading Away (abo昭j wass臼1ged by posing models separately
and piecing together the imag，由e
Peter Henry Emerson. Gathering Water Lilies, 1885.
Peter Henry Emerson rejected 伪e methods 。fthe M沪
A时photographers. He insisted 阶at photography should
not imitate art but should strive for a naturalistic effect
that was not artificially contri，昭d He illustrated his theories
M阶 his own photographs of peasants on the East Anglian
’”arsh目的 England.

Pictoriαl Photogrαphy
αnd the Photo-Secession
Robert Demachy. Panel,
1898. Pictoriolist photog·
rophyot the 阳m of the
酬阳吃y often -esembled
impressionist painting,, wi，阶
light and atmosphere more
impor臼nt than sharp details.
Alfred Stiegli缸. 7百e Steerage, 1907. Alfred Stieglitz chom-
pioned photography as art, including pictorial臼t photogra-
phy. Howeve巧 his own photographs U白cept for a brief ea吵
period, see page 172) did not include soft 阳，乓 hon即时， or
other alterations of阶e direct 臼mera image
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< EEiee L卜 日 o a z σ b u w 们 U M L H n n u J U 句a ， 也 e s · a · ‘ s u k t a 队 盯 E m 盯 W ’ 唱 门 h M I 组 副 U H 口 h 品 』 u t u n e －「 I P A － u z w 归E 剧 r k H H E i 3 1 0 甲 咀 W K I I E E 、 ， m e m 叫 罗 址 r u U A 阴 叶 M m m 四 川 剧 旷 - m h mpun 划 中 刮 A h u um m 副 s g 叮 P M － m s l um ouxit n tteuEE u t 。 h 飞 呻 叫 A S －h L H E A U ！ 凹 N F 山 p e o k h n 啊 ， 吼 ： “ P MW C 刘 、 门 口 阻 n ． － h M叮 d A M W M 忡 ’ 出 m rm y 叫 拍 即 叫 叶 、 ， 忙 E E E 础 m m m V A V A旧 曲 俨 r p r h m m 灶 ’ 旧 凹 p c u m m u 臼 力 i H e 町 ’ 阳 O H H I K N U h 町 J E h n w H - sEVESSE Many pictorialists believed that artistic merit increased if t h e photograph lo oked like someo由er kind o f art-charcoal drawi ng, mez- zotint, or anyth ing other than ph otography. T hey patterned th eir wor k q uite frank ly on painti ng, especially the work of the Fren ch lmpressionis囚， fo r whom mood and a sense of atmosphere an d light were importan t. The pictorialists favored m ist-covered landscapes and soft ci tyscapes; light was diffused, line was softened, an d detai ls were s uppressed (left, top). In America, Alfred Stieglitz was t h e leader and catalyst for photography as a n art form and h is infl uence is ha rd E。 overestimate. He ph otograp hed (le丘， b。ttom), organized sh。叽，s and p u blished infl uential and avant-garde wor k by phot。graphers and other a rtists. In h is galler- ies-the Li ttle Gal leries 。f d飞e Pt飞。E。－Secess ion (later known simply by its address, 291), t he Inti mate Gallery, and An American Place-he s howed not 。nly what he considered t he best ph。tographic w。rks bu t also, fo r t h e fi rst ti m e in the U nited States, t he works of Cezanne, Matisse, Picasso, an d other m odern artists. In his m aga- z ine C町，i.era ＼冈州， he pu blish ed p hotograph ic crit icism an d wor ks whose on ly requirement was that they be worthy 。f the word art. N。t on ly d id he eventually fo rce m useu m cu rators an d art crit ics to gran t p hotography a place beside the o ther arts, bu t by exam ple an d s heer fo rce of personality h e n川ce set the s tyle for Am erican ph。tography: fi rst toward t h e early p ictorial impression istic ideal an d later toward s ha rply realis tic,“s t raigh t” ph otography. CHAPTER ，。 然 20 1 The Direct Imαge in Art S ome phot咆raphers interested to m ake a rt in t h e early 20由 century created unma- nipulated images even wh ile pictorialis臼 were making photographs that l。。ked very m uch like paintings. A movement was formi ng to return to the direct photographs that characterized so much of l9由，century imagerγ. In 19 17, Stieglitz devoted the last issue of Camera Work to Paul Strand, whose photographs he saw as a pow凹fi.tl new approach E。 photography as an arr form. Strand believed th挝 、bjecrivity is of the veiy essence of photography ... T he fi.tllest realizatio n of this is accomplished with- o ut tricks of process o r manipulation.” S tieglitz’S 0胃口 ph otographs were direct an d u n man ipulated. He felt t hat many of them were V阳al metapho rs, accurate im ages of o均eccs in fro nt of h is camera an d at the san1e t ime external “equivalents” 。f h is inn er feelings. After 1950, 如fin。r 飞亨h ite carried o n an d expanded S tieglitz’S concept of t he equivalent For Wh ite, the goal of the serious ph otographer was “ to get from the tangible to the intangible” so t hat a straight ph otograph also functi。ns as a m etaphor for the photographer’s 。E t h e viewer’s s tate of mi nd. Str在ight photography d o minated photogr叩hy as a n a rt form 命。”’ the 1930s to 由e 1 9 70s and is 四emplified by Edward Weston. He used the simplest techn ique and a bare m in imu m of equip ment: generally, an 8 x 10 view camera with lens stopped d。叭响 to the smallest apertu re for sharpness overall. He contact-printed negatives that were seldom cropped. “ My way of working-I start wi th no preconceived idea-discovery excites me to focus-then rediscovery th roug h the lens- fi n al fo r m of presentatio n seen o n ground glass, the fin ished print previs ioned complete in every detai l of textu re, movement, proportion, before exposure-th e sh utter’s release automatically an d fi n ally fixes my conceptio n, allowing no after man ipu lation-the ulti mate end , the print, is but a d uplication of all that I saw an d felt t h rough my camera.” Many other photographers, such as Ansel Adams, Paul Capon igro (right), Imogen Cu n ningham, and Ch arles Sheeler (page 164) have used t h e s t raig h t approach. 2 0 2 HI S TOR Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY Paul Strand. The White F面脯， Port Ken; New V切成， 1916. Strand's stra敏e app.刷ch 阳p协 tography as an art form combined an objective view wi，伪 personal meaning. “Look at the thing; a刷ndyo盹 the immediate附，rJd around you. If you are alive it will mean 酬，ething to you. » Paul Caponigro. Galaxy Apple, New York City, 1964. The a仰le is a symbol of the biblical story of creation：，的伪ispho阳,graph it m回nat，臼叫h 伽时sual metaphor of a universe reflected in its skin. 何Pho臼，grap.均y'sp。但n阳I， ＂α，ponigro said, “ .is rea吵nod，，庐，切t from the same po阳阳I in the best poetry where familiar， 刷,yday words, placed时hin a special酬t叫can 皿arabo昭伪e intellect and阳uch subtle real钞的a unique w命” Usz/6 Moholy-Nagy. j臼lousy, 1927. Photog· raphers such as Laszlo Moholy-Nagy and Gyo也Y Kep臼 used many techn句ues 归劝eir explorations of real, unreal, and abstract image· ,y. The photomontage (right) com岳阳臼pi自由ofse时rat phott.苍raphs. Mohofy defined pho阳montage as "a tumultu- ous collision of whimsical detail from which hidden meani，咿 flash, ” a de卢刚仿on that fits this ambiguous picture. Cyo，罗Kepes mined sci- entific advances for image饥 collaborating with physicist A. R von H伊•pel to generate the image above. Lichtenberg {igu -es result from h也•h- νoltage s阳tic electrici，纱， a principle that led direc.吵阳 modern xerography. The Quest for α Ne飞v Vision T he b eginning of t h e 20由 centu叩 saw g reat ch a nges in many areas, including science, tech nolog)’, m athem atics, p olitics, and also the ans. Movem ents like Fa uvis m, Expressi。nism, Cubism , D ada, and S urrealism were perm anently changing the m eaning of the word “ an.” T h e Futuris t art m ovem ent proposed “ to sweep fro m the fi eld of arr all m。tifs and su均ects that h ave already been exploited .. to destroy t h e cult of the past .. to despise u tt erly eve1y form 。f im itation ... to extol eve1y form of originality.” At the ce nter of rad icaJ art, d esign , a nd thinking was t h e Bauh aus, a school in Berlin to wh ich th e Hungarian artist Laszlo Mo h oly-Nagy cam e in 1922. H e att em pted to find n ew ways of seeing th e world and experimented with radical uses of p hotograph ic m aterials in an attem pt to replace 19由，centmy p ictorialist conventio ns w ith a “ n ew visi。11” compatible wi th m odern life. Mo h oly explo red many ways of expanding ph otograp h ic vision, through phorograms, ph。． tom ontage (le丘， bottom), t he Sabattier effect ( often called solarizat阳市， unusual angles, optical distort io ns, and multiple exposures. He fel t that “ properly used, they help to create a mo re com- Cyo,xyKe阳. Lichtenberg figure.乓 1951.. plex and imaginary language of ph。tography.” 人 The Bau haus school closed in 1933, under pressure fro m the German governmen t, wh ich at the same time made it d ifficult fo r fo reign citizens like Moholy to work. He m oved to London, an d then to Ch icago, where in 1937 h e fo unded the New Bauhaus sch。ol. Moholy brought Gy凸rgy Kepes fro m Europe to head the sch。ol's “Light Workshop” area, wh ich included both g raph ics and ph otography. Kepes, a prolific artis t and writ- 凹， later fo unded the Center fo r Advanced Visual Studies at MIT, a program that sponsors th e arts at the intersection of techn ology. Over several decades, the CAVS invi ted dozen s of in novative artists to collab。rate wit h scien tists worki ng at the cutting edge of their own fie lds, just as Kepes was d oi ng in his own work (le丘， top). C HAPTE R 1 0 也 203 Photogrαphγαs Art in the 1950s αnd 1960s A t r e m endous g rowth t o ok pla ce in t h e aαeptance o f photography as an art form, a change char scarred in the 1950s. Since the口， photography became a part of the college and arc school curriculum, an museums devoted con- s iderable actenci。n co photography, an galleries opened co sell only ph otographs, while photog- raphy entered other galleries that previ。usly had sold only paintings or o cher trad itional arcs, and es cab I胁时 magazines such as h怡mm (page 208) and Art in America regu larly pub！胁时 pho- cograph s and essays about the m edium. A m e rican work o f t h e 1 950 s wa s o伐en d escribe d in terms o f regiona l styles. Chicago W臼identi自ed \\~th the work of A缸。“民md (right, bottom) and Hany Callahan (right, cop). The 飞:Vest Coast was linked to the so-called straight photog- rap he叭 such as阳sel Adams (page 仍and Minor White (page 53). New York was a cen四r for social documentation, such 部 by ph。cographers in the politically active Photo League. Meanwh ile, tied co no region, Robert Frank, a Smss immigrant， 、m traveling across the United States photographing his 0 \\~1 view 。flife (opposite). A n increasi ng numbe r of colleges a n d art sch ools in t he late 1 9 60s o仔ered phot o g- r a phy courses，。fcen in their an departments where a cross-fertilization of ideas took place between photographers and artists working in tra- ditional art media. Some painters and 。ther arc- ists used photographs in their work or som eti mes swi tched to photography altogether. Some ph。－ tograph ers combined their images wi th pai nti ng, printmaking, or 。ther m edia. Older photograph ic processes were revived, such as gum bichromate and platinum printing. Minor 飞:Vhite said that in t h e 1950s ph ocogra- ph ers fu nction ing as artists were so few that they used to clu m p together for warmth. The 四plo­ s ion of photography in academia helped push the m edium in many directions, and the l。ng battle over whether ph otography was an arc was fi n ally resolved. The win ners were t h ose wh o said it could be. 204 HI STOR Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY ) . . . , . Harry Callahan. Eleanor, 1947. Harry Callahan's work was lyria,/ and pe.俨 sonal. He returned again and again to three main themes, the emptin醋。f city scenes, the rich de臼i/of lands臼pe.毛 and portrai臼of his w檐， Eleanor. He sa均 匀t 阳k由me a long time to change. I don’t think you can just go out and figure out a bunch of visual ideas and pho阳•uaph. 7百e change happens in living and not 阶rough 阶inking ” 一呵，－ '471 Aaron Siskind. Chicago 30, 1949. Aaron Siskind's best-known work consists of surfaces abstracted from their context such as peeled and chipped pa巾t or posters on walls. 