nontenon. “After all,” it is often said, “these uinorities clrive cars, hold.jobs’ orvn ttreir
h.mes, and e\ren so to college.” An rrnderstirr.rcling of cliscrirnination in moclern industri-
alizecl societies such as the Unitccl States rnust begin by clistingtrishing bet
ancl absolute clcprivation.
clonflict theorists hirve saicl corrcct-l)’ that it is not absolttte, unchanging stanclards
that cleterrnine cleprivati
on :
rncl oppression. Althotrgh lninority grotlPs may be vie’rvecl
as having irclequate or e\Ien n,r,rd ir-raorres, hotrsing, healthczrre’ irnd cducational
opporturiitier, ii i, their positioir relative to sorne other group that offers evidence of
cliscrimination.
Relative deprivation is clefinecl :rs the consciogs experiellce of a negative discrepa trc-r’
befiveen legitirltatc expectatiorls zurcl presctrt 2rcttlalities’ After settlinS irl the United
1Oo/o 30% 40%o,r/o
Ghapter 3 Discrimination 65
Stzrtes, immigrzrnts often enjoy better material comforts and more political freedom than
llere possible in their old cor-rntries. If they compare themselves with rnost other people
in the United States, horvever, they will feel cleprived becatrse, althotrgh their standarcls
have inrpror.ecl, the irnrnigrants still perceive relative deprivation.
Absolute deprivation, ou the other hand, irnplies a fixed standard based on a rninimum
levcl of strbsistcnce belolv which families should not be expected to exist. Discrirnination
does t-tot necessarily mean absolute deprivation. AJapanese American who is prorr.roted
to tt llt2lltaser.rtent position may still be :r victim of discrimination if he or she hacl been
passed over for vears because of corporate reluctance to place an Asian American in a
hiehly visible position.
Dissatisfaction also is likely to arise from feelinss of relative depri’,.atior.r. The rnernbers
of a societl’rvho f-eel most frustrated and disgruntled by the social and economic condi-
tions ol’their lives 21re not necessarily lvorse off in an objectil,e sense. Soci:rl scientists
have lon{r recogrrized that r,r,hat is rnost significant is hor,v people perceive their situations.
Karl Mirrx pointed out that althotrgh the miserl’ of the workers was important in reflect-
irte their oppressed state, so was their position relative to the rulinq class. In 1847, Marx
\’vrotc, “Althotreh the enjoyr.nent of the workers has risen, the social satisfaction that they,
have has fallen in comparison rvith the increased enjovrnent of the capitalist” (Marx and
Enscls 1955:94).
This statement explains why the groups or individuals lvho are ntost vocal and best
organizecl against discrimination are not necessarily in the worst economic and social
situation. Horvever, they are likelr, to be those who most strongly perceive that, relative
to others, they are not receiving their fair share. Resistance to perceivecl discrimination,
r-ather than the actual amount of absolute discrirnination, is the key.
Althotrgh prejudice certair.rly is not nerv in the United States, it is receivins increased
atterttiott as it manifests itself in hate crimes in neighborhoods, at meetings, and on
collese c:tlnpllses. The Hate Crime Statistics Act, which became law in 1990, directs the
Depirrtrncnt of.fustice to gather data on hate or bias crirnes.
What Are Hate Crimes?
Thc goverrttnent defines an ordinary crime as a hate crime u,hen oflenders are motivatecl
to choose a victirn becatrse of some characteristic-for example, race, ethnicity, religion,
sexrtal orientzrtion, or clisability-zrnd provide evidence that hatrecl prompted them to
ctrtrrt’t-tit the crinte . Hate crimes also are sometimes referred to as bias t:rimcs.
The Hzrte Crirne Statistics Act creirted a national mandate to identify such crimes,
u,hereas pre”‘iously only 12 states had monitored hate crimes. The act has since been
attrencled to include disabilities, physical and mental, as well as sexual orientation as fac-
tors that cotrld be considered a basis for hate crimes.
In 2012, larv enfbrcement asencies released hate crime data submitted bv police zruen-
cies. Er”ert thotrgh 112nv, trl?ov hate crimes are not reported (f’erver than one in ser,en
particiPilting asetrcies reported an incident), a stasgering number of offenses that come
to la\{ asencics’ attention were motivated by hate. While most incidents receive relatir.ely
littlc attention, son)e become the attention of headlines and online sites for days. Strch
\{as the case in 2009 rvl-rer-r a Mary,land man with a long history of ties to neo-Nazi groups
rvalkecl into the [.1.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in \Vashington, DC, and opened fire,
killing a security guard.
66 ChaPter 3 Discrimination
Olfrcial rePorts tlotecl more
than 6’20O’ h:rte crimes illi(i ri”-‘-
sexual.,.,tln””iJi’-tllat”t’i”zoii’LtinclicateclinFigure3’2’rirce$rt’
orientation Ethnicitv z Disabirity ;::;;;;’;” “.””i”o’i.,’1*i*:lli”,Xo,J,ifri:lilt:Ii’.ff:::l–i’
*u,,r,on”””’i?;'”‘
*ii;n-
:l:,:l:,,::iljl],1;lr::::i,,’.:,,;i, i;il:l’:]::l’lllllll,liiill’1,;)lll.?5i,:”
Race 1ffi;”.1,:,[{:1.’J;:’.’;illili i””*,
‘il’;.,;;:];’-i”‘n’tu’-a
,,’,,.,,,,,,,,
, , ,,..,,,r
.
rii” a”+’,*iLTi.,:iili]l::;l^tc crimes are clirectecl bv .rct.bers o{‘t’e
‘rri’u,i.,r;,,,”:.’,,:,,-,.;i’i
il:iffi’n*** ;:f,n1,,, *;:IS””.:ilX:,.].:T,*lti-qli
Llate crinres, excePt ft”-‘tlott ttrat
irre. nrost l’rorriflc’ receive
littlc’
Distribution of Reported
Hate crimes
“J;’;;i'”‘-” ^’-‘a'”””iwnitt
inciclcnts probrrbll teceirc
crctr
source:lncidentsreportedtor20ll
inFederal Bureau it”
“t*utt’tr'”‘”at”‘t”tt
k’t”u’ tlo bottncl’rties (I)ellurtul(‘tlt
or
of lnvestigation2ol2.
)r zv, rrr “–
Jrtstice 2,11;,\\’itt
2007)’
Thc ollicial ‘”p..”‘i'”t:l’rlt(‘
u’ t’i”‘t’in’l’l :rPpert. ttr lt’cr’nf;:l:’lli’:li’lli’Jil’I,i:’
!ffi .,,'””:T
“;”;::i,;l *ilil,Tilx ;:H l: I il l I’i il I.’ ::;;, r,.,. ” ”
r v h.,, f c, f
;;;; ;;r ;;i’,., “. It”y:l *l;t,5 ;. *j;[:*; : i*:,.l$f :[ : i, :]: i’:j:’:i’i:i:
il,,ifl’L’* J: liil:, :,T::; *;;’;i;i: ;’ ( H arrorv
2 00 5 ; P e rrv 2 00 3 )
Natiorrzrllegislatiorlanclpublicitl,havetrradellrttet:rim,catneirnirlgfttlterrrr,andrve
:rrebeginningtorecoglli,”ih”victimizaticlt.’.”*”.’..”arr.it,lrstrchirrciclents.Actrrrcnt
,..,rr.,r.1 rvoulcl ,rr^i. ].,.
.
