In your opinion which of the following topics is best suited to a phenomenological inquiry? To a ethnography? To a grounded theory study? Provide a rational for each response.
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Qualitative Research Design and Approaches, Sampling in Qualitative Research & Data Collection in Qualitative Research
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a-The passage through menarche among Hatian refugee
b-The process of coping among AIDS patients
c-The experience of having a child with leukemia
d-Rituals relating to dying among nursing home residents
e-Decision making processes among nurses regarding do-not-resucitate orders
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Chapter 21
Qualitative Research Design and Approaches
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative research involves an emergent design—a design that emerges in the field as the study unfolds.
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Answer
True
Qualitative research involves an emergent design—a design that emerges in the field as the study unfolds. Although qualitative design is flexible, qualitative researchers plan for broad contingencies that pose decision opportunities for study design in the field.
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Emergent Design
Emerges in the filed as the study unfolds
Flexible
Plan for broad contingencies
Pose decision opportunities for study design
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Bricoleurs
Creative and intuitive
Array of data from many sources
Holistic understanding
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Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions
Anthropology (domain: culture)
Ethnography; ethnoscience
Philosophy (domain: lived experience)
Phenomenology; hermeneutics
Psychology (domain: behavior)
Ethology; ecologic psychology
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Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions (cont.)
Sociology (domain: social settings)
Grounded theory; ethnomethodology
Sociolinguistics (domain: communication)
Discourse analysis
History (domain: past events and conditions)
Historical research
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Ethnography focuses on the culture of a group of people and relies on extensive fieldwork that usually includes participant observation and in-depth interviews with key informants.
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Answer
True
Ethnography focuses on the culture of a group of people and relies on extensive fieldwork that usually includes participant observation and in-depth interviews with key informants.
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Ethnography
Describes and interprets cultural behavior
Types of ethnography
Macroethnography (broadly defined cultures)
Microethnography (narrowly defined cultures)
Autoethnography
Ethnonursing research
Ethnoscience (cognitive anthropology)
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Ethnography (cont.)
Relies on extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork
Culture is inferred from the group’s words, actions, and products.
Assumption: Cultures guide the way people structure their experiences.
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Ethnography (cont.)
Seeks an emic perspective (insiders’ view) of the culture
Relies on a wide range of data sources
Product: an in-depth, holistic portrait of the culture under study
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Ethnonursing research seeks to discover the essence and meaning of a phenomenon, as it is experienced by people, mainly through in-depth interviews with people who have had the relevant experience.
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Answer
False
Phenomenology seeks to discover the essence and meaning of a phenomenon, as it is experienced by people, mainly through in-depth interviews with people who have had the relevant experience. Nurses sometimes refer to their ethnographic studies as ethnonursing research.
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Phenomenology
Focuses on the discovery of the meaning of people’s lived experience
Descriptive phenomenology: describes the meaning of human experience
Steps: bracketing, intuiting, analyzing, describing
Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics): interprets human experience
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Phenomenology (cont.)
Asks: What is the essence of a phenomenon as experienced by these people, and what does it mean?
Four aspects of experience: lived space, lived body, lived time, lived human relation
Main data source: in-depth conversations with participants
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Grounded Theory
Aims to discover theoretical precepts about social psychological processes and social structures grounded in data
Substantive theory: grounded in data on a specific substantive topic
Formal grounded theory: a higher, more abstract level of theory based on substantive grounded theory studies
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Grounded Theory Studies
Primary data sources: in-depth interviews and observations
Data collection, data analysis, sampling occur simultaneously
Constant comparison used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories
Alternative views of grounded theory:
Glaser and Strauss
Strauss and Corbin
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Historical Research
Systematically attempts to establish facts
about and relationships among past events
Types of historical research
Biographical history
Social history
Intellectual history
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Historical Data
Typically written records (can be physical remains, photographs, interviews)
Requires evaluation
External criticism: authenticity of the source
Internal criticism: worth of the evidence
Often found in historical archives
Can be primary source or secondary source
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Case studies focuses on story in studies in which the purpose is to explore how people make sense of events in their lives.
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Answer
False
Case studies are intensive investigations of a single entity or a small number of entities, such as individuals, groups, organizations, or communities; such studies usually involve collecting data over an extended period. Narrative analysis focuses on story in studies in which the purpose is to explore how people make sense of events in their lives.
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Other Types of Qualitative Research
Case studies
Focus on a single entity, or a small number of entities, with intensive scrutiny
Narrative analysis
Focus on story; designed to determine how individuals make sense of events in their lives
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Research with Ideologic Perspectives
Critical theory research
Concerned with a critique of existing social structures and with envisioning new possibilities
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Research with Ideologic Perspectives (cont.)
Feminist research
Focuses on how gender domination and discrimination shape women’s lives and their consciousness
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Research with Ideologic Perspectives (cont.)
Participatory action research
Produces knowledge through close collaboration with groups/communities that are vulnerable to control or oppression
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Chapter 22
Sampling in Qualitative Research
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative samples tend to be large, random, and intensively studied.
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Answer
False
Qualitative samples tend to be small, nonrandom, and intensively studied.