7百e SU句；ect of the photograph is the shape.ι 归nality, and other elements 伪at appear 的 it, not the particular wall itself Robert Frank. Bar - New 沟rk City, 1955. Robert Frank's ironic view of America exerted a great infTuence on both the s咐ect matter and s忱。｛photography as an art form. Like Frank's photographι the works of Diane Arbus, Lee Friedlander, Garry Winogran叫j and others were personal observations of some of the peculiar and occasiona吵 grotesque aspects of American society. Above, a glimpse inside a New York bar is an unset伪ng comment on the emptine.且 ofmodem soαety. Jack Kerouac wrote in his introduction to Frank's book The Americans, "After seeing these pictures, you end up finally not knowing any more whether a juke切，x is sadder than a coffin » CHAPT E R 10 也 205 Photogrαphγαs Art in the 1970s αnd 1980s Photogr叩hers continued to explore a vari- ety of su均e出 and issu es. Some 阳nained committed to the str缸ght photography t raditio n of Edward Weston (page 164) or Ansel Adams (page 47), while others 口perimented with fo rm to find a new visi。n Shaped by repercussi。ns of the Vietnam War and o cher conflicts, some photogra- ph ers rook the medium in political directions, fo l- lowi ng the leads ofRoben Frank (page 205) or \V. Eugene Smith (page 197). Photograph ers like Lee Friedlander (page 157), Diane Arbus, and Garry Winogrand (page 135) roamed the stree叭 record­ ing the humo几 pathos, and irony of daily life. Photogr aphy fo und acceptance as a legiti- m ate art fo rm . During the late 1970s and early 1980s, emerging artists using photography like Cindy Sherman (right, t。p), Robert Mapple- thorpe, and Barbara Kruger were exhibited in art gall凹ies, as opposed to photography galleries, and fo und they could prosper. Photographers like Irving Penn and Jljchard Avedon (opposite), bet- ter known for t heir commercial work, were given exh ibitions of th eir editorial and personal work in major arr museums, evoking controversy 111 some quarters. Tech nological advances in color ph。tog­ raphy, seldom used by art photographers in the past, helped it gai n popularity. Museums hired photograph ic curators and charged them w ith bu ilding collections and exh ibi t ing ph otography more regu larly. New institutions like the International Center fo r Photography ( 1974) and the Center for Creativ Photography ( 1975) werεfounded By d飞e earl y 1980s, photography had become a fixture in museums, academia, and the art world at large. Photogr a phy attracted t h e attention of respected intell ectu a ls from other fields as well. In On Photography (1977), Susan Sontag raised pen- etrating questions about the medi um, its aesthet- ics, and its ties with the culcure at large. Sontag validated photography as a subject worthy of seri- ous analysis. By the early 1980s, photography was not merely accepted, it was hot. 206 H I ST ORY OF P H O T O G R A PH Y Robert Cumming. Tile/ Mirror, Milwaukee，时·sco’”的， 1970. “Photographic conceptualism" is a label applied to Cummini「sea吵photographic wor屿， like 伪is one, be臼use they broke from the tradition of formal beauty 巾 favor of str，四ing an idea. Many of his "conceptual" pieces also displ.吧ya 时qd,y sense of humor. C切司y Sherman. Untitled Film Still #13, 1978. Sherman examined modern culture by pho阳,graphing herse扩in various roles. 归 thι image from her Untitled Film Stills series, she pl.钞宫 the role of an actor pl.ψ'ing a role. Richard Avedon. 匀，，dra Bennet飞， twelvey，臼rold, Rocky 问'ord, Colorado, August 23, 1980. C H A PTE R 1 0 也 207 Color Photogrαphy Arrives-Agαin B y 1970, almost everyone’ s snapshots were in color, but art photographs were n ' t . The sud- den respectabi lity received by serious photography in the la te 1960s d id not include col。t Many o f the e阻’s well-known artists h ad photographed in color-Ansel Adams, Har1y Callahan, Helen Levitt and even Edward \Vesto n amon g them-bu t what was seen of t heirs was always b lack and wh ite. In part, this was d u e to the expense of p rint- in g books and m agazines in colo r. Bu t t h ere were oth er r easons as well. Serio us photographers cook pride in t h eir expressive darkro。m craft; the tones of a black-an d -wh ite print were easi ly man ipulated in t h e han ds o f a master. Color pho- cographs either looked accu rate o r they looked wrong. Also, dark r。。m colo r c hem icals required more att en tio n , so q u ali ty con trol favored the auto ma ted processing machines in h igh-volu me com m ercial labs. Until the 1970s n。 ph。tograph­ ic a rtis ts could make a livi n g just by sell ing prints, so the ir darkr。。ms were us ually econ omical- s m all spaces with s imple equ ipmen t. There were few options for a modest color dark room . Color materials had (and continue to have) permanence issues; over t ime, col。m fade a n d ch a n ge. In m useums you can see many pristin e examples of black-and呐1ite prints made by the fi rs t generatio n of p h otograph ers in the 19,h cen - tury. Research in to the lon gevity of ph。tographs proved th a t, with careful processing and s to rage, silver-based b lack-and -whi te pri n ts a n d negatives can last n early forever . But t h e n ews about color U咀s a ll bad. It was so bad that u nti l the mid -1970s most m useums, because 。f thei r obligation co pre- serve 。同ects in their care, would not collect color p h o tograph s at all Photographers who wanted thei r prin臼 to outlast them would口’E tak e a c h ance. Colo r photography arrived-sudden ly, 1t seemed-in the mid -1970s. Art schools and Lm i- versi ties t hat had o nly recently introdu ced ph。tog­ raphy courses fo und them increasingly popular. Art departmen臼 grew fro m teachi ng o n e o r two p h o to classes to offering a full academic maj时， which meant expan di ng thei r faci lities to meet the demand Color photography classes entered William Eggleston. Gree，，附od, Mississ,”i, 1973. Egg/es臼n had his 35mm color transparenci，臼 madei.，，阳司ye tran价rprin恒. Now discontinued, the dye transfer P_rocess was labo户巾tensi，昭and required absolute precision, but the prints are amo，结 the most permanent and accurate color photographs ever made. 2 0 8 H I STORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY In 1978Jan C伊oover exhibited color pho阳－ graphs at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York. Because So啊，abend was lcno附for exhibiting Pi叩，，，i­ nent conte明po叩,yp由nters and sculp归rs, the appea俨 an臼ofcolor pho阳，graphs 印used a sensation. Writing about herwo旷k almost ten years later in the New York Times， 的tic An吵 。undberg said, “'When 。明e appeared on the co,er of Art forum magazi叫 it was a signal that pho阳，gra­ phy had arri时din the a叫 附rid-complete with a marketplace 归 support iι ” \ Artforum. January, 19 79. the course catalogs and school labs set up color processing machines. More facilities meant more emerging artis臼 with color portfolios, and more color prints on view. Newly available research showed t hat cooler temperatures slowed the deterioration of color photographs. Museums began constructing refrigerated vaults to s tore the color photographs they could then collect, and some photographers found r。。m in their studios for freezers to keep their color negatives. For years, Kodak ignored pleas fr。m com- mercial photographers and artists alike for a more permanent color printing paper, but Fuji listened. They began to marl也E color paper in 1980 and improved its 口pected lifespan with a new version eve1y few years. Photographers-and collectors- began to trust that color photographs wouldn’t vanish overnigh t. Colo r photography was valid ated by muse- um exhi bit ions. S tephen Shore was represented by color prints in the enormously influential New Topograph ics exhibition at the George Eastman House in 1975. Although color photographs had been shown occasionally at New York’s Museum of Modern Art since 1937, its 1976 exhibitions of 飞.Vil were hailed as a 叭，atershed in the acceptance of col。E ph。tographs as fine 缸t Stephen Shore. South of附ama曲Falls, U.S. 97, Oregon, July 21, 1973. Shore pho阳•graphed with an 8 × 10 view camera using color film. The resulting prints '7here’s something arb占ra,yabout 臼king a picture. So I can stand at thee司geofa h吵way and take one step forward and it can be a natural landscape un阳uched~ man and ／酬阳ke one stφ加c/c and include a guard-have saturated colors_，卢，，ede阳ii, and cry宫阳/line clarity but, he Sd）侣， 飞it's that awaren甜。,freally looking at the everyday world wi，阶 clear and focused attention 阶at I'm interested in ” rail and change the meaning of the picture radi，臼fly." His not-so-arbitrary decision 曲stφback allowed him 归 rai：且questions about the nature of pictures. C HAPTER ， 。 然 209 Digitαl Photogrαphy p R巳D ECESSORS T oday, i白 di俑cult t o t h ink o f a sector of our society t h at isn ’t a仔ected in s ome m easure by digitize d imagery. T he print an d media industries, the ans, m edici ne, politics, and sports all use an d depend on d igital images. Web sites and apps such as Snapchat, Instagram, and Facebook regale us with the latest pictures of frie nds, pe臼， kids, and everyth ing else in ways that few people could imagi ne even a decade ago. M a ny of photography’ s inven t ors were g ro unde d in t h e sciences, for 口ample, William Henry Fox Talbot (page 184) and Sir Joh n Herschel in t he early 19由 century. Talbot, coin- cidentally, was friends with Charles Babbage, a mathematician whose “ difference engi ne," was the fi rst successful automatic calculator-t he direct ancestor of today's computers. In the mid-20由 centu厅， scientists and engineers played key roles in devel。ping digital imagi ng systems. Space navi- gation and mapping drove th e development 。E for example, t he H ubble telesc。pe an d advan ced television cameras The impulse t o m a n ipulate photographs is n early as o ld as 由e m e d ium itself. Long before computers were invented, people wan ted to do (an d som e were d。i ng) one of the 巾ngs t hat d igital imaging does s。 well-combining imag- es. Herny Peach Robinson (page 200), Oscar G. Rejlander (right), and o thers cut, p臼ted, masked, 缸1d reph otographed images to ma!也 allegories, illustrate Biblical stories, an d create dramatic 。g s imply a musing scenes. In the early 20th cen tu ry, artists like Man Ray and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy (page 203), Hann ah Hoch, and John Heart field created surrealistic- and s。metimes polincal-mon tages I ns钮，，t feedback was a n elu sive g o a l for phot o g raphers. Until t h e availability of Edwi n Land’s firs t Polaroid camera in 1948, there was no practical way，。ther t han years of experience, to know if a captured image would match t he expe.c- tations 。f the p hotograph er. Polaroid’s instan t- print cameras and fil m were enorm ously popular for snapsh。“， and their professional fi lms were an essential proofi ng step in stud ios, but most 210 H I STORY O F PHOTOGRAPHY instan t fi lms limited th e photographer to produ c- ing-like t h e early daguerreotype-only a small, uniqu e print. Dig it al imaging s o o n re a ch ed a popu la r a udience. Soph isticated computer equ ipment was used to generate new special effects and m卜 m ation techniques in popular fi lms like Star \Va盯 {1977). Dazzling imagery captivated au d iences, including fi lm makers and artists who began to glimpse and use t he visual possibi lities (see pages 2 12-213). C。mpeti tion among Koda!