,,i”f.nt critne ^ “*J”tttnre
i{‘ it were nr.tivaterl bv racial
or
religicltrsbias.Althclrrul.rpassagei,..,-,cert,lin,tlrescriotts..x,,i.l”r^ti.,rrofthept-opclslrl
i.clicates a rvilli.g.es] ‘o
t.”.”ia”t n ‘tu”‘i”‘*;;;” “f”:o:t1]J:”]’ntt'”””l’lltltJtll;
fecleral larv prohibirls tt’t'”ttl’^”rclt’1ate1l
bY tltt’
:”-f’l:’-teligion’
‘
thel’violate a teclerall.v g\rar2lnteed
t1**:i:*::litt:,lfr.”^”
hzrte crimcs a.cl other acrts
of
Victirniz.etcl groups do tnore
thau expet-r
l,:Tf:::Ii::’.:i;,.ii::?
j’:l:’,+l;””H:;:*[*;;;a;;:i1ilx*l#fr
Asirinst Pre.ir’rclice ^;i’?;”;”e’
the Sotrthcnr Povertv Lzru’
(len
,.,iJ i”.rri^i, Task F,rce’ – \tzl .rr^rrnq har,e even set ttP Propilga.dir sites
ttn
ktt:’T,’J$;;l’*l;::!rlii:ffi ‘”1′:’;{q,ii*ff *i’,*1″,x[*::.*l
:*”{u::::J:i”i”‘;:t*:::’x”l’nil-L.*-“*il:i-:#;x*’.:,’^m:
rechnique of hate -;;.;”Pi has
rree tr.’:,)l::i:iil”lliil’;Ti:lllii;;\:;”*’f’l’-g r’ig”
”
Irrtcrnet rrscrs to cr(ate lI pliratt’
t’l.tat rt
tg. rrrrrt lt as ltltr;tssitt{,tt’le-
ttse ph.nt’ carrs *ete ;i’::;”i” ‘r” l:l^L’:ll”i;.:[ll::,,Xll’i:’;::””‘n “” ,”.itr Ltttrtt’t
I”,,r.,r,”:r”n \Ach *irr.’s t() altl’a(
t petrplc ” lr discrt’rlir tlre ciril rights
r.lili *i**ru:: g[,ff ifr#’hrffi
:]]-:[;il; i “” i”r’ “‘ i *”
iOoui, 2008; Simon \{ieser-rthal
(le trter
WtrvX-,1t:f-‘i;lt*:{”:ritiil#ri’f:s'”r”y!:{t’lr*Lrt’ll”t}’;rr;*lt”t(;:ru?
Freq,rentr.v, “‘”.n:”i’,,,::]i j:lT”I:*:ilJi,,l,:::::.T”x,jlxT:,,,”‘l;’H”‘]i”,]i:’:”:”i*
AFter irll, is not hate rt
cri’resmaYinclrtrle^;”;;;ti;;’rofhatlerlt”;;;;inclivicltralororsauization’ahate
Ghapter 3 Discrimination 67
or bias critne tolarcl a minorin’is intenclecl to carrv ir rrlcssage rvell beyoncl thc incliviclual
victirn. Whcn 2i person is irssnultecl bccause thev irre ga)’ or lcsbinn, the act is rneant tcr
terrorize all ga1′ ancl lesbians. V:rnclnlizing a lnosque or svltas()gue is me:rnt to \\,arll all
Muslirns or.fcrvs th:r.t thev al’e not u,nr.ttccl ancl their leligiorrs firith is considered ir-rfl’rior.
Itt rnanl’ respects, toclzrv’s hatc crimes are like thc tcrrorist effcrrts of thc llti Klux Klan
of senerzrtions aso. Targets nral be randomly selected, brrt tl.rc group being terrorizcd
is carefulll’chosen. In nraur’.jtrt’isdictions, having:r crinre classifrecl 2rs a hilte crirne czrn
inct-ense the prrr-rishrneut. For exarnple, a misdenre:rnor like r.anclalisnr can be increased
ttt a felottv. A Ieloltv th:rt is a hate crirne c:ln carrv r greater-pr-ison sentelrce. These sanc-
tions rvcrc trphelcl b1’the Supreme Cotrrt in the 199i1 decision Mitch.?lla. I,l,’7.vznsln, rvhich
recogtt izercl that gre:rter hitrrn nray be clone by l.rate-rnotir,atecl crimes (Blazak 201 I ) .
Itrdivicltrals practice cliscrirnination in one-on-onc cnc()ul]ters, irr-rcl instituti()lls prrlctice
clisclirnirration throllgh their daill’ operations. Inclcecl, il consensus is grou,ing toclav
th:rt instittrtional disclirnination is m,.,re significant thnn acts comnrittcd b1’plejrrdicecl
individrrirls.
Soci:rl scientists irre particularl)’ concer-ned rvith hou, pittterlts of’empl6vr e1t, eclrr-
cation, criminal .justicc, housing, healthcare, :rnd gor,ernntcnt oper2rtions maintain tl-re
sociirl signific:rnce of race :rncl ethnicitt,. lnstitutional discrimination is tl.rc clcnial of
ttpporttrnities :rnd eqtral rishts tt) inclir,idtrals and erorrps that results fr-ont the norrn:rl
operations of a socie ty.
(livil rishts acti\,ist Stokell’ Clarmich:rel and politic:rl scientist Cll.rarles Hamiltcn irrc
creclite
Hon’cau cliscrinrination be rviclespread :rncl trnconsciotrs irt the s2ure tirnc? A feu r-r-
tnentecl cxirmples of’ instittrtionirl discrintination ftrllorl,:
1. Standarcls for assessing crcdit r-isks n ork asainst Afric:ln Americans and Hispanics
rvho scck to establisl-r bttsinesses because nr:rnr” lack conr,entional creclit refer-
ellccs. Bttsitresses in lou.income ilrcas rvhere these eroups often reside zrlso have
rrrrrr’h higlrer insrrrance costs.
2. IQ testing favors rnicldlc-clzrss chilclren, espcciallv the \{rhitcr middle class, because
of the tlpcs of questions inclucled.
3. The entire crintinirljustice s\,stem, fronr the patrol officer to the-iudge ancljurl,,
is clorninirted b1,Wl-rites rvl.ro fincl it diflicrrlt to understar-rd lil’e in p()\’ertv areas.
4. Hirine practiccs often reqtrirc several veitrs’ experience :tt .jribs onl1, recentlv
opened to membe rs of subordinate srorrps.
5. Many’jobs atrtomatically elirninate pcople u,ith [‘elony r-ecorrls or past dnrg offbnses,
a practice that clisproportior-ratelv r-ecltrces ernplol’rrent opportrrr.ritics fcir people of
color.
Instittrtionirl discrirnination is so svstemic that it t:rkes on the pattenr of rvhat has been
terrnecl “u’oodrvork racism” irt that r:rcist otrtcomes becorne so rvidespreircl tl-rat Afiicirr-r
Attrericatrs, Latinos, Asian Americans, and others endure thern as a part of ever-vdiry lif’e
(Feaeirt and McKinnet, 2003).
*/’ i!^
&.ff ffi cheon,:
Roce-Ethnicity ond
Mortgoges
the
on : Roce
ond Aoss in the Americon
Crimi n ol J u stice System
68 ChaPter 3 Discrimination
At the beginning of this chapter’
rve tlotecl horr’ eurPlolers r’ri’—:: – –
* i*’1 ” *;: ti:xinT.?;:tril,T 1′.H:5:’:1′:rl'”T;ilJ’i “”’ i
und Latino job appttcants ar
r rrru’
institutional discrimination’
” ” i … r “,,, i s’ ^ : $ :,1,:1,,?ll :HIII [“^T r:,il: J i |!J qiii J Tl ill’l’Jli:; “;
;
uu*;H’1ffi l”t””*,.g
ffi
‘
: ffi T#
*lT-‘:1:’#’^*’lT:
DespitethepositivesteP,concer,,s,o},loveranotherpotentialexarnpleofinstitu-
tional cliscrimination-t-h.’..quir.*.n, “t,l”t”**t’-“-i”utd
ID to vote’ Eleven states
erracred laws requirinn'””,”.Jro
show , onf,”” io”fit”*outy Io pre’ent ‘oter
fraud’
Ho*ever. there is,,,,,5JiJ.^.””,n”1
p””i,e have been inrpersonatins
cligible ‘olers
at
thepolls’Courtshavebeenreluctant…pr-,orasuchlaws,contendir|qthataccessibility
is nor ensured for ^,,
.i*tti.^;;;;..,. “;,;r”;’;,ln
u .,.td”ntial’ Such laws dispropor-
tionatery disenfranchir.^.i..,-,u…
, r.r””rtri’*.*ft ‘i*pty because
they do not have a
clriver,s licenr.. x”,t””.i;;;;;y, foYnd
zu pJ.ii”i Lf African Americans and
16 percent
of Latino citizens ao ,-,oit-ruu.
a valid *”1.ii-.”i-ttr,,”a pr-‘”to
lD compared to 8 percent
sil ;x*i:T*iilSq’!:i”.iq#Ii,#*i’::#irvn:*:::lrT;’,r””,1r?
