APA Paper: Our course will end with a 3-5 page paper answering the following prompt: What elements/strategies are essential for effective science instruction that you will be able to employ in your classroom? (As an educator, how do you implement these strategies in your classroom.) This should include no less than five citations from the course readings and present a clear thesis for the paper. This is less of a reflection and more of an academic paper on effective practice. 

Course Readings:

 

Should We Lose the Lecture? Retrieved from

https://medium.com/stanford-magazine/should-we-lose-the-lecture-76a186797573

Kids Draw Female Scientists More Often Than They Did Decades Ago. Retrieved from

https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/kids-draw-female-scientists-more-often-than-they-did-decades-ago/

 Ambitious Science Teaching: Designing for Student Participation. Retrieved from http://ambitiousscienceteaching.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Designing-Group-Work

and two readings are uploaded.

40 Planetarian December 2016

testing of activities. Further, reception from
an audience of planetarians at the 2016 Inter-
national Planetarium Society meeting in
Warsaw, Poland suggested a broad interna-
tional interest from the planetarium commu-
nity in astronomy activities that can be done
with very young children.

Therefore, the goal of this article is to share
some of the philosophy and research behind
the My Sky Tonight activities, introduce a
few activities we think may be of interest to
the broader planetarium community, and
suggest ways these activities can be connected
to the planetarium, based on our experiences
with field-testing in the planetarium at Penn-
sylvania State University, University Park and
on feedback from the My Sky Tonight work-
shop participants.

Children’s interest in astronomy
In several preliminary studies, we inves-

tigated the target audience’s conversations
about astronomy in everyday settings using
three different methodologies:

• A diary study of family conversations
about nature,

• Children’s conversations in a preschool
classroom during an astronomy unit, and

• Family conversations in several museum
workshops that tested preliminary
astronomy activities.

My Sky Tonight:
Inspiring and engaging activities for 3- to 5-year-old audiences

aDepartment of Curriculum & Instruction, Pennsylvania State University, jdp17@psu.edu, cag1030@psu.edu
bDiscovery Space of Central Pennsylvania, michele@mydiscoveryspace.org
cPsychology Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, callanan@ucsc.edu
dAstronomical Society of the Pacific, ahurst@astrosociety.org
eDepartment of Psychology and Child Development, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo,
jjipson@calpoly.edu
fPalmquist & Associates, LLC, palmquist.associates@gmail.com
(Suzanne Gurton was with ASP when the article was written. She has since moved to the National Radio
Astronomy Observatory as their new Assistant Director of Education and Public Outreach; sgurton@nrao.edu)

Can young children understand the
complex science of astronomy? While 3- to
5-year-old children are not fluent in reasoning
about astrophysics, they are keen observers of
the world around them, including the changes
they see in the day and night sky. How can
we build children’s curiosity about the sun,
moon, and stars to encourage early engage-
ment with practices of science—observing,
predicting, modeling, and explaining?

Goals of the My Sky Tonight project
My Sky Tonight is a National Science

Foundation-funded project with the goal of
advancing efforts to engage young children
in astronomy learning in informal settings.
The project contributes in three key ways: by
providing a toolkit of developmentally-appro-
priate astronomy activities for use with young
children in informal settings, by support-
ing educators through professional develop-
ment and materials, and by disseminating the
results of research conducted on young chil-
dren’s interest and engagement in astronomy
through the My Sky Tonight activities.

Our project has been broadly focused on
exploring young children’s capacity at engag-
ing with astronomy concepts through well-
tested activities across a multitude of settings
and with educators from across the country.
Our partners in developing and testing

these activities include the Lawrence Hall of
Science, Children’s Discovery Museum of San
Jose, San Luis Obispo Children’s Museum, and
the Discovery Space of Central Pennsylvania.

Young children’s learning often happens
in the midst of play, imagination, and story-
telling, rather than in explicit lessons. Teach-
ing 3- to 5-year olds through detailed verbal
instruction or by encouraging rote memo-
rization is not effective, nor does it inspire
sustained interest. Therefore, our focus in this
work has included attention to the principles
of “Developmentally Appropriate Practice” as
outlined by the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC; www.
naeyc.org). These principles acknowledge that
young children learn through play and explo-
ration as well as through verbal explanation,
and that children’s learning varies widely
across ages, individual interests, and experi-
ence. Additional guidance was drawn from
empirical research in developmental psychol-
ogy and early childhood education.

