• 1: Visit UoC digital library on line and select peer-reviewed research work by various authors on the following topics:

  keyword search in the area of Information Technology and Policymaking
  impact of Information Technology in the Global Economies or
  organizational decision making and ICT or
  benefits of Information Technology in the Global Economy

• 2: Abstract Formulation:

  using your selected topic from above exercise, formulate/create an abstract of between 150 – 250 words using your selected topic above. 
  your research topic above must be selected very carefully by researching through the UoC academic Library from peer-reviewed prior research work that is closely related to your topic to complete this section. 
  this exercise must be completed with care because, your research topic must be independently formulated by you, and not similar to any other previously researched titles (authenticity).
  peer-reviewed research sources used as a source to build your topic selection ideas must be referenced in APA 6E format

  Don't use plagiarized sources. Get Your Custom Essay on

  Infotech global economy

  Just from $13/Page

  Order Essay

Intl. Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 32:

132

–142, 2016
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1044-7318 print / 1532-7590 online
DOI: 10.1080/10447318.2015.1067499

Seniors and Information Technology in China

Alexander N. Chen1 , James P. Downey2, Ronald E. McGaughey2, and Kan Jin3
1Department of Marketing and Management, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA
2Department of Management Information Systems, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA
3Academic Affairs Office, Zhejiang Radio and TV University, Zhejiang, P.R. China

Technology, particularly information technology (IT), is chang-
ing rapidly and offers many advantages for users. IT has the
potential to improve one’s quality of life, but only if used. Research
has shown that, in most developed and developing nations, senior
use of IT lags behind that of other segments of society. This “gray
divide” is a concern for government, business, and others. Concern
about senior adoption and use of IT has been the motivation for
numerous studies and is the motivation for this study of Chinese
seniors. This exploratory study examines urban Chinese seniors’
IT use, computers and mobile phones in particular, but also their
attitudes and behaviors as they relate to the use of those devices.
More specifically it examines several potential factors that moti-
vate or hinder senior’s use of information technology, including
self-efficacy, satisfaction, comfort with technology, and both posi-
tive and negative attitudes. This study provides some insight into
the quantity and diversity of Chinese senior technology use in
urban China. Particularly noteworthy, the study found that tech-
nology ownership was quite high, and in general the Chinese
seniors studied had positive attitudes and beliefs concerning infor-
mation technology. This is generally good news for the Chinese
government, which must efficiently provide services for the grow-
ing population of Chinese seniors, as well as for businesses that
wish to capitalize on one of the largest senior populations in the
world.

Anecdotal and empirical evidence shows that information

technology (IT) positively impacts the lives of users. One needs
only to watch the tech e-zines such as Gizmag to know that
the launch of new IT gadgets is a daily occurrence—something
smaller, something faster, something smarter, something cooler,
or something that does what no gadget has done before, or
improves on what another gadget does. This boom in technol-
ogy devices should benefit the entire population, but in practice
this has not been the case.

Address correspondence to Alexander N. Chen, Department of
Marketing and Management, College of Business Administration,
University of Central Arkansas, Conway, AR 72035. E-mail: achen@
uca.edu or alex.n.chen@gmail.com

People are living longer than at any other time in recorded
history; thus the population of seniors is growing in all of the
world’s major economies. As senior numbers grow, businesses,
governments, and other institutions seek ways to better serve
them, and to do so efficiently. IT holds promise here, but only
if seniors use it. The problem is that seniors generally use IT
less than other segments of the population; thus, there is a “gray
divide.” A gray divide is when accessibility to and use of IT
by seniors lags behind that of the overall population. The exis-
tence of a gray divide means that seniors are not benefiting
from IT to the same extent as other segments of a population.
Although research indicates that the broader “digital divide”
may be shrinking as it relates to various socioeconomic strata,
this may not be the case for the gray divide, at least not in all
countries (Eurostat, 2013; McMurtrey, McGaughey, Downey, &
Zeltmann, 2013; Rainie, 2013).

There are many possible reasons why seniors may be reluc-
tant to adopt and use IT, and those reasons may or may not be
common to seniors in all countries (Yu & Chao, 2014; Zhou,
Rau, & Salvendy, 2012). Given the changing needs of this seg-
ment as life expectancies increase and the potential of IT to
improve the quality of seniors’ lives, it is not surprising that it
is the subject of numerous studies. The evidence thus far seems
to support of existence of a gray divide in countries where it has
been studied (Bernadas, Verville, & Burton, 2012; Fernández-
Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2012; McMurtrey et al., 2008; Neves &
Amaro, 2012). Although there is some research examining the
gray divide in China, few studies have addressed the factors
influencing Chinese seniors’ adoption and use of IT.

China is similar to other industrialized nations in that its citi-
zens, both male and female, are living longer (National Institute
of Health, 2014). Approximately 13% of China’s population
is 60 years of age or older. That segment of the population
increased by close to 3% from 2000 to 2010 (National Bureau of
Statistics, 2010), and it is projected that by 2025, China’s senior
population will account for approximately 25% of China’s
total population (Xie, 2004). Not only is China’s senior pop-
ulation growing rapidly, it is the largest senior population in
the world (Pan & Jordan-Marsh, 2010). This makes Chinese

132

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3619-

6677

mailto:achen@uca.edu

mailto:achen@uca.edu

mailto:alex.n.chen@gmail.com

SENIORS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA 133

senior well-being particularly important and their attitudes and
beliefs about IT and its use a concern for China’s government,
businesses, and society as a whole.

China’s rapid economic growth, changing demographics,
and the Chinese government’s huge investment in Internet band-
width make research on senior use of the Internet and other IT
important to the Chinese government. It needs to know how its
investment is benefiting seniors, because some services that the
government provides to seniors could be delivered more effi-
ciently with IT as done in the United States and Europe. The
research should be of interest to businesses looking for oppor-
tunities to market products and services to seniors. Although
Chinese seniors’ incomes are generally low, this is not neces-
sarily a hindrance to having and using IT. Simply put, there is a
need to better understand Chinese seniors’ attitudes toward and
behaviors pertaining to IT. To what extent do Chinese seniors
actually own and use IT? How, and for what, do they use IT?
How do Chinese seniors perceive their technology skills? Do
they like IT, and are they comfortable with IT? These questions
are worthy of investigation in establishing baseline measures of
Chinese seniors’ use of and attitudes toward IT. It is the objec-
tive of this exploratory study to start the process of answering
these questions.