飞Sony, Fuji, and other cot porations led to the introduction of cameras t ha t could capture an im age digi tally, an d sh。w it to the ph otographer immediately, in the early 1990s. In Janua巧， 2008, t h e Japan ese camera manufacture凹’ trade organ ization report- ed fi lm camera sales 。f less t h an 0. 1 % of total cameras sold; after t h at t h ey stopped inclu d ing fil m cameras in their month ly sales reports. Oscar C. Rejland，配问lander Introduces R可lander the Volunteer, c. 1865. R吃ilanderoβ·en pieced 阳·~ether negativ，自阳produce composite images. He enjoyed theatrics and pho归•graphed himself and other军 di.平laying emotionι made character studies, and created comp Ii，臼阳d allegori，臼Is，臼nes. 归伪h坦·If portrait, he appears as both the artist and the soldier he is 巾traducing. Jim Stone. Dawn and Krista at the Lemonade Stand, 与yra阳血， New York, 1984. To 户hotograph strang- ers, S旬，，e used a now-discontinued Polaroid instant positiv，电／negative film in his 4 × Sview camera. It made an instant print that he gave 归his SUψcts 归 make sure they附re comfortable with the image, and a negative he kept to make 归也uprints. 7百e film pack, a sandwich of black-and-white film and print pape巧 contained a pod of developing chemicals that would process the materials after ex- posure-in daylight-in twenty seconds. The 斤·ame's distressed edges, visible in the image abo吨 are the result of including a part of the negati时阶at extended beyond the ins阳nt print's masked w由ite border. CHAPTER ，。 然 川 Digitαl Photogrαphy BECOMES MAINSTREAM T h e 1990 int roduction of A d o be Photo s hop w as a major t urning p oint in t h e aαeptance a nd u se o f digital im aging. An early exhibi- tion, D锣ta/ Photograp抄 Cap阳陀d Image.毛 Volatile Memory, New Montage ( 1988) gathered work by artists such as Paul Berger, MANUAL (Suzanne Bloom and Ed Hill), Esther Parada, Martha Rosier (page 76), and o thers who used digital imaging for a variety of purposes. T he flexibi lity of digital imaging and the integration of applications o n the computer led many artists to exp！。re cross- media and interdisciplinary production using 1nsrallat1ons, music, and video. In the 1990s, many traditional photographers, who had long been committed to black and wh ite, began us ing color, in part because digital techno l- ogy simplified color management and made the printing process m ore accessible. 212 H I STOR Y OF PH OTOGRAPHY In less t h a n a gene ration, digital technol- o gy t ook ove r 由e m edium of photography. Anyon e who owns a camera, or even just a cell ph。ne, is an image maker. In 20 17, Facebook claimed that its members upload 136,000 ph。tos eve1y sixty seconds. By 2014, there were more active cell ph。nes than people in the world, and about 95% of them were camera phones. Virtually every- o ne in the world 1s carrying-and using-a camera D igi tal manipulation of images is common- place, whether in the news, in advertising, or in the si m ple act of removing unwanted power lines (or unpleasan t relati s) fr。m o ur s口apshots. T h e allure of ph otography has always in part been abou t controlling and even altering our experi- ence of reality. We have experienced a revolution wh ose contours and implications we are just beginning to understand. Martina Lopez. Heirs Come to Pass, 1991. Lopez was a pioneer in the use of digital collage, or composit- in阜 as a 卢，，e art medium 7百is pie出 references her own family's photographic archi吨， and she imagines herself as all the female characters, but the figures all came from found photo- graphs. Individuals印，，s 附m assembled using a very ea吵 ν·ersion of Photoshop, before version 3 (in 1994) intro- duced L砌的 and a/lo附d each piece of a composite to beman伊ulated 时dividually. Direct high咛uality print- ing from diiJtal fil<臼 was not wide.世d时i/able at the 时，e. Lopez坦-nt 伪e completed file 归a film recorder to create a 4x 5 film tran平,arency仇。tshe 伪en printed剧。bachrome (now called 1/fochrome) in a co/orda放，即m Nancy Burson. Warhead 1, 1982. Burson made combination portraits like 伪h 。”e after working with scientists at MIT in the 1970s 归 develop software to graphically advance a portrait subject's apparent age (it was used to find se时rat ’”issing children). This digi，臼I composite superimpo阳images of five 附rid /eade.，骂，伪e visual阳讲t of臼ch face represents how ma’,yofthe附rld's nuclear warheads they controlled: Ronald R臼，gan (55%) and Leonid Br，臼＼nev (45%), wi伪 Margaret Thatcher,二丹·anfois Mitterand, and De’飞gXiaoping (each less than 1%). It was made n臼r夕a decade before photo-quality digital printers appeared; Burson used a film camera to photograph her composit，由displayed on a CRT monitoι then made exhibition prints in a darkroom. CHAPTER 10 也 m More Leαrn How to Use a search engine to fi nd pages 。n a specific topic. Most browsers h ave search e ngines a l- rea dy st。red as b。。kmarks, three useful 。nes among many a re c。ogle, B,ng , and Yah。。 Type keyw。rds to locate your top,c, using sev- era I t。 narrow the search. A recent search 。n t he ke沪N。rd phot':f,'aphy in En_glish tu rned u p 。ver 1.5 billio n sites. Narr。wing the search t。 photography museum listed 8 m ,lhon p。ss1b1 li­ ties. Changing the searc h to photography museum Roch田ter NY reduces the n u mb er E。 a still- daunting 650,000 entries, but the first 。ne 。n that 11st ,s pro bably the 。ne y。u’d want-the h。me page fo r the Ge。rge Eastman Museum. M。st u mvers1t1es and public li braries have c。mputers that are always 。n l ,ne, meaning they are c。nnec四d to the In四rnet. M。st cof- 自eehouses and many 。ther bu引ness白。他r free WI陀less ( Wi存） connewon to the Int ernet chaε y。u can use ,f y，。u bnngyour 。wn laptop c。m­ pu四r, tablet，。r smaπph。ne. T。 c。nnect fr。m y。ur home, y。u need a com put er, tablet， 。r smartph。ne and a c。n­ tract wit h an Internet Service Provider （。r ISP) A l。cal c。mputer retail store can help answer questl。ns, a nd nu me rous self-he lp b。。ks are av副lable on the topic Further informatl。”。” ph。tography is readily available. Many b。。ks and magazines extend techn ical 1nformat1。n； 。thers re produce greaε examples-b。th c。n四mp。rary a nd h istorical- 。f practical and aπ，st,c ph。t。，graphy. The b,b- l，。graphy。n page 226 and a local 。r university library are g。。d places to start Camera store pe陌。nnel can answer questi。ns ab。utthe pr。ducts 由ey sell. Additi。nally, the sta怦， n m。st camera st。res are 。丘en avid ph。tographers themselves, and they m ay b e eagerε。discuss ph。E。graphy-espec,ally when the store ,s n。t c rowd ed O nline magazines, portal sites, and biogs are very useful fo r ma ny m户口 Any。ne can staπ and maintain a blog （。nginally weblog), a regu- la rl y updated Web s，回They 。ften include links to other, s,m,la rly focused biogs. Over t ime, some have grown larger, blurnng t he defi m- ti。n S。me a re like pub lic d,an凹， 。thers c。n- s。hda四 poπfol ,os 。r εechn1cal inf.。m、at,on， 。r feat ure in四rviews, b。。k reviews, a wards, and c。ntests. T ry DPRev,ew. c。m, FlakPh。mc。m Fraw。nMagazine.c。m, and Le nsCulture. c。m to seeεhe range Also 四e the hst 。fWeb Sites feat un ng the work 。fphotographe目 repre- sent ed in ch ,s b。。k，。n page 2 20 AWebbr。wser is t he s。仕ware program your c。mputer uses to rea ch t he World W ide Web Do m inating the fi e ld are M。zi lla Firefox, Ap ple Safari, G。。gl e C hro me, and Micros。仕 Internet Explo rer. They a re free (b ut you need t o use 。ne t。d。wnload an。ther), and m。st c。mputers are s u pplied with at least 。ne alread y install ed Your Web browser le ts y。u type in a l。c.at1on 。r a ddress, called a URL (f.。r Uniform Res。urce Locator), to rea ch a specific Web page Ad d resses begin w ith http：／／。rM的V M。st pages c。n阳n links that C。n nect y，。u d irect ly to 。ther related pages si mply by clicking 。n t hem. Your b rowser lets you save a ny URL as a 胁。k­ mark s。 y。u can easily re tu rn t。此 Advanced classes and w。rkshops are 。fl'ered aim。st eve叩where, &om guided photo tou陪m professional l『ght,ng sem inars. Ask about them at a camera store, a local c。mmumtyc。liege or u n附rs,ty， 。r search the Internet (see b elow) The In回met can answer aim。st any question you may have about ph。E。graphy Like an imme nse library, the w。rldW由Web gives you a ccess t o , nformaεi。n， 。pinions, and ,m- a ges. O n ,t y。u ca n search fo r prices and o rder b。。ks, supplies, a nd eq u ipment And y。u can show y。ur 。wn phot。graphs t o any，。new,ch an Internet c。nnecc，。陀w。rldwide …一 一 一 一 一 ＝ 一 ｝ 副 主 一 一 田二U H EF－ －f 囚 一一国 一…副 ～ ltf:i~1 EEEEZ。5 3 2 －2 2 圭 FmN零 一 一 位 一 … 一 三一塌 葫 嗨 一 斗 圄 … 配 工 一 二 四 囚一回 刷一 － 73 4 ·’ 响w 2· ” 是 g E S Ph。tography 。rganizations h ave gallenes and libraries; many p ublish newsletters and books and-hke Light Work, the Syracuse, N ew Y，。rk a rtist' s space sh。wnab。ve-spons。r a rtists with res1denc1es, gran臼， and in 。ther w ays. Find 。ut ab。ut their pr。g日ms &om their Web sit es 叫咱 叫阿··一叫嗣 ”一川·’w 一－～…一一一甲恤阳明 Museums have sites 。n the Int ernet. This 。ne has an 。n hne vers1。n ofa book-lengt h cata - l。g-an exhib1t1。n 。f landscape ph。E。graphy t hat w a s held at the Smi ths。man Ame rican Art M useum. lnformat1。n ab。川 ind1v1dual aπ眩目旺。仕en presen四d a lo ng w ith images Product information is plentiful 。n t he Web Camera m a kers featu re n ew p ro d ucts a nd pr。－ v1de l istings 。f lenses a nd access。nes. Paper ma n ufact u rers' s1白毛 hke ln nova's shown here, have pnn阻’ profi les y。u can download , as well a s c。mple四 pr。d uct l1st1ngs H OW T O L EA R N MO R E 2 14 Troubleshooti！些 1'-rom tim e to t im e, ever y p h otograph er enco unte r s ca ptured 1mag凹， scans, I or pri口ts that d isplay unexpected problems. T h is sect n c an help y。u巾 d、e ca use o f some com m o n probl e m s-and ho、、， to p r event t h e m in t he fu ture. SOLVING CAMERA AND LENS PROBLEMS IMAG E AREA COMPιETELY BLACK Cause: The sensor ( or 刷m) recerved n。四p。sure Prevention· Increase exposure by several stops and sh。。t again Check that the lens cap is 。ff. Wi th electronic flash , the Aash may n。E have fi red LIGHT STREAKS. Image area flared 。r foggy looking 。veral l. If y。u use 民Im, darkened in a negative, lighte ned in a pn nt 。r slid e, with 民Im ed ges u旧的cted. The ,mage may als。 showgh。sting 。r ge。metnc sp。ts in the shape 。fthe lens d1aph用gm Cause: The sun, a bnght bulb， 。r。ther l,ght s。urce was w1th1n 。r close to the ,mage， 。r b n ght hght struck t he lens a t an angle Prevent，。”： Expect s。me Aare ,f y。u can see a light s。urce in your viewfinder. The l a咆er 。r b nghter the hght, t he m。re 自are y。u w ,11 get, d istant 。r d1 m l 1gh臼 may not pr。duce any A are at a ll. T。 pre- vent stray light fr，。m stri king t he lens, use the c。rrect size lens shade for y。ur lens 币，cal length (n ght ) . Even with a lens shade, make sure the sun ,s n。t sh,nong directly 。n y。ur lens PICTU R E NOT S H A RP. Easier to see in a n enla rged print 。r screen display at 100% magnoficatl。n Cause: Too slow a 址、utter speed will blur a moving subject。r blur the picture 。verall due to came阻m。口。nT。。 w,de an apertu陀w, 11 make t he scene sharp where y，。u focu坦d It but n。t ,n front 。for behind t hat part. An 四t陀melyd，πy lens can somet,m臼 reduce sharpness 。ve阻11, especially when c。mb,ned with lens 自are Prevent，，。”： U臼a faste r sh utter speed 。r smaller apeπure， 。r supp。π the came用m。re stead ily. Keep finge rpn nts and dirt 。何the lens V IGNETTING . Image obscured or ve叩dark a t the c。rners Cause: A lens shade，而lter， 。r b。th pr，。＇Jected E。。 far fo阳•ard 。fthe lens and partially blocked the image fr。m reaching the lens Prevention· Lens shades are shaped to match d，伯rent focal-length lenses (nght ). Use t he c。rrect shade for your lens：，田。 l。nga le ns shad e can cau四vignetting, b ut 。ne that IS E。。 