The My Sky Tonight activities were
designed to be used in facilitated workshops
and as drop-in activity stations on the floor
of museums, but we often also have members
of the planetarium community attend our
online professional development workshops.
Planetarians have been enthusiastic partici-
pants in the workshop discussions and field-

Julia D. Plummera, Chrysta Ghenta, Michele Crowlb, Maureen Callananc,
Suzanne Gurtond, Anna Hurstd, Jennifer Jipsone, Sasha Palmquistf

© Iva Villi, Shutterstock.com

http://www.naeyc.org

http://www.naeyc.org

mailto:jdp17@psu.edu

mailto:cag1030@psu.edu

mailto:michele@mydiscoveryspace.org

mailto:callanan@ucsc.edu

mailto:ahurst@astrosociety.org

mailto:jjipson@calpoly.edu

mailto:palmquist.associates@gmail.com

mailto:sgurton@nrao.edu

December 2016 Planetarian 41

In all three settings, we found preschool
children showing interest in astronomy
topics. For example, in our diary study, 69%
of parents reported that they had at least one
conversation about astronomy with their
child during the two weeks that they partic-
ipated in the study. Astronomy topics (espe-
cially the sun, the moon, the stars, and day
versus night) were apparent in roughly 16%
of the conversations reported to us. This was
true both in middle-income highly-educat-
ed families, and also in a lower-income group
of Mexican immigrant families where parents
had fewer years of formal schooling. In fact, in
the Mexican immigrant families, astronomy
conversations constituted 19% of the conver-
sations (Jipson, Callanan, Zumbro, & Castañe-
da, 2016).

These results demonstrate the importance
of astronomy as part of what young children
are already noticing and wondering about
in their daily lives. Therefore our goal, as we
designed the My Sky Tonight activities, was to
build on their own natural curiosity, rather
than to spark interest.

Young children’s capacity to
investigate astronomy

Some might be skeptical that young chil-
dren are capable of sophisticated reasoning
when it comes to doing science. And yet, a
significant body of research suggests that 3-
to 5-year-old children are capable of scien-
tific reasoning and problem-solving, similar
to how scientists reason and investigate
(e.g. Gelman et al., 2010; National Research
Council, 2007). We have used this research to
help us design activities that provide oppor-
tunities for young children to explore their
own capacity to do science by asking scien-
tific questions, making observations of scien-
tific phenomena, and using evidence to make
sense of their world.

Many of the My Sky Tonight activities have
been designed around certain astronomical
phenomena that allow children to do science
through the same practices that scientists use.
Using our research on children’s conversations
with their families (Jipson et al., 2016), we have
included events that young children already
are wondering about and are part of their
everyday lives: phases of the moon, the day
and night cycle, and shadows cast by the sun.

The activities also were selected to allow
children to extend their ability to observe
from the their own backyard to phenome-
na that can be observed using telescopes and
spacecraft, such as craters on the moon and
the landscape of Mars. Through conversa-
tions with educators and parents, children

are encouraged to notice new details that will
help them notice patterns, make comparisons,
and begin to construct scientific explanations.

We conducted a study of how the My Sky
Tonight activities can provide opportunities
for young children to co-construct evidence-
based explanations for astronomical phenom-
ena in museum settings (Plummer & Ricketts,
2016). We found that 3- to 5-year-old chil-
dren were able to use their own observations

of astronomical phenomena as evidence for
claims that answered scientific questions.

The support the children received from
adults during the program was key for their
ability to demonstrate this sophisticated
science practice. Educators and parents helped
the children engage in science practices in
several important ways, including by: asking
questions which helped them notice key
features of astronomical phenomena, provid-
ing materials that allowed them to explore
the phenomena (directly, such as using flash-
lights to make shadows, or indirectly, such
as observing photos of moon craters), and
encouraging collaborative interactions with
other children. We also found that attending
to how children use gestures and manipulate
models was important to understanding the
ways they communicate their observations
and explanations.

My Sky Tonight activities and the
planetarium

The planetarium is an excellent way to
help children make key observations of these
astronomical phenomena as they explore,
investigate, and make sense of their world.
The My Sky Tonight activities can be used as
introductions, before children come into the
planetarium; as follow-up activities after a

planetarium visit; or, in some cases, integrated
into the children’s experience in your dome.
Below, we describe some of the activities and
how they can be used when children visit the
planetarium.

Moon Phase Matching
The goal of the Moon Phase Matching

activity is for children to begin to become
more familiar with an astronomical phenom-

enon that interests
many of them: that
the moon appears to
change shape and that
there is a pattern to
this change. The focus
of the activity is a large
banner showing images
of the moon through-
out its cycle. Chil-
dren are provided with
pictures of moon phases
on cards and encour-
aged to come up to the
banner, compare their
cards to the images on
the banner, and try to
find a match.

One developmental-
ly appropriate way to

encourage children is to use process praise to
focus their attention on their efforts rather
than on right vs. wrong answers (e.g., “you’re
working really hard to find the matching
image!”). Effective use of the Moon Phase
Matching activity can foster many other
possible conversations around observations
of the phases of the moon, as well as engage
them in additional follow-up activities, such
as drawing pictures of the moon in salt.

Becoming more aware of the different
shapes of the moon and their change over
time is the first step towards more sophisti-
cated descriptions and explanations. We are
not looking for more complex explanations
of why the phases change for this young age
group. Rather, it is important that they prac-
tice noticing subtle differences in objects in
their world, as this is part of the skill of obser-
vation that is central to being a scientist.

Using Moon Phase Matching in the
planetarium

Moon Phase Matching can be set up outside
the planetarium, such as in the lobby area, for
children to interact with before they enter.
The activity works best if there is a docent or
educator present to help facilitate the inter-
action; this can be very open ended with a
single child or with multiple children. Partic-

Students taking part in the Moon Phase Matching activity. Photo provid-
ed by authors.