Although the literature provides evidence of a gray divide
in China (China Digital Divide Team, 2013), we hope to shed
light on if and why Chinese seniors might tend to be light users
of IT. We believe it is important to learn more about Chinese
seniors’ attitudes and behaviors as they relate to IT. We go
beyond existing studies and try to understand not just usage
behaviors but also attitudes—attitudes about the technology,
as well as attitudes about self that influence adoption and use.
More specifically, this study presents the results of an empirical
examination of technology behaviors for a variety of applica-
tions and devices from a survey of almost 300 retired citizens
(seniors) in Hangzhou City and Changshan County of Zhejiang
Province, China. We examine two primary facets of Chinese
seniors’ relationship with IT: the current status of IT adoption
and use, and existing attitudes and beliefs about IT and its use.
A current status provides something of a baseline for future
studies and investigates ownership, usage, and usage functions.
The beliefs and attitudes provide insight into possible motiva-
tors or inhibiters to technology adoption and use. The specific
ITs examined were the personal computer (including laptops)
and the cell phone. This study thus extends prior research on
technology behaviors of Chinese seniors by examining not only
adoption and use but also specific psychological factors known
to influence adoption and use. The addition of the potential
psychological influences on technology adoption and use will
provide a better understanding of the “why” behind baseline
measures of IT adoption and use among the Chinese senior citi-
zens studied. This is perhaps the most important contribution of
this study—understanding why.

Extant research has produced considerable evidence from

numerous countries of a disparity between the young and
old in terms of IT adoption and use (McMurtrey, Downey,
McGaughey, & Zeltmann, 2011; Peng, 2010; Plaisant,
Clamage, Hutchinson, Bederson, & Druin, 2006; Rainie, 2013).
In U.S. studies by McMurtrey, McGaughey, and Downey (2008,
2009; McMurtrey et al., 2013), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
(i.e., census data) and survey data were used to highlight
gaps between the young and old in terms of Internet and
computer use. Peng (2010) emphasized that studies and gov-
ernment statistics repeatedly show that access to computers and
the Internet remains uneven. In a similar vein, another study
acknowledged that older adults are subject to the same digital
divide in accessibility as the larger population (Plaisant et al.,
2006). In a study conducted in the United Kingdom, statis-
tically significant differences were found between the age of
respondents and broadband adoption (Dwivedi & Lal, 2007).
In another study from the United Kingdom, the authors noted
that many seniors simply do not recognize the potential benefits
of these technologies because they lack an awareness and under-
standing of the digital world (Olphert, Damodaran, & May,
2005). Similar findings were reported in Europe from a study
of the reasons for nonuse, and the frequency, intensity, and
sociodemographic correlates of Internet use of older citizens in
Europe (Peacock & Kunemund, 2007).

In China, there is ample evidence that citizens have embraced
technology. In a recent study by Microsoft Corporation (2014)
that included technology users in a variety of developing and
developed countries (China, India, Brazil, Russia, Mexico,
Turkey, United States, Germany, Japan, and France), a higher
percentage of Chinese citizens (74%) reported that personal
computers, tablets, smartphones, and other technology gadgets
had improved their quality of life. This percentage in China
was quite high; contrast it to other countries with 40% for
France, 48% for the United States, 42% for Japan, and 61%
for Russia. In addition, 94% of Chinese citizens reported that
access to personal computer technology had helped bridge the
economic gap in their country (Microsoft Corporation, 2014).
According to a new Chinese government report (China Digital
Divide Team, 2013), in 2012, Chinese families owned 250 mil-
lion computers (about 55.9 computers per 100 families). That
same study showed that China had 564 million (42.1% of the
population) people accessing the Internet. Of those, 420 million
(31.4% of the population) used cell phones for Internet access.
In 2012, about 1.11 billion people (82.6% of China population)
were using cell phones (though not all were Internet capable—
smartphones). The data show that many Chinese use IT in the
form of computers, cell phones, and the Internet, but to what
extent is this true for Chinese seniors?

As with other countries, there is evidence of a gray divide
in China. Lam and Lee (2006) found evidence of it in their

134 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

longitudinal study of Internet adoption and use by older adults
in Hong Kong during a period between 2002 and 2003. Those
findings are somewhat dated now, and they were not con-
ducted in mainland China, but there are more. Another study
focused on the Hebei province of China and revealed that only
about 22.8% of the seniors sampled used the Internet, and of
those, only 30% of these seniors accessed it daily. Another
15% accessed it two or three times a week. Furthermore, the
study found that when most seniors did access the Internet, it
was for relatively short periods (Guo, 2012). Wang, Rau, and
Salvendy (2011) examined IT device and equipment use by
the elderly and found relatively high usage of computers and
mobile phones in particular. They also found higher Internet
usage by seniors than did Guo (2012), so the findings of even
more current studies are mixed. Liu and Zheng (2011) exam-
ined cell phone Internet access in China and found a disparity
in cell phone Internet access related to gender, employment
position, personal income, family income, education, age, and
single-child status. They likewise found an interaction between
full-time employment and age in their impact on cell phone
Internet access—the elderly with no full-time employment (that
would typically be retirees) were less inclined to use cell phones
for Internet access. They did not examine whether the costs of
access was a factor in usage. A 2012 report on Internet trends
in China prepared by the China Digital Divide Team (2013)
produced evidence of a gray divide in Internet access/use,
revealing that 93.6% of Internet users were between age 10 and
49, and only 4.8% were 50 and older. In fact, the gap was
slightly worse than in 2010, largely because of the relative
growth of the younger (growing slower) and older (growing
faster) segments of China’s population.

There are multiple reasons why seniors worldwide have
been slow to adopt information technology. One cause is phys-
ical; research has shown that the elderly often do not have
the dexterity to operate technology (Ellis & Kurniawan, 2009;
Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2012; McMurtrey et al., 2013;
Picking et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2012). Research has also
shown that IT, from computers, to tablets, to mobile phones,
is not designed with the elderly in mind (Hwangbo et al.,
2013; McGaughey, Zeltmann, & McMurtrey, 2013; McMurtrey,
Downey, Zeltmann, & McGaughey, 2012; Picking et al., 2012;
Roupa et al., 2010; Yu & Chao, 2014; Zhou, Rau, & Salvendy,
2014).

Another important reason for seniors not adopting technol-
ogy (or underusing it) may be categorized simply as distaste for
change, based on a wide range of negative beliefs and attitudes
that might lead to avoidance behavior. One important factor is
an individual’s beliefs about his or her technology skills, known
to be an important indicator and subsequent motivator for initial
and continued use. Technology self-efficiency is an important
motivator of both learning and using technology; it influences
effort and persistence in the face of adversity (Gist & Mitchell,
1992). Self-efficacy stimulates a motivational component that
mobilizes the cognitive effort to accomplish tasks (Bandura,

1997; Yu & Chao, 2014). Another factor is comfort with tech-
nology, which is a psychological response to an activity that
encourages or discourages use (Hwangbo, Yoon, Jin, Han, & Ji,
2013; Taveira & Choi, 2009).

Attitudes have long been recognized as precursors of action.
In their theory of reasoned action, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975)
maintained that behavior is predictable and based on attitudes
(positive and negative) toward the behavior. An individual who
has a positive attitude or less anxiety toward a behavior tends
to perform or learn that behavior, whereas a person with neg-
ative attitudes tends to avoid the behavior. Our examination
of senior attitudes relating to computers and mobile phones
is thus grounded in the theory of reasoned action. We exam-
ined three attitudes—affect, anxiety, and satisfaction—with cell
phone and computer skills. Anxiety is a fear of the domain
under examination and usage in that domain, technology in this
case. (Loyd & Gressard, 1984). Affect is the feeling of like
(positive affect) or dislike (negative affect) toward the domain
of interest (Taveira & Choi, 2009). One who likes cell phones
(or computers) is more inclined to learn how and to use them
than those who have less liking. We measured positive affect in
this study. Satisfaction is an affective attitude that has a long
research stream in technology and has been demonstrated to
increase usage (Doll & Torkzadeh, 1988).