shall。wwill not provid e adequate pr。四口，。n from flare. Using more than 。ne filter。r a filter plus a lens shade can cause vignetting , espe- c1ally with a sh。rt lens ([ Lens shade for l。”Z伽：al•leng甜lens ＠应 Forsho呻·focal•le，”Z曲lens T R O U BL ES HO O TI N G 2 15 SOLVING CAMERA AND LENS PROBLEMS, continued LIN ES T ” ROUGH IMAG E. Cause· N。nresp。nd,ng CCDs A line 。n a d igital camera ph。E。 means a r。w。fCCDs o n t he sensor ,s n。t collecting p ixel data . A 1 ,ne 。n a sc.an 1s from a single d ead CCD that m。ves across the ,mage Prevention· Focmg the problem may mean replacing 出e scanner 。r cam- era, but suc h lines a re easy to retouch in the ,mage. Ph。toshop lets y。u selecεa single-pixel row or c。lumn a nd adJUSt it sepa阻四ly (see als。 Lines Across a Pn肘， page 2 19 ) OUST S P E CKS . Dark 。r black specks 。r marks 。n a digi臼I image, clear specks 。n a negative Cause· Dust 。n the sensor 。r 民Im dunng exp。sure. 81白。f d ust 。n t he hg ht-sens1t1ve surface w,II keep the light b。m reaching a small part 。f ,t duri ng the exp。sure Prevention· Keep the m引de 。f t he camera dust 什ee by carefully blowing 。r dusting camera surfaces when y。u change lenses 。r reload fi lm （四e p age 29). Clean d ust 。ut 。f t he cap thaεc。vers the back 。fy。ur le ns before use. Specks can be retouc hed d uri ng image ed iting to re- m。ve t he m but It 1s better not to get them. 21 6 T ROUBL E SHOOT I NG LIGHTNESS / DARKNESS PROBLEMS S UBJ E CT VERY DARK AGAINST LIGHTER BACK- GROUND. Cause· The me四r averaged all the t。nes ,n ,cs angle of v,ew, the n c。mputed an exp。sure 品。r a m1dd le-g日y tone. The p roblem ,sεhat the average 。f the 。verall scene was lighter than a m iddle tone, s。 a ppears t。。 dark Prevention: Don’t ma ke an 。verall reading w h en a subject 1s against a much lighter background . Instead _, m。ve in cl。se to me te r JUSt a paπ 。f the su bject t ha t 1s middle-toned, then seεyour shutter speed a nd aperture acc。rdmgly （坦e pages 70-72). 每 一－ SUBJ ECT V ERY LIGHT AGAINST DARKER BACK- GROUND . Cause: If t he su bject 1s c。。 light, Y。ur me ter was overly mff uenced by a dark background a nd 。verexposed t he image Prevention: D。n't make an 。verall read ing when a subject 1s against a m uc h darker backgro u nd. Instead , move 1n close to meter JUSt a paπ 。f the subject t hat 1s m iddle-toned , then set your shutter speed and aperture acc。rdmgly (see pages 70-72) SHARPNESS PROBLEMS NOT ENOUGH （。r t h e wr。”g p art) OF TH E S C E NE IS IN FOCUS . Cause: 1 . N。E en。ugh depth 。ffield. Too wid e an aperture w ill result in shall。wdepth 。f自eld, making the scene sharp where y。u foc used the camera, b ut not ,n front 。f。r behind that pa同。fthe scene. 2 Shutter speed was t。。 slow, subject 。rcamera m。ved dunng exp。－ sure. 3 . Camera wasn’ t focused 。n t he main subject Prevention: 1. Ch。。se a smaller apeπure. 2 . Ch。。sea faster shutter speed 。r set the camera 。n a tnp。d . 3 . Ch。。se manual 币OCUS， 。r make sure you kn。w h。wy。ur autofocus lens selects a 自，cus d is- tance ( see page 43 ) A LL O R PART OF SCAN OUT OF FOCUS. Cause: If the e ntire i mage 归。ut 。ffocus, the scanner v,b甩出d dunng the exposure 。几 with fi lm, the 。nginal 1s held t。。 far fr。m t he scan- ner’s plane 。f focus . If part 。f t he scan ,s out 。f而ocus, the scan ner may have been b u mped dun ng t he scan. The film may be buckling 。r m。vmg d unng the scan， 。r may not be he ld fl at en。ugh Prevention: Make sure the scanner sits 。n a s。l,d surface and ,s not vibrated by nearby equip ment. A glass h。Ider or c。vering sheet will keep the fi lm flat, b ut may introduce Newt。旷s n ngs, undesired 阳n­ bow-c。lored patterns. Spe口al ant1-Newton glass is av副Iable FLASH PROBLEMS PART OF SCEN E EXPOSE D CORRECTLY, PART TOO LIGHT OR TOO DARK. Cause: ObJec臼 ,n the scene were at d，的rent distances from the flash, so were exposed to d。他rent am。u n臼。f light Prevention: T，叩 to group imp。rtant parts 。f t he scene a t ab。ut the 姐me d旧ance from the fl ash (see page 148) FLASH PROBLEMS, continued ONLY PART O F SCENE EXPOS E D . Cause: Sh。。t1ng at to。也st a shutter speed with a came甩出at has a foca l pla ne shutter, such as a single-lens reflex camera . The flas h fi red when t he sh utter was n。t fully 。pen Prevention· C heck manufacture r’s instructions fo r the correct shutter speed to sync hronize with 由ash, and set the sh utter-speed dial acc。rdingly F。r m。st cameras, 11,;o sec is safe：，也ster speeds are usable w ,th s。me cameras. The fl ash shutter speed may appear 。n y。ur came阻’s shutter-speed d ia l ,n a d倪rent c。1。r h。m the 。ther shutter speeds， 。r it may be marked w,th a n X SUB』ECT APP EARS TOO DARK OR TOO LIGHT. Manual flash 坦mngs are m。re likely to cause problems t ha n automatic 。pe阻口。n, wh,ch reads t he 1 llum,nat1。n from 由e 刊ash t hrough the le ns. M。re ab。ut flash 。perati。n。n pages 146-147 Cause: T，。。 dark-the scene was underexposed, not enough l,ght reached the 民Im 。r臼肘。r T。。 l ,ght-too much lig ht reached t he 白Im or sensor. Semng exp。sure fo r Rash manually, an 。ccas,onal too d ark 。r lig ht fra me p robably results from setting the lens aperture ,n- correctly 。r making a n exp。sure before t he flash ,s fu lly c harged Prevention: In manual 。pe用tion, increase the 四posure ab。ut a stop for scenes shot 。utd。。目 at night 。r ,n a la rge room like a g归nna- s1um; t he relatively d ark surroundings abso巾 l ight that would 。ther­ wise b ounce back to ad d to the exposure. W ith a n。n built-in fl ash , 1f y。ur p ictures a re freq uently to。 dark, t叩 setting the fl ash u n比m ha lf the ISO y。u are using Close d。wn the apeπure ab。ut a st。p when shooting ,n small, l 1ght-c。lored rooms to c。mpensate for excess light b。uncing back from walls and ceiling. W it h a non bu1lt -1n Rash, if your pictu res a re usually 。verexp。到d a nd too hght , t叩 semngεhe fl ash u n『t to twice the ISO y。u are using TROUBL ES HOOTING 217 SOLVING FLASH PROBLEMS , continued F l ash p。inted s trai g ht Same scene shot at reflec创ve surfaεe at an angle UNWANTED REFLECTI ON . Cause· Light bouncing b ack fr。m reflective surfaces such as g lass, m ,r- r。r， 。r shiny walls Prevention· P。Sltl。n the camera aεan angle to hig hly reflective surfaces 。r a im the flash at the subject 击。m。仔came阳 RED EYE. Ape目。n’s o r animal ’S町es appear red 。r amb er ma c。l。r p ic ture, ve叩l ight ,n a black-a nd-white p icture ( see page 148) Cause· Light reAect1ng from the bl。。d-nch retina insid e t he eye Prevention: M。ve the flas h away fr，。m the le ns 。r have the subject l。。k slightly m。ne sid e of the camera . Turning the subject's head slightly can a lso prevent bright re何配。。ns b。m 町eglasses. S。me cameras have a red-eye reduction m。de: t he fl ash ligh臼 up briefly before t he main 凹p。sure so that t he su bject’sins c。ntracts, red ucing the am。unt of v1s1 ble red 218 TROUBLESHOOT I NG SOLVING COLOR PROBLEMS GREE NI S H LOOK TO SCE NE OVE RALL. Cause: Scene shot ,n fluo rescent light, which e mits d目pr，。p。rtl。nate am。un臼。fgreenish light. See a lso Unexpec四d col。r cast, bel。w. Prevention: With film , try an Fl filter 。n the le ns. Seε the w hite balance of a d igital camera to flu。rescent ( see pages 6 a nd 58) BLUISH OR R E DDISH LOOK TO SCENE OVERALL. Cause: C。l。r film or a d igita l camera’ s wh，因 balance semng n。E matched to the type of hghtmg 。n t he scene Dayhght fi Im shot m incandescent hght will g ive a reddish l。。k Prevention: F，。r a m。re realistic c。l。r balance, seε the white balance of a d igita l came阻m the type 。f lighting used (see pages 6 and 58) Use a # 80A filte r fo r a scene lit by incandescent ( ab。ut 3200K) light bulbs. Use daylight-balanced fi lm 1n daylight 。r with flas h UNEX P E CTED COLOR CAST. Cause: Light re由ected fr,。m a nearbyc。lored 。bJeCt can g ive a c。l。r cast to the scene. The shad e of a t ree can add a n unexpected l。。k to skin t。nes because t he lig ht was fi ltered th rough c。l。red leaves, here，。range fall leaves. S1m1larly, light b。unc1ng 。百a str。ngly c。I ­ 。red wal I can tint t he scene the c。l。r of t he wall. The e的Ct IS m。st n。口ceable 。n skin c。nes or ne utral t。nes like wh1目。r gray. Prevention : T1叩to rec。gnize a nd, 1f you w,sh, av。1d the situation. In some cases, t he color balance 。fselected a reas can be adjusted separa四ly d uring image ed山ng SOLVING OTHER DIGITAL PROBLEMS P IX ELATION . Edges look stair-stepp ed. Details are indistinct Cause: Image res。l ution m。 l。w fo r the intended use Prevention: 72 dp1 IS ideal fo r display 。n a m。nitor, but p ri n ting fr，。m an in kjet o r dye-subl ,matl。n pnnter requires 180-360 dp,. If y。u scanned the 『mage, rescan 1t at a higher dp『 setti ng. If the image came from a d 1g1tal camera, t叩Ph。toshop lmage> lmage Size to resamp le the image a t a h igher d p1. Next time
y。u ph。tog阻ph, use a highe r resoluti。n
SOFT IMAGE. De阳Is 1n the image a re not sharp.
Cause: Possib ly p。。r 币ocus o r camera moveme nt ( see Picture not
sharp, page 2 15 ). Extreme fi le c。mpression UPEG, page 8 1) is
sh。wn in the example ab。ve
With a digital camera, quality level IS too low. At low-quali ty
settings (a lso called basic or tpod队 the camera c。mpresses the image
fi le. When the image IS reopened and u nc。mpressed, details can be
Jost. The visible results may b e negl1g1ble when pnn臼 are very small,
but w1II be n。”ceable ,f they are enlarged
Prevention: T1叩m a nticipate the fina l size and reproduction method
for y。ur images. P1ctur自由 b e used only 。n the Web can be shot
前 low quality. Use the came阻’s h ighest quality setting 1f you m『ght
ever want to make 8 x 10-1nch o rlarger prin臼
All digitally captu red pictures need some sha甲ening ( page 104) .
lfy，。u a re JUSt starting 。ut, you may n。t be used to JUSt how u nsharp
y。ur unsharpened ph。tographs w ill appear.
D IGITAL NOIS E. C。lored specks in dark a reas.
Cause: Often 。ccurs 1n shad。wareas, 1n ph。tos taken at night，。r in
low light with a long 剧p。sure
Prevent，。”·Try shooti ng at a lower ISO; instead 。f ISO 800 。r 1600,
try ISO 1 00 。r 200. Try Phot。sh。p FilteρN。，se>Despeckle. This
reduces the n。ise, alth。ugh It S。仕ens the image somewhat
BANDING. Un剧pected bands in areas w ith n。 de阳I .
Cause: W ith a d 1g1ta l camera, scene may have been sh。t at t。。 high an
ISO setting. S。me fine patterns, like a wind。wscreen, may create a
pattern ( called moire) w he n 。verla1d with the p阳el gnd
Prevention: T1叩sh。。ting the scene with a lower ISO Y。u m ight need to
use a tnp。d and a sl。wer shutter speed 。r add lig ht from a ff ash 。r
。ther lig ht s。urce
OVERS HARPE N I NG . De阻，i ls too c由pand c。ntrasty that may
sh。wd igital n。，se; c。lored 而i-ingesal。ng ed ges
Couse: Ove陪harpening the pnnt while scan ning o r while w。rking 。n
the image 1n an image-edit ing prog日m (see page 104)
Prevention: Rescan the pnnt, transparency，。r negative without sharp-
e n ing 1t. With a d1g1ta l came阻 image, return to the 。rig1nal d 1g1tal
自le, if比 has n。t been sharpened. When y。u resharpen the image, d。
sowt引le v『ewing at 100% magni币Cati。n
LIN ES ACROSS A PRINT.
Cause: Misaligned 。r cl。gged pnnt heads
Prevent，。”： U坦 the pnnter’s s。仕ware u tility t o check for a problem The
ut1 I町will a lso align head s, pn nt a test pattern, and ru n cleaning cycles
TROUBL ES HOOTING 2 19

Photogrαphers ’ Web Sites
‘’、／ e b p ages a r e t o day’ s gallerie s ; many photographers use
Y Y them to show a broader sampling of their work than they could
in a gallery exhibit or a monographic b。。K Compared to those venues,
a Web site is also available to be seen almost anywhere at any time and
can always be updated to include new work. Use the links below to find
out more about the photographers whose work appears in this b。ok.