,o fl-. discriminatotf tfftt:: Ttl*i.tit nd sororities that rvanted to use campLrs
facili-
p,”,.,i.a irri.l.::o.:#;:::f;:I:Ti;;,.;”;q,depqsit to cover possible
damage
ties for a dance wert
The Black students tffitui’*a ‘t-‘ut
tt-‘i’ p’iti’;’ hd; aiiiti,,lilt;;l;”;:;il#i6l[
.;;;;;,s^”,*:ll5*rljr”ru;:::ff 1,::t’l;.:::15::1″:5;;;il\^hi,e
all student groLtPS 11
fraterniries ur-ra ,o.o.i.ii^.-, ^,ifr”
*fr””t ,”0 ,i.t. “‘i’-‘
t-‘ot””t’ which they used for
dances’
ir,.pori.yarrected”;r’;Ar.’i;;4:::,:i,’,*l*:y*llnffi #:.”#T;Tk’*,’p’
;:s::’.”x1i::[Hi::!:i;:11i];i1i]$,:iTtl**”oo’fhersrhisis’iheunder.
lying and painful’;;;;;;; iterican
intergroup relations’
Discrimination continues to be
rvidespread in the United States’
It sometimes results
lrom prejudices held.bv individuals
Ut” *ott’tignrn*’iry’ttit “i11:l.:’iltJtt’;;lil,i:l
crimination. We llrst ‘;il;;;;;uring
cliscrimination in terms o1
at efforts that are Ott”f’t”it to eliminate
or at least reduce it’
[-]is*r’inrlnatt{)n h”{its the Wailet
Howmuchdiscriminationisthere?^”-ll:.^*ringprejudice,problemsariservhentrv-
ing to quantifv ai”‘i*it’ution’ Measuri”g
ptt:”JrE i’ t’u-f’tt}|1Jltt”1″1Lt:itTit:,J
assessins attitudes “t;;;;;;
;eecl to take manv factors
into accottnt
i;*’;t., ;i “‘”o”t”
l-rv the initial challer-rg. of identifying
dttt *”,”tt^i1nttt” A second clifficulfl’
of tleasur
lJ-ffi;1;;; ;”””ig’l”g “‘”‘it:^otlii,T’Jil'[. any household is their a.u.al
-.t*::::’:i::ff il”,T.;ffi”i;H–.io’#il,arl”#*’.lt:x:;,3rt:J:1:::i.,
salaries, wages, “”0
],ir., ,ir.”.y ….*”a, i””a,f, is a more
inclusi’e term that erlco’l-
pu…’ uu oi ” o”‘”-{‘:Hl’il,;ik’:^tt'[$lilT* u lr:*:’
n pe s or P roP e rt\ \\ e nrs’l
consider income an<
Chapter 3 Discrimination 69
6
g
o
q)
E
oo
E
E
.gEo
E
the
lnequality Persists
Racial Stratification and Education in the United States:Why
63,000
56,000
49,000
42,OOO
35,000
28,000
2t,ooo
14,000
7,000
0
Asian White Native Asian White
men men American women women
and Alaska
Native men
Black Native Black Hispanic Hispanic
men American women men women
and Alaska
Native women
Median lncome by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
Even at the very highest levels of schooling, the income gap remains between Whites and
Blacks. Education also has little apparent effect on the income gap between male and female
workers. Even a brief analysis reveals striking differences in earning power between White men
and other groups in the United States. Furthermore, greater inequality is apparent for African
American and Hispanic women.
Nofei Data released in 2012 for income earned in 20’1 1. Median income is from all sources and is limited to year-round,
full-trme workers at least 25 years old, Data for White men and women are for non-Hispanics.
Source; Bureau of the Census 201 2b; DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 201 2: PINC-O3.
Some tentative conclusions about discrimination can be made looking at income and
wealth data. Figure 3.3 uses income data to show the vivid disparity in income between
African Americans and Whites and also between men and women. This encompasses all
full-time’workers. \Ahite men, with a median income of $55,
71
1, earn one-third more
than Black men and almost twice what Hispanic wornen earn in wages.
Yet Asian American men are at the top and edge out White males by a little less
than $200 a year. Why do Asian American men earn so much if race serves as a bar-
rier? The economic picture is not entirely positive. Some Asian American groups sr,rch
as Laotians and Vietnarnese have high levels of poverty. However, a significant number
of Asian Americans with advanced educations have hieh-earning jobs, which brings up
the median income. However, as we will see, given their high levels of schoolins, their
incomes shoulcl be even higher.
Clearly, regardless of race or ethnicity, men outpace women in annual income. This
disparity between the incomes of Black women and White men has remained unchanged
over the more than 50 years during which such data have been tabulated. It illustrates
yet another instance of the €lreater inequality experienced by minority women. Also,
Figure 3.3 includes data only for full-time, year-round workers; it excludes homemakers
and the unemployed. Even in this comparison, the deprivation of Blacks, Hispanics, and
women is confirmed again.
We might be drawn to the fact that Asian American income appears to slightly over-
take that of Whites. Howeveq as we will see, this is due to Asian Americans collectively
having mttch more formal schooling than Whites as a group and deriving some benefits
frorn that achievement.
$56,360 $55,711
‘,1
:l
.
1,,: rr i
.,:.
:,l,rl
”
$36,040 $35.4o7′ o55.40r+
$46,478
$47,447 $41,149 $40,777
$30,355
70 Chapter3 Discrimination
Are thcse clifferer-rces eltirely the result of cliscrirnination in emplovrnerlt? No.
L’rclivicltrals rvithin the fotrr srouPs are not cqrrall,v preparecl to compete for high-pa,ving
i,bs. Past cliscrirnination is a significant factor in a Person’s current social position.
As
clisctrssecl previousll,,ancl illustratcd in Figtrre 3.3, past discrirninatioll c()lltintles to take :r
toll or.r moclern victinrs. Taxpavers, preclorninatrtlv White, u’ere unrvilling ttl strbsidizc the
ptrblic e6ucatiorr of Afiican Amcricans ancl Hispanics atthe same levels asWhite ptrpils.
Even as these :rctiotrs have changed, torlav’s schools sholv the colltinuing results of’ this
lpeven spencling pilttcrn from the past. Edrrc:rtion clearlv is an appropriate virriable tcr
control.
In Tirble 3.1, rledian income is conrpared, holding edtrcation collstant, rvhich t.ne:rtls
that \,ve ca11 compare Blacks and Whites ancl men and lvometr lvith approxinratcly tl.re
same alror.lnt of forrnal schoolilg. More education tneans lrore nlone\’, but the clisp;rrit1′
rernains. The gap betrvee n races does l-rArro\{ somervhat as edttcati
both Africal Americans ancl lvornen lag behind their rnore zrffluent coullterParts. The
61;ntrirst remains clrarnatic: \{omen u,ith a master’s clegree tvpically receive $60,304, which
lrea1s tl.rev ea11 nrore than $6,000 less than men rvho complete onl,v a bzrchelrlr-‘s degrec.
Thinkilg o\,er the long terrn, a wontAn rvith a bachelor’s degrce rvill lvork ftrll-tirnc for-
three ycars to earn $147,000. The iy-pical male can lvork a little rnore than 27 tnotlths, takc
ot er 9 months off rvithorrt pa1′, ancl still cxceecl the rvotnan’s earnings. \Alonretl, regzrrdless o1′
race, pa,y at every point. The,v are ofien hirecl at lorver starting salaries in-iobs couparable tcr
those helcl bv men. S:tlan, increases conle slorver. Ancl b,v their 30s, thcv rat-eh’recovcr fiotn
e’e . sSort tlatesrit\’ leayes (Dcv ancl Hill 2007; Gittell and NlcKinney 2007;Jacobs 200t3)’
the :Who Ends Up Poor? Poverty by Education/Race
$.it:!’ri,T,i
Even at the very highest levels of schooling, the income gap remains between Whites and Blacks. Education
also has litue apparent effect on the income gap between male and female workers (income values in dollars).