In this article, we provide insight into IT usage levels and

patterns among Chinese seniors while shedding light on psy-
chological influences on behaviors contributing to it. Because
the purpose is to investigate “retired” seniors, the interest is
in Chinese seniors 55 years of age or older. The rationale
for using that age stems from how the Chinese government
defines seniors. In China, according to the government, men
reaching the age of 60 and women at 55, with a minimum of
10 to 15 years of continuous service, should retire. Because the
term seniors was originally coined to describe elderly who had
retired, and because China has these official retirement ages for
men and women, we used age 55 as a cutoff point for seniors
in our study. We use the terms senior, senior citizen, and retiree
interchangeably in this study.

Data were gathered using a survey methodology. The survey
was developed using standard survey development techniques
(Churchill, 1979; Nunnally, 1967; Straub, 1989). Previous
instruments provided some items used in this study (Eastman &
Iyer, 2004; Iyer & Eastman, 2006; Reisenwitz, Iyer, Kuhlmeier,
& Eastman, 2007). The primary source of survey items, how-
ever, came from the survey used by McMurtrey et al. (2011) to
examine technology behaviors among American seniors. Data
were gathered for both cell phone and computers on ownership,
usage behaviors, functions for use, e-commerce information,
beliefs about the technology (self-efficacy and comfort), and
attitudes toward the technology (anxiety, affect, and satisfac-
tion with skills). For the self-efficacy and attitude scales, we

SENIORS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA 135

used previously validated scales. Self-efficacy items came from
the global instrument of Hill, Smith, and Mann (1987). Anxiety
and affect came from the Computer Attitude Scale of Loyd and
Gressard (1984) Comfort and satisfaction were derived from the
survey used by McMurtrey et al. (2011). Beliefs and attitudes
(positive affect, anxiety, and satisfaction) were assessed for both
cell phones and computers.

For this study, the English version of the survey was trans-
lated into Mandarin Chinese by two individuals fluent in both
languages. Before we finalized the Chinese version, we sent the
draft to bilingual experts, that is, faculty in the foreign language,
education, and psychology departments of the university, for
comments. We also used a pilot survey of 10 Chinese students
to make sure that translation of the instrument had resulted in
a survey that could be understood by Mandarin-speaking sub-
jects. With modifications based on comments from these experts
and students, the final survey was completed.

The survey was administered at four retirement apartment
complexes in two cities in eastern China in 2012. One area was
a large city (approximately 7.6 million in size), and the other
a much smaller city (with a population size of 400,000). The
researchers randomly selected the apartment complexes with
the requirement that these complexes house retirees who had
different employment backgrounds. The four complexes housed
retired government workers (43 total), primary/high school
teachers (83), college faculty (69), and staff and workers for a
higher education institution (89). Although it is virtually impos-
sible to generalize about Chinese seniors, given their sheer
number and different cultures and backgrounds, by choosing
seniors from different work backgrounds, we hoped to provide
some degree of differentiation.

A total of 357 surveys were collected. Of these, 73 were dis-
carded because of incomplete data. This left 284 usable surveys.
The average age of respondent was 70.6 (SD = 8.7), and 55%
of respondents were male. In terms of education, 41% had less
than a high school education, 27% high school, 11% an asso-
ciate’s degree (or equivalent), and 21% a bachelor’s degree or
higher. Although respondents were retired, nearly 40% reported
they were engaging in some part-time work. Fifty-nine per-
cent of respondents reported a monthly income level between
$650 and $1,300, with 27% reporting less than $650, 11%
between $1,300 and $1,950, and only 3% reporting a monthly
income above $1,950. According to a 2013 Bloomberg News
report, based on data from the China Health and Retirement
Longitudinal Study, the incomes of Chinese seniors are low.
Approximately 22.9%, or 42.4 million, of China’s seniors
live on an annual income of less than 3,200 Yuan ($520).
Our sample comprised a relatively more affluent segment
of Chinese seniors because respondents were city dwellers,
and they tend to be more well off financially than rural
citizens.

The study examined technology behaviors of retired Chinese

seniors age 55 and older, using the two dominant IT platforms
for personal use: cell phones and computers. We collected own-
ership and usage information, what respondents did with their
computers and cell phones, online purchasing information, and
finally beliefs and attitudes toward computers and cell phones
(self-efficacy, comfort, anxiety, affect, and satisfaction). The
results paint a broad picture of IT usage, skills, availability,
behavior, and attitudes among respondents.

4.1. Usage Comparison Between Cell Phones and
Computers/Laptops

Cell phone technology probably represents the most ubiqui-
tous technology worldwide. This was also evident among the
Chinese seniors studied. About 96% of all respondents owned a
cell phone. Of interest, 77% reported that they also had a house
phone (landline). Respondents reported owning a cell phone for
7.7 years (SD = 4.4) and using a cell phone for the same amount
of time (7.7 years, SD = 4.3); thus it appears that using and
owning occurred simultaneously.

Slightly less than half of respondents reported that they
owned a desktop computer (49.5%). Only 27% reported owning
a laptop. Therefore, between 60% and 70% of the respondents
owned one or the other, or both. On average, respondents had
owned a computer for slightly over 7 years (SD = 4.1); the range
was between 0 (did not own) and 22 years. For those who did
own a computer, approximately 25% owned it for 10 years or
more.

Respondents reported that on average they used a computer
for 7.2 years (SD = 4.8). This is about the same amount of
time as they reported owning one. It appears that for these
respondents, buying (or receiving) a computer was the start
of their usage experience. Not many respondents (only 8%)
reported using a computer prior to owning one. This suggests
that computer technology usage has developed slowly and more
recently, perhaps even after retirement (recall that the average
age was just over 70), among Chinese retirees. It may also sug-
gest that, in China, the workplace was not likely where most
seniors developed computer skills; thus they learned because
they wanted to, not because they had to for work.

Direct usage was measured two ways—frequency and dura-
tion, for both cell phone usage and computer usage. Some 88%
reported that they used their cell phones from several times a
week to several times a day. Specifically, 38% reported sev-
eral times a day, 12% reported once per day, and another 38%
reported several times a week. Only 12% reported using their
phone once a week or less. Despite this frequency of use, how-
ever, these respondents did not use cell phones for very long.
A sizable 77% reported that they used their phone less than half

136 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

TABLE 1
Computers and Cell Phones Usage in Frequency and Duration

Frequency Duration (Per Day)

Computers Cell Phones Computers Cell Phones

Never 26% 3% Never 26% 4%
Less than once a month 5% 1% 0.5 hr 25% 77%
Once a month 1% 1% 0.5–1 hr 14% 9%
Once a week 5% 7% 1–1.5 hr 8% 4%
Few times a week 30% 38% 1.5– 2 hr 12% 5%
Once a day 19% 12% 2–3 hr 8% 1%
Several times a day 14% 38% >3 hr 7% < 1% Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

an hour per day, 9% reported a half hour to an hour per day,
and the rest were scattered. Only one person reported using a
phone more than 3 hr per day. Although we did not capture data
to check, metered service charges might have encouraged users
to economize on cell phone use.