Adams, Ansel
Adams, Shelby Lee
Avedon, Richard
Barney, Tina
Bateman, Edward
Brooks, Drex
Burson, Nancy
Carey, Alison
Cartier-Bresson, Henri
Chin, Christine
Comen,Sam
D’Amato, Paul
De Keyzer, Carl
Divola,John
Dujarclin, Filip
Eggleston，飞亨illiam
Ekberg, Adam
Envitt, Elliott
Fink, Larry
Fontcuberta,J oan
Frank, Robert
Galvan, Laurisa
Gilbertson, Ashley
Gilden, Bruce
Gonzalez, Dionisio
Gossage,John
Gould, Meggan
Harker, Santiago
Harvey, David Alan
Hatal也yama,Naoya
Hocks, Teun
looss，飞亨alter
Joh nson, Keith
Jones, Lou
Jones, Peggy Ann
Joyce, Kate
Karsh , Yousuf
k过lip, Chris
anseladams.com
shelby-lee-adams.blogspot.com
richardavedon.com
tinabarney.com
xmission.com;- capteddy
drexbrooks.com
nancyburson.com
alisoncarey.com
magnumphotos.com
christinechin.net
samcomen com
pauldamaro.com
carldekeyzer.com
divola.com
filipdujardin.be
egglesrontrust.com
adamekberg.com
ell1otterw1tt.com
billcharles.com
fontcuberta.com
pacemacgill.com
laurisagalvan.com
ashleygilbertson.com
magnumphotos.com
dionisiogonzalez.es
loosestrifebooks.com
meggangould.net
santiagoharker.com
magnumphotos.com
takaishiigalle1y.com
teunhocks.nl
walteriooss com
keithjohnsonphorographs.com
fotoj。nes.com
pinhole.us
kate-joyce.com
karsh.org
chriskillip.com
220 PH O T OGRAPHER S’ WE B S ITE S
Klett, Mark
Koo, Bohnch ang
Kost,Julieanne
Koudelka,Josef
Leibovitz, Annie
Leventi, David
Liebling,Jerome
Lopez, Martina
Mandel, Mike
Manzano,Javier
McFarland, Lawrence
markklettphotography.com
bck。。.com
jkost.com
magnumphoros.com
contactpress1mages.com
davidleventi.com
jeromeliebling.com
marrinalopezph。to. com
thecorner.net
Jav1ermanzano com
lawrencemcfarland.com
Meiselas, Susan susanmeiselas.com
Miralle, Donald donaldmiralle.com
Misrach, Richard fraenkelgallery.com
Moho！沪Nagy, Laszlo moholy-nagy.org
Oberschneider, Christoph oberschneider.com
Owyoung, Todd toddowyoung.com
Padula, Warren wpadula.com
Parr, Martin
Pinkh assov, Gueorgui
PoKempner, Marc
Richfield, Robert
Richter, Christian
Robinson, Geoffrey
Robledo, Maria
Rosier, Martha
Ro飞.vin, Stanley
Schafer，如iichael
Sch erer,Jim
Shennan, Cindy
Shore, Stephen
Siskind, Aaron
Smith，飞V Eugene
Sohier, Sage
Sod飞 Alec
Stein,Amy
Sternfeld,Joel
Stone,Jim
marttnparr com
magnumphoros.com
pokempner.net
robert-richfield.com
r ichterchristian.com
geoffrobinsonphotography.co.L也
judycasey.com
marrharosler.net
stansrudio com
mschaefer-srudio.de
jimscherer.com
metropicruresgallery.com
stephenshore.net
aarnnsiskind.org
magnum photos.com
sagesohier.com
alecsoth.com
amysteinphoto.com
joelstemfeld.com
j1msrone com

？『..
Strembicki, Scan
Tarnowski, Tom
T aylor, David
T urner, Pete
Ulrich, Brian
Umbrico, Penelope
van Coller, Ian
scrembicki.com
ccarnowskt n ee
dcaylorphoco.com
peteturner.com
nocifbucwhen.com
penelopeumbrico.net
U川ancoller.com/
Brian Ulrich. Untitled (Thrifi 0509), 2005.
Obsolescence comes quickly in the d也-ital
world, as you can see 时 this photograph from
Ulrich’s坦·rieso，，伪rifi s.阳res. VI也know伪rough
Vanderwarker, Peter
飞;tiebb, Alex
飞;tleems, Carrie Mae
飞;tleifenbach, Terri
飞;t’haley,Jo
飞;t’illis, Deborah
xRezScudio
ad晤时ising伪at the equipment and如冉咽re for
making photographs are cons阳ntI.r_evolvinι but
如are 阶e pictures附can view on/ine. Use the list
on these two pages to check 巾。，，your favorites.
vanderwarker.co m
magnumphocos.com
car riemaeweems.nec
scephendaicergallerγcom
jowhaley.com
debwillisphoco.com
xrez com
PHOTOGRAPHER S’ WEB S ITES 221

Glossαrγ
Aberrati。n Opcical defecc in a lens (sometimes
unavoidable) cau sing d iscorcion or loss 。f
sharpness in 由e final image
Adapter ring A ring used z。 attach one camera
’cem co anocher; for 四ample, co ac臼ch a lens co
a camera 川 reverse p。si c i。n in 。rder co increase
image sharpness when 岛cusing 四叩closeco che
SU同ect.
Additive c。lor The chree pnma叩 colors (red,
green, and b lue) chac can be mixed as lighc co
macch any。cher c。lor. See Subcraccive c。lor.
Ambient li~ht See Av.由lable lighc
Angle 。f view Theam。unc of a scene chac can be
recorded by a parcicular lens from a given posi·
u。n; decermined by che focal lengch of the lens.
Aperture The lens 。pening formed by che iris dia·
ph咱gm insid e che lens 节回 size is variable and
adjusced by the apercure con tr。I.
Aperture control The ring 。n che camera lens
{a push buccon on s。me models) chac, when
turned, adjusts t he size 。f che 。pening 川 che
ins diaphragm and c hanges che amounc of light
cha, reaches che film
Aperture•pri。“ty m。de An aucomat1c exposure
system in which che ph。cographer secs the ap·
erture (f·scop) and the camera seleccs a shuccer
speed for normal exposure
Application See s。fhvare
Archi叫ng c。P归ng a nd storing d igica l files ,n a way
thac proceccs against I。ss
ASA A film speed racing similar to an ISO rat1 ng
Aspect ratio The raci。。f叫dth co heigh, , a mea·
sure 。f che shape of a rec国ngle. A came阻 chat
uses a sen曲，wich 1’h t imes che p ixels measured
h。rizoncally as vertically has a 3:2 aspect 阻cio.
Automatic exp。sure A mode 。f camera opera·
ti。n in which che camera aut。macically adjusts
eicher che apeπure, t he shuccer speed，。r both
for normal exp。sure
Aut omatic Rash An ele口ronic flash unit chat us臼
ics I吵！·sensitive cell o r the came阻’s co deter·
mine the duration of the flash for normal exp。－
sure by measuring the light reflec四d back from
che su同ect.
Available light The hghc chat a lready ex眩目（as
opposed co being a dded by t he photographer)
where a ph。tograph is to be made
Averag ing meter An exp。sure meter with a wid e
angle of view. The 川dicaced exposure is based
on a n ave闯京。fall t he light val ues 川 che scene
B See Bulb.
B缸kup An 四act duplicace 。f a digital fi le or set
。ffiles, made as prote口ion against loss
Bell。ws An acc。，di。作like secti。n inserced be·
tw回n t he lens and che came阳 b。dy. In cl。坦·up
photography, the bellows all。ws cl。ser·than·
normal 自由usin品 resulcing 川 a larger image.
Binarγ number A n um ber consiscing only 。f。ne
。r m。re ls and Os
Bit The smallesc un oc 。f information usable by a
computer，川d,caced by a 1 。r a 0, describing
one oftw。 c。nditi。ns: on or off.
Bit dep由 The number 。f b its used to represent
each pi胆l 川 an image, determining che number
22 2 GLO S SARY
。f possible divisi。ns 。r steps 。f color and cone
betw四n black and 咐，时
Ble ed mount To mount a princ S。 there ,s n。
b。rder between the ed ges of che pnnc and the
edges of the m。uncing surface.
Body The l,ght·c,ghc box t hac contains t he came阳
mechanisms and procects t he sensor or fi lm from
lighc until you are ready to make an呻出ure
s。unce light Indirect light produced by p。，nco ng
che light source a c a ceiling or ocher surface co
refl ecc che hght back toward che subJecc. S。仕er
a nd less harsh chan d irecc hght
Bracke ting Taking several ph。cographs 。f che
same scene a c d ifferent exposure settings, some
grea阻， chan and some less chan the secting indi·
cated by the meter, to ensure at least one well·
exp。sed frame
Built-in meter An exposure meter in t he camera
chac takes a light read ing {usually chrough the
came由 lens) and rela归exposure informacion to
che ele口ronic c。ntrols 川 an automatic camera
or to the phocog阻pher if t he came阻 ，s being
operated manually.
Bulb A shuccer·speed se口ing {marked B) at which
che shuccer stays 。pen as I。ng as che shuccer re-
lease is held d。wn.
Bum in To darken a specific area 。f an image ,n
a darkro。m, by giving ic additi。nal print ing ex·
p。sure Hence t he name 。f Phocosh。p’s Burn
E。。l
Byte A unic 。fdigital data. A n umber represen四d
by 8 b ics. Used co measure s，扭。r capacity 。f
a c。mputer fi le or device See a lso Kil。byte,
Megabyte, Gigabyte
Cable release An encased wire thac accaches at
one end to the shuccer release 。n che came阻
a nd has a pl unger 。n the other end t hat che
ph。tog阻pher depresses to activate the shutter
Used to av。id came阳 m。vemenc or co activate
由e shuccer fr。ma d iscance
Calibrate To adjust a device, for 四ampl e, a c。m·
puter monitor, co match a pred efined standard
Camera Raw O ne 。f several proprietary fi le for·
mats chat preserve a ll che data fr。m a d igital
came阳 piccure 明白 ”。 after-capture incerpreta·
CIOn .
CCD Cha rge-coupled device. One of cw。叩pes
。f lighc•sensing d evices {the 。cher is CMOS)
placed in a grid E。 make the sensor 川 a digital
came阳 Also used in scan ners.
CC filter {for c。l。r C。nversi。n or c。l。r C。rrec·
cion). A E阳nsparent fi lcer placed in front 。f the
came阻’s lens co a lcer che color 。fche lighc, usu·
a ll y to adjust 、vhite balance
Center-weigh ted meter A through-the lens 四po­
sure mecer that measures hghc values from the
entire scene but gives greacer emph缸，s to chose 川
che center。f the image area.
。。”·up A larger·cha n-normal image 。bcained
by using a lens closer than norma l to che sub·
jecc
Cl。se.•up lens A lens accached t。 the fronc 。f an
ordinary le ns co allow focus ing at a sh。rcer
distance in order to increase image size.
CMOS Complementary metal 。xide semiconduc·
cor. O ne o f cw。叩pes of l ight·se阳ng devices
(che o ther is CCD) placed in a grid to make the
sens。r in a d ig1tal camera.
CMYK The bas,c sec 。f four col。rs used in most
printing presses a nd deskt。p printers: cya风ma·
genca, yellow, and black. Also t he color mode
usually used in the profe臼山nal graphic am
and print ing i ndusoγThe 。ther c。mm。n c。lor
mode is RGB {red, green, b lue). Files can be
scored and edited in e1ther mode and converted
between chem. See Subtraccive c。lor.
c。lor balance 1 The prop。m。”。f di促renc c。1 .
。陌川 a whice light s。urce 2. A film’s resp。nse
co t he colors in a scene c。l。r fi lms are bal·
anced 岛ruse wich specific lighc S。urces 3. The
repr。ducc i。n 。f colors in a p h otograph. See
Whice balance.
Color management A means of coordi川ac ing the
color 。utpuc 。fvari。us d evices s。 che c。l。rs
you see o n a m。nitor, for example, will be t he
ones chat will appear when you print t he image
Col。r s pace 1. A syscem for defining specific c。1 .
。阳， for example, RGB or CMYK. 2 A predefined
gamuc, for example, sRGB, Adobe RGB (1998),
or ProPh。z。
Color temperature Description of the col。r 。f a
hghc source. Measured in degrees Kelvin (K)
c。mp。site A”’mage ma de from pam 。f队v。。，
m。re othe们mages.
c。mp。und lens A lens made of several e lements
c。mpression A means 。f reducing t h e size of
a digital image fi le in order co red uce st。r·
age requirements 。r cransm1ss1on time across
a necw。rk. “Lossy” cechniques permane ntly
elimina ce some 川for『nacion m 。btain h ighly
compressed, ve叩small fi les L。ssless techniques
compress images 、响chouc losing any informa·
cion in t he fi le. See JPEG.
c。ntrast The di何erence becween che ligh t and
dark pam 。fa scene 。r ph。tograph
c。ntrasty Having greater·th an·n。rmal di仔er·
ences between lighc a nd dark areas. The 。ppo·
site offlat.
Crop To crim che edges of an image，。ften co im·
prove t he c。mp。创汇，。n. Cropping can be d。ne
by moving che came阳 posici。n while vie叫ng a
scene, d uring image ed,cing，。r bycrimm川g the
finished print
Darkr。。m A m。m where a nalog ｛阳m·based)
phocographs are developed and pri nted.
Dep由。f field The discance be队veen che nearest
and farchest p。，nts chac appear in accepcably
sharp focus 川 a p hotograph Depch of fie ld var·
ies with lens aperture, focal length, and came陆－
[O·SU均e口d眩目nce
。iaphragm {iris diaphragm) The mechanism
controlling che size 。f che lens 。peni ng, there·
fore the am。unt ofl唱ht tha c reaches the sens。r
It consiscs 。f 。verlapping metal leaves inside
che lens chat h ’m a circular opening of variable
sizes. (You can see it as 归u look inco che front
of the lens ) The size of the 。pening is referred
co as theιstop or apeπure

Di仔used light Light t ha t has been sζattered by
re由ecti。”。旷 by passing t hrough a translucent
mat erial. An even，。ften shad。wless, I吵t
o;gital camera A camera tha t rec。rds an image
di rectly in d igital form, i nstead 。f。n c。nven ’
u。nal silver film .
o;gi国I imaging A means by叶，ich a photO!j旧phis
rec。rded as a d,gi国I image that can be read and
mani p ulated by a c。mputer a nd, subsequently,
reformed as a visible image.
o；。pter Uni t 。f measurement that ind icates the
magnifying p。wer of a close-up lens
Direct light Light shining directly 。n t h e sub·
ject and producing stro ng highlights a nd d eep
shad。ws
Directional/di阪，sed light Light cha t is partly do ·
rect and paπly scattered . Softer a nd less harsh
tha n d irect light.