Total
High School
Nongraduate
Graduate
College
Associate Degree
Bachelors degree
Master’s degree
Doctorate degree
69,829
35 970
53,478
71,735
97,442
tlt 071
1 25 059
40 495
20,768
32 699
49 989
76,444
80 184
111,535
72,996
37 118
49 658
66 921
87,704
111 871
114,662
40,061
30,868
39 451
53 386
70 849
87 956
1’15,434
50 655 38 909
30,423 21,113
40,447 30 611
50 928 39 286
66,196 49 108
83,027 60,304
100 766 77,458
/vofe; Data released in 201 2 for income earned in 201 1. Figures are median income Irom all sources except capital
gains. lncluded are public assislance
payments, dividends, pensions, unemployment compensalion, and so on. lncomes are for all workers 25 years ol age and older’ High
school graduates
include those with GEDS. Data lor Whites are for white non-Hispanics. “some college” excludes associate degree holders Family
data above bachelors
degree are derived from median incomes, and data for doctorate-holders’families are authoas estimate.
Source: DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, and Smith 20’1 2: FINC-o1 , PINC-01
on :
Ghapter3 Discrimination
Note what happens to Asian American households. Although highly educated Asian
Arnericans earn a lot of mone1,, they trail well behind their White counterparts. With a
doctorate clegree holder in the family, the typical Asian American household earns an
estirnated $114,662, cornpared to $125,059 in aWhite household.
This is the picture today, but is it eetting better? According to a Census Bureau report
released in 201 1 , the answer is no. Durins the early years of the twenty-first centrrry Blacks
were m()re likely to stay poor than \,\rhites and those African Americans in the top rturg
of it’tcome rvere ntore likely to fall than their White counterparts among the wealthy The
inequality is drarnatic and the trend is not diminishing (Hisnanick ancl Giefer 201I ).
Nolv that education has been held constant, is the remaining eap caused by discrim-
ination? Not necessarily. Table 3.1 uses only the amount of schooling, nor its quality.
Racinl miuorities are more likely to attend inadequately financecl schools. Some efIbrts
hzrve been m:rde to eliminate disparities between school districts in the amount of wealth
avirilable to tax for school support, but they have met with little success.
The inequaliq, of educational opportuniry may seem less important in explaining sex dis-
crinrination. Althoueh women trsually are not segreuated from men, educational institutions
ellcourage t:rlented women to enter fields that pay less (nursine or elementary education)
than other occttpations that require similar amolrnLs of training. Even when they do enter the
same occtlPation, the earnings clispadty persiss. Even controllins for age, a stucly of census
clata showecl that female physicians and surgeons earned 69 percent of what their mzrle coun-
terpart.s did. Looking at broad ranges of occupations, researchers in the last few years have
attributed between one-quarter and one-third of the wage gap to discrimination rather than
persoual choices, skill preparation, and forrnal schooling (Reskin 2012; Weinberg 2007).
El iminating Discrirnination
Tr,r,o main asents of social change work to reduce discrimination: voluntary associations
orsanized to solve racial and ethnic problems and the federal government, inclucling the
cotlrts. The trvo are closely related: Most efforts initiated by the governnlent were urgecl
b,v irssociations or organizations that represent minoriq/ groups ar.rd follolved vigorous
Protests bv African Americans against racism. Resistance to social inequality by subordi-
nate groups has been the key to change. Rarely has any government on its own initiatir.e
sottsht to encl cliscrimination based on snch criteria as race, ethnicity, and gender.
All racial and ethnic groups of any size are represented by private orsanizations that
are, to some clesree, tryine to end discrimination. Some groups originated in the first half
of the trventieth century, but most have been founded since \{orld \&hr II or have become
sienificant forces in bringing about change only since then. These include church orsa-
nizations, {iaternal social groups, minor political parties, and legal defense funcls, as rvell
as more militant organizations operating under the scmtiny of law enforcement agen-
cies. The Purposes, membership, successes, and failures of these resistance organizations
cledicated to elirninatins discrimination are discussed throughout this book.
The judiciary, charued with interpretins laws and the U.S. Constitution, has a much
lonser historv of itl,olvernent in the rights of racial, ethnic, and religious minorities.
Horvever, its early decisions protected the rights of the dominant sroup, as in the 1t157
U.S. Srrpreme Court’s f)rcd Scott decision, which ruled that slaves remained slaves er,en
‘rvhetr livir.rs or traveling in states where slavery was illesal. Not r.rntil the 1940s clid the
Sttpreme Court revise earlier decisions and besin to grant African Arnericans the same
rishts as tlrcrse held by Whites. The 1954 Broutn u. Boctrd of Education decision, lvhich stated
that “separate but equal” facilities-including education-were unconstitutional, her-
alclecl a nerv series of rtrlings, aruuing that distinguishing between races in order to segre-
sate was ir-rherently rrnconsti tutionzrl.
71
72 Ghapter 3 Discrimination
the
on:
Fences ond Neighbors:
Segregotion inTwenty-
First-Century Americo
The most important le5;islirtir,c eflort to eradicate discrir-ninatioll w:ls the Civil Rishts
Act of 1964. This act led ro rhe establishment of the Equ:rl Ernployrnent Opporttrnitv
Clorlmission (EEOCI), which hacl the porver to investigate complaillts zlsaillst emplo)’crs
zr1fl to recontmend action to the Deparl-ment of.fusticc. If the.itrstice deP:rrtlncnt sued
alcl discrimination was found, then the court could order approPriate c()mpe1ls21tiot1.
The act colerecl ernployment practices of all btrsinesscs \\’ith rnorc than 25 en]pltll’ees
and neirrly all employrnent agencies ancl labor ttnions. A 1972 atrendlnent broadened
the coveragc to employers with 2rs feu’irs 15 ernployees.
The Civil Rights Act o{‘1964 prohibitecl discrirninatiotr in pttblir: :rccotntnoclaliells-
tl-rat is, hotels, motels, rest2rurants, g:rsoline stntions, zrnd amttscment pirrks. Publicl,v
owpefl facilities such :rs parks, stacliums, zrnd swirnrnins pools rverc also prohibited frrnl
discrirninatins. Another important provision fbrbade cliscrirninatior.r in all federallv
supportecl proEiranls ancl institutions such as hospitals, colleses, ancl road constrttctiotl
projects.
‘it-r” Civil Rights Act o1’1964 rvas not perf’ect. Since 1964, several rrcts llncl atncndnletrts
to the original act have been aclclecl to cover thc tnauy arezrs of cliscriminatior.r it lefi
gntolched, such as crirninal justice:rncl hottsitrg. Ever-r in areirs singled out for cnfbrce-
ment in the act, discrirnir.rzrtion still occrlrs. Federal agettcies chargecl with etrfcrrcement
corlpl:tin that they irre r-rnderftrndecl or are denicd I’vholehearted strpport b1′ tl-rc White
Hogse. Also, regardless of horv nruch the E,E(Xlntay \vartt to act in a particr.rlar case, the
pcrrson who :rllcges cliscrimination hirs to plrrsuc the crtrnplaillt over a long tir.ne thzrt is
mtrrked by lengthy periods of inaction. f)espitc tl’rese efforts, devastating forms o{‘clis-
crir-1i1atign persist. A{iican Arnericans, Lzrtinos, ancl others fall victitn to redlining, or
the pattern of cliscrirnin2ltion 2rsainst people trying to btry honles in minoritv arlcl racizrllv
changin g neighborhoocls.