Approximately 26% of respondents reported that they never
use a computer. The highest percentage, however, reported that
they use a computer a few times a week (30%). About 33%
reported that they use computers at least daily (once per day to
several times per day). In terms of duration per day, most do
not use the computer at all or use it less than half an hour per
day (with 51% combined); however, the rest (about 49%) use
it at least a half hour per day. Usage figures are presented in
Table 1.

It is interesting to note that the cell phone is generally used
for a shorter duration than the computer. That may simply reflect
the nature of use—talk versus perform some task—but as noted
could be the result of metered service in China. Internet access
via a computer is not normally metered in the same way—it
is a fixed charge per amount of data per period, for exam-
ple, month (China Mobile Communications Corporation, 2015;
China Unicom, 2015).

4.2. Reasons and Purposes: Comparison Between
Computers/Laptops and Cell Phones

In general, respondents did not use cell phones for a wide
variety of tasks besides talking. On a question in which
respondents could choose multiple reasons for using their cell
phone, 58% of respondents did report using it for texting,
20% of respondents reported using phones for taking pictures,
9% used their phones for social media, and 5% used their
phones for other Internet activity. Fewer than 5% reported
using their cell phone for games, banking, e-mail, or buying
things.

The survey specifically asked about E-commerce, or pur-
chasing items online using a cell phone. Ninety-three percent
reported that they never used a phone to make purchases online,

whereas only 6% reported making one to five purchases online
in the previous year. It seems the majority of the respondents did
not use phones for much more than texting, talking, and taking
photos. For senior citizens in China, the cell phone is still per-
forming its traditional purpose—interpersonal communications.
Although the survey did not specify the type of cell phone, it
seems likely that most did not have a smartphone. That is what
Zhou et al. (2014) found among a similar sample of Chinese
seniors—most use feature phones and not smartphones. It is
interesting to note that the findings of Zhou et al. (2014) mir-
ror our own also with regard to how Chinese seniors use their
mobile phones; they use them primarily for calling, SMS, and
taking/viewing pictures.

We examined computer-based Internet use. Respondents
who reported never using a computer were excluded (typically
they left this section blank). Questions revolved around general
Internet access and E-commerce: What did users access, and
did they engage in online buying? One question asked respon-
dents why they accessed the Internet in the previous year, with
21 choices (respondents could pick as many as applied); see
Table 2. The number one reason for using the Internet was
to track news and current events (22%). Other common rea-
sons included staying in touch with family and friends (18%),
watching television or movies (16%), and playing games (12%).
More uncommon reasons for using the Internet were other
entertainment (8%), investigating health and medical issues
(8%), gathering product information (5%) and keeping up with
stocks/bonds (4%). There was little or no reported Internet
activity for many things, including social media sites, geneal-
ogy searches, or banking. Although the purpose of the two
studies was somewhat different, our findings here were very
similar to the findings of Wang et al. (2011) with regard to
the things seniors do or not do on the Internet and their rela-
tive importance. For instance, they found that seniors use the
Internet for keeping up with the news, playing games, research-
ing products, communicating with others, researching various
topics, and more. Study findings are not directly comparable
because of differences in questions posed, but they are more

SENIORS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA 137

TABLE 2
Reasons for Using Computers and Cell Phones

Reasons for Using Internet via Computers % Reasons for Using Cell Phones %

News and current events 22% Texting 58%
Staying touch with family and friends 18% Taking pictures 20%
Watching televisions and movies 16% Social networks 9%
Playing games 12% Other Internet activity 4%
Other entertainment 8% Games, banking, e-mail, or buying 5%
Investigating health and medical

information
8% things

Gathering product information 5%
Keep up with stocks/bonds 4%

TABLE 3
Internet Purchasing and Research Behavior

Purchasing Research

Clothing or apparel 31% Clothing and apparel 22%
Hobby-related items 25% Travel 12%
Electronics 7% Medical items 10%
Travel (air/hotel) 5% Books 8%
Groceries 4% Drugs 7%
Medical items 4% Groceries 6%

similar than different with regard to Chinese senior Internet use.
Of interest, E-commerce activities were not common among
their subjects or ours, and the use of social networking was
almost nonexistent.

In terms of e-commerce, a full 84% of respondents reported
they bought nothing online using a computer in the past year.
Of the remaining 16% (who did buy online), most made
between one and five purchases (88%), whereas 12% reported
making between six and 10 purchases online. No respondent
reported purchasing more than 10 items online. For those who
bought online, the two most common types of purchases were
clothing or apparel, encompassing 31% of all items purchased
online, and hobby-related items, which accounted for another
25% of the total reported purchases (Table 3). Other items made
small contributions to the total, including electronics (7%),
travel (such as air/hotel—5%), groceries and medical items (4%
each), and music purchases (3%).

Despite the majority not actually buying online, many used
the Internet to research products. The most researched item was
clothing and apparel, comprising 22% of all reported searches.
Travel packages (airlines or hotel or similar) were second at
12%, and medical care research was third at 10%. Other items
researched, accounting for between 5% and 8% of the total,
included books, drugs, groceries, jobs, and electronics.

4.3. Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Cell Phones and
Computers/Laptops

In addition to usage behavior and functions, we also exam-
ined beliefs and attitudes toward both cell phone and computer
technology, including self-efficacy, comfort, affect, anxiety, and
satisfaction. We believe this to be a unique contribution of
our study—examination of attitudes and behaviors toward tech-
nology, which can influence adoption and use (Ajzen, 1991;
Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Furthermore, they can be a conse-
quence of use and impact future adoption and use. Whereas
comfort and satisfaction were measured with single items, the
other three included three to four items. A factor analysis was
conducted of the multi-item constructs, with each item load-
ing on its appropriate construct. In addition, reliability was
examined using Cronbach’s alpha; each construct exhibited sat-
isfactory internal reliability. Internal reliability and correlations
are provided in Table 4; means, standard deviations, and com-
parisons between computer and cell phone beliefs/attitudes are
provided in Table 5.

We captured cell phone self-efficacy from respondents, using
a scale that ranged from 0 (no confidence in cell phone abil-
ity) to 10 (totally confident). In this study, respondents aver-
aged 5.48, indicating that they felt reasonably confident in
their phone skill level (slightly above the center anchor of 5).