42 Planetarian December 2016

ipating in this activity is likely to help chil-
dren be more focused on attending to what
they observe and hear about the moon and
its appearance in the day and night sky when
they are in the planetarium.

We also recommend Moon Phase Matching
as a follow-up activity to a planetarium visit,
either in the museum or planetarium setting,
or for a teacher to use back in the classroom.
Research suggests that children learn more
when provided the opportunity to build on
their field trip experiences through post-visit
activities (DeWitt & Storksdieck, 2008).

Bear’s Shadow

The Bear’s Shadow activity is based on the
Frank Asch book Moonbear’s Shadow, which
tells the story of a bear who is frustrated in his
efforts to go fishing because his shadow scares
away the fish. Throughout the day, he unsuc-

cessfully attempts to hide from or get rid of
his shadow until finally his shadow no longer
points towards the pond (because the sun is
now in the opposite side of the sky).

After listening to the story, children recre-
ate scenes from the book using a figurine to
represent the bear and a flashlight to represent
the sun. This activity allows children to inves-
tigate the phenomenon of shadows, as well as
how the sun’s position in the sky changes the
position and length of shadows throughout

the day. A develop-
m e n t a l l y – a p p r o p r i –
ate strategy that is
particularly useful in
this activity is that
of asking open-ended
questions to help chil-
dren construct their
own explanations for
how the sun’s loca-
tion affects the loca-
tion of bear’s shadow
(e.g., “What do you
notice about bear’s shadow when we shine
the flashlight from over here?”).

Using Bear’s Shadow in the planetarium

The advantage of having the planetar-
ium when teaching this activity is that
you can easily demonstrate one of the
central phenomena in the story: the appar-
ent motion of the sun throughout the day.
You might begin by reading the story in
the planetarium, perhaps even project-
ing the pages of the book onto your dome
for the children to more easily see. You can
help children notice that the sun is low in the
sky in the morning, moves slowly higher and
higher throughout the day, and then moves
lower again as it nears the opposite side of the
sky.

We encourage the use of two strategies
that help children learn about the spatial
nature of the sun’s apparent motion. First,
use spatial language as you ask children ques-
tions about the sun’s location in the sky. Is the
sun higher or lower than it was before? Is the
sun moving up or down? For young learners,
using descriptive gestures as you talk can help
them better understand the meaning, and, in
turn, can help improve their spatial thinking
(Newcombe, 2010). It is helpful to encourage
children to use gestures themselves, such as
using their arms to trace the path that the sun
takes as it moves across the sky. This gesturing
could also be used after the observation of the
sun’s apparent motion as a way for children
to show what they have learned. Using this
type of kinesthetic movement in the plane-
tarium has been found to help early elemen-
tary students improve their descriptions of
the sun, moon, and stars’ apparent motion
(Plummer, 2009).

Another way to bring this activity to
the planetarium is to explore the phenom-
ena of shadows in the dome. Provide chil-
dren with flashlights and encourage them to
make shadow puppets or other explorations
of shadows as preliminary exploration before
the more structured modeling of the bear’s

shadow activity. Then, later, children can
continue with the rest of the bear’s shadow
materials in a workshop setting or as a post-
visit activity in the classroom.

Day and Night

The Day and Night activity engages young
children in exploring the differences between
the day and night sky. Children compare
observations of the day and night sky from
photographs and are guided to the conclu-
sion that it is the sun that is important for
daytime. They then observe how a bear figure
on a globe facing the sun will have daytime,
while a different bear on the other side of the
globe will be facing away from the sun and
thus have nighttime. This leads to a discus-
sion of the Earth’s rotation and how it allows
for each bear to experience day and night.
Children then stand and rotate like the Earth,
facing towards and away from a lamp that

Moonbear’s Shadow
by Frank Asch is a
refreshed edition
of a beloved classic
featuring the origi-
nal text and art with
an updated cover;
Simon & Schus-
ter. 2014. Original-
ly published as Bear
Shadow in 1990.

Anna Hurst works with small groups for the Day and
Night and Bear’s Shadow activities.Photos by Pablo,
Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

One little My Sky Tonight particpant uses a
flashlight to see where Bear’s shadown falls.
Photo provided by authors.

December 2016 Planetarian 43

represents the sun, to model the Earth’s rota-
tion for themselves.

Using Day and Night in the planetarium

This entire activity worked well with 3- to
5-year olds visiting the small planetarium at
Pennsylvania State University. Rather than
showing children photos of the day and night
sky, the planetarium’s diurnal motion was
used to allow the children to make observa-
tions. The next steps of the activity then can
be followed as described above.

The activity write up includes images of day
and night activities. Project these images onto
your dome; when a daytime image is shown
children should turn to face the Sun. When a
nighttime image is shown, they should rotate
to face away from the sun.

Conclusions

We hope that by engaging young chil-
dren in astronomy activities we can extend
their opportunity to explore astronomi-
cal phenomena observed in the planetari-
um. The planetarium is an excellent tool for
helping young children learn to pay closer
attention to important features of astronom-
ical phenomena. The My Sky Tonight activ-
ities extend these observations in ways that
allow for further exploration, conversation,
and sense-making.