D。dge To lighten a n area 。f a darkro。m-made
print by shading it d u ri ng paπ 。f t h e p rint·
ing exposure. Hence the name o f Phot。shop’s
Do dge to。I.
Dpi D。自 per inch; a meas ure o f the resol uti。n 。f
a p hotomechanical halfo。ne 。r the res。lut i。n
capacity 。f a d igital print er. Frequently (but
川accurately) used for t he final res。lucion of a n
image, actually ppi. See Ppi .
D叩m。unt T。 attach a print to another surface,
usually a heavier mat board , by placing a sheet。f
adhesive dr沪m。unc tissue beiween the print and
the m。unting surface. Generally, chis sandwich
is placed 川 a hea四d mounting press to melt t he
adhesive 川 the t1ssue Some tissues are p陀ssure
sensitive a nd d。 not need to be heated
DSLR 。r 0 -SLR Digit a l single -lens reflex. See
Single-lens re由ex.
Electr。”ic flash (strobe) A camera accesso叩that
provides a brief but p。werful flash ofl协E A bat·
te，γpowered unit requires 。ccasi。nal recharging
o r battery re placement but, unlike a fl ashb ul b,
can be used repeatedly.
Environ mental p。同rait A photograph in whic h
the subject’ s surroundi川gs are impoπant to the
poπ阻，t
Exif Exchangeable image file format Information
about the camera，始时，and 四p。sure that ,s au·
tomatically stored 叫th each fi le by t he came阳
See Metadaca
Exposure 1. The act o f allowing light to strike a
light•senmive s urface. 2. The amount 。f light
reach川S tha t s urface, c。ncrolled by the c。mbi·
nation of aperture a nd shutter speed
Exposure meter (light meter) An 川scrumem chat
measur臼 the amount oflight and provides aper·
ture a nd shutter-speed combinat1。ns for corr出E
创p。sure Exposure meters may be built into t he
came阳M they may be separa四 in日rumen臼
Exp。sure m。de The cype 。fcamera 。peration
(such as manua l, shu tte r-priority, aperture·
pri。ricy) t hat determ川es whic h controls you
set a nd which 。nes t he camera secs automati·
cally. S。me cameras 。perate in only one m。de.
O th ers may be used in a variety 。fm。des
Extension tubes Metal rings attached b etween
the camera lens a nd the b ody to all。w closer·
than-no rmal fo cusing in order to increase the
image size
Fast 1 Describ es a sen sor when ,c ,s set t o a
high ISO 2. Describes a lens that 。pens to a
ve叩wide aperture. 3. Describes a short sh utter
speed The 。pp。site of slow
File A quantity 。f d a ta st。rage on a compu ter.
Each ph。tog阻phis saved as a single file .
File format One 。f several 日andard ways a p ho·
E。graph can b e enc。ded d igitally. Se e JPEG,
TIFF, and Camera Raw
Fill light A light S。urce or reflect。r used E。
lighte n shad。w areas s。 th at contrast is d e·
creased.
Film A roll 。r sheet 。f a flexi ble materia l c。ated
。n one side wit h a I吵t•sensi t ive material and
used in t he ca mera to rec。rd an image
Filter 1. An editing c。mmand t hat p erforms a
specific adjustment to a file, like sharp凹，ng 2.
In an image d at a base, a search E。。l for fin di ng
a specifi c , mage 。r group 。f i mages，也r exam ’
pie, E。 find all pictures ta ken a t f/ 16 .
Fisheye lens An e班reme wide-angle le ns c。ver’
ing a 180° a ngle of view Straight li nes a ppear
curved a t the edge 。f t he p hotograph, and che
image itself may be circular.
Flare Noni mage•forming hght tha t reaches the
image sens。r, resulting in a loss of contrast
Caused by stray light reflecting be队veen the sur·
faces of che lens or 川side t he camera
Flash 1. A sh。π burst 。f『，ght emitted by a n e lec·
tronoc fl ash u nit or strob e to illuminat e the
scene being photographed. 2. The eq ui p ment
used to produce this hght.
Flat Having less-than-normal d，何erences beiween
l吵E a nd da而 areas. The 。pp。site o f cont阻sty.
Focal length The d,scance rrom an incemal pa同。f
a lens (the rear nodal p lane) t o che ,mage plane
when the lens is focused 。n 川自阳ty. The focal
length is usua lly expressed in millimeters (mm)
and determines the a ngle of view (how much of
the scene can be included in t he picture) a nd the
size of。bjec臼 川 the image. A 1 00mm lens, for
四ample, has a narrower a ngle of view a nd mag·
nifies 。同eccs m。re tha n a lens of shorter f,田al
length.
F。cal plane The surface insid e the camera 。n
which che lens 岛rms a sharp image
F。cal-plane shutter A camera mecha nism t hat
admits hght to expose an image by 。pening a
s li t j ust in fr。nt of t he focal pla ne.
F。cus 1. The p。int at whic h the rays 。f light
c。m川Z thro ugh t he len s c。nverge to fo rm
a sharp image. Th e pictureι 气n focus”。r
sh arpest when this poin t c。incides wit h t he
foca l plane 2. To change t h e l ens·to·sens。，
(or lens·to•fi lm) d ista nce (or the camera-to·
subject d旧ance) until the image is sharp
F。cusing ring The band o n t he came阻 lens cha t,
when turned, moves t he lens in rela tion to the
foca l plane，而ocusing the camera for s pecific
distances.
F。cusing screen See Viewing scr四n.
Frame 1. A single exp。sure 。r image. 2. The edges
。fan image.
F-stop (f·number) A numerical designati。n (f/2,
町2.8, e tc } indicating t he size 。f t he a perture
(lens 。pening).
Gamma The 阳目。f brightness change, a measure
。f川sual c。ncrast The lo ne in a g阻phic d isplay
。f t h e tones 。f a n ima ge (like Ph。tosh。p’S
Curves dialog b。x) has a higher gamma 、叶，en 1c
has a steeper slope.
Gamut The range of c。lors t ha t can b e seen or
t hat a particula r d evice can capture 。r re pro·
d uce. For examp le , the ra nge of colors t ha t a
digita l came阻 can record.
Gh。sting 1. A kind 。f flare caused by reflecco。ns
between lens surfaces. It appears as bright spots
the same shape as the apeπure (lens 。pen mg).
2. A c。mbined b lurred a nd sharp image t hat
。ccurs when 何ash is used wit h b right existing
light The flash crea tes a sharp image; t he ex，目－
ing light adds a blurred image if the subject is
moving
Gigabyte Approximately 。ne bill i。n bytes or 。ne
tho usand megabytes (actuall~ 1,073,741 ,824).
A measure 。f computer fi le size 。旷 device stor·
age capacity. Abbreviated G or GB
Glossy Describes a printing paper with a great deal
。fsurface sheen. The 。pp。site 。f matte
Gray card A card t ha t re何ects a kn。wn percent ·
age 。f light falling 。nit. 0白en has a gray side
reflecting 18 percent a nd a whit e side refle ct·
ing 90 percent 。f the light Used E。 take ac·
c urate exp。sure mete r read ings ( meters base
their exp。sures o n a gray ton e 。f 18 p erc ent
re fl ectance). Some gray cards are als。 c。l。p
neutra l, to be used for坦tcing C。lor balance
Guide number A n umber rating for a flas h u nit
t hat can b e used to calculat e t he correct ap
erture for a particular ISO speed and fl ash -to·
SU同ect d istance
Hand-held meter An exp。sure meter chat ,s sepa·
rate from t he camera.
Han d h old To s upport the camera w it h y。ur
ha nds rather t ha n wit h a trip。d or 。ther fi xed
suppoπ
Hard ware The pr，出essor, monitor, printer, and
。ther ph庐ical devices cha t make u p a c。mputer
system. See s。ftware
HOR H唱h Dynamic Range; a n image with a s pa n
。f brightness 咀lu臼 grea四r than t he range chat
c an be captured 川 a single exp。sure. Several
bracke ted exp。sures can be merged into o ne
HOR image.
Highli供 A ve叩 l ight a rea in a scene 。r image.
Als。 called a h吵刨出
Hist。罗志m A g阳ph that shows the distri bution of
tones or c。lo陌 in a digital image
H。t sh。e A clip 。n the top o f the camera that
attaches a fl ash u nit and pr。vides a n electrical
link to synchro阳ze the fl ash with t he camera
shutter, el im川ati ng t he need for a sync c。rd.
Hyperfocal distance The distance to t he nearest
。同e口，n focus when t he lens is focused 。n in·
fin 11y. Setting t he lens t o focus 。n this dista nce
instead 。f on 川finicy will kee p the farthest 。b·
户口S 川 focus as well as extend t he depth 。ffield
四川elude 。均旺臼 closer to the camera
Incid ent-light meter A ha nd-held exposure meter
t hat measures t he amou nt of light falli ng o n t he
SU协口 See also Refle口ed·I吵E me阳e
Infinity Designated oo. The farthest distanc e
marked 。n t he focus ing ring of the le肘， gener·
ally about 50 feet. When the camera is focus ed
。n infi nity, a ll 。同eccs a t tha t distance 。r fa rther
away will be sharp
Infrared Wavelengths of electromagnetic rad oa·
ti。n , like hght b ut slightly longer than th。se in
t he visible sp旺crum. Ph。tog阻phs can be ma de
fr.。m reflect ed infra red radia c,o n with special
equipment 。r film .
Inkjet A d igital p rint er tha t s prays m,crosc。p,c
droplets 。fink 。nto a recept ive surface (see
Media) to create t he appearance 。f a concin u·
OUS·t。ne ph。tograph
G LO SS ARY 223

Interchangeable I凹S A lens that can be removed
from the came阻 and replaced by another lens
lnte币。lation Estima ting th e data between cw。
known points. Used to crea四 a finer grid of pix·
els than what was captured
IPTC l nternati。nal Press Telecommunicat1。ns
c。uncil A form of metadata chat can be added
t。 an image file a白er capt ure
Iris diaphragm See Diaphragm.
ISO A numerical rating that 川dicates t he sensitiv-
町（speed）。f a sensor o r film. 节，e rating dou·
bles each time the sensitivity doubles
JPEG A 叫。ssy” format fo r saving d igital pho·
E。graphs (see File) tha t C。m presses data E。
preserve space in t he c。mputer’s mem。叩. See
c。mpresso。”
Key light See Main light.
Kilobyte Approxi mately 。ne t housand bytes ( ac·
cually 1,024} A measure 。f c。mputer file size
o r device storage capacity. Abbreviated Ko r KB
Latitude The am。unt 。f over· or underexp。sure
p。ssible without a signifi cant change in the
quality 。fche image.
LCD Liquid Crysta l Display. The ki nd of th in, fl at
visual display screen 。丘en used for 。”’camera
m。nitors and data displays, as well as com·
puter m。nitors and televisions.
Leaf shutter A camera mechanism that adm,cs
light to expose fi lm by 。pening a nd shutting a
circle 。foverlapp川g metal leaves
LED See Light-emitti ng diode
Lens O ne 。旷 more pieces 。f。ptical glass used to
gat her a nd f。cus light 阳庐m form an image.
Lens cleaning flu id A liquid made for cleaning
lenses
Lens c。ating A thin, transpa rent coat ing on the
surface 。f the lens that reduces light reflections
L回s element A single p iece of optical glass t ha t
aces as a lens 。r as pare of a lens.
Lens h。。d (lens shade) A shield chat fi臼 around
the lens to prevent unwanted hght from entering
t he lens and causing flare.
Lens tissue A soft, li nt·rree t issue made specifi·
call y for cleaning camera lenses. Not t he same
as eyeglass cleani ng tissue
Light-emitting d iode (LED) A d isplay in the
vie、vfinder。fs。me came阻S cha t gives you infor·
mation ab。ut aperture and shut ter-speed set·
tings or 。ther exposure da臼
Light meter S四 Exposure meter.
L。ng·f.。cal-length lens A lens t ha t provides a
narrow a ngle of view of a scene, includi川Z less
of a scene than a lens 。f normal focal length
and therefore magnifyi ng o bjects in the image
O仕en called telephoto lens.
Luminance A rela tive measure 。f brightness, re·
fleccance，。r value, i ndependent 。f col。旷（hue)
and saturati。n.
Macro lens A lens specifically d缸，gned for close·
up ph。tography and capable 。fgood 。ptical
pe斤。rmance when used very cl。se co a su帐目
Macro·ph。togr在phy Production ofimages 。n che
sens。旷。旷日Im that are life size 。r larger.
Macro·z。。m lens A lens that has close-focusing
capabil i町plus variable focal length
Magnificati。n The size 。f an obj旺E as it appea陌
,n an image Magnification 。f an image taken
by a camera is det ermined by the lens focal
length. A lo ng-focal-length lens makes an 。bjecc
a ppear larger {pr，。叭ides greater magnifi cation)
than a sh。町，focal-length lens
224 GLO SSAR Y
Main light The pri ma叩 source of i l lum 1nat1。n ,
cast ing the d。minant shad。WS. s。meti mes
called key light
Manual exp。sure A nonautomatic mode 。fcam·
era 。peration in which the phot，。grapher secs
b。th the apeπure and the shutter speed
Manual flash A nonautomatic m。de of fl ash op·
eration in which che photographer c。ncrols t he
exposure by adjusting the size of the camera性
lens aperture.