138 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

TABLE 4
Alpha Statistics and Correlations of Beliefs and Attitudes

No. of
Items α 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Computer
self-efficacy

3 .980 1.0

2. Cell self-efficacy 3 .975 .82∗∗ 1.0
3. Computer

comfort
1 n/a .29∗∗ .10 1.0

4. Cell comfort 1 n/a .38∗∗ −.02 .56∗∗ 1.0
5. Computer

anxiety
3 .967 −.35∗∗ −.20 −.62∗∗ −.60∗∗ 1.0

6. Cell anxiety 3 .954 −.09 .22∗∗ −.17 −.44∗∗ .55∗∗ 1.0
7. Computer affect 4 .967 .60∗∗ .50∗∗ .25∗∗ .19 −.07 .18 1.0
8. Cell affect 4 .868 .69∗∗ .81∗∗ .11 .11 −.15 .28∗∗ .75∗∗ 1.0
9. Computer

satisfaction
1 n/a .32∗∗ .18∗ .76∗∗ .38∗∗ −.57∗∗ −.19∗ .18 .09 1.0

10. Cell satisfaction 1 n/a .29∗∗ .08 .41∗∗ .60∗∗ −.45∗∗ −.33∗∗ .18 .16∗ .50∗∗
∗p < .05. ∗∗p < .01.

TABLE 5
Descriptive Statistics and Comparisons Between Computers and Cell Phones

Comparison

Computers M (SD) Cell Phones M t p

Beliefs
Self-efficacy 5.04 (3.47) 5.48 (3.49) 2.11 < .05 Comfort 4.85 (2.25) 5.79 (1.80) 6.22 < .01

Attitudes
Satisfaction 4.14 (1.63) 4.38 (1.14) 1.92 < .10 Anxiety 2.03 (1.74) 1.91 (1.62) .74 ns Affect 3.92 (2.15) 4.00 (2.15) .46 ns

Comfort with cell phones was examined, measured on a scale
of 1 to 7, with 7 being very comfortable. For comfort, respon-
dents averaged 5.79, indicating they also felt very comfortable
using cell phones.

We examined three attitudes—anxiety, positive affect, and
satisfaction with cell phone skills. Anxiety was measured on a
scale of 1 to 7, with 1 indicating low phone anxiety and 7 indi-
cating high anxiety. Respondents averaged 1.91, which suggests
that they were not very anxious about using cell phones. For
affect, also measured on a scale of 1 to 7 (with 7 indicating a
great liking for cell phones), respondents scored 4.00, indicating
that they had above the median (of 3.5) liking for cell phones.
In this study, satisfaction was measured on a scale ranging from
1 (very dissatisfied) to 7 (very satisfied). Respondents averaged
4.38, again above the median of 3.5.

As with cell phones, beliefs and attitudes concerning com-
puters were examined. Computer self-efficacy, comfort, anxiety,

affect, and satisfaction were included. The computer self-
efficacy mean was 5.04, which placed this group in the middle
of the scale (moderately confident). The comfort mean was
4.85, indicating a moderate amount of comfort with comput-
ers. For computer anxiety, measured on a 1–7 scale, respondents
averaged 2.03, which suggests that respondents were not partic-
ularly anxious about computing (1 is low anxiety). For computer
affect, also measured on a 1–7 scale, respondents averaged 3.92,
indicating a relatively high affect level—they more generally
liked computers.

Overall, the results are rather interesting; despite relatively
low usage, respondents displayed mostly positive beliefs and
attitudes toward cell phones and computers. They were com-
fortable with both computers and cell phones, were mostly
satisfied with their skills, had moderate self-efficacy, had rel-
atively low anxiety, and had above-average affect or liking of
the two technologies.

SENIORS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA 139

This study compared beliefs and attitudes for the two
domains of cell phones and computers. For all five beliefs
and attitudes, respondents reported higher self-efficacy, com-
fort, satisfaction and affect, and lower anxiety for cell phones,
but the difference between the two technologies was generally
not significant (see Table 5). In fact, the difference was signifi-
cant (at the .05 level) only for the two beliefs of self-efficacy and
comfort. Respondents reported significantly higher self-efficacy
and comfort for cell phones than for computers. One possible
reason is that most of the Chinese seniors studied may have
used regular cell phones rather than smartphones. A regular cell
phone is considerably less complicated than a smartphone or
a computer. The differences in attitudes between cell phones
and computers, however, were not significant. Respondents had
nonsignificant differences between computers and cell phones
for liking (affect), anxiety, and satisfaction (note that the differ-
ence in satisfaction might be considered marginally significant:
p < .10).

5. DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH

5.1. Discussion
Overall, our findings indicate that most of the Chinese

seniors in this study owned, liked, and were comfortable with
computers and mobile phones but that they are for the most part
light users of both. Particularly relevant findings are summa-
rized next.

Chinese retirees use IT. There is compelling evidence that
this population is not averse to using IT. Almost all reported
owning and using a cell phone (96%); an additional 60% to
70% owned and used a personal computer, findings similar
to those of Wang et al. (2011), who studied a similar group
of Chinese seniors (similar age distribution and above-average
education and affluence). The evidence suggests that the major-
ity of respondents have not only been exposed to IT but also
participated in its use. Cell phone use far exceeded computer
use. Cell phone ubiquity is probably not surprising; this is a
global phenomenon. For phones, although frequency is rela-
tively high (88% reported using it at least a few times a week),
duration of use is relatively low. Some 77% reported using it
less than 30 min per day. Only 25% use it for at least 30 min a
day. The data suggest that Chinese seniors own technology but
are relatively light users.

Variety is not a common characteristic. When they did use
technology, most respondents displayed little variety in its use,
similar to the findings of Guo (2012). Besides talking, seniors
used their cell phones primarily for texting (58%) and taking
pictures (20%), with the next highest percentage (9%) for social
networking. Less than 5% used their phone for other Internet-
related uses like games, e-mail, paying bills, or banking. These
Chinese seniors used a computer for a wider variety of applica-
tions than they did their cell phones, most involving the Internet,
with 22% reporting that they used their computer to keep up

with news, 18% to stay in touch with family and friends, 16%
to watch TV or movies, and 12% to play games. Although the
variety of applications is greater for computers, the percentages
are still rather low. For these Chinese seniors, there is relatively
little application variety.

Social networking and e-commerce are rare. Chinese
seniors use technology very little for social networking
(Facebook is currently blocked in China) and e-commerce (or
mobile-commerce). In fact, the numbers for each are simi-
lar. Further, when asked if they intended to buy online in the
future, they responded strongly that it was unlikely. Only 16%
of seniors use computers to buy online. Among this small pro-
portion of e-commerce users, it was found that they were more
likely to purchase clothing, hobby-related goods, travel, and
medical products. E-commerce was still relatively rare at the
time we conducted the survey. This may suggests a significant
area of opportunity for Chinese businesses.