Full descriptions of these activities and
associated materials can be found on our
website for download: www.astrosociety.org/
MySkyTonight

The activity write ups include children’s
ideas about astronomy found in previous
research studies, questions you can ask to
engage young children in these topics, and
suggestions for developmentally-appropri-
ate strategies you can use to support children
during these activities.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank planetarium educa-
tors who have participated in the My Sky
Tonight professional development work-
shops for providing their suggestions on
how the My Sky Tonight activities can be
used with the planetarium (Katy Accetta,
Noreen Grice, Dan Malerbo, Nathalie Martim-
beau, Shira Moskowitz, Mickey Jo Sorrell,
and Michele Wistisen), as well as those who
contributed at the IPS 2016 workshop. My
Sky Tonight is supported by the Division of
Research On Learning of the National Science
Foundation (AISL #1217441).

References
DeWitt, J. & Storksdieck, M. (2008). A short

review of school field trips, Visitor Studies,
11, 181-197.

Gelman, R., Brenneman, K., MacDonald, G.,
& Román, M., (2010). Preschool Pathways to
Science: Ways of Doing, Thinking, Commu-
nicating, and Knowing about Science. Balti-
more, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Jipson, J., Callanan, M., Zumbro, C., & Castañe-
da, C. (2016). Turning interest into inquiry
in everyday parent-child conversation
about nature. Talk presented at Jean Piaget
Society, Chicago, IL, June 9-11, 2016.

National Research Council (2007). Taking
Science to School: Learning and Teaching
Science in Grades K-8. National Academies
Press.

Newcombe, N. S. (2010). Picture this: Increasing
math and science learning by improving
spatial thinking. American Educator, 34(2),
29.

Plummer, J.D. (2009). Early elementa-
ry students’ development of astronomy
concepts in the planetarium. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 46(2), 192-209.

Plummer, J.D. & Ricketts, A. (2016). Engag-
ing preschool-age children in multi-
modal evidence-based explanations for
astronomy phenomena during museum
programs. Paper presented at the NARST:
A Worldwide Organization for Improving
Science Teaching and Learning through
Research annual conference, Baltimore,
MD, April 14-17, 2016. I

http://www.astrosociety.org/

Copyright of Planetarian is the property of International Planetarium Society and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.

Using NASA Resources and
Remote Access to Promote Geology
BY BRANDON RODRIGUEZ, VANESSA WOLF, ESTEBAN BAUTISTA, SVETLANA TIMBERLAKE,
JAMES SCHIFLEY, JAMES SMITH, M. JOSEFINA ARELLANO-JIMENEZ, AND JARED ASHCROFT

4 8

CONTENT AREA

Chemistry, geology,
physical sciences

GRADE LEVEL

6–9

BIG IDEA/UNIT

Earth science can teach
us about space science

ESSENTIAL PRE-EXISTING
KNOWLEDGE

Names and symbols
of common chemical
elements, how to
calculate density, physical
properties of minerals

TIME REQUIRED

Approximately 1.5–2 hours

COST

About $10

SAFETY

Indirectly vented chemical
splash-proof goggles are
required for stations 1 and 4.

A p r i l / M a y 2 0 18 4 9

Supplies used
• 4–6 small pieces of the “unknown”

(limestone) sample

• 2–4 pennies

• 2–4 ceramic streak plates

• 1–2 balances

• 1–2 graduated cylinders

• 3–4 example minerals for comparing
hardness, such as chalk, quartz or calcite
rocks

• 2–3 student calculators for station 2

• 2–3 hand-held magnifying lenses

• laptop computer with projector for remote
access

History was made when NASA sent the Mars Science Laboratory, better known as the Curi-osity rover, to Mars. Arriving August 2012 at
Gale Crater, Curiosity began exploring the Martian
surface, analyzing soil and rock samples, and send-
ing images and data back to Earth. One aspect of
exploration is to gain a better understanding of the
geological makeup of Mars. While Curiosity has giv-
en scientists insight into the nature and composition
of Mars, physical Martian samples must be retrieved
and investigated to ascertain an accurate geological
history of the red planet. In 2020, another rover, yet
to be named, will be sent to Mars to continue explor-
ing the planet (NASA 2017a).

In what seems like science fiction, core samples
on Mars will be collected, packaged, and returned to
an established launching device that will transport
the samples to Earth (NASA 2017b). This process op-
erates like an interplanetary t-shirt cannon, loading
rock samples into a sample launcher that will fire the
Martian rocks back to Earth, and represents a com-
plex network of devices and satellites that make up
the Mars Sample Return (MSR) Program.

While still in its infancy, the MSR epitomizes the
need to attract young students to science. These stu-

dents will be the future investigators, and developing
consequential studies that they can partake in at the
onset of their science education is essential for ad-
vancing interest in projects such as the MSR. The ac-
tivity described in this article was developed with the
goal of increasing middle school students’ interest in
science using a multidisciplinary geology and chem-
istry project that revolves around the MSR program.