Mat A cardboard rectangle 、响th an 。peni ng cut
in it that is p laced over a print to 骨ame it . Als。
called an 。vermac.
Mat cutter A short kn ife blade (usually replace』
able) set 川 a large, e臼Y E。·h。Id ha ndle Used for
cutting cardb。ard moun臼for prin臼
Matte Describes a printing paper wit h a relatively
d ull, nonrefleccive surface. The 。pposite 。f
~！。ssy.
Media A t。。回归，m for t he vanous papers, inks,
and 。ther materials used in a d唱’tal printer，。r
for the 以毡，i。us cards, tapes, disks, and other
items used for scori ng digital da臼
Megabyte Appro州mately 。ne milli町、 bytes {ac·
cuall y 1,048,576). A measure 。fc。mputer file
size Abbreviated M or MB.
Mem。叩card An in-camera, removable, and reus·
able storage device that rec。rds and saves 1m·
ages captured by the camera u ntil y。U transfer
the fi les to a c。mputer 。r 。cher sco阻ge device
and erase (reformat) it.
Menu A l ist 。f choices, like c。mmands or a吗USC•
mencs, th缸 ，s dis played by an application or
operati ng s归回m 。n a c。mputer screen
Metadata I nformau。n ab。ut informatl。n In
digital ph。tog，阳phy, the camer毡， exp。sure, and
subject data scored in the image fi le
Meter 1 See Exp。sure meter. 2. To take a light
read mg 、vith an exp。sure mecer
Middle gray A standard, a明白ge g阳Y cone 。f18
percent reflectance. See Gray card
Midtone An area 。f medium brightness, neither
ave叩dark shadow n。r ave叩bright highlight
Mirror A pohshed, metall ic reflector set inside a n
SLR camera body at a 45。 angle to the lens E。
reflect t he image up o nto the foc using screen
When a picture is taken, the m川or moves 。Ut
。fth们咀y so t hat light can reach the sensor.
Negative 1 An image with col。rs 。r dark a nd light
tones that are the 。pp。site 。f those in the 。而gi ·
nal scene. 2 Film that was四p。sed 川 the came阻
and processed to form a nega即e image
Neutral-density fi lter A p iece of dark glass or
plastic placed in front of the came阳 lens to de-
crease che i ntensity 。f light entering t he lens. It
affec自由p。sure b ut not color.
N。is• Pixels 。f阳nd。mc。lors and brightnesses,
mosco仕en appearing 川 che dark areas 。fadigi ·
ta l image.
N。rmal品cal-length lens (standard lens) A lens
that pro呐ides ab。ut the same angle 。f帆ew 。fa
scene as the human eye
Open up T。川crease the size 。fche lens a perture
The 。pposite 。fstopdown.
Operating system 。r Disk Operating System
(DOS). Management so仕ware, usually supplied
with the computer, t hat stares when you b。。E
up {turn 。n t he power to) the c。mpu四r and
perfi。rms such 。peraci。ns as reading from and
w时cing to hard drives, and 。pening and manag·
川g applicati。n s。fcware. Comm。n 。perating
systems are Mac OS X, Wind。ws 8, and Unix.
Opti目I storage A daca storage mediur啊， such as
a CD, DVD, or BD, t hat uses light (usually a la·
ser) to read and 州白，nformacion
Overexp。se T。 make an 四p。sure with too much
light , making a p icture that is t oo hght
Ovem咀E See Mat
Palette A data b。X that appea陌 on a compute♂s
m。nit。r Palettes d isplayed by i mage-ed山ng
s。仕ware o何er tool 。ptions, provide informa •
ti。n, and so o n
Pan To move the camera during the exposure ,n
the same dorecci。n as a m。vi ng sub』ect. The ef.二
位口，S that the subject stays relatively sharp a nd
the background bec。mes blurγed.
Parallax The d iffere nce in point of view that oc·
curs when the le ns （。r other device) th ro ugh
which the eye vi缸吗 a scene is separate from the
lens that exp出自由e film
Pentaprism A five-sided 。ptical device used 川
t he eye-level viewfinder of a single-lens-reflex
camera to correct t he image from the focusing
screen 回 chat it appears right side up a nd cor·
rect le阮E。而ght.
Perspective The optical i ll usi。n in a two d imen·
SI。nal i mage 。f a three』dimensional space sug·
gesced primarily by c。nverg川g lines and the
decrease in size of。同ects 也rcher from the cam·
era.
Ph。”flood A tungsten lamp designed especially
for use in ph。tographic stu dios. It emits hght a t
3400 K color tempe阳cure
Ph。to-micrography Phot。graphing t hro ugh a
microscope.
Ph。tom。ntag• A c。mp。Site image made by as·
sembling pares of t wo or more ph。tographs
Pini、。le A small clear sp。t on a negative usually
caused by dust 。n the fi lm duri ng exp。sure or
development.
Pixel Sh。町 for picture e lement The smallest u nit ,
usually square，。f a d 1g1tal image t hat can be
dosplayed 。旷 changed.
Plane 。f critical focus The pare of a scene that 陆
most sharply focused.
Plug-in An add·。n s。白白，are m。dule for a pro·
gram 。r appl icati。n t hat extends its capab ih·
t ies. Some applications (such as Photoshop)
are made s。 that 由ird·阳rry developers can pro·
duce and market plug-ins.
Polarizing screen {p。larizing filter) A fil ter placed
in front 。f the camera lens to reduce reflecti。ns
h。m n。nmetallic surfaces like gla且 orw.田er，。r
to darken t he sky.
p。sitive An image wit h col。rs o r light and dark
tones that are similar to t hose in the original
scene. See Negative
Ppi Pixels per inch, a measure of the res。luti。n of
an image that has a ph庐ical size, like 。ne t hat
has been printed or is displa阳d 。n a monitor.
Prima叩 c。lors A set 。f basic colors t ha t can be
mixed to match any ocher c。lor.
Print 1. A tw。 dimensional image, usually 。n an
opaque surface like paper, made fro m a cap·
tured, scanned, or drawn image fi le 2. T，。 pro·
duce such a n image.
Pr。fi le The data for a digital device, such as a
printer or monitor, that describ臼 its gamut，。旷
range 。fc。lors. Used to match the gamut from
one device t o an。ther. See c。lor management ,
Gamut
Programmed aut。matic A mode 。f aut。matic
exp。sure in which t he camera se臼 b。th t h e
shutter speed a nd the aperture for a n。rma l
exp。sure

胁。。f A test .print made for the pu币。se of evalu·
ating dens,cy, c。ncrast, c。lor balance, subject
c。mposition, and the like.
Quartz lamp An incandescent lamp chat has h咀h
intensity, small size, I。ng life, and c。nscanc
c。lor temperature
Raw fi le A digita l camera file 。r scan chat con·
tains p ic tu re information exactly as 旺 ，s ac·
quired. Most raw file formats used in cameras
are proprieta叩， or specifi c to t he came目 manu’
facturer, and must be int erpreted before edit·
川g See Came阻 Raw.
Reflected-light meter An exposure meter (hand
held or built into the camera) t hat reads the
amount of light reflected fr。m the subject. See
al四 Incident-light meter.
Reflect。r Any s urface-a ceiling, a card, an um·
brella, for exampl• used to bounce light 。nto
a SU同ecc.
Reflex camera A camera with a b uilt-in mirror
that reflects the scene being photog，闯phed 。nto
a gr。und·glass viewing screen. See Single-lens
reflex
Resampling Changing a file E。 create the same
image w1th more or fewe r pixels to achieve a dif·
fe renc resol ut1on . Called u psampli ng for m。re
pixels, downsampling for 告wer.
Resin-c。ated paper Printing paper 、呐th a water·
resistant coating t hat a bsorbs less moisture
than a fiber-base paper. Abbrevia四d RC paper
R<>s。luti。” 1. T he total n umber 。f pixel s 川 a
camera sens。r, for example, a 2000 x 3000
pixel grid has a resoluti。n 。f 6 megapixels.
2. The number 。f pixels per u nit length, gener·
ally a measure 。f maximum image quality. See
Ppi.
Ret。uch To rem。ve small imperfe口i。ns in an im·
age caused by d ust specks or fla、吗 in t he pro·
cess. 剧姐， to re move perceived imper也ccions or
fta、吗川the SU同ecc.
RGB A c。lor mode chat uses the additive pro ma叩
colors (red, green, and b lue) to match any ot her
c。lor. See CMYK
Scanner A device chat 。ptically reads a c。oven’
ti。nal negati ve, slide，。r print , converting it to
digital form for u辑用digital imaging.
Sharp Describes a n i mage 。r paπ 。f an image
that shows crisp, precise 回回ure and detail. The
。pposite 。f blurred 。r so阮
Sharp凹ing A software manipulation 。fan ,mage
that increases contrast in areas 。f cone cransi·
n。n and creat自 由e V1sual sensation of a mo陀
sharply focused image
Sh。e A clip 。n a camera for attaching a flash
unit. See als。 Hot shoe.
Shoπ.f,。cal-length lens (wide-angle lens) A lens
that pr，。呐des a wide angle·。f.响ew 。f a scene,
includingm。，e of the subject a rea than a lens 。f
n。rmal focal length
Shutter A device in the came甩 出目 。pens and
closes E。由pose t he sensor or fi lm to light for a
measured length of ti me
Shutter-pri。rity mode An automac,c exp。sure
system 川which the ph。tographer sets the shut·
ter s peed and the 臼mera selects the aperture （ι
目。p) for normal exposure.
Shutter release The mechanism, usuall y a but ·
ton on t he top of the came由a that acti咀tes the
shutter to exp。se the sens。旷。r film.
Shutter-speed control The camera control that
selects the length 。f time t he sensor 。旷日Im is
exposed to light
Sid ecar file A file with the same name as a
Camera Raw file (but having t h e excensi。n
.xmp} that c。ncains added metadata Created
by programs that cann。E write new 川岛，mation
to a proprieta叩阳wfile
Silhouette A dark shape with l i ttle 。r n。 detail ap·
pearing against a light background.
Single-lens re fl ex (SLR) A type of camera 叫th one
lens that is used b。由岛r 川ewing an d for caking
the picture A mirr，。r inside the camera re由ects the
image up 川to the viewfinder. When the picru陀 is
t aken, this mirror mov目。ut of the w町， allo叫ng
the light entering the lens to era咽I directly to the
臼nsor or 币Im.
Slide A transparency made 川 the size 。f35mm
film . See Transparency
Slow See Fast
SLR See Single-lens reflex.
s。ft 1 Describes an image that is blurred 。r 。Ut
。f focus. The 。pp。site 。f sharp. 2. Describes a
sζene or print oflow c。nt阳St . The 。pposite 。f
hard o r high cone阻St.
s。食ware Ac。mputer prog阻m designed to per·
form a specific purp。se or ca沫， for example,
image editing o r w。，d processing (applicati。n
software) or an 。pe阻ting可seem.
S pectrum T he range of radiant energy fr。m ex·
cremely short wavelengths z。 e班，emely long
。nes The visible spectrum includes only the
wavelengths to which t he human 町e is sensitive
Speed 1 The relat ive abili ty 。fa lens to transmit
light . Measured by t he largest aperture at 、叶，ich
the lens can be used. A fast lens has a larger
maximum aperture and can tra nsmit more light
than a slow one 2 T he relative sensitivity to
l吵t 。fa sensor o r fi lm. See ISO.
Sp。t meter An exposu re meter with a narrow
angle of view, used t。 measure the am。u nt 。f
light from a smal I p。πion 。f t he scene being
ph。cog阻phed.
Stop 1. An apeπure setting tha t indicates the
size 。f the lens 。pening 2. A change in expo·
sure by a factor 。f 2. Changing t he apeπure
from one setting to the ne目 doubles 。r halves
the amoun t of light reaching the sens。r 。，
fil m . Changing t he shutter speed from 。ne
setting to the next does the same th ing. Either
c ha nges the exposure one stop
Stop d。wn To decrease the size 。f the lens aper·
cure. The 。pp。site of。pen up
Ser。be See Eleccr。nic flash .
Substituti。n reading An exposure meter readi ng
taken from s。methi ng other than the subject,
such as a gray card or the ph。tog阻pher’s hand.
Subtractive c。l。r A set 。f primary colors (cyan,
magenta, and yellow) that can be mixed as pig·
ments to ma tch any 。ther color The CMYK
c。lor mode adds black ( K} t o c。mpensate for
imperfecti。ns in manufacturing the 。ther three
c。I ors S四Additivec。lor.
Sync （。r synchr。nizati。”） cord A wire that
li nks a flash unit t。 a camera’ s shu tter-release
mechanism
Synchronize To cause a flash u nit to 自由、vhi le t he
came阻 shut回r is 。pen.
Tacking iron A small, electrically heated to。l used
to melt t he adhesive in d叩·m。unc t issue, a t ·
t aching it partially E。 the back 。f the pnnc and
to t he mounting surface. T his keeps the print in
place during t he mounting procedure.