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Methods of Sampling in Qualitative Research
Convenience (volunteer) sampling
Snowball sampling
Theoretical sampling
Purposive sampling
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Question
What is homogeneous sampling?
Deliberately reducing variation
Selecting cases that illustrate what is typical
Selecting the most unusual or extreme cases
Selecting cases that are intense but not extreme
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Answer
A
Homogeneous sampling (deliberately reducing variation), typical case sampling (selecting cases that illustrate what is typical), extreme case sampling (selecting the most unusual or extreme cases), and intensity sampling (selecting cases that are intense but not extreme)
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Purposive Sampling
Sampling for representativeness or comparative value
Sampling special or unique cases
Sampling sequentially
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Representativeness or Comparative Value
Maximum variation sampling
Homogeneous sampling
Typical case sampling
Extreme case sampling
Intensity sampling
Stratified purposive sampling
Reputational case sampling
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Purposive Sampling Special Cases
Critical case sampling
Criterion sampling
Revelatory case sampling
Sampling politically important cases
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Theory-based sampling is adding new cases based on changes in research circumstances or in response to new leads that develop in the field.
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Answer
False
Theory-based sampling is selecting cases on the basis of their representation of important, whereas constructs opportunistic sampling is adding new cases based on changes in research circumstances or in response to new leads that develop in the field.
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Purposive Sequential Category
Theory-based sampling
Opportunistic sampling
Sampling confirming and disconfirming cases
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Sample Size in Qualitative Research
No explicit, formal criteria
Sample size determined by informational needs
Decisions to stop sampling guided by data saturation
Data quality can affect sample size.
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions
Ethnography
Mingling with many members of the culture
Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants
Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (cont.)
Phenomenology
Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer)
Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest.
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Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (cont.)
Grounded theory
Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people
Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Analytic generalization occurs when researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
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Answer
True
Analytic generalization occurs when researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
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Generalizability
Controversial issue
Researchers find findings:
Relevant
Meaningful
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Two Models
Analytic generalization: Researchers strive to generalize from particulars to a broader conceptualizations and theories.
Transferability involves judgments about whether findings from an inquiry can be extrapolated to a different setting or group of people.
Transferability has close connections to the proximal similarity model that involves a conceptualization about which contexts are more or less like the one in the study in terms of a gradient of similarity for people, settings, times, and contexts.
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Chapter 23
Data Collection in Qualitative Research
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses.
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Answer
True
Qualitative studies typically adopt flexible data collection plans that evolve as the study progresses. Self-reports are the most frequently used type of data in qualitative studies, followed by observation.
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Fieldwork Issues
Gaining participants’ trust
Pacing data collection to avoid being overwhelmed by the intensity of data
Avoiding emotional involvement with participants
Maintaining reflexivity
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Plans
How data will be recorded and stored
Technical equipment
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Unstructured and Loosely
Structured Self-Reports
Latitude in questions and answers
Yield rich narrative data
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Types of Qualitative Self-Reports
Unstructured interviews
Semistructured interviews
Focus group interviews
Joint interviews
Life histories
Oral histories
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Types of Qualitative Self-Reports (cont.)
Critical incidents interviews
Diaries and journals
Think-aloud method
Photo elicitation interviews
Self-report narratives on the Internet
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation.
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Answer
True
Qualitative researchers sometimes collect unstructured observational data, often through participant observation. Participant observers obtain information about the dynamics of social groups or cultures within members’ own frame of reference.
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Preparing for Qualitative Interviews
Ensure that interviewers and respondents have a common vocabulary.
Develop and word questions to be asked; become familiar with questions.
Conduct a practice interview.
Decide how to present oneself to participants.
Decide on settings for data collection.
Obtain needed supplies.
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Conducting Qualitative Interviews
Take steps to “break the ice” to put participants at ease.
Share pertinent information about the study with participants.
Develop rapport to gain participants’ trust.
Listen intently to guide subsequent questioning.
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Conducting Qualitative Interviews (cont.)
Probe for information as needed.
Be ready to handle emotionality.
Be prepared to manage crises (e.g., interruptions, equipment problems).
Achieve a positive closure.
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Observation in Qualitative Studies
Unstructured observation in naturalistic settings:
Includes participant observation
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Getting Started in a Participant Observation Study
Getting an overview
Gaining entrée
Establishing rapport/developing trust
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation to focused observation.
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Answer
True
Observations tend to become more focused over time, ranging from descriptive observation (broad observations) to focused observation of more carefully selected events.
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Observations
Descriptive observation
Focused observation
Selective observation
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Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through mobile positioning by observing from a fixed location.
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Answer
False
Participant observers usually select events to be observed through a combination of single positioning (observing from a fixed location), multiple positioning (moving around the site to observe in different locations), and mobile positioning (following a person around a site).
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Observational Locations in Participant Observation
Single positioning: staying in one location
Multiple positioning: moving around the site to get different perspectives
Mobile positioning: following a single participant as he or she moves to different locations
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Methods of Recording Unstructured Observations
Log (field diary)
Field notes
Descriptive (observational) notes
Reflective notes
Methodologic notes
Theoretical notes (or analytical notes)
Personal notes
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