Setting the stage
Before students begin the activities, a short presen-
tation is shared regarding the forthcoming research
NASA will perform on the geological samples from
Mars (see Online Supplemental Materials). Students
are then told an unknown rock sample has arrived
from Mars, and they are challenged to use existing
methods they have covered in their Earth science
curriculum to determine its composition.

Interest is immediately captured when they learn
they will have remote access to a scanning electron
microscope, and that a scientist at a local college will
help validate their findings using an elemental analy-
sis technique called energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS),
allowing us to see what types of elements are pres-
ent and in what ratio. While not absolutely essential
for the lab experience, this remote access session is a
free service available to educators as part of the RAIN
network, represented by 16 university sites across the

| FIGURE 1A AND 1B: Death Valley mountain
range (A) and images of Martian mountains
sent back from NASA’s Curiosity rover (B)

5 0

United States that allow for live virtual imaging (Ash-
croft et al. 2018). This virtual experience, done in real
time via an online scheduling tool, allows students to
remotely control university-caliber lab equipment, thus
lowering the barrier for communities without easy ac-
cess to technology (see Nano4me.org in Resources). The
SEM and EDS instruments can be reserved for a whole
class day, although the remote access viewing for this
activity only requires 20 minutes, wherein students can
control the instrument from their own computer, under
the direction of the technician in real time.

Engage
Students, excited to apply their background knowl-
edge to a space exploration theme, are engaged when
asked to identify which of two pictures (Figures 1A
and 1B) depicts a Martian landscape. Approximately
90% of students choose picture A, an image of Death
Valley, and this confusion in seeing just how similar
the Martian landscape is compared to that of Earth
results in quick interest from students.

Explore
In implementing this activity, students collect unique
data at five separate stations, done in groups. Several

small samples of the unknown rock sample (limestone)
are provided at each station for student testing. Stu-
dents, wearing safety goggles, move station to station,
taking with them their guided notes and observation
sheet. A timer is used on a projector to count down the
time at each station, with six to eight minutes being suf-
ficient. Students who may need extra processing time
to analyze the data after leaving the station are provid-
ed with additional image-rich reference sheets that are
also posted at each station. Each station has a reference
sheet with printed guidelines to ensure that students
can complete the experiment at each station (see Online
Supplemental Materials).

Station 1: Color, hardness, and streak
Students collect data on physical properties of the un-
known rock sample (limestone). Using simple magni-
fying lenses, students note characteristics such as the
rocks’ cleavage and luster. Several other example rocks
are also included for student comparison, as described
below. The station reference sheet contains an anchor
chart for students to recall academic language they
would have learned within the original geology unit.

Students use porcelain tiles to conduct a streak test
to determine the mineral’s color in powdered form. By
“streaking” the rock specimen across porcelain, a small
amount of powdered rock is fixed to the surface of the
plate and, based on the color of the powder, it is possible
to ascertain the identity of the unknown rock. Students
also conduct a Mohs hardness test, and are provided
with several mineral samples to compare their unknown
sample against. For example, known samples of talc,
calcite, quartz, and even a penny are used to “scratch”
the surface of the unknown mineral, and depending on
the “scratch,” hardness of these known samples can be
compared to the hardness of the unknown. These can
be any rock or mineral samples easily available, and are
obtained in most school resource kits or available online.
Having just a couple of each at this station allows for re-
use over the years. Because hardness is a relative scale,
their findings (which are compared to a reference sheet,
Figure 2) give them a range (in our case 4–6), and are not
sufficient for them to identify the sample from the one
station alone.

| FIGURE 2: Example of guided notes
provided at each station for student
reference during the activity

A p r i l / M a y 2 0 18 5 1

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN “ROCKS FOR JOCKS” AND THE MARS SAMPLE RETURN PROGRAM

Station 2: Density
Because density can be a difficult concept for middle
school students, students should already have expe-
rience in calculating density and performing water
displacement tests prior to this activity. Students are
provided a scale and graduated cylinder, as well as
several sizes of their unknown rock sample. By mass-
ing the rock sample, students get the number in grams,
and by dropping their rock in a graduated cylinder of
water, they obtain the volume in milliliters. Perform-
ing a simple mass over displacement ratio allows stu-
dents to determine the density of their rock sample.
The calculation is scaffolded for lower grades in their
guided notes, at which point students should be able
to determine the density of their unknown sample to
be between 2.6 and 2.9 g/cm3.

Station 3: Flame test station
In order to avoid having an open flame in the class-
room, a short video was prepared (see “Flame test for

RAIN lab” in Resources), demonstrating this station,
which can be used during the activity as either a stu-
dent station or viewed as a whole class. As the four
known solutions are misted across the flame, students
observe the flame color, which can be compared to a
reference sheet (Figure 3) to facilitate the connections
between the flame color and cation (element). For
example, in this implementation we used calcium,
barium, copper, and strontium, although numerous
other metals could be used to observe other colors.
The resultant color of each cation is noted, and then
matched to a similar solution containing the unknown
rock sample dissolved in water. Students determine
that the unknown sample produces an orange-red
flame, similar to that found in the calcium or stron-
tium solutions, allowing them to classify the iden-
tity of the unknown rock’s elemental makeup, while
ruling out metals such as copper, which produces a
green flame. Students have identified a critical piece
of information, but not a conclusive one, since the or-
ange-red flame color is indicative of both calcium and
strontium. It should also be noted that many minerals
contain calcium and strontium. Therefore, a number
of tests should be completed and compared before
identifying the unknown rock sample. Students are,
however, beginning to get close to a conclusion by us-
ing a process of elimination on their guided notes, rul-
ing out candidates that do not contain the orange-red,
flame-inducing metal.