Attitudes and beliefs toward technology are surprisingly pos-
itive. Given the lack of variety and the relatively low number
of years of technology use, Chinese senior attitudes and beliefs
were surprisingly robust for both cell phones and computers.
The studied seniors generally felt comfortable with and com-
petent with both computers and cell phones, and they generally
liked and were satisfied with both. Cell phones fared better on
almost all measures, but not by significant margins. This may be
because cell phones are generally easier to use than computers,
particularly if they are simply feature phones (not smartphones),
which we think may be the case for cell phones owned by these
seniors based on what they did with them. This study found that
respondents have a positive belief in their own perceived skills,
which is a motivator to learn and use technology. For comfort,
satisfaction, affect, and anxiety, scores were above the midpoint
(or below in the case of anxiety), suggesting that users had
positive beliefs and attitudes concerning the two technologies.

What is the state of senior IT use and adoption in China?.
We examined IT usage behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes among
Chinese seniors to establish baseline measures of their use
and acceptance of IT. The findings of this study, consid-
ered in conjunction with other recent studies of the broader
Chinese population (Guo, 2012; Liu & Zheng, 2011; Microsoft
Corporation, 2014), do seem to suggest a digital divide between
Chinese seniors and other segments of the population—a gray
divide. However, given the significant numbers of the stud-
ied Chinese urban seniors owning and using cell phones and
computers (96% and about 65%, respectively), and similar num-
bers reported by Wang et al. (2011), this divide may not be as
sharp as perhaps expected given previous studies, at least not
among all Chinese seniors; recall that these two studies focused
on more educated and affluent Chinese seniors than average.
Still, the quantity and quality of such usage lags behind usage
reported for other Chinese age groups (Microsoft Corporation,
2014); Chinese retirees use phones infrequently, generally for
a short duration, and task variety is low. Similar patterns were
observed in their computer use.

140 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

There are some other positive findings, however, among this
sample of seniors. In general, their belief in their ability to learn
and use technology is above average, which is a powerful moti-
vating factor in changing actual technology behaviors (Bandura,
1997). They are fairly comfortable with technology and satisfied
with its potential, also important indicators of future potential.
In addition, their attitudes remain positive with high liking of
technology and low anxiety levels about using technology, espe-
cially cell phone technology. These factors make catching up to
the rest of their countrymen and other seniors worldwide a real
possibility in the future, at least for urban Chinese seniors like
those studied herein.

5.2. Limitations of This Study
There were some obvious limitations to this study. The

biggest limitation is generalizability; the population and diver-
sity of China’s retirees is vast, and making comparisons
between this study population and other groups of retirees is
almost impossible. We sampled only two cities; according to
the Chinese census and related studies, there are significant dif-
ferences among socioeconomic factors between coastal areas
and the interior of mainland China (Zhang, 2007). There is
a documented digital divide between rural and urban China
(China Digital Divide Team, 2013), suggesting that rural seniors
may exhibit different technology behaviors; this study did not
examine rural seniors.

In addition, the sample was drawn from retirement apart-
ments that housed mostly government and professional retirees.
Government retirees tend to be financially better off than many
Chinese seniors who may or may not be better educated and
have good pensions. It is noteworthy, however, that our find-
ings are generally consistent with the Chinese government DDI
report (China Digital Divide Team, 2013) and other large-scale
survey research (Liu & Zheng, 2011) in showing that seniors
are relatively light users of IT. Clearly, generalizability to other
seniors in China must be approached with caution.

Another limitation is that all data were self-reported.
Although some data must be self-reported (e.g., attitudes and
perceptions), other data are more meaningful if gathered objec-
tively, like usage statistics from mobile service providers and
hard sales data for online purchases. Finally, we gathered data
only from seniors and so did not directly compare this group
with the more general population in China. Therefore, evidence
of a gray divide comes only from comparing the respondents
in this study to groups from the general population in other
citations and references.

5.3. Directions for Future Research
Our sample of Chinese seniors exhibited relatively light

IT use, like seniors in other countries (Bernadas et al., 2012;
Fernández-Ardèvol & Arroyo, 2011; McMurtrey et al., 2013;
Neves & Amaro, 2012). Respondents in this study do not use
technology for very long and do not use it for a wide variety

of tasks. Noteworthy for business organizations is that seniors
are generally not buying online. Given that this population con-
sisted of relatively well-off retirees (at least compared to rural
seniors), the actual magnitude of any gray divide may be under-
stated in this study. Despite these findings, however, there is
much that is positive about seniors’ interactions with technol-
ogy. For the most part, respondents owned cell phones and
computers and used them, even if not for long periods. They had
positive beliefs about technology, including their self-perceived
ability to use the technology (self-efficacy), and were comfort-
able using it. Such beliefs can be motivators for learning and
using technology in the future. They also had positive attitudes
toward technology, including a positive liking (affect), satisfac-
tion with technology, and low anxiety about using it. Like the
beliefs of self-efficacy and comfort, attitudes serve as predictors
of future adoption and use. The findings of this study, therefore,
reveal that these Chinese seniors have not really embraced IT
but that they seem open to the possibilities.

Further research is needed. Seniors from other areas within
China’s sprawling population should be studied. Because other
researchers, such as Wang et al. (2011) and Zhou et al. (2012),
studied groups similar to our own sample (more educated and
affluent than average), it may highlight the difficulty of study-
ing a cross-section of all Chinese seniors. Those living in rural
areas, and there are many, would seem to be particularly dif-
ficult to include in studies such as our own. There likely are
significant differences among divisions of Chinese senior popu-
lations based on geography, community size, education level,
and socioeconomic status. Although it may be impossible to
fully map this population, other studies could help triangulate
the status of technology adoption and use by seniors in China.

This study examined adoption and use of two relatively
broad categories of IT, cell phones, and computers. Other
studies could further segment IT to conduct a more detailed
analysis of IT adoption and use. For example, cell phones
could be divided into smartphones and feature phones (plain
cell phones), and those with and those without a data services.
Likewise, computers include now more categories than just
laptops and desktops.

The basis for charges for mobile device airtime and data, as
well as Internet access, should be examined in addition to the
magnitude of said charges. Although studies based on the tech-
nology acceptance model, or variations of the technology accep-
tance model such as the senior technology acceptance model,
address many factors that influence technology acceptance, and
they have proven useful, they do not generally address eco-
nomic factors that likely influence adoption and use, such as
the cost of products and services. That is because the technol-
ogy acceptance model was originally developed for application
in work settings—acceptance of technology in the workplace.
Economic realities often outweigh people’s wants, particularly
when they live on fixed incomes as do many seniors, and every
choice means giving up something else. For seniors, that which
is forgone could be something like needed medication, or food,

SENIORS AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA 141

which translate into high opportunity costs. Yang (2013) found
that costs inhibited phone app adoption among young American
college students, even though attitude and intent may have
been favorable toward adoption. Seniors, like those college stu-
dents, often have limited budgets, so it is reasonable that the
costs associated with acquiring and using information technol-
ogy would influence senior adoption and use. Future studies
should incorporate economic influences on choice with ques-
tions that adequately address all relevant costs. Furthermore,
usability, usefulness, branding, regulation, and service avail-
ability will likely influence adoption and use and should be
studied.