Teleph。to effect A c ha nge 1n perspective caused
by using a long-focal-lengt h lens ve叩 far fro m
all parts of a scene. O bjects appear cl。ser co·
gether t han they really are
Telephoto lens See Long·f.田al-length lens
Terabyte Approximately 。ne t rillion bytes ( actu·
ally 1,099,5 11 ,627,776). Appr。ximately one
thousand Gigabytes. A measure 。f computer
file s,ze o r device st。rage capacity Abbrevia ted
T。r TB.
Through·由e.• lens meter (TTL meter) An expo·
sure me阳built into the came陆 that takes l吵z
readi ngs thr。ugh the lens
T IFF An open·s。urce ( not pr。prieta叩） format
f。r 且ving digital photographs (see File format)
that is readable by m。st graphic s。仕ware run·
ning on most computers.
Transpar凹cy (slide) A p。sitive ,mage 。n clear
fi lm viewed by pass川Z light through from be·
hind wit h a projector or 『，ght b。x
T巾。d A t hree-legged support for the came阳
丁TL Abbreviation for t h rough the lens, as 1n
through-t he-lens viewing or metering.
Umbrella reflector An appa由tus c。nscructed like
a paras。l 制th a refle ctive surface o n the inside
Used E。 bounce d iffused light 。nco a subje口
Underexp。” To make an exp。sure w1th too little
light, making a picture th缸 ，sm。 dark.
V,ew camera A camera in which the taking lens
forms an image directly 。n a gro und-glass view-
ing screen. A film holder or d igital adapter is
inserted in front 。f t he viι呐ng screen before
exp。sure The front a nd back of the camera can
be set a t vari。us angles to change the plane of
f。cus and the pe陌pective
V帽wfinder eyepiece An 。peni ng in t he camera
through which the photographer can see the
sζene to be photographed.
Viewing scree” T he surface on which the image
川 the camera appears for viewing T his image
appears upside d。wn and reversed left to right
un less the camera c。ntains a pencaprism to
correct it
Vignette To s hade the edges 。f a n image s。 they
are underexp。sed A lens ho。d t hat is to。 long
for t he lens will cut into t he angle 。f view and
cause 响gneccing.
Visib le spectrum See Speccrum
W hite balance 1. The c。lor balance of a wh1te
light source. 2. A setti ng 。r adjustment 。n a
camera or in an image editor that adjusts the
overall image colors for the light sou rce in
which it was captured
W ide-angle dist。而。” An unusual p erspecti ve
caused by using a wide-angle (sh。π－focal·
length) lens 四叩close to a su均ecr. O均配臼 ap·
pear stretched o ut or farthe r apaπ than they
rea ll y are.
Wide-angle lens See Shoπ－focal-length lens
w。由日。w A re pea t able series 。f steps leadi ng to
a desired result or product. A digital p hotogra·
phy w。rkfl。w includes, a t mi nimum, t he steps
between image capture and o utput
z。”“cusing Presetting the focus to ph。to·
graph acti。n so tha t t he entire area on whid、 the
action may take place w,11 be sharp
z。。m lens A 『ens 、叭th several moving elements
that can be used to produce a continu。us 阳nge
of focal lengths.
G LO SSARY 225

BibliQg！：＿α~lyy_
A vast n u mber of books on pho吨raphy are avail•
able, whecl,er ）＇咽ur interest is in ,rs techn iq ue or its
histOI’)＇飞 its use for aπ。r for commerce Look for
t hem online, or in your local librarγ， booksto町，or
camer在score
If you want a broader selection of books th四you
can 日，叫 Jo臼Uy, C巧， Phoco E）＇飞376 Garcia St reet,
Sama Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-5 152). This ph oto•
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ph otobook specialis臼are vincent如何它Iii.com 四d
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Lighclmpre据，ons, 2340 Brigh ron Henrietta Town
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lighrimpressionsdi时ct.com
Technical Reference s
Ang, Tom. Digital Photograp.加亏H刷品ook. 6th ed
New York: DK Publishing, 2016.
Ashe, Tom pα•／or Ma,wgement & Q.嗣lity 011tp11t:
Working iuith Color卢棚Camera to Displdy阳h切t
Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2014.
Evening, Marr川 TJ,e Adobe Pho阳•shop Lig，加。om CC/
h护troom6阳k Berkeley, CA: Adobe Pre白，2015. A
complete gu ide to che Adobe workflow application
-.A血he Pho.阳hop CC for Pho问fTaphers: 2016
Edition. Boston, MA: F配al Press, 20 16.
Faulkner, Andrew and Conrad C havez. Adobe
P阳阳sh-Op CCC阳sroom in a Book. Berkeley, CA:
Adobe Press, 20 17 Includes acc出s co che interactive
Web edition A good way to learn the b四cs ofche
mostpopul盯 image吃dicing sofrware
Hirsch , RobeπL也，，，，and Lens: Pho问?T•P·纱巾脚
D做阳l Age. 2nd ed Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2012.
Profusel)’’ ,illustrated, deεa’iled compend
c出ses 削d tech、mqu臼
Jones, Lou, Bob Keenan, and Steve Osrrowsk,
Speed/ii妙ts&Sp时•d/i.阳C附,arive Flash P加E结raphyas
Lightspeed. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2013.
Use small，川剧pensive, por四ble fl剖h units to
ach ieve professional results
Koh时， Kenned、 Phorojour,w/ism: 71加Pr~卢ssionals’
App，旧ch. 7th ed Boston, MA· Focal Press, 20 16
Complete coverage of equi.pmen飞 techniques， 阳、d
approach四used by p hocoJournahsts
Krogh, Peter. The DAM Book: Digi，阳／ Asset
Man鸣ementfor Pho问?T•P·加五 2nd ed. Cambridge:
0’R白lly Media, 2009. H。wtoorg剧、ize, keep, ar-
ch，咽， and find digital photographs
London, Barba阻，John Upton,Jrn、 Stone
P阳tograpl岁 1 2th ed. Hoboken, NJ: P国rson
Education, 20 16. Complete infom,anon about
both fi lm•b.臼ed and digital p ho tography, widely
used as a cexr Ve巧’ comprehensive
226 B I B LIOG R A P ”Y
Long, Ben. Complete D也italP阳•tograpl岁 8th ed.
lndependence, KY· Cou rse Technology, 20 14.
Excensive rnfom,anon, clearly 啊，rten
“－呻， Gettings，阳rted iuith Camera Raw: Hoiu阳Make
Better阿α11res UsingP加＆OS，加，pandPho阳•shop Elements.
2nd ed. Berkeley: Peachpit Pre盟，2009.
McKenz吨JO）＇刊nd D阻，el Overturf. Artifi，巾i
Lightingfor阶otograpl,y. Clifro n Park，阳· Delmar
Cengage Learning, 2009. Clear四pl削anon ofhght•
ing techniqu臼w1th visual examples
S副cha, Erni. Cap阳时One Pro JO. Mastering Raw
Development, Image h白白ssing, and Asset Ma,wll归”ent.
S甜 Rafael , CA: Rocky Nook, 2017. A complete
guide co the Ph甜e One workflow appl i，臼口。n
R时，呵， Andrew. α／orMa旧rgement如P加啼·aphm:
Hands on Teclmiques如P加＆OS，加，p Users. Boston, MA:
Focal Press, 2005.
Russot口， Patricia, and Rich ard Anderson. D总归I
Pho吨’·ap.抄Best Practices and Worliflow Handbook.
Bosto n , MA: Fo臼I Pre妇， 2009
Wilhelm, Henry. The Permanence andα附ofα，for
Pho吨rap.加· 1子-adit阳,w/andD，饭’dα•lorP,切龟α，for
Negatives, Slid，旺， and Motion 阿·ctt1res. A comprehensive
conse阿ation guide. The entire book may be down-
loaded free a t wilhelnwesearch.com/ book_toc html
Business Practices
Ameri臼n Sociel)•，。fMedia Photographers. ASMP
h电fessio,wl Business Practices in Pho吨rap.抄 7thed
New York Allworrl、 Pre蹈，2008
Bostic,Ma巧’ Burzlaff. 2018 P加tographe内Ma呻et:
Hoiu and \Vhere to Sell Yo”r P加tography. 41 st ed New
York: Noπh Ligh t Books, 20 17.
Crawford, Tad. Business and l.Rgal Forms户r
Pho问fTaphers 4th ed. New York· Allw咱πh Press,
2009
Du Bo仔， Leonard D. The Latu (in Plain English）户T
Pho吨fTaphers 3rd ed. New York· Allwoπh Press,
2010
Himes, Darius D., and Mary Virg川，a Swanson
Publish Your P阳tograpl岁Book. Revised, updated ed
New York Princeton Architectural Press, 20 14.
Kieffer.John. TJ,e Photograpl,e的Assistant: Learn t加
Inside Sec,咄ofPr~卢ssional P加E锣-aphy and Get Paid
j』r It. New York: Allworcl、 Press, 200 1.
Oberrech t, Kenn. How to S阳rta Home-Bared
Pho咐•p.抄B，.，；时ss. 6th ed. Old Sa·卢刚k,CT:
Globe P叫uot Press, 2010.
Swanson, Ma叩Virginia. Finding Yo”r A11dience: An
I’”’叫11ction to Ma呻四”，gYo11rPho问fTaphs m四wan•
son com· Selιpublished, 20 17. How to market
yourself挝a photographer in che Internet age
Essays, Collections, and Hist。对自
Adams, Robert. Beauty in P加鸣’·aphy: Essays in
D~卢nseofTradirional Values. New York: Apertu时，
2005. New edition of 1981 edition
Barrete, Ter巧’ 。听ricizing P加•tographs: An Introd11ction
阳Unde向阳ndinglmages. 5th ed. New York- McGraw-
Hill, 20 11. Widely used as a text to help develop
四chniqu臼 for discu臼rng photographs.
Barches, Roland. Camera Lllcida. New York· Hill and
咀:lang, Reprint edition, 2010
Benson, Richard The h切，·edPi，αure. New York:
Museum of Modern Ar飞2008 Eloquent d臼crip•
t ions of che way m四川ng ,s affected by printing
technologies
Berger,John. \flays of Seeing. New York: Pengu in
Modern C lassics, Reprint, 2009
Burgin, Victor. TJ,inking Photograpl岁 London­
Macmillan, 1982 and 1990
Colem拙，A D. T11eD也ital Evolution: Pl,ot，伊，phyin
the Elem恻ic Age. Portland, OR: Nazraeli, 1998
Corton, Chari。rce 1加Pho问fTaphasc。”的＇II户>rary
Art. 3rd ed. New York: Tham自由 Hudson, 2014
Frizoc, Michael, ed. A Neiu Hi.刷•ryof p阳锣’ttp妙
Koln, Gem,a呵’ Konemann, 1999 M拙s,ve,
bea‘Jt’ifully pr，叫uced, th、。r。ugh,a’、d rεlat’飞•e
‘e m四pens,v,
Grundberg, Andy. C时is of the Real: \Vrirings on
Photograpl,y Since 1974. 2nd ed. New York: Apeπu时，
R白ssue 2010. Readable, stimulating e坦ayson con•
temporary a臼U臼川 photog阳phy
Gustavson, Todd 臼，，,era: A History of Pho咐·apl,y
J>:om Dag11en吨严阳盹’ital New York: Sterli川g
Signatu陀，20 1 2 From theCuratorofTechnology
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History of P加E喀raphy. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Focal
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m巧’survey of the medium’s histo叩
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Mysteries of Photograpl,y. New York: Pengu in Press,
20 11 Es且.ys on t he nature of truth 川 photography.
Papageorge, Tod. Co时Cs1rricul1m,: Writings on
Photograp炒 New York: Aperru时， 2011
Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Phot＜＞；罗·ap.抄
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and profusely illustrated.
Shore, Stephen. The Na阳附ofPhotographs: A阳mer.
2nd ed. London· Phaidon Press, 20 IO.
So川ag, Susan. On P加均~aphy. New York Farrar,
Straus 胡d Giroux, 1977
S回rkowski,John. TJ,e Pho问?T•PI肝3号’e New York
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t ion catalog with 出says from the mediu m’s mosc
mfluennal curator
Wells , Liz. Phot＜＞；罗·ap.抄ACritic.ti Int时，，ction. 5 th ed
New York: Routledge, 20 15

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 227

Photo Credits
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Leib。vitz/C。n臼ctPress Images, pp. 9 (bottom right), 73, 159 (b。ttom}©RKM Archrve; p 10
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Melvi lle, NewY，。rk; pp. 14 (top), 112 (top) C。urtesy of Can。nυSA; p . 21 (top)Josef
Koudelka, Magnum Photos; p. 21 (bottom) C。urtesy of Na。ya Hatakeyama and Taka lsh”
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p 30 Geoffrey Robi川son／剧amySt。ck Ph。to; pp. 33, 118 Courtesy xRez Srudi。s, Inc.; p 35
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114 Teun H田ks, Courtesy of the artist and P·P·O·W Gallery, New York; p 门5 ( le仕｝ ©The
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22 8 P H OTO C R E D I TS

Jam臼 Henkel. Volume 1-7, 2004
229

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Abbott, Beren,co, 162
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