Station 4: Acid test
While many students are excited at the idea of using
acid, the fourth station is quite a simple and safe test.
Students are provided an eye dropper with a small
amount of white vinegar. Adding several drops of
the vinegar to a piece of their known sample gener-
ates the formation of bubbles. The bubbles are from
the carbon dioxide that is produced when carbonate
is reacted with the vinegar.

The bubbles indicate the presence of the carbon-
ate ion (CO

3
2-) anion in the unknown rock sample.

Middle school students are unfamiliar with acid-
base reactions, and as such, the student-guided notes
are used to assist determination of what the bubbles

| FIGURE 3: Flame ionization color-matching
table for element identification

5 2

Safety
Teachers comfortable with demonstrations, in-
cluding fire, can perform station 3 at the front of
the class for students, providing that proper safety
protocol are followed. This should be a demon-
stration only and not a hands-on activity. Using
methanol or other alcohols can be very dangerous
and unpredictable. Alcohols have a low flash point
and are extremely flammable. It is too dangerous
to use alcohol as a carrier for this demonstration,
even if all safety precautions are taken. This is
especially true at the middle school level. A safer
alternative to the alcohol method is the wooden-
splint method, which is described by the American
Chemical Society. It can be accessed at: www.acs.
org/content/dam/acsorg/about/governance/
committees/chemicalsafety/safetypractices/
flame-tests-demonstration . Additional safety
information can be found at http://static.nsta.org/
files/ss0811_10 .

Barium chloride is highly toxic. Precautions
must be taken to avoid ingestion of the salt or so-
lution. Wear proper personal protective equipment
when preparing solutions. Students should wear
chemical splash goggles and avoid contact with
solutions when performing this experiment. Wash
hands after handling materials used to prepare for
or perform this experiment. Caution should be tak-
en around open flames (Bunsen burner or propane
torch). Ensure lab bench is clear of flammable ma-
terials (solvents, papers, etc.) when performing this
experiment. Students should be closely supervised
when performing this experiment. Have a water
source (beaker of water) on hand to extinguish the
splints or cotton swabs and review MSDSs for each
solution for proper and environmentally safe dis-
posal. Conduct the flame test either under a fume
hood or behind a safety shield.

signify. Students are generally aware of carbon diox-
ide as either something we expel from breathing or
as bubbles in their soda, allowing for connections to
background knowledge.

Station 5: Scanning electron
microscope
Explain

Once the chemical and physical tests are completed,
students are given time to reflect on their findings with
their group to determine the identity of the unknown
rock sample using the information about specific rocks
located on their worksheet (Figure 4). Students then
convene as a class for remote access to a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) with elemental analysis to
validate their conclusion. The RAIN partner, having
previously been provided with a sample of limestone,
has loaded the mineral onto the SEM equipped with el-
emental analysis. (Supply the rock sample to the RAIN
network one or two weeks in advance.). An image of
the unknown/limestone rock sample is obtained and
elemental analysis performed. Elemental analysis will
illustrate the presence of calcium, carbon, and oxygen,
thereby verifying the sample as “Martian limestone,”
as clearly shown on the SEM interface. Students will
capture this in their guided notes for station 5, not-
ing the presence of elements described in the Analy-
sis section of their handouts. Using the findings from
their previous tests at stations 1–4, they will now have
enough information to support the claim as to the na-
ture of their sample, insofar as it matches up with the
description on their worksheet. Students should have
identified the unknown rock sample and from the SEM
image and elemental analysis either confirmed or in-
validated their previous conclusion. Diverse learners
will still have their reference sheets to facilitate conclu-
sion drawing to allow them to follow along.

Extend

Upon completing the activity, it is always our position
that activities such as this should be coupled with further
research, expressed through reading and writing. NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory has numerous websites con-
taining description of this research, the Mars Sample Re-
turn program, and upcoming Mars and planetary mis-
sions, including images obtained from real satellites and
rovers (see Resources). These resources ensure opportu-
nities for students to extend their excitement for space
and future exploration with the content they established

A p r i l / M a y 2 0 18 5 3

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN “ROCKS FOR JOCKS” AND THE MARS SAMPLE RETURN PROGRAM

| FIGURE 4: Student worksheet
Death Valley in California is the lowest place in North America at 86 m (282 ft.) below sea level. Yet, the basin
is surrounded by towering mountain peaks frosted with snow. Steady drought and some of Earth’s hottest
temperatures make Death Valley a land of extremes. Death Valley’s oldest rocks are at least 1.7 billion years
old. Around 500 million years ago, Death Valley was the site of a warm, shallow sea. Today, springs and creeks
still exist in Death Valley that contain fish, a remnant of about 15,000 years ago when lakes and marshes were
plentiful.

Identify an unknown mineral

Part 1: Investigation
Station 1: Physical properties
Color: What color is the mineral sample? ____________________________________________________________________________________
Luster: How does the mineral reflect light? __________________________________________________________________________________
Hardness: Put an X through each hardness that you can determine is NOT the hardness of the mineral:

1 2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10

What is the Moh’s hardness of the mineral? _________________________________________________________________________________
Streak: What is the color of the powdered mineral? ________________________________________________________________________

Station 2: Density
Record the mass of the mineral sample: mass

mineral
= _________ g

Record the volume of water in the cylinder BEFORE adding the mineral: volume
water

= _________ mL
Record the volume in the cylinder AFTER adding the mineral: volume

water + mineral
= _________ mL

Volume
mineral

is the (volume
water+ mineral

) minus (volume
water

). Calculate the volume of the mineral:

V = ___________ mL – ___________ mL = ___________ mL

Density
mineral

is equal to (mass
mineral

) divided by (volume
mineral

). Calculate the density of the mineral:
d = g

mL
= ___________ g/mL

Station 3: Flame test
Flame color: What color flame does the mineral produce when burned? ________________________
What cation (element) does this color suggest is present in the mineral? _________________________

Station 4: Acid test
CaCO

3
+ 2HCl → CO

2
+ H

2
O + Ca++ + 2Cl–

Acid test: Did bubbles form when the powdered mineral was placed in acid? Yes No
What would cause bubbles to form? _____________________________________________________

Station 5: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and elemental analysis
Did the nanoscale image of the mineral reveal a crystalline structure at the nano level? Yes No
What elements were found in the elemental analysis? ________________________________________

5 4

in this geology lesson. NASA Education also has several
labs focused on how these geological samples will be ex-
tracted and sent back to Earth, allowing for teachers to
use this activity as part of a larger NGSS-aligned unit of
space and Earth science.

Evaluate

Students were assessed based on their ability to not
just pick the correct rock sample, but had to support
their conclusion via their guided notes as to which
rock samples they eliminated and why. That is to
say, if a student correctly ruled out obsidian, they
had correctly completed the tasks at Station 1. If
they had correctly eliminated fluorite, they correctly
identified that structure did not contain carbonate.
Students typically were found to either propose their
sample was limestone (correct) or granite (incorrect),

due to similarities in density, acid test, and elemen-
tal composition. An example rubric for successful
analysis and identification of the unknown mineral
is shown in Figure 5. While students can simply dis-
cuss how they arrived at their conclusions, there also
exists a written assessment opportunity here, where
teachers can ensure active participation in the reflec-
tion and conclusion by having students write a brief
summary of how their data led them to rule out some
possibilities while supporting their conclusions.

Conclusion
Geology is a big part of the exploration of planets in our
solar system and beyond. If given a meaningful narra-
tive to appreciate this field, such as the future explora-
tion of Mars, the technology it employs, and the careers

Part 2: Analysis
Using the data you collected, which rock or mineral
from Death Valley did you investigate today?
Circle the one that has the most qualities in common
with the mineral you investigated.

Obsidian
A dense volcanic glass used by early California
peoples to make tools, weapons, and art. Formed
by a chain of volcanos around 65 million years ago.
Colored black, blue, brown, and other colors. Luster is
glassy. Hardness of 5. Density 2.6 g/mL. Not crumbly;
instead, it breaks into pieces that form a ripple
pattern. Elemental makeup of Si, O, Fe, Mg.

Granite
A lava rock that formed in parts of Death Valley up
to 145 million years ago. Cut and polished, it is
commonly used for kitchen counters. In its raw form,
granite has a dull to pearly luster. Colored gray, black,
orange, pink, and white with variations in a single
sample. Hardness of 6–7. White streak. Density 2.65–
2.75 g/mL. Elemental makeup of Ca, Si, O, P, Na, Fe.

| FIGURE 4: Student worksheet (continued)
Limestone
A rock made from the fossils of the marine shells
and coral that lived in the ancient seas of Death
Valley. Colored clear, white, tan, gray, light brown,
or greenish. Luster is dull to pearly. Hardness of
2–4. White streak. Density 2.3–2.7 g/mL. Elemental
makeup of CaCO

3
and Si.

Fluorite
A mineral found in mines that were excavated in
the 1930s in Death Valley before it was a protected
wilderness zone. Colored vibrant purple, red, or
green. Luster dull to vitreous. Hardness of 4. White
streak. Density 3–3.6 g/mL. Chemical formula CaF

2
.

Strontianite
A rare mineral salt formed from hot water that
flowed through rocks over millions of years (called
hydrothermal circulation). Colored clear, white, gray,
light brown. Luster vitreous or greasy. Hardness
of 2–4. White streak. Density 3.7 g/mL. Chemical
formula SrCO

3
.