China has established itself as a key player in the global
economy, and technology remains one of the decisive elements
in economic growth. China is changing rapidly, socially, cul-
turally, and economically. China is home to the world’s largest
population of seniors, so it is important to understand their tech-
nology behaviors. It is important because technology has the
capability to improve and enhance living conditions, and this
large senior population has the potential to be a force in the
marketplace. We believe it is important to examine the use of
information technology by seniors and to monitor and reduce
any gray divide. As populations grow older, we should study
and develop creative ways to use IT to improve the quality of
life for seniors and develop relevant policies, programs, and
support systems to help them. We believe research focusing
on the patterns of IT usage among senior citizens is valuable
research.

Alexander N. Chen http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3619-

6677

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H.

Freeman.
Bernadas, C., Verville, J., & Burton, J. (2012). A myriad of digital divides: A

global comparison of Internet and cellular divides. International Journal of
Intercultural Information Management, 3, 15–44.

Bloomberg News. (2013). China’s growing ranks of elderly beset by depres-
sion, study says. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-
31/china-s-growing-ranks-of-elderly-beset-by-depression-study-says.html

China Digital Divide Team. (2013). National Information Center, Report on
China’s Digital Divide [Chinese]. Information Research, 9.

China Mobile Communications Corporation. (2015). http://www.10086.cn/bj/
index_100_100.html

China Unicom. (2015). 3G Packages for China Unicom. Retrieved from http:/
/baike.baidu.com/link?url=T1r2xFyXgFZqpN6eDrkaJeJT33Sov4xbPEbx
KUschjkDLJqSTPdBhwvazulmfX0kukHxlXwICy9j12ClYXpdZ_

Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of market-
ing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 64–73.

Doll, W., & Torkzadeh, G. (1988). The measurement of end-user computing
satisfaction. MIS Quarterly, 12, 259–274.

Dwivedi, Y., & Lal, B. (2007). Socio-economic determinants of broadband
adoption. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 107, 654–671.

Eastman, J., & Iyer, R. (2004). The elderly’s uses and attitudes toward using the
Internet. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 21, 208–220.

Ellis, R. D., & Kurniawan, S. H. (2009). Increasing the usability of online infor-
mation for older users: a case study in participatory design. International
Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 12, 263–276.

Eurostat. (2013). Eurostat statistics. Retrieved from http://epp.eurostat.ec.
europa.eu/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=
tin00092&language=en

Fernández-Ardèvol, M., & Arroyo, L. (2011). Interactions with and through
mobile phones: What about the elderly population. Wi: Journal of Mobile
Media. Retrieved from http://wi.hexagram.ca/?p=66

Fernández-Ardèvol, M., & Arroyo, L. (2012). Mobile telephony and older peo-
ple: Exploring use and rejection. Interactions: Studies in Communication &
Culture, 3, 9–24.

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief , attitude, intention and behavior: An
introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Gist, M., & Mitchell, T. (1992). Self-efficacy: A theoretical analysis of its deter-
minants and malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17, 183–211.

Guo, X. (2012, June). Positive aging and network – An analysis on network
using situation of the old people (Unpublished master’s thesis) [Chinese].
Hebei University, Hebei, China.

Hill, T., Smith, N., & Mann, M. (1987). Role of efficacy expectations in pre-
dicting the decision to use advance technologies: The case of computers.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 307–313.

Hwangbo, H., Yoon, S. H., Jin, B. S., Han, S. Y., & Ji, Y. G. (2013). A study
of pointing performance of elderly users on smartphones. International
Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 29, 604–618.

Iyer, R., & Eastman, J. (2006). The elderly and their attitudes toward the
Internet: The impact of Internet use, purchase, and comparison shopping.
Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 14, 57–67.

Lam, J., & Lee, M. (2006). Digital inclusiveness—Longitudinal study of
Internet adoption by older adults. Journal of Management Information
Systems, 22, 177–206.

Liu, D., & Zheng, X. (2011). Digital divide in cell phone and Internet [Chinese].
Modern Broadcast, 1, 101–106.

Loyd, B., & Gressard, C. (1984, Winter). The effects of sex, age, and computer
experience on computer attitudes. AEDS Journal, pp. 67–77.

McGaughey, R., Zeltmann, S., & McMurtrey, M. (2013). Motivations and
obstacles to smartphone use by the elderly: Developing a research frame-
work. International Journal of Electronic Finance, 7, 177–195.

McMurtrey, M., Downey, J., McGaughey, R., & Zeltmann, S. (2011).
Seniors and technology: Results from a field study. Journal of Computer
Information Systems, 51(4), 22–51.

McMurtrey, M., Downey, J., Zeltmann, S., & McGaughey, R. (2012).
Seniors and information technology: A MIS-fit. Journal of International
Technology and Information Management, 21. Retrieved from http://www.
thefreelibrary.com/Seniors+and+information+technology%3A+a+MIS-
fit%3F-a0335070866

McMurtrey, M., McGaughey, R., & Downey, J. (2008). Seniors and information
technology: Are we shrinking the digital divide. Journal of International
Technology and Information Management, 17(2), 1–17.

McMurtrey, M., McGaughey, R., & Downey, J. (2009). Seniors and information
technology: A potential goldmine of opportunity. International Journal of
Intercultural Information Management, 1, 300–316.

McMurtrey, M., McGaughey, R., Downey, J., & Zeltmann, S. (2013). Seniors
and information technology: Lessons from the field. International Journal
of Intercultural Information Management, 3, 107–122.

Microsoft Corporation. (2014). Microsoft releases global survey revealing
widespread belief in developing and developed nations that personal
technology is transforming lives for the better. Microsoft News Center.
Available from https://news.microsoft.com/2014/01/24/microsoft-releases-
global-survey-revealing-widespread-belief-in-developing-and-developed-
nations-that-personal-technology-is-transforming-lives-for-the-better/

National Bureau of Statistics. (2010). Sixth National Population Census of the
People’s Republic of China [Chinese]. Beijing, China: Author.

National Institute of Health. (2014). Global health and aging (No. 11-
7737). Retrieved from http://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/global_
health_and_aging

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-31/china-s-growing-ranks-of-elderly-beset-by-depression-study-says.html

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-31/china-s-growing-ranks-of-elderly-beset-by-depression-study-says.html

http://www.10086.cn/bj/index_100_100.html

http://www.10086.cn/bj/index_100_100.html

http://baike.baidu.com/link?url=T1r2xFyXgFZqpN6eDrkaJeJT33Sov4xbPEbxKUschjkDLJqSTPdBhwvazulmfX0kukHxlXwICy9j12ClYXpdZ_

http://baike.baidu.com/link?url=T1r2xFyXgFZqpN6eDrkaJeJT33Sov4xbPEbxKUschjkDLJqSTPdBhwvazulmfX0kukHxlXwICy9j12ClYXpdZ_

http://baike.baidu.com/link?url=T1r2xFyXgFZqpN6eDrkaJeJT33Sov4xbPEbxKUschjkDLJqSTPdBhwvazulmfX0kukHxlXwICy9j12ClYXpdZ_