Peiple living in preclorritrantly minoritv ncighborhoods have fbund that compirnics
rvith delivery services refuse to Efo to thcir arca. In one c:rsc thirt attracte
tion ir.r 1997, a Pizza Hut in Kansas Citv refirsecl to delivcr 40 pitzas to ntr houors pro-
sram 21t a high scl.rool in an all-Black neighborhood. A Pizza Hut spokesPerson czrlled
ile neighbcrrhoocl unsaf’e ancl szricl that almost every city has “restricted arelrs” to rvhich
the cornpanv l,vill not deli’,.er. This aclnission rvas p2lrtictrlarly embarrassit.tg bccattse the
high school irlrea
throtrghitrt the United States (Fuller 19911; Rusk 2001; Schrv:u’tz 2001; Ttrnrer et al. 2002;
Yinser-1995).
Althoueh civil rights lalvs often havc establishecl rights for otherr n’rinorities, the
Suprerrre tlotrrt nrircle them explicit in tu,o 1987 decisions involving sr()uPs tlther th:rn
Afiican Arlericans. In the first of the trvo cases, an Iraqi Arncrican professot’ lrsserted
ttrat he hacl beel cleniecl tenurc becatrse of his Aralr origins; itt the sccond, aJervish con-
gregtltiolt brought suit lor clirrrages in response to the clefaccrnent olits svnasogtre lvitl-r
derog:rtor1, svrnbols. Thc Suprcnre Clourt rttlecl trnatrimously thirt, in effect, atlr- rnetlber
of ari ethnic rninoritv mtly suc trnder f’ederirl prohibitions agirinst rliscrirnination’ These
clecisiops pavecl ttre rva,v f
Act of 196’l (Tirylor l9ti7).
A particularly itrstrlting forrn of discrirrinatiotr seetned finally to be on its u’a-v out in
the late 1980s. Maru,sgcial clrrbs h:rrl limitations ttrzrt fbrba
Depial of ntenrbership rneant lrore than the in:rbility to attend a lttncheon; it also see r]led
to exclrrde certair.t groups fiom part of thc nrarketplace. ln 1988, the Suprcrle (ltlurt
rrrlecl rrnirnirnouslv in Neal Vtrk StaLc Clttbs A.ssrxirttittrt tt. Oitl of Netu lbrA that states and
cities mav ban sex discrirninatior.r b1, large pri\,ate cltrbs lvhere business lunches
artd sir.nilirr activities take pl:rce. Although thc nrlins docs not applv to all clubs
artcl leaves the isstre of racial ancl ethnic barriers unresoh.,ed, itclicl chip arvirvat the
arbitlzrry exclusivencss cl1′ pri\,ate gr()ups ( Steirr hatrer. 2006; Tru,lor- l g88) .
Mernbersirips :rud restrictive clrgirnizations rcmain perfectll, lcgal. The rise to
ll2ltiolllrl attentiott of professional solfer Tieel-\\,’oocls, of tnixcd Natit,c Arnerican,
Afl’ican, ar-rrl Asian anccstry,, tn:rdc the public ar’varrc thirt hc rvotrlcl Lrc prohibitecl
fi’orrt plavirtu at a ltrinimunr ol’23 golf’courses by virttre
Pr-or,itrg cliscriminatiol), e\rcl] as outlined Iirr generations in lcgislation, con-
tirttres to bc diffir:rrlt. In the 2007 Ledlrctler u. Ooorfiear’l’irr: ond [luhlter (,’rr. rtrline,
the Srrprerne Cotrrt afhrmed that r,ictirns hzrcl to flle a firrmal conrplaint rvithin
180 rlat’s of thc irllesed discrirnination. This set asicle thousiurcls o1’cases r,vhcre
etnplovccs lezrrned their initi:rl pav was lo’n,cr to contpar:rblv cmplol,ccl \Vhitc or-
tnnle rvorket’s orrll’afier ther” had bccrr in :r.job fbr lcars. ()ivcn the rrsu:rl secrccl,
in rvorkplaccs :tt’ortnd s:rlarics, it rvould h:rl,e m:rcle it clifficrrlt fbr- potential cases
o1’pav clisparitl’ to Lrc effectiverll, 2611,21rl.'”c1. Tn,o 1,e:rrs latcr, (lonsress enactecl the
Lilly Lcclbetter Fnir Pav Act, u,hich sir,es vicrims rrore tirnc to flle ir lau,srrit.
The irtabilitr’ of’thc Civil Riehts Act, sirnilar leeislirtion, :rnci cotrrt dccisions
to etrcl discrintin:rtion ckres trot result entirell’ Iirirn poor fina.ncial and political
stlpport, althotrsh it does plav a rolc. The number of’fecleral cntpk4,ecs assiarlcd
to iuvestigate;rrrd prosectrte bias cases is insufficient. IVlzu’rl,61i5;6.1,ninaton’prac-
ticcs, sttclt ns thosc describecl:rs ir-rstittrtionirl discrin-rin:ttion,:rre selclom srrltject
to lesal actiolr.
Discrirnin:rtiort that has occrrrrccl in tl-rc past ciirries into the preselrt ancl firttrre. As
notecl in Figtrre 3.1, a lack of inheritccl rvealth is one elentcnt of the past. African
Atrtcricatt :tttd other tnitrorin’ gr()ups have had less opltoltunitr,, to accun-rulirte assets
sttch irs hontes, land, and savitrgs that can insulate them, and later their cl’rildren, fi-on-r
econornic sctbacks.
\{Iealtl-r is:r tnot’e inclusive ternl thar) income:rnd encor-r-rpasses irll of a person’s rniltc-
ri:rl assets, irrcltrdins land, stocks, irncl other tvpes o{‘propert\,.. \{e:rltl’r allorvs one to live
better; evett modest:rssets pl-o’,’icle instrrancc against the ellccts ol’.jolr la1,of}’s, rritttrral
clis:t”st.ers, atrrl lottg-term illness, and tl.ret, aftirr’<[ inclir,icltrals rnuch better interest r2rtes
rvhetl thev tteecl to 1)orto'u, lnoncl'. \{ealth allox,s childrcn to grlrdtr:rte lirlm collegc rvith
little or no debr. This rcrninds us that lbr nr:ury pcople, rve:rlth is not alu,irvs relzrted to
assets btrt :rlso can bc rreasrrrccl bl ir-rdebtedncss.
Sttrdies docutrcnl thitt the disparities in incorrre rve hitlc seell Arc even gr-c:rter u,hen
rvealth is consile to ptrt an1,-
thing aside Iitr a dorvn paylltcnt. Thev are nror-c likely to har,e to pay, fbr toclav’s expenses
rather thiur sar,e fbr thcir frrttrre or thcir chilclrcn’s firturc.
In tlrc Research Foctts “Tl’re Uneqtrzrl \\realtl.r Distril>rrtion,” rve consider the latest find-
inss regarclins the relatir.’e :rsscts iunonq \{hite, Rlack, and L:rtino Arneric:rns.
Chapter 3 Discrimination 73
A setback in antidiscrimination
lawsuits came when the
Supreme Court told Lllly
Ledbetter, in effect, that she was
“too late.” Ledbetter had been a
superuisor for many years at the
Gadsden, Alabama, Goodyear
Tire Rubber plant when she
rea ized that she was being paid
$6,500 less per year than the
lowest-paid male superuisor.
The Court ruled that she must
sue withrn 180 days of the initial
discriminatory paycheck even
though rt had takel years berore
she even knew of the dlfferentlal
payment. Congress later
enacted legislation elim nating
the’1 BO-day restrict on.
the
on
Sociol lnequolities:
Roce ond Ethnicity
l
I
een relirtive
ancl absolute clcprivation.
clonflict theorists hirve saicl corrcct-l)’ that it is not absolttte, unchanging stanclards
that cleterrnine cleprivation :rncl oppression. Althotrgh lninority grotlPs may be vie’rvecl
as having irclequate or e\Ien n,r,rd ir-raorres, hotrsing, healthczrre’ irnd cducational
opporturiitier, ii i, their positioir relative to sorne other group that offers evidence of
cliscrimination.
Relative deprivation is clefinecl :rs the consciogs experiellce of a negative discrepa trc-r’
befiveen legitirltatc expectatiorls zurcl presctrt 2rcttlalities’ After settlinS irl the United
1Oo/o 30% 40%o,r/o
Ghapter 3 Discrimination 65
Stzrtes, immigrzrnts often enjoy better material comforts and more political freedom than
llere possible in their old cor-rntries. If they compare themselves with rnost other people
in the United States, horvever, they will feel cleprived becatrse, althotrgh their standarcls
have inrpror.ecl, the irnrnigrants still perceive relative deprivation.
Absolute deprivation, ou the other hand, irnplies a fixed standard based on a rninimum
levcl of strbsistcnce belolv which families should not be expected to exist. Discrirnination
does t-tot necessarily mean absolute deprivation. AJapanese American who is prorr.roted
to tt llt2lltaser.rtent position may still be :r victim of discrimination if he or she hacl been
passed over for vears because of corporate reluctance to place an Asian American in a
hiehly visible position.
Dissatisfaction also is likely to arise from feelinss of relative depri’,.atior.r. The rnernbers
of a societl’rvho f-eel most frustrated and disgruntled by the social and economic condi-
tions ol’their lives 21re not necessarily lvorse off in an objectil,e sense. Soci:rl scientists
have lon{r recogrrized that r,r,hat is rnost significant is hor,v people perceive their situations.
Karl Mirrx pointed out that althotrgh the miserl’ of the workers was important in reflect-
irte their oppressed state, so was their position relative to the rulinq class. In 1847, Marx
\’vrotc, “Althotreh the enjoyr.nent of the workers has risen, the social satisfaction that they,
have has fallen in comparison rvith the increased enjovrnent of the capitalist” (Marx and
Enscls 1955:94).
This statement explains why the groups or individuals lvho are ntost vocal and best
organizecl against discrimination are not necessarily in the worst economic and social
situation. Horvever, they are likelr, to be those who most strongly perceive that, relative
to others, they are not receiving their fair share. Resistance to perceivecl discrimination,
r-ather than the actual amount of absolute discrirnination, is the key.
Althotrgh prejudice certair.rly is not nerv in the United States, it is receivins increased
atterttiott as it manifests itself in hate crimes in neighborhoods, at meetings, and on
collese c:tlnpllses. The Hate Crime Statistics Act, which became law in 1990, directs the
Depirrtrncnt of.fustice to gather data on hate or bias crirnes.
What Are Hate Crimes?
Thc goverrttnent defines an ordinary crime as a hate crime u,hen oflenders are motivatecl
to choose a victirn becatrse of some characteristic-for example, race, ethnicity, religion,
sexrtal orientzrtion, or clisability-zrnd provide evidence that hatrecl prompted them to
ctrtrrt’t-tit the crinte . Hate crimes also are sometimes referred to as bias t:rimcs.
The Hzrte Crirne Statistics Act creirted a national mandate to identify such crimes,
u,hereas pre”‘iously only 12 states had monitored hate crimes. The act has since been
attrencled to include disabilities, physical and mental, as well as sexual orientation as fac-
tors that cotrld be considered a basis for hate crimes.
In 2012, larv enfbrcement asencies released hate crime data submitted bv police zruen-
cies. Er”ert thotrgh 112nv, trl?ov hate crimes are not reported (f’erver than one in ser,en
particiPilting asetrcies reported an incident), a stasgering number of offenses that come
to la\{ asencics’ attention were motivated by hate. While most incidents receive relatir.ely
littlc attention, son)e become the attention of headlines and online sites for days. Strch
\{as the case in 2009 rvl-rer-r a Mary,land man with a long history of ties to neo-Nazi groups
rvalkecl into the [.1.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in \Vashington, DC, and opened fire,
killing a security guard.
66 ChaPter 3 Discrimination
Olfrcial rePorts tlotecl more
than 6’20O’ h:rte crimes illi(i ri”-‘-
sexual.,.,tln””iJi’-tllat”t’i”zoii’LtinclicateclinFigure3’2’rirce$rt’
orientation Ethnicitv z Disabirity ;::;;;;’;” “.””i”o’i.,’1*i*:lli”,Xo,J,ifri:lilt:Ii’.ff:::l–i’
*u,,r,on”””’i?;'”‘
*ii;n-
:l:,:l:,,::iljl],1;lr::::i,,’.:,,;i, i;il:l’:]::l’lllllll,liiill’1,;)lll.?5i,:”
Race 1ffi;”.1,:,[{:1.’J;:’.’;illili i””*,
‘il’;.,;;:];’-i”‘n’tu’-a
,,’,,.,,,,,,,,
, , ,,..,,,r.
rii” a”+’,*iLTi.,:iili]l::;l^tc crimes are clirectecl bv .rct.bers o{‘t’e
‘rri’u,i.,r;,,,”:.’,,:,,-,.;i’i
il:iffi’n*** ;:f,n1,,, *;:IS””.:ilX:,.].:T,*lti-qli
Llate crinres, excePt ft”-‘tlott ttrat
irre. nrost l’rorriflc’ receive
littlc’
Distribution of Reported
Hate crimes
“J;’;;i'”‘-” ^’-‘a'”””iwnitt
inciclcnts probrrbll teceirc
crctr
source:lncidentsreportedtor20ll
inFederal Bureau it”
“t*utt’tr'”‘”at”‘t”tt
k’t”u’ tlo bottncl’rties (I)ellurtul(‘tlt
or
of lnvestigation2ol2.
)r zv, rrr “–
Jrtstice 2,11;,\\’itt
2007)’
Thc ollicial ‘”p..”‘i'”t:l’rlt(‘
u’ t’i”‘t’in’l’l :rPpert. ttr lt’cr’nf;:l:’lli’:li’lli’Jil’I,i:’
!ffi .,,'””:T
“;”;::i,;l *ilil,Tilx ;:H l: I il l I’i il I.’ ::;;, r,.,. ” ”
r v h.,, f c, f
;;;; ;;r ;;i’,., “. It”y:l *l;t,5 ;. *j;[:*; : i*:,.l$f :[ : i, :]: i’:j:’:i’i:i:
il,,ifl’L’* J: liil:, :,T::; *;;’;i;i: ;’ ( H arrorv
2 00 5 ; P e rrv 2 00 3 )
Natiorrzrllegislatiorlanclpublicitl,havetrradellrttet:rim,catneirnirlgfttlterrrr,andrve
:rrebeginningtorecoglli,”ih”victimizaticlt.’.”*”.’..”arr.it,lrstrchirrciclents.Actrrrcnt
,..,rr.,r.1 rvoulcl ,rr^i. ].,.
.
,,i”f.nt critne ^ “*J”tttnre
i{‘ it were nr.tivaterl bv racial
or
religicltrsbias.Althclrrul.rpassagei,..,-,cert,lin,tlrescriotts..x,,i.l”r^ti.,rrofthept-opclslrl
i.clicates a rvilli.g.es] ‘o
t.”.”ia”t n ‘tu”‘i”‘*;;;” “f”:o:t1]J:”]’ntt'”””l’lltltJtll;
fecleral larv prohibirls tt’t'”ttl’^”rclt’1ate1l
bY tltt’
:”-f’l:’-teligion’
‘
thel’violate a teclerall.v g\rar2lnteed
t1**:i:*::litt:,lfr.”^”
hzrte crimcs a.cl other acrts
of
Victirniz.etcl groups do tnore
thau expet-r
l,:Tf:::Ii::’.:i;,.ii::?
j’:l:’,+l;””H:;:*[*;;;a;;:i1ilx*l#fr
Asirinst Pre.ir’rclice ^;i’?;”;”e’
the Sotrthcnr Povertv Lzru’
(len
,.,iJ i”.rri^i, Task F,rce’ – \tzl .rr^rrnq har,e even set ttP Propilga.dir sites
ttn
ktt:’T,’J$;;l’*l;::!rlii:ffi ‘”1′:’;{q,ii*ff *i’,*1″,x[*::.*l
:*”{u::::J:i”i”‘;:t*:::’x”l’nil-L.*-“*il:i-:#;x*’.:,’^m:
rechnique of hate -;;.;”Pi has
rree tr.’:,)l::i:iil”lliil’;Ti:lllii;;\:;”*’f’l’-g r’ig””
Irrtcrnet rrscrs to cr(ate lI pliratt’
t’l.tat rt
tg. rrrrrt lt as ltltr;tssitt{,tt’le-
ttse le to ptrt an1,-
thing aside Iitr a dorvn paylltcnt. Thev are nror-c likely to har,e to pay, fbr toclav’s expenses
rather thiur sar,e fbr thcir frrttrre or thcir chilclrcn’s firturc.
In tlrc Research Foctts “Tl’re Uneqtrzrl \\realtl.r Distril>rrtion,” rve consider the latest find-
inss regarclins the relatir.’e :rsscts iunonq \{hite, Rlack, and L:rtino Arneric:rns.
Chapter 3 Discrimination 73
A setback in antidiscrimination
lawsuits came when the
Supreme Court told Lllly
Ledbetter, in effect, that she was
“too late.” Ledbetter had been a
superuisor for many years at the
Gadsden, Alabama, Goodyear
Tire Rubber plant when she
rea ized that she was being paid
$6,500 less per year than the
lowest-paid male superuisor.
The Court ruled that she must
sue withrn 180 days of the initial
discriminatory paycheck even
though rt had takel years berore
she even knew of the dlfferentlal
payment. Congress later
enacted legislation elim nating
the’1 BO-day restrict on.
the
on
Sociol lnequolities:
Roce ond Ethnicity
l
I
‘liltt””it ft'”ft.- *lto ltrtrt’
ph.nt’ carrs *ete ;i’::;”i” ‘r” l:l^L’:ll”i;.:[ll::,,Xll’i:’;::””‘n “” ,”.itr Ltttrtt’t
I”,,r.,r,”:r”n \Ach *irr.’s t() altl’a(
t petrplc ” lr discrt’rlir tlre ciril rights
r.lili *i**ru:: g[,ff ifr#’hrffi
:]]-:[;il; i “” i”r’ “‘ i *”
iOoui, 2008; Simon \{ieser-rthal
(le trter
WtrvX-,1t:f-‘i;lt*:{”:ritiil#ri’f:s'”r”y!:{t’lr*Lrt’ll”t}’;rr;*lt”t(;:ru?
Freq,rentr.v, “‘”.n:”i’,,,::]i j:lT”I:*:ilJi,,l,:::::.T”x,jlxT:,,,”‘l;’H”‘]i”,]i:’:”:”i*
AFter irll, is not hate rt
cri’resmaYinclrtrle^;”;;;ti;;’rofhatlerlt”;;;;inclivicltralororsauization’ahate
Ghapter 3 Discrimination 67
or bias critne tolarcl a minorin’is intenclecl to carrv ir rrlcssage rvell beyoncl thc incliviclual
victirn. Whcn 2i person is irssnultecl bccause thev irre ga)’ or lcsbinn, the act is rneant tcr
terrorize all ga1′ ancl lesbians. V:rnclnlizing a lnosque or svltas()gue is me:rnt to \\,arll all
Muslirns or.fcrvs th:r.t thev al’e not u,nr.ttccl ancl their leligiorrs firith is considered ir-rfl’rior.
Itt rnanl’ respects, toclzrv’s hatc crimes are like thc tcrrorist effcrrts of thc llti Klux Klan
of senerzrtions aso. Targets nral be randomly selected, brrt tl.rc group being terrorizcd
is carefulll’chosen. In nraur’.jtrt’isdictions, having:r crinre classifrecl 2rs a hilte crirne czrn
inct-ense the prrr-rishrneut. For exarnple, a misdenre:rnor like r.anclalisnr can be increased
ttt a felottv. A Ieloltv th:rt is a hate crirne c:ln carrv r greater-pr-ison sentelrce. These sanc-
tions rvcrc trphelcl b1’the Supreme Cotrrt in the 199i1 decision Mitch.?lla. I,l,’7.vznsln, rvhich
recogtt izercl that gre:rter hitrrn nray be clone by l.rate-rnotir,atecl crimes (Blazak 201 I ) .
Itrdivicltrals practice cliscrirnination in one-on-onc cnc()ul]ters, irr-rcl instituti()lls prrlctice
clisclirnirration throllgh their daill’ operations. Inclcecl, il consensus is grou,ing toclav
th:rt instittrtional disclirnination is m,.,re significant thnn acts comnrittcd b1’plejrrdicecl
individrrirls.
Soci:rl scientists irre particularl)’ concer-ned rvith hou, pittterlts of’empl6vr e1t, eclrr-
cation, criminal .justicc, housing, healthcare, :rnd gor,ernntcnt oper2rtions maintain tl-re
sociirl signific:rnce of race :rncl ethnicitt,. lnstitutional discrimination is tl.rc clcnial of
ttpporttrnities :rnd eqtral rishts tt) inclir,idtrals and erorrps that results fr-ont the norrn:rl
operations of a socie ty.
(livil rishts acti\,ist Stokell’ Clarmich:rel and politic:rl scientist Cll.rarles Hamiltcn irrc
creclitele to ptrt an1,-
thing aside Iitr a dorvn paylltcnt. Thev are nror-c likely to har,e to pay, fbr toclav’s expenses
rather thiur sar,e fbr thcir frrttrre or thcir chilclrcn’s firturc.
In tlrc Research Foctts “Tl’re Uneqtrzrl \\realtl.r Distril>rrtion,” rve consider the latest find-
inss regarclins the relatir.’e :rsscts iunonq \{hite, Rlack, and L:rtino Arneric:rns.
Chapter 3 Discrimination 73
A setback in antidiscrimination
lawsuits came when the
Supreme Court told Lllly
Ledbetter, in effect, that she was
“too late.” Ledbetter had been a
superuisor for many years at the
Gadsden, Alabama, Goodyear
Tire Rubber plant when she
rea ized that she was being paid
$6,500 less per year than the
lowest-paid male superuisor.
The Court ruled that she must
sue withrn 180 days of the initial
discriminatory paycheck even
though rt had takel years berore
she even knew of the dlfferentlal
payment. Congress later
enacted legislation elim nating
the’1 BO-day restrict on.
the
on
Sociol lnequolities:
Roce ond Ethnicity
l
I
een relirtive
ancl absolute clcprivation.
clonflict theorists hirve saicl corrcct-l)’ that it is not absolttte, unchanging stanclards
that cleterrnine cleprivation :rncl oppression. Althotrgh lninority grotlPs may be vie’rvecl
as having irclequate or e\Ien n,r,rd ir-raorres, hotrsing, healthczrre’ irnd cducational
opporturiitier, ii i, their positioir relative to sorne other group that offers evidence of
cliscrimination.
Relative deprivation is clefinecl :rs the consciogs experiellce of a negative discrepa trc-r’
befiveen legitirltatc expectatiorls zurcl presctrt 2rcttlalities’ After settlinS irl the United
1Oo/o 30% 40%o,r/o
Ghapter 3 Discrimination 65
Stzrtes, immigrzrnts often enjoy better material comforts and more political freedom than
llere possible in their old cor-rntries. If they compare themselves with rnost other people
in the United States, horvever, they will feel cleprived becatrse, althotrgh their standarcls
have inrpror.ecl, the irnrnigrants still perceive relative deprivation.
Absolute deprivation, ou the other hand, irnplies a fixed standard based on a rninimum
levcl of strbsistcnce belolv which families should not be expected to exist. Discrirnination
does t-tot necessarily mean absolute deprivation. AJapanese American who is prorr.roted
to tt llt2lltaser.rtent position may still be :r victim of discrimination if he or she hacl been
passed over for vears because of corporate reluctance to place an Asian American in a
hiehly visible position.
Dissatisfaction also is likely to arise from feelinss of relative depri’,.atior.r. The rnernbers
of a societl’rvho f-eel most frustrated and disgruntled by the social and economic condi-
tions ol’their lives 21re not necessarily lvorse off in an objectil,e sense. Soci:rl scientists
have lon{r recogrrized that r,r,hat is rnost significant is hor,v people perceive their situations.
Karl Mirrx pointed out that althotrgh the miserl’ of the workers was important in reflect-
irte their oppressed state, so was their position relative to the rulinq class. In 1847, Marx
\’vrotc, “Althotreh the enjoyr.nent of the workers has risen, the social satisfaction that they,
have has fallen in comparison rvith the increased enjovrnent of the capitalist” (Marx and
Enscls 1955:94).
This statement explains why the groups or individuals lvho are ntost vocal and best
organizecl against discrimination are not necessarily in the worst economic and social
situation. Horvever, they are likelr, to be those who most strongly perceive that, relative
to others, they are not receiving their fair share. Resistance to perceivecl discrimination,
r-ather than the actual amount of absolute discrirnination, is the key.
Althotrgh prejudice certair.rly is not nerv in the United States, it is receivins increased
atterttiott as it manifests itself in hate crimes in neighborhoods, at meetings, and on
collese c:tlnpllses. The Hate Crime Statistics Act, which became law in 1990, directs the
Depirrtrncnt of.fustice to gather data on hate or bias crirnes.
What Are Hate Crimes?
Thc goverrttnent defines an ordinary crime as a hate crime u,hen oflenders are motivatecl
to choose a victirn becatrse of some characteristic-for example, race, ethnicity, religion,
sexrtal orientzrtion, or clisability-zrnd provide evidence that hatrecl prompted them to
ctrtrrt’t-tit the crinte . Hate crimes also are sometimes referred to as bias t:rimcs.
The Hzrte Crirne Statistics Act creirted a national mandate to identify such crimes,
u,hereas pre”‘iously only 12 states had monitored hate crimes. The act has since been
attrencled to include disabilities, physical and mental, as well as sexual orientation as fac-
tors that cotrld be considered a basis for hate crimes.
In 2012, larv enfbrcement asencies released hate crime data submitted bv police zruen-
cies. Er”ert thotrgh 112nv, trl?ov hate crimes are not reported (f’erver than one in ser,en
particiPilting asetrcies reported an incident), a stasgering number of offenses that come
to la\{ asencics’ attention were motivated by hate. While most incidents receive relatir.ely
littlc attention, son)e become the attention of headlines and online sites for days. Strch
\{as the case in 2009 rvl-rer-r a Mary,land man with a long history of ties to neo-Nazi groups
rvalkecl into the [.1.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum in \Vashington, DC, and opened fire,
killing a security guard.
66 ChaPter 3 Discrimination
Olfrcial rePorts tlotecl more
than 6’20O’ h:rte crimes illi(i ri”-‘-
sexual.,.,tln””iJi’-tllat”t’i”zoii’LtinclicateclinFigure3’2’rirce$rt’
orientation Ethnicitv z Disabirity ;::;;;;’;” “.””i”o’i.,’1*i*:lli”,Xo,J,ifri:lilt:Ii’.ff:::l–i’
*u,,r,on”””’i?;'”‘
*ii;n-
:l:,:l:,,::iljl],1;lr::::i,,’.:,,;i, i;il:l’:]::l’lllllll,liiill’1,;)lll.?5i,:”
Race 1ffi;”.1,:,[{:1.’J;:’.’;illili i””*,
‘il’;.,;;:];’-i”‘n’tu’-a
,,’,,.,,,,,,,,
, , ,,..,,,r.
rii” a”+’,*iLTi.,:iili]l::;l^tc crimes are clirectecl bv .rct.bers o{‘t’e
‘rri’u,i.,r;,,,”:.’,,:,,-,.;i’i
il:iffi’n*** ;:f,n1,,, *;:IS””.:ilX:,.].:T,*lti-qli
Llate crinres, excePt ft”-‘tlott ttrat
irre. nrost l’rorriflc’ receive
littlc’
Distribution of Reported
Hate crimes
“J;’;;i'”‘-” ^’-‘a'”””iwnitt
inciclcnts probrrbll teceirc
crctr
source:lncidentsreportedtor20ll
inFederal Bureau it”
“t*utt’tr'”‘”at”‘t”tt
k’t”u’ tlo bottncl’rties (I)ellurtul(‘tlt
or
of lnvestigation2ol2.
)r zv, rrr “–
Jrtstice 2,11;,\\’itt
2007)’
Thc ollicial ‘”p..”‘i'”t:l’rlt(‘
u’ t’i”‘t’in’l’l :rPpert. ttr lt’cr’nf;:l:’lli’:li’lli’Jil’I,i:’
!ffi .,,'””:T
“;”;::i,;l *ilil,Tilx ;:H l: I il l I’i il I.’ ::;;, r,.,. ” ”
r v h.,, f c, f
;;;; ;;r ;;i’,., “. It”y:l *l;t,5 ;. *j;[:*; : i*:,.l$f :[ : i, :]: i’:j:’:i’i:i:
il,,ifl’L’* J: liil:, :,T::; *;;’;i;i: ;’ ( H arrorv
2 00 5 ; P e rrv 2 00 3 )
Natiorrzrllegislatiorlanclpublicitl,havetrradellrttet:rim,catneirnirlgfttlterrrr,andrve
:rrebeginningtorecoglli,”ih”victimizaticlt.’.”*”.’..”arr.it,lrstrchirrciclents.Actrrrcnt
,..,rr.,r.1 rvoulcl ,rr^i. ].,.
.
,,i”f.nt critne ^ “*J”tttnre
i{‘ it were nr.tivaterl bv racial
or
religicltrsbias.Althclrrul.rpassagei,..,-,cert,lin,tlrescriotts..x,,i.l”r^ti.,rrofthept-opclslrl
i.clicates a rvilli.g.es] ‘o
t.”.”ia”t n ‘tu”‘i”‘*;;;” “f”:o:t1]J:”]’ntt'”””l’lltltJtll;
fecleral larv prohibirls tt’t'”ttl’^”rclt’1ate1l
bY tltt’
:”-f’l:’-teligion’
‘
thel’violate a teclerall.v g\rar2lnteed
t1**:i:*::litt:,lfr.”^”
hzrte crimcs a.cl other acrts
of
Victirniz.etcl groups do tnore
thau expet-r
l,:Tf:::Ii::’.:i;,.ii::?
j’:l:’,+l;””H:;:*[*;;;a;;:i1ilx*l#fr
Asirinst Pre.ir’rclice ^;i’?;”;”e’
the Sotrthcnr Povertv Lzru’
(len
,.,iJ i”.rri^i, Task F,rce’ – \tzl .rr^rrnq har,e even set ttP Propilga.dir sites
ttn
ktt:’T,’J$;;l’*l;::!rlii:ffi ‘”1′:’;{q,ii*ff *i’,*1″,x[*::.*l
:*”{u::::J:i”i”‘;:t*:::’x”l’nil-L.*-“*il:i-:#;x*’.:,’^m:
rechnique of hate -;;.;”Pi has
rree tr.’:,)l::i:iil”lliil’;Ti:lllii;;\:;”*’f’l’-g r’ig””
Irrtcrnet rrscrs to cr(ate lI pliratt’
t’l.tat rt
tg. rrrrrt lt as ltltr;tssitt{,tt’le-
ttse le to ptrt an1,-
thing aside Iitr a dorvn paylltcnt. Thev are nror-c likely to har,e to pay, fbr toclav’s expenses
rather thiur sar,e fbr thcir frrttrre or thcir chilclrcn’s firturc.
In tlrc Research Foctts “Tl’re Uneqtrzrl \\realtl.r Distril>rrtion,” rve consider the latest find-
inss regarclins the relatir.’e :rsscts iunonq \{hite, Rlack, and L:rtino Arneric:rns.
Chapter 3 Discrimination 73
A setback in antidiscrimination
lawsuits came when the
Supreme Court told Lllly
Ledbetter, in effect, that she was
“too late.” Ledbetter had been a
superuisor for many years at the
Gadsden, Alabama, Goodyear
Tire Rubber plant when she
rea ized that she was being paid
$6,500 less per year than the
lowest-paid male superuisor.
The Court ruled that she must
sue withrn 180 days of the initial
discriminatory paycheck even
though rt had takel years berore
she even knew of the dlfferentlal
payment. Congress later
enacted legislation elim nating
the’1 BO-day restrict on.
the
on
Sociol lnequolities:
Roce ond Ethnicity
l
I