A p r i l / M a y 2 0 18 5 5

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN “ROCKS FOR JOCKS” AND THE MARS SAMPLE RETURN PROGRAM

it will provide for, geology can be used as a subject
to increase the passion and interest of middle school
students in the sciences (Childers and Jones 2015; Shin
2003). This activity, in conjunction with space explora-
tion and the Mars Sample Return Program, will be a re-
source for middle school educators to help infuse inter-
esting, state-of-the-art technology and research projects
into their classroom curriculum. Concurrently, having
students not just observe but actively participate in the
use of the types of scientific equipment they would
use in college and beyond provides an exciting oppor-
tunity for students to get a glimpse of what careers in
science would look like. Blending topics of student in-
terest with exciting technological tools could be a real
asset for promoting STEM. •

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the assisting RAIN tech-
nicians. RAIN is a network supported by National Science
Foundation grant DUE1204279. The expertise of the
NASA Educator Professional Development Collaborative

is greatly appreciated. Thanks to Jill Mayorga and Danyal
Dar for preparation of the manuscript. Esteban Bautista
is supported by BUILD PODER, funded by the National
Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National In-
stitutes of Health under award number RL5GM118975.

REFERENCES
Ashcroft, J.M., A.O. Cakmak, J. Blatti, E. Bautista, V. Wolf, D. David,

J. Arellano-Jimenez, R. Tsui, R. Hill, A. Klejna, J.S. Smith, G.
Glass, T. Suchomski, K.J. Schroeder, R.K. Ehrman. 2018. It’s
RAINing : Remotely Accessible Instruments in Nanotechnology
to Promote Student Success. Current Issues in Emerging
eLearning 5 (1).

Childers, G., and M.G. Jones. 2015. Students as virtual scientists:
An exploration of students’ and teachers’ perceived realness
of a remote electron microscopy investigation. International
Journal of Science Education 37 (15): 2433–52.

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2017a. https://mars.nasa.gov/
msl.

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2017b. www.jpl.nasa.gov/
missions/mars-sample-return-msr.

NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For
states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards.

FIGURE 5: Rubric for geology lab

4
Mastery

3
Accomplished

2
Adequate

1
Developing

0
Inadequate

Analysis and
identification of
unknown mineral

Student correctly
identifies
limestone
(CaCO

3
) using

analysis of data
collected from
each station.

Student
successfully
collected data
and correctly
analyzed two
of the three:
calcium ion
from the flame
test, carbonate
from acid test,
or correctly
calculated
density.
Successfully
chose limestone
after imaging
and elemental
analysis using
SEM.

Student correctly
identified either
calcium ion
from the flame
test, carbonate
from acid test,
or correctly
calculated
density. Was able
to determine
identity of
mineral from
the SEM image
and elemental
analysis.

Student was
unable to
identify chemical
or physical
properties of the
unknown mineral,
but successfully
identified
limestone using
SEM imaging
and elemental
analysis.

Student was
unable to
identify chemical
or physical
properties of the
unknown mineral
and was unable
to determine
the identity of
limestone using
the SEM imaging
and elemental
analysis.

5 6

Brandon Rodriguez (brandon.rodriguez@jpl.nasa.gov) is the education specialist of the Educator Professional Development
Collaborative at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Jared Ashcroft is a chemistry professor and
Vanessa Wolf and Svetlana Timberlake are undergraduate students in the Department of Physical Sciences at Pasadena
City College in Pasadena, California. Esteban Bautista is an undergraduate student in the Department of Chemistry at East
Los Angeles College in Monterey Park, California. James Schifley, James Smith, and M. Josefina Arellano-Jimenez are
professors in the Remote Access in Nanotechnology collaborative.

Shin, Y. 2003. Virtual experiment environment design for science
education. Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference
on Cyberworlds 388–95.

RESOURCES
Flame test for RAIN lab—https://youtu.be/qWJev8imLfQ
Nano4me.org—nano4me.org/remoteaccess
NASA Science: Mars exploration program images—https://

Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013)
• The chart below makes one set of connections between the instruction outlined in this article and the NGSS. Other valid

connections are likely; however, space restrictions prevent us from listing all possibilities.

• The materials, lessons, and activities outlined in the article are just one step toward reaching the performance expectations
listed below.

Standard

MS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions
www.nextgenscience.org/dci-arrangement/ms-ps1-matter-and-its-interactions

Performance Expectation

MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a
chemical change has occurred.

DIMENSIONS CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS

Science and Engineering Practice

Analyzing and Interpreting Data Students use data sources to rule out incorrect possibilities
in order to correctly identify an unknown rock.

Disciplinary Core Idea

Structure and Properties of Matter

MS-PS1-2: Each pure substance has characteristic physical
and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given
conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Students are provided an unknown rock sample at
the beginning of their investigation and use physical
characteristics or chemical changes to identify the unknown
rock.

Crosscutting Concept

Patterns Students analyze tests results from an unknown rock
sample to determine whether its origin is here on Earth or
extraterrestrial.

mars.nasa.gov/multimedia/images
NASA Science: Solar system exploration—https://

solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/target
NASA Teach—www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach

ONLINE SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS
Presentation—www.nsta.org/scope1804
Station reference sheets—www.nsta.org/scope1804

A p r i l / M a y 2 0 18 5 7

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN “ROCKS FOR JOCKS” AND THE MARS SAMPLE RETURN PROGRAM