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=tin00092&language=en

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=tin00092&language=en

http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=tin00092&language=en

http://wi.hexagram.ca/?p=66

https://news.microsoft.com/2014/01/24/microsoft-releases-global-survey-revealing-widespread-belief-in-developing-and-developed-nations-that-personal-technology-is-transforming-lives-for-the-better/

https://news.microsoft.com/2014/01/24/microsoft-releases-global-survey-revealing-widespread-belief-in-developing-and-developed-nations-that-personal-technology-is-transforming-lives-for-the-better/

https://news.microsoft.com/2014/01/24/microsoft-releases-global-survey-revealing-widespread-belief-in-developing-and-developed-nations-that-personal-technology-is-transforming-lives-for-the-better/

http://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/global_health_and_aging

http://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/global_health_and_aging

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Seniors+and+information+technology%3A+a+MIS-fit%3F-a033507086

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Seniors+and+information+technology%3A+a+MIS-fit%3F-a033507086

http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Seniors+and+information+technology%3A+a+MIS-fit%3F-a033507086

142 A. N. CHEN ET AL.

Neves, B., & Amaro, F. (2012). Too old for technology? How the elderly of
Lisbon use and perceive ICT. The Journal of Community Informatics, 8(1).
Retrieved from http://ci-journal.net/index.php/ciej/article/view/800/904

Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Olphert, C., Damodaran, L., & May, A. (2005, August). Towards digital inclu-

sion – Engaging older people in the “Digital World.” Paper presented at
the Accessible Design in the Digital World Conference 2, eWIC, Dundee,
Scotland.

Pan, S., & Jordan-Marsh, M. (2010). Internet use intention and adoption among
Chinese older adults: From the expanded technology acceptance model
perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1111–1119.

Peacock, S., & Kunemund, H. (2007). Senior citizens and Internet technol-
ogy: Reasons and correlates of access versus non-access in a European
comparative perspective. European Journal of Aging, 4, 191–200.

Peng, G. (2010). Critical mass, diffusion channels, and digital divide. Journal
of Computer Information Systems, 50(3), 63–71.

Picking, R., Robinet, A., McGinn, J., Grout, V., Casas, R., & Blasco, R. (2012).
The Easyline+ project: Evaluation of a user interface developed to enhance
independent living of elderly and disabled people. Universal Access in the
Information Society, 11, 99–112.

Plaisant, C., Clamage, A., Hutchinson, H., Bederson, B., & Druin, A. (2006).
Shared family calendars: Promoting symmetry and accessibility. ACM
Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction, 13, 313–346.

Rainie, L. (2013). The state of digital divides. Pew Internet & American
Life Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewInternet.org/Presentations/
2013/Nov/The-State-of-Digital-Divides.aspx

Reisenwitz, T., Iyer, R., Kuhlmeier, D., & Eastman, J. (2007). The elderly’s
Internet usage: An updated look. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24,
406–418.

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovation (4th ed.). New York, NY: Etats-
Unis Free Press.

Roupa, Z., Nikas, M., Gerasimou, E., Zafeiri, V., Giasyrani, L., Kazitori, E.,
& Sotiropoulou, P. (2010). The use of technology by the elderly. Health
Sciences Journal, 4, 118–126.

Straub, D. (1989). Validating instruments in MIS research. MIS Quarterly, 10,
147–169.

Taveira, A. D., & Choi, S. D. (2009). Review study of computer input devices
and older users. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 25,
455–474.

Taylor, S., & Todd, P. A. (1995). Understanding information technology usage:
A test of competing models. Information Systems Research, 6, 144–176.

Wang, L., Rau, P. P., & Salvendy G. (2011). Older adults’ acceptance of
information technology. Educational Gerontology, 37, 1081–1099.

Xie, A. (2004). Current status, trends, and characteristics of Chinese aging
population [Chinese]. Statistics Research, 8, 50–52.

Yang, H. (2013). Bon Appétit for apps: Young American consumers acceptance
of mobile applications. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 53(3),
85–96.

Yu, T., & Chao, C. (2014). Assessing older adults’ information technology
ability: The development of a multiple item scale. International Journal of
Human–Computer Interaction, 30, 434–445.

Zhang, X. (2007). Chinese digital divide report [Chinese]. E-Government, 11.
Zhou, J., Rau, P. P., & Salvendy, G. (2012). Use and design of handheld com-

puters for older adults: A review and appraisal. International Journal of
Human–Computer Interaction, 28, 799–826.

Zhou, J., Rau, P. P., & Salvendy, G. (2014). Older adults’ use of smart phones:
An investigation of the factors influencing the acceptance of new functions.
Behaviour & Information Technology, 33, 552–560.

Alexander N. Chen (PhD, Penn State University) is a professor
of Management at the University of Central Arkansas. He has
previously taught at Penn State Altoona, University of North
Carolina at Pembroke, and Macau University of Science and
Technology. He published in the areas of end users satisfaction,
international business, and human resources.

James P. Downey (PhD, Auburn University) is an associate
professor and Chair of the MIS Department at the University of
Central Arkansas. He spent 25 years as a naval officer, includ-
ing a tour at the U.S. Naval Academy. He has presented his
research at international conferences and is published in many
journals.

Ronald E. McGaughey (PhD, Auburn University) is the
Acxiom Professor of MIS at the University of Central Arkansas.
His research appears in many journals, including the European
Journal of Operational Research, and he serves on numerous
editorial boards. He has management experience in the textile,
construction, and logging industries.

Kan Jin graduated from the University of Central Arkansas
MBA program in July 2013. He was a research assistant for
A. Chen. Currently he works for the Academic Affairs Office
of Zhejiang Radio and TV University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang
Province, People’s Republic of China.

http://ci-journal.net/index.php/ciej/article/view/800/904

http://www.pewInternet.org/Presentations/2013/Nov/The-State-of-Digital-Divides.aspx

http://www.pewInternet.org/Presentations/2013/Nov/The-State-of-Digital-Divides.aspx

Copyright of International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction is the property of Taylor
& Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a
listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.

• ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND

• BACKGROUND[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S0002

3. METHODOLOGY

• METHODOLOGY[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S0003

4. RESULTS

• RESULTS[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S0004

4.1. Usage Comparison Between Cell Phones and Computers/Laptops
Usage Comparison Between Cell Phones and Computers/Laptops[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2001
4.2. Reasons and Purposes: Comparison Between Computers/Laptops and Cell Phones
Reasons and Purposes: Comparison Between Computers/Laptops and Cell Phones[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2002
4.3. Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Cell Phones and Computers/Laptops
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Cell Phones and Computers/Laptops[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2003

• 5. DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
• DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S0005

5.1. Discussion
Discussion[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2004
5.2. Limitations of This Study
Limitations of This Study[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2005
5.3. Directions for Future Research
Directions for Future Research[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S2006
ORCID

• ORCID[]pdfmark=/DEST,linktype=anchor,View=/XYZ H.V,DestAnchor=S0006

REFERENCES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS