Reflect on this QUESTION/COMMENT: What has been the relationship between the state and the military in Latin America, and how has the US influenced the political geography of the region?
Political Geography
Part 2: The State & the Military
Early Politics
Authoritarian tradition – conquistadors, colonialism; major pre‐
colonial empires
Since independence: twin threads – democracy and
authoritarianism, hybrid forms of authoritarian democracy
Elite retreat, rise of caudillos agrarian elite reemerge
(modernizing dictators); caciques bring out the vote in rural
areas (only 5% of adult males vote in Mexico, Argentina in
late 19th century)
Stability, economic growth, immigration brings some new and
radical political influences (ex. Anarchist trade movement in
Argentina); urban working class harder to control than
peasantry
Rise of Populism
Catalyst for change: worldwide depression & rise of ISI
ended dominance of agrarian elite and a shift in politics
to populism (appealing to the masses); the state
replaces the caudillo as all‐powerful provider; Cardenas
in Mexico, Vargas in Brazil, Ibanez in Chile, Peron in
Argentina
Urban‐oriented political model – this model
coincides with ISI and industrialists and industrial
workers are a major support base for leaders –
more popular in larger countries (more
industrialized)
Corporatism – ruling parties set up and controlled
labor unions and other mass organizations – they
exchanged support by these organizations in return
for improvements
State/party machine controlled elections;
opposition excluded from state’s bounty,
hounded by legal system, physical intimidation
Argentina’s
Peron
Rise of Populism
Nationalistic – populists condemned Latin America’s
dependence on outside powers and often nationalized key
industries – Mexico’s oil (1938), Argentina’s railroads (1948)
Initial success of ISI helped fund the expanded state and
programs
States with smaller, weaker economies military dictators
take over in 1930s (Nicaragua, El Salvador, Cuba, Dominican
Republic); in power for decades, stifling political
modernization and sowing seeds of future upheaval,
revolutions (Cuba 1959, Nicaragua 1979)
Fall of Populism
Downturn of ISI led to a fall in populism, and a number of
factors led to the take over of politics by the military in
some state – Brazil (1964), Argentina (1966)
Economic crisis (waning of growth) broke down
improbably industrialist/worker alliance; expansion of
social groups (middle class) wanting a voice in politics;
radical elements such as militant student movements
inspired by Cuban Revolution
Military dictatorships that emerged during this period
were supported during Cold War by the US, and they also
had popular support (especially among the middle class)
to restore order (improve economic situation)
Military rule led to National Security Doctrine –
promoted the defeat of ‘internal subversion’ – basically,
anything that threatened the status quo
As a result, human rights and rule of law became
redundant; there was supervision of all activities in
the national space; and military governments
developed extensive military‐industrial complexes
under state‐led ISI (Brazil exports $1B/year in
weapons in 1980s)
Argentina’s
Military Junta
The Military
The military in Latin America had always been a central &
independent political force since the wars of independence
Professionalization of the military occurred since the mid‐19th
century – building a national army with a proper career structure
and a separate value system – encouraging a self image as a
caste apart from – and superior to – the rest of society
This has meant a separation from civilian society –
socially and spatially – which separates them from civil
values
Military schools – high percentage are officers sons
= increased sense of separation from society
Other spaces – separate neighborhoods, country
clubs/social clubs
Anti‐politics position of the military – they touted themselves as
efficient economic planners, since they were not subject to the
“whims of politics” (formal and informal)
But, by closing down formal and informal (unions, etc.) politics,
they left a political vacuum in which other political actors rose
up to fill in the void – begins the rise of “New” Social Movements
EX: Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Argentina) – use the
Junta’s discourse of women’s traditional roles, as mothers,
to engage in public protest to find their “disappeared”
children
Niños Heroes
de Chapultepec
The Fall of the Military
The military in Latin America today find themselves
pushed to the background due to a number of
factors, which include:
Budget cuts from economic restructuring
(military budgets halved across region between
1985‐1994); privatization of military industries
Post‐Cold War – makes National Security
Doctrine obsolete; US now sees military
governments as politically destabilizing,
economically less competent than civilian
governments
Without popular support – people less willing to
endure dictatorship because they also can’t
control economic chaos (proven by Debt Crisis)
Mass Destruction of
Weapons
Transitions to Democracy
Debt Crisis hastened the failure of the military state – bad economic
planning, free‐spending showed they were no better than civilian politicians
Some regimes managed orderly exit (Brazil, Uruguay); many other places
investigations, prosecutions for atrocities occurred
Crisis of identity, moral (reviled by public, former allies; confused over role;
falling wages)
Exception: places with continuing guerilla insurgencies (Colombia)
Encouraged by US to have more involvement in “war on drugs” but
leadership fears it opens door to corruption (already on the increase in
Central America)
Political Geography
Part 3: US Intervention
Rising Power &
Early Interventions
Occurred in different ways during different phases –
which were a function of both global political
processes and internal political culture of the US
Monroe Doctrine (1823): Americas is sphere of
influence for the US and Europe should not try to gain
political control
“From Sea to Shinning Sea”—Manifest Destiny (the
idea that the US was destined to expand to the
Pacific):
Mexican American War (1846‐48)
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)—ceded ½
of Mexican territory to US
“Positively No Hunting”
American Progress (1872)
Becoming Imperial
During the late 19th century you began to see proponents of American
Empire win out over those who were anti‐imperialist – US policies
reflected this change:
Platt Amendment (1902)—gave the US the right to intervene in Cuba
“for protection of life, property and individual liberty”
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904): Not only are the
Americas within the US Sphere of Influence, but the US has the right
to intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American nations to
protect US interests; Big Stick/Gunboat Diplomacy – use or threat of
military force in order to secure advantage or to avert loss
Early Interventions
Backing Off…Until…
Good Neighbor Policy (1933‐1945): interventionism was
actually causing a backlash against US interests in the region
EX: Marine occupation in Nicaragua resulted in guerilla
war by Sandino
But, the COLD WAR changed everything…
Domino Theory: if one country falls to communism, it will
also destabilize those around it
Foreign Internal Defense: defending the US through
strategic defense abroad; protecting US interests
The School of the Americas (first located in Panama)
provides training in counterinsurgency; declassified
documents show training manuals that recommend
threats, bribery, blackmail and torture)
Cold War
Alignments in
the Americas
Cutting Ties with SOA
Questions for McSherry Reading
1. What was the “US Overseas Internal Defense Policy,” and when did it
emerge?
a. What is counterinsurgency, and how is it related to this policy?
b. What is the School of the Americas, and what role did it play
during this period?
i. What are the critiques of this institution? What is it accused
of?
2. What continuities are there between the Cold War policies of the US
in Latin America and those of the post‐Cold War era?
a. What’s the role of the military in the new security paradigm?
b. How is “foreign internal defense” exercised today by the US in
the region?
3. What is meant by the phrase “hegemonic stabilizer of the system,”
and how is instability now defined?
Central America Proxy Wars
Guatemala & Cold War Politics
CIA orchestrated coup to overthrow
democratically elected president, Jacobo
Arbenz, in 1954
Land reform policies particularly opposed
by US‐based United Fruit Company
(Chiquita Bananas)
US supported Guatemalan army (1950s‐1990s)
with training, money, arms
Civil War from 1960‐1996 killed approximately
140,000 plus 60,000 disappeared
By 1990s, considered the worst human
rights violator in Latin America
Check out the National Security Archives:
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/
Changes in Policy?
Today, there’s often a distinction made between Hard versus Soft Power
regarding US intervention
Military interventions of the Cold War gave way to economic
interventionism through international institutions (IMF, IADB)
However, it’s argued that military interventions are still there backing
up neoliberalism (see McSherry)
Political backlash to austerity, restructuring referred to as “Pink Tide”:
radicalization of citizens due to the extreme economic hardships of
restructuring – electing leaders who oppose restructuring policies (not
communist, but a little bit left, center‐left – hence the pink instead of red)
Pink Tide?
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