Write a 3 to 4 page (double-spaced), APA formatted (include cover and reference pages) article critique on the attached articles that addresses the following topics: 

I. Research Question  What was the research question(s) or hypothesis (es) and why was the study  needed? Assess how well the authors review previous research on the topic and  provide a context for the need for the study. 

II. Research Design What were the research design and methods? Assess the extent to which the research design and methods were able to answer the research question or hypothesis. Consider any alternative designs and methods that could also be used to answer the research question or hypothesis. What statistical analysis was used and how were they used to describe the results. 

III. Participants Who is the study about? Consider the following questions: how were the participants recruited, who may have been excluded from the study and how might that affect the findings? Were the participants studied in real-life circumstances? 

IV. Findings Do you agree with the author’s interpretation of the findings? Why or why not? Consider the following questions: are there other interpretations that should have been included? Were the limitations of the study adequately discussed?

 V. Contribution to Knowledge Was the study original and how does it contribute to knowledge on this topic? Consider the following questions: does the study approach the topic in a new or innovative way? Is the study larger, or continued for a longer period of time than other studies? Are the methods more rigorous or address shortcomings of other studies? 

Social Work Education, 2016
Vol. 35, no. 1, 78–

88

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2015.1118451

© 2015 taylor & Francis

Stress, Anxiety, Resilience and Coping in Social Work Students
(A Study from India)

Selwyn Stanleya and G. Mettilda Bhuvaneswarib

aFaculty of Education, Health & Wellbeing, university of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, uk; bdepartment
of Social Work, cauvery college for Women, tiruchirappalli, india

Social work is a rewarding but stressful occupation (Coffey, Samuel, Collins, & Morris, 2014;
Collins, 2008). Social work is a high-stress profession that involves working with people in
distressing circumstances such as victims of abuse, domestic violence, substance misuse,
crime and other complex life situations. In recent years the profession has been under
intense media scrutiny and social workers have had to work under increasing organisational
constraints, budgetary limitations, the increasing need for services, unmanageable case-
loads, changing policies and legislations adding to the pressure under which social workers
operate. Not surprising then that according to Michael Wilshaw, the average career span of a
social worker in the UK is only 8 years (Coughlan, 2013). Stress has long been regarded as an
integral part of social work practice with many contributing factors, including dealing with
people under stress and stress arising from organisational and political contexts (Thompson,
Murphy, & Stradling, 1994). Several studies have looked at issues relating to stress (e.g.
Coyle, Edwards, Hannigan, Fothergill, & Burnard, 2005), resilience, job satisfaction, burn
out (e.g. Evans et al., 2006) and coping (e.g. Collins, 2008) in professional social workers.

However not much attention has been paid to study similar issues in students of social
work and most of the literature in this regard has emerged from the experiences of students

ABSTRACT
Social work is a stressful occupation but continues to attract large
numbers of students every year. This study was conducted by
undergraduate students of all three cohorts at a women’s-only college
in Tiruchirapalli in South India (N = 73). Standardised instruments to
assess stress, anxiety, resilience and coping were administered. It was
seen that anxiety and stress levels were relatively higher in the first-
and third-year students while compared to those in the second year of
their course, while resilience and coping was relatively low in the first-
year group. Correlations were significantly positive for the stress and
anxiety scores as well as the coping and resilience scores. However,
it was seen that only the anxiety scores significantly predicted the
manifestation of stress in the students.

Implications

of the findings
and the limitations of the study have also been discussed.

KEYWORDS
Social work students; social
work education; anxiety;
stress; resilience; coping

ARTICLE HISTORY
received 24 June 2015
accepted 5 november 2015

CONTACT Selwyn Stanley selwyn.stanley@wlv.ac.uk

mailto:selwyn.stanley@wlv.ac.uk

SoCIal Work EduCaTIon 79

in developed Western societies. Given the rigorous nature of training and high expectations
associated with professional conduct and value-based practice makes social work education
a demanding task for those who opt to choose social work as a career. A brief review of this
literature indicates that students of social work show high levels of psychological distress
(Tobin & Carson, 1994). Often this could be due to being exposed to issues of poverty, child
abuse, discrimination and cycles of hopelessness (Koeske & Koeske, 1991) associated with
the nature of the profession. For many these are first-time encounters with such real-life
situations and could be a hard-hitting experience. Rigorous academic demands, coursework,
assessments and having to meet deadlines add to the pressure on students along with the
intense demands of meeting agency requirements while on placement. Stressors associated
with field placements have been well documented (Goldblatt & Buchbinder, 2003; Razack,
2001; Weaver, 2000). In addition, many social work students in countries like the UK tend
to be mature learners, with families to take care of as well as childcare responsibilities and
need to balance the demands of domestic and academic life (Collins, Coffey and Morris,
2010). Added to this are the huge loans that students often incur to fund their education
and living expenses.

These issues have not been investigated comprehensively in India where there are sev-
eral Universities and affiliated colleges offering undergraduate and postgraduate courses in
social work and the latter far outnumber the undergraduate courses. The Indian educational
scenario is quite different from that in the West. Students fresh out of school seek admission
in higher education in universities and colleges before moving into the employment sector.
As such those entering undergraduate courses (including social work) are predominantly in
the 17–18-year age group with hardly any life experience unlike their western counterparts
who bring with them some work/life experience when they start higher education. Expenses
on education are met by parents even if educational loans are availed for their children.

The social work curriculum also requires students to study additional ‘mandatory’ sub-
jects such as English and the vernacular or other optional subjects. Field placements usually
are offered in the final year of the degree and tend to be quite intense involving weekly report
writing and meeting curricular expectations relating to practicing methods of social work
(such as casework, group work and community development activities) with individuals,
groups and communities. Placements are usually with third-sector agencies involved with
developmental activities in villages and slum communities. The lack of trained social work-
ers in many placement agencies puts the onus of supervision largely on academic tutors to
whom students are assigned for the duration of the placement. While the theoretical con-
tent is similar to what is taught in the west, the emphasis on reflective practice emphasised
in the west, is not something which undergraduate students in India are well acquainted
with. Assessments are through mid-term and end-of-term/semester examinations and the
emphasis is on ‘knowledge’ and being able to present their reading in these written exam-
inations which usually last for 3 h and are marked not by their subject teacher but usually
by a pool of anonymous examiners. Added to this is the awareness that at the end of three
intense years of study they will be entering a profession that is neither as remunerative as
other vocations, nor enjoys the kind of social standing, acceptance or recognition that other
professions do. The complexity of being a social work student in India or elsewhere hence
is undoubtedly an immense stressor and requires a great deal of resilience and coping skills
to meet the demands of academia.

80 S. STanlEy and G. METTIlda BHuvanESWarI

However there has hardly been any research on the experience of undergraduate social
work students in India. A search of publications on these issues relating to social work
students in India turned up only one publication which compared undergraduate students
of social work from the UK with those from colleges in south India on issues relating to
stress, support and well-being (Coffey et al., 2014). The study found that British students
reported significantly higher levels of demands and significantly lower levels of support but
manifested significantly higher levels of well-being than their Indian counterparts.

Anxiety has been defined as ‘an unpleasant emotional state or condition which is char-
acterised by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension and worry, and by activation or
arousal of the autonomic nervous system’ (Spielberger, 1972, p. 482). Stress has been defined
as a ‘particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by
person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being’
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 19). Both individual and contextual factors influence the expe-
rience of stress, as well as the individual’s cognitive perception and behavioural responses to
the perceived stressor. Anxiety then is an aversive emotional state that one may experience
when faced with a stressful situation. Related to the experience of stress and anxiety is the
ability to deal or cope with the perceived stressor. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define coping
as ‘constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/
or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person’
(p. 141). Resilience is seen as a characteristic that enables individuals not only to overcome
adversity but also to thrive when facing a crisis (Richardson, 2002). It refers to ‘the potential
to exhibit resourcefulness by using available internal and external resources in response to
different contextual and developmental challenges’ (Pooley & Cohen, 2010, p. 34).

This study seeks to explore the experience of undergraduate work students from India in
terms of the anxiety and stress experienced by them as well as to ascertain their resilience
and extent of coping that they bring to dealing with these issues. As far as we are aware this
is the first study which has dealt with such variables and compares their manifestation in
students across all three years of their degree. Another unique feature of this study is that
the respondents have been drawn from an undergraduate social work programme run by
a college exclusively for women.

Objectives of the Study

(1) To portray the socio-demographic profile of undergraduate students of social work
in a women’s college in Tiruchirappalli, India.

(2) To assess the manifestation of dimensions such as stress, anxiety, resilience and
coping in these students.

(3) To compare students of different stages/years of their degree course across these
dimensions.

(4) To ascertain correlations if any between these subject dimensions and with
socio-demographic variables.

(5) To identify which of the subject dimensions studied predict stress levels in the
respondents.

SoCIal Work EduCaTIon 81

Methods

Research Design

The study used survey methodology for data collection and is cross-sectional in nature. A
descriptive design that includes elements of a comparative nature to enable comparisons
among different categories of respondents as well as between year groups of students has
also been followed.

Measures

(1) Self-prepared schedule to collect socio-demographic data.
(2) Anxiety and stress subscales of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress scales (DASS 21)

Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) were administered to the respondents. They were
required to rate each item on a scale from 0 to 1 based on whether the statement
applied to them or not. Higher scores reflect higher levels of stress and anxiety.

(3) The Connor–Davidson Resilience scale (2003) (CD-RISC) comprises 25 items, each
rated on a 5-point scale (0–4), with higher scores reflecting greater resilience. It
measures the notion of personal competence, high standards, and tenacity, toler-
ance of negative affect, the positive acceptance of change, and secure relationships,
control and spiritual influences.

(4) Coping was assessed with the Brief Cope Scale (Carver, 1997) and has 26 items
that measure aspects such as: Self-distraction, Venting, Active coping, Positive
reframing, Denial, Planning, Self-blame, Use of emotional support, Humour, Use
of instrumental support, Acceptance, Behavioural disengagement and Religion.

Setting for the Study

Tamilnadu is the southernmost state in India and shares its borders with the adjacent states
of Kerala and Karnataka. The state capital is Chennai (formerly Madras) and the vernacular
spoken in the state is Tamil which has a rich Dravidian heritage. As per details from Census
2011, Tamil Nadu has a population of 7.21 crores, and forms 5.96% of the total population
of India with a sex ratio of 996. The population density is 1437 to a square mile and the
overall literacy rate for the state is 80.09%. Tiruchirappalli, also known as Trichy or Tiruchi
was known as Trichinopoly in colonial times and is geographically located almost centrally
in the state. It is located on the banks of the river Cauvery and is a major hub for the Indian
Railways and also a leading centre for education.

Cauvery College is a college for women and a leading provider of higher education in
the city. It is a self-financing college (receives no Government funds) that was established
in 1984 and is run by a private educational trust. It is an arts and science college affiliated
to the Bharathidasan University and offers fourteen undergraduate three-year degree pro-
grammes and nine two-year postgraduate courses including social work at both levels. The
college caters to about 4000 students at all levels.

82 S. STanlEy and G. METTIlda BHuvanESWarI

Data Collection

Permission for the study was obtained from the Principal of the college and was cleared
by the ethics review panel of the institution. Students in each year (stages 1, 2 and 3) of
the social work undergraduate degree were briefed about the nature of the study. It was
emphasised that participation was entirely voluntary and that they could stop filling up the
questionnaires at any point without assigning any reasons and would not be contacted again.
They were also told that their non-participation or discontinuation would in no way have
any influence on their academic life in the college. Informed consent was obtained from
students of each year group who turned up for being enlisted as respondents for the study.
Data was collected on predetermined dates at the beginning of the academic year in June
2014, collectively from each year group by the second author who was available during the
session for any clarifications relating to the items of the questionnaires. Respondents were
not required to provide their name, roll number or any other personal identifying data.

Respondents of the Study

Data were collected from 73 students who offered to participate and turned up for data
collection and details of students enrolled in each year as well as those enlisted for the study
are presented in Table 1.

Results

Socio-demographic Profile of Respondents

The mean age of the respondents was 18.59 and ranged from 16 to 24 years, the majority
(68.5%) being in the 18–19-year age group. The vast majority came from Hindu families
(90.4%) and the remaining from a Christian background. The majority (68.5%) of students
came from a rural background and from nuclear families (83.6%). 43.8% of them had only
one sibling and 46.6% were the eldest child in the family. The vast majority (79.5%) had
previously gone to schools where the medium of instruction was Tamil (vernacular) and
the remaining had attended English medium schools. The majority of these schools (57.5%)
were located in rural areas. The majority of students during their school days (78.1%) as
well as currently in college (64.4%) lived with their parents and the remaining stayed/were
staying in student hostels. Educational background of parents was considerably low with the
majority of parents having studied at different levels up to higher secondary school. 2.7%
of fathers and 15% of mothers had never been to school. The father was the main bread-
winner in most families and the majority (50.7%) were engaged in farming or employed as
casual labourers (called ‘coolie’ in the vernacular), while the majority (76.7%) of mothers
were homemakers and not in paid employment. The reported total monthly family income

Table 1. table depicting the number of Students Enrolled and Enlisted for the Study.

year/stage of study Students enrolled respondents
1 39 34
2 32 22
3 28 17
total 99 73

SoCIal Work EduCaTIon 83

ranged from Rupees 1000 to 70,000 with a mean of Rupees 11,100 (approx. 178 USD) per
month. The socio-demographic profile reflects a lower middle-class background with low
parental levels of education and income.

Regarding their motivation to do a social work degree the majority reported it was
encouragement received from family and friends (56%) and 30% said they were influenced
by their former teachers. The majority (84%) said their career aspiration was to become
a social worker/counsellor with others wanting to join other professions. 98.6% felt that
they had made the right choice of joining this degree and used words like happy (16.4%),
interesting (27.4%) and useful (24.7%) when asked their opinion about the course. When the
2nd- and 3rd-year students were asked if the course had changed them in any way, some of
the responses received were that it had increased their awareness of social problems (23%);
they had started helping others (24%), and that it had changed their behaviour (13%) and
attitude (8%) towards others; however, 24% felt that the course had not brought about any
significant change in them.

Stress, Anxiety, Resilience and Coping

Table 2 shows the extent to which students of all three years manifested the subject
dimensions.

Table 2 shows that stress and anxiety levels are high in newly admitted students (1st year)
and highest in 3rd-year students but lower in students in their 2nd year. However, both
resilience and coping scores increase with the year of study being lowest in the 1st year and
highest in the final year of the course.

Table 2. distribution of respondents by Mean Scores on Subject dimensions and Year of Study.

year of study Stress anxiety resilience Coping
1 8.56 8.85 64.32 65.79
2 4.94 6.59 69.82 68.00
3 11.82 12.55 74.68 75.27

Table 3. one Way analysis of Variance based on Year of Study for all Subject dimension.

variable Source df Sum of squares Mean square F p
Stress Between groups 2 454.77 227.39 21.04 0.000

Within groups 70 756.60 10.81
total 72 1211.37

anxiety Between groups 2 362.13 181.07 11.18 0.000
Within groups 70 1133.84 16.20
total 72 1495.97

resilience Between groups 2 1459.84 729.92 3.46 0.037
Within groups 70 14770.68 211.01
total 72 16230.52

coping Between groups 2 1230.10 615.05 8.05 0.001
Within groups 70 5349.92 76.43
total 72 6580.02

84 S. STanlEy and G. METTIlda BHuvanESWarI

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SoCIal Work EduCaTIon 85

One Way Analysis of Variance

In the next phase of analysis, students of all three years were compared with regard to the
subject dimensions using one way analysis of variance, results of which are presented in
Table 3. The results indicate significant statistical differences on all the subject dimensions
based on their year of study. Post hoc Scheffe analyses reveal that the differences were sig-
nificant between all the three cohorts (1st- & 2nd-year; 2nd- & 3rd-year as well as 1st- &
3rd-year students) for the stress, anxiety as well as coping scores. However, for the resilience
scores the difference was statistically significant only for the 1st- and 3rd-year students (but
not between 1st- & 2nd-year or 2nd- & 3rd-year students).

t Test Comparisons

Students were then compared based on differences in socio-demographic variables such
as rural/urban background; medium of instruction prior to joining the social work degree
(in school) and whether they were hostellers or day scholars. t Test results in Table 4 show
no significant differences among respondents differentiated on these variables (N = 73).

Correlational Analysis

Pearsons correlation coefficients were computed among the subject dimensions studied as
well as with other numerical background variables such as age, duration of parents’ edu-
cation and their income. The inter-correlation matrix (Table 5) shows highly significant
positive correlations between the anxiety and stress scores as well as the resilience and
coping scores for all students. Significant correlations are also seen between the stress and
coping scores as well. In terms of background factors there is a significant positive correla-
tion between the age of the students’ and coping (r = 0.27; p < 0.05). A negative correlation was seen between fathers’ education (number of years) and students’ anxiety (r = −0.27; p < 0.05) and their mothers’ income and stress levels (r = −0.25; p < 0.05). However fathers’ income, mothers’ education, number of siblings or students’ birth order did not enter into any significant correlations with any of the subject dimensions.

Multiple Regression Analysis

A multiple regression was conducted to see if anxiety, resilience and level of coping predicted
the manifestation of stress in the respondents. Using the enter method it was found from the
ANOVA table that resilience, coping and anxiety levels explained a significant amount of
the variance (47%) in the manifestation of stress in the students (F (3, 62) = 20.22, p < 0.001,

Table 5. inter-correlation Matrix for Subject dimensions.

*p < 0.05. **p < 0.001.

dimensions Stress anxiety resilience Coping
Stress 1 0.68** 0.16 0.20*
anxiety 0.68** 1 0.19 0.18
resilience 0.16 0.19 1 0.48**
coping 0.20* 0.18 0.48** 1

86 S. STanlEy and G. METTIlda BHuvanESWarI

R2 = 0.47, R2
Adjusted

 = 0.45). The analysis also showed that resilience (β = 0.02, t (69) = 0.14 ns)
and coping (β  =  0.09, t (69) = 0.92  ns) did not significantly predict the manifestation of
stress. However the level of anxiety significantly did predict the level of stress experienced
by the respondents (β = 0.67, t (69) = 7.40, p < 0.001).

Implications

The findings suggest that both 1st- and 3rd-year social work undergraduate students need
extra measures to deal with the anxiety and stress that they experience. For 1st-year stu-
dents this means that conscious attention needs to be paid during the induction of students
as soon as they enrol on the programme. At present this is not being done in a planned
manner to brief students about the nature of the course, the institutional ethos, the subjects
that they will be taught and aspects relating to assignments, examinations, evaluation and
other academic requirements. They also need to be made aware of various institutional
procedures, infrastructure and support systems available to them. A one-week ‘induction
programme’ could be planned by the department to orient the freshers about these issues. It
is also suggested that the academic lead (staff member) for the 1st-year cohort should meet
with the whole group at least once a month to enable students to vocalise their difficulties
and to seek clarification on various issues that they perceive to be difficult. Student tutorials
are a practice that could immensely benefit students in the first year and the department
may consider assigning four or five students to a named tutor who has weekly/fortnightly
meetings with these students, enables them to share their anxieties and to seek support and
clarification from their tutor.

Final-year students could also benefit from such support systems (tutor groups, monthly
cohort meetings) being put into place. Their anxieties usually revolve around clearing their
final examination and any arrears (examinations not passed in the previous years) that add
to their academic baggage, anxieties relating to whether to pursue a postgraduate degree
or to explore vocational options. Social work is not seen as a remunerative career option
and the pressure to economically contribute to one’s family of origin, which has funded
their education, is often an issue for many first-generation learners. The title of ‘social
worker’ is not protected by statute and there is increasing competition in the employment
market from students from allied disciplines. Most social work students will eventually
find employment in the private/voluntary sector which is a thriving but largely unregulated
area of employment. A series of sessions inviting well-placed alumni of the department to
share experiences with students in the final year will serve as a morale booster. Many of
them would be under pressure from their families to get married on course completion.
Completion of higher education is frequently perceived as a milestone, the attainment of
which is often indicative that women are ready for marriage unless they have serious career
intentions. A personal tutor assigned to them will enable them to better navigate difficulties
and anxieties in their personal and academic lives.

Limitations

The absence of a comparative group of non-social work students from other degree
programmes limit drawing inferences relating whether the manifestation of the subject

SoCIal Work EduCaTIon 87

dimensions on the social work degree is relatively ‘high’ or ‘low’ when compared to students
from other degree programmes.

The cross-sectional nature of the study does not provide an insight if the dimensions
studied increase or decrease over time as students progress from one year to the next of
their degree.

A major limitation in terms of statistical analyses is that it does not take into consider-
ation how life experiences have shaped the personality of individuals which could have a
major impact in how resilience develops and influences perceptions relating to life events
and stressors.

Features unique to the design and delivery of taught content as well as those that arise
from the placement experiences of students owing to contextual factors limit the generali-
sation of findings to other undergraduate social work programmes in India and elsewhere.

As the respondents were drawn from a women’s college only, it is not possible to say
whether the experiences of students in colleges for men only or in co-educational institu-
tions is similar.

Conclusion

This study compared students across three years of their undergraduate social work degree
in a women’s college in Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India. In spite of the limitations pointed out
earlier, this study adds to the extant literature on undergraduate social work student expe-
riences in India. It shows that entrants to the degree and those in the final year of their
course experience more stress and anxiety when compared to students in the second year.
For students in the first year of study this could be owing to uncertainties relating to the
‘newness’ of their programme of study and the nature of the programme which is quite
‘different’ from conventional academic degrees. For third-year students, this could be due
to anxieties relating to employment and career. Also for many women students’ getting a
college degree is also seen as the right time to get married and start a family and there could
be anxieties relating to this. The findings of the study point towards the need to provide
additional support services for students to deal with their personal situation and experiences
of student life. This is particularly important to strengthen coping strategies, providing them
with opportunities for ventilation, provision of guidance and psychological support and to
thereby enable them to manage their anxieties in a more appropriate manner.

Acknowledgement

The authors thank the Principal (Dr. V. Sujatha) and the Head of the Social Work Department
(Dr. G. Kanaga) of Cauvery College for Women, Tiruchirappalli, India for enabling the execution
of this study.

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Coffey, M., Samuel, U., Collins, S., & Morris, L. (2014). A comparative study of social work students
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88 S. STanlEy and G. METTIlda BHuvanESWarI

Collins, S. (2008). Statutory social workers: Stress, job satisfaction, coping, social support and
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• Abstract

Objectives of the Study
Methods
Research Design
Measures
Setting for the Study
Data Collection
Respondents of the Study
Results
Socio-demographic Profile of Respondents
Stress, Anxiety, Resilience and Coping
One Way Analysis of Variance
t Test Comparisons
Correlational Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis
Implications
Limitations
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References

Imagining Social Work: A Qualitative
Study of Students’ Perspectives on
Social Work in China
Miu Chung Yan, Zhong-Ming Ge, Sheng-Li Cheng &
A. Ka Tat Tsang

Social work education in China has expanded rapidly since it was reintroduced in 1988.

This has led to a growing body of English language literature on the development of social

work education in China. However, thus far, this literature lacks an empirical

foundation and little research on students’ perspectives has been done. To fill this gap,

this paper reports on a qualitative study of a group of graduating social work students

(n532) from four social work programmes in Jinan, the provincial capital of the

Shandong Province. Three major findings are reported. Firstly, the students liken their

social work learning experience to a roller coaster ride with many ups and downs.

Secondly, the cultural compatibility of western social work in China has not yet been

conclusively established, while an ‘indigenized’ social work needs to be compatible with

Chinese family values, referred to as ‘familism’ in direct Chinese to English translation,

and with the dominant socialist political ideology. Thirdly, the future of social work is

bright given increasing government support for its development.

Keywords: China; Social Work Education; Indigenization; Cultural Compatibility;

Social Work Students

Introduction

Since its reintroduction in 1988, social work education in China has evolved from

four to 200 programmes in 2007. This significant increase has gradually drawn

attention from the international social work community as reflected in the literature

Miu Chung Yan, University of British Columbia, Canada, Zhong-Ming Ge & Sheng-Li Cheng, Shangdong University,

China & A. Ka Tat Tsang, University of Toronto, Canada.

Correspondence to: Dr Miu Chung Yan, University of British Columbia, School of Social Work, 2080 West Mall,

Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z2, Canada. Email: miu.yan@ubc.ca

Social Work Education
Vol. 28, No. 5, August 2009, pp. 528–543

ISSN 0261-5479 print/1470-1227 online # 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02615470802368959

published in Anglo–American academic journals (e.g. Leung, 1994; Yao, 1995; Ngai,

1996; Tsang and Yan, 2001; Xia and Guo, 2002; Yuen-Tsang, 2002; Chi, 2005; Ku

et al., 2005; Yan and Tsang, 2005; Yan and Cheung, 2006; Wong and Pearson, 2007;

Yip, 2007). Meanwhile, another publication of an edited volume of 46 papers, of

which 24 were written by scholars from Mainland China, presented at an

international symposium (Tsang et al., 2004) has also raised awareness among the

international community wanting a ‘snapshot’ of the development of social work

education in China. In brief, it is not uncommon to find explanations in this evolving

literature as to why social work as a social mechanism of helping has resurfaced in

China in the last two decades since economic reform was introduced. In this

literature, three mutually informing sets of issues have drawn a great deal of attention

from authors. The first set of issues relates to the cultural and political compatibility

of western social work—its individualistic values and central concern with human

rights and social justice—to China. These authors question whether, as a western

social construct, the Judeo–Christian based social work values and principles are

compatible with traditional Chinese culture. Secondly, questions are raised as to the

way in which the democratic and social justice principles of western social work

might be understood in the Chinese political reality. Thirdly, questions are raised as

to the role that social work could or should play in China given that the political

agenda is overwhelmingly focused on social stability and economic prosperity. The

second set of issues largely reflects the existing limitations of social work education in

China, such as lack of qualified social work educators, teaching materials, and field

practice opportunities, and the third, the future of social work in China. This

discussion centres on the creation of professional job opportunities for social work

graduates, the definition of fields of social work practice, the identity formation of

professional social work, and the ‘indigenization process’.

There are at least two limitations in this set of English-language literature which

are worth noting. First, except for a handful of papers, almost all the authors are

social work scholars outside Mainland China. In other words, most information

reported is observational rather than experiential. Secondly, very few of the papers are

empirically based. Yan and Tsang (2005) report the results of a Delphi study of 47

social work experts in China. However, the study was done in 2000 and 2001 and

much has changed since then, not least the massive expansion in social work

education in the last six years where it is estimated that it has tripled in size from 70

to 200 social work education programmes. More recently, Wong and Pearson (2007)

reported on the way in which a group of nine MSW social work students perceived

their professional identity formation through their field practice. The study is unique

in that it examines the students’ perspective but it is limited due to the small sample

size and a methodology based on a 500-word short essay in Chinese from each of the

nine students who participated. As the authors suggest, their study is only a ‘first step’

in understanding how social work students’ professional identity is being shaped in

China.

A myriad of literature on social work’s development has been published within

China in Chinese. Most papers are written by Chinese social work educators and, by

Social Work Education 529

and large, reflect their perspectives and interests. Most of the authors of the English-

language literature have extensively referenced the Chinese literature published in

China in their writing and, to some extent, have reflected the major issues as

constructed by Chinese social work educators. However, there is a growing body of

neglected literature in China—and many neglected perspectives, such as that of

students (Wong and Pearson, 2007) and clients—which tends to be ignored by

writers both in- and outside China. Like Wong and Pearson (2007), we believe that

social work students—graduates—will be a major force shaping the future of social

work in China. Therefore, a qualitative study was conducted to investigate how social

work students perceived the nature and future of social work in China.

Methodology

The idea for and design of this study was the outcome of an international

collaboration between a group of social work educators from Canada and China. The

aim of the study was to examine the recent development of social work education in

China and to explore social work students’ perspectives on these developments. The

study was conducted in mid-2005 in Jinan, the provincial capital of Shandong

Province where the partner university in China was located. The paper reports on the

findings of this study to provide concrete empirical data on the development of social

work in China and, more importantly, to provide another perspective from which to

understand the development of social work education in China.

Recruitment of the Sample

The study sample was drawn from each of the four undergraduate and diploma level

social work programmes in Jinan. Table 1 provides a brief profile of the programmes

provided by the four social work training institutes: the diploma programme was

introduced in 1996 and the undergraduate programmes were established either in or

after 2000. As shown in Table 1, all of these programmes had faced similar challenges

to those described in the literature, such as lack of qualified teachers and insufficient

field practice. Their numbers of students and graduates also substantiated the

concern about the uncontrolled expansion of social work education. Only final year

or graduating—undergraduate—students were invited to participate in the study

since it was assumed that they would have a more comprehensive understanding of

the issues being investigated and a more realistic idea of the future of social work and

their personal career choices. In other words, the researchers were not only interested

in how social work educators were shaping their professional identity but also the job

opportunities that were available to them since, while there are more than 200 social

work education programmes in China, there are very few formal jobs for social work

graduates (Yan and Tsang, 2008). Eight BSW graduating students were recruited

from each of the four programmes through referrals from social work educators and

students in the schools under study. In all, 32 graduating students, 13 male and 19

female, were recruited for participation in the study.

530 M. Chung Yan et al.

Data Collection

Data collection was via a semi-structured interview—an interview guide was used

(see Appendix for the translated version since the interviews were conducted in

Mandarin)—conducted by four master students at the partner university in China

who had been trained by the principal investigator. The average time of the interview

varied but, on average, each took approximately 45 minutes. The interview questions

were designed to collect information from students on three major areas: (i) their

experience of studying social work; (ii) their perceptions of the function and purpose

of social work in China, the cultural compatibility of social work with Chinese

culture, prevailing political ideology, the commonsense of everyday people, and their

personal beliefs in helping; and (iii) their vision of the future of social work in China.

The curriculum taught across the four institutions from which the study sample was

drawn varied a great deal. As a result, responses regarding the nature and purpose of

social work varied. Nevertheless, the students’ perspectives on the issues raised were

quite similar. Each interview was audio-taped and the tapes were transcribed by the

respective interviewers.

Data Analysis

The principal investigator in Canada conducted the data analysis—in consultation

with the research partners via email—using NVivo, a computer assisted qualitative

data analysis software package. Following a content analysis of the transcripts, codes

and themes were generated from the raw data—in Chinese. Only the quotations

selected from the transcripts presented in this paper were translated into English. The

accuracy of the translation, which was initially done by the principal investigator, was

checked by the co-investigators of the study who are also the co-authors of

this paper.

Table 1 Brief Profile of Social Work Institutes Studied

Social work training institutes

A* B C D

Year and nature of social work pro-
gramme started

2000 2000 2000 (Diploma) 1996
Degree Degree 2001 (Degree) Diploma

Total no. of social work students in
2005

238 494 500 219

Total no. of social work graduates in
2005

44 230 201 62

Total no. of teachers for the social
work programme in 2007

10 14 9 6

Total no. of teachers with MSW
(including those in progress) in 2007

1 2 1 1

Total hours of field work 240 480 360 480
No. and gender of students inter-
viewed

3M 4M 4M 2M
5F 4F 4F 6F

Note: * In order not to identify the students, we decided to use another set of synonyms to signify
the institutes.

Social Work Education 531

Ethical Issues and Limitations of the Study

The ethics protocol of the study was approved by the ethics committee of the

university with which the principal investigator is affiliated. Written consent of each

participant was sought prior to the interview. To ensure anonymity, each participant

was given a coded identity assigned by the principal investigator. As an exploratory

qualitative study with a conveniently selected sample group, the findings of this study

cannot be generalized to all social work students or programmes in China. However,

they might shed some light on the current development of social work education in

China.

Findings

The main themes which emerged from the findings are discussed below. They were as

follows.

1. Studying social work was experienced as a roller coaster ride.

2. Social work must be culturally compatible with Chinese traditional culture and the

prevailing political ideology, and it must incorporate unique Chinese characteristics,

such as family values.

3. There was optimism about the future of social work in China.

1. Studying Social Work was Experienced as a Roller Coaster Ride

To most of the students interviewed, their emotional journey of social work

education was like a roller coaster ride and ranged from complete ignorance about

social work, to feeling passionate about the noble nature of this helping profession,

and then to feeling disenchanted with the current development of the profession in

China, and their own future upon graduation. It is important to note that many of

the respondents did not start their social work training on favourable terms. Only 12

students had chosen social work as their major subject when they applied to their

school. Instead, like many of their classmates, they were tiaoji
1

(literally means

switched) to the social work programme without their consent.

Most students who were tiaoji to the social work programme did not have a high

score in the public examination which determines whether or not they are admitted

to their chosen programme. This, in turn, reflected the status of social work in the

school. It can thus be imagined that many of them felt frustrated when they were

informed that they had been switched to the social work programme. This frustration

came from disappointment and, more often, from not knowing what social work was

about:

We were all taioji to this programme. At first, our scores of the advanced education
examination were not too high. Some applied to law, English and Chinese. In the
end, we were all taioji to here. … So, it can be said that most of us were
disappointed when being taioji to here because we didn’t know anything about this

532 M. Chung Yan et al.

discipline. At the beginning, our motivation to class was not high, coupled with
pessimistic emotion. (Z6)

However, for many interviewees, their frustration and ignorance did not last long.

The helping nature of the social work profession, the enthusiasm of their social work

teachers, their field experience through agency visits and field work quickly changed

their perceptions, particularly the preconceptions of those who were interested in

helping others:

Social worker is really very noble. Let me give you an example close to me. Like, I
was emotionally touched by the teacher who taught me social group work. Needless
to say, in class he always respected his job. (L6)

Many of them felt that their social work training had transformed them. It had

changed the way in which they communicated and interacted with people. They had

become more open to and supportive of others:

Although it is like that, I feel that I have learned something important in these four
years which will bring some major impacts to my future work and life. For
instance, the way I make friends with others, how I communicate with others. It
will have impacts and I feel that these impacts are useful. (X3)

Many also felt that through the social work programme they had internalized the

values and principles of social work which would guide their way through different

passages in life:

Yet, the principles, values and perspectives that we learn from social work have
influenced us; not only our work, our learning, our everyday life and our vision of
life. Having learned social work, these are all connected. (Z3)

As graduating students, many of them expressed their gratitude for what they had

learned in the social work programme. To them, social work was a very meaningful

profession. However, the jobless reality had left many students feeling let down with

dashed hopes for a bright future:

Let’s talk about myself. I really hope to do this kind of work. However, now my
hope is basically gone. My self-confidence has been hurt. You want to do it but you
can’t. There is not even a chance for you to do it. (Z4)

It was difficult for many of the respondents to predict their personal future in view

of the present development of social work in China. Among all the interviewees, only

a small number (n55) reported that they would try to look for social work related

jobs. Many intended to pursue postgraduate—higher—education hoping that this

would make them more competitive and some said they would just find a job which

probably would not require social work training. Despite this gloomy future, many

still believed that what they had learnt in the social work programme would be useful

to them:

In terms of work, I probably will not practise this kind of work because my job has
almost been fixed and it has nothing to do with social work. Even so, I feel that
what I learned in these four years will have a very great impact on my work and my
life. For instance it has certain impacts on my attitude when I interact with others

Social Work Education 533

and on my behaviour when I communicate with others. And, I feel that these
influences are useful. (Z3)

Reflecting upon their experience, some said that they did not regret taking the

social work programme:

I have studied social work for four years. My feeling towards social work has gone
through a process from feeling fresh to disappointed, and then at the end I feel I
have established a confidence of its future. I think probably many social work
students may have a similar process like me. I think at the end, I am still relatively
optimistic about it. (L1)

In sum, to many of these interviewees, their experience of social work education

was not a smooth one. From being ignorant of social work to being passionate

about the profession and back to feeling disenchantment, their up and down roller

coaster emotions perhaps reflected the challenges of social work’s development in

China.

2. Cultural Compatibility between Western Social Work and Chinese Culture

In the literature, one of the major debates is about the cultural compatibility of

western
2

social work. The term ‘culture’ in this study was understood not only as (i)

traditional Chinese culture, but also as inclusive of (ii) the prevailing political

ideology, (iii) the commonsensical beliefs of the laobaixing (which roughly means the

everyday people), and (iv) the students’ personal beliefs of helping—which were

shaped by the values of the wider society (i–iii above). If traditional Chinese culture

were based on Confucius’s teachings—and other schools of thoughts which could be

classified as ‘high culture’—then we might refer to commonsensical beliefs among

laobaixing or everyday people as ‘low culture’. Although the former may have a

certain influence on the latter, the low culture is more about folklore and practice

wisdom accumulated in the everyday lived experience of the laobaixing. These four

different manifestations of culture mutually informed one another but each could

also lead to very different understanding of the cultural meaning of ‘imported social

work’.

(i) Compatibility with Chinese traditional culture

When asked whether Chinese traditional culture were compatible with the values of

social work, we received definitive responses: those who said ‘yes’ tended to think

that Confucian teachings had always emphasized mutual help and harmonious

relations. These, to them, were also basic to social work practice. Many of them

understood helping others as always being a part of traditional Chinese culture

which, from a Confucian perspective, means being born with a compassionate

disposition which leads to sacrifice of oneself and love for others. For instance, in

traditional Chinese culture, taking care of the ruoshi qunti (which roughly means the

disadvantaged and marginalized groups), particularly seniors and children, is always

regarded as a virtue:

534 M. Chung Yan et al.

I think this can be compatible. First and foremost, Chinese traditional culture
advocates filial duties, which should be compatible. Social work offers help to
elderly people as well as the marginal group, the idea of which connects social work
with traditional Chinese culture. This is also something which the younger
generation should do; social workers should also look after this group as well. (Z7)

According to their understanding, these traditional virtues were very close to

the social work values that they had learnt in their training. In contrast,

interviewees who argued that the traditional Chinese culture was not compatible

with western social work had a very different interpretation of the traditional

Chinese culture. First, they believed that the emphasis on individuality in western

social work might clash with the collective tendency embraced by traditional

Chinese culture. Secondly, to some students, because of this fundamental

difference, some basic social work principles, such as self-determination, were

problematic when examined from a traditional Chinese cultural perspective.

Thirdly, despite the prevalence of collectivistic understanding of Chinese

traditional culture, some students also intriguingly observed that there was a

great deal of emphasis on self-reliance which tended to discourage people from

seeking help from other people:

The overall trend [of Chinese culture] is to depend on one’s hard work—in other
words, to realize one’s goals and one’s growth by virtue of one’s hard work and
skills and not by means of external effort. Meanwhile, social work is mainly to help
people, perhaps most Chinese people would not prefer to accept such help, let
alone seeking help from social workers. The emphasis of self-effort is in the Chinese
culture; it is also where the contradiction is. (L2)

However, the collectivistic perspective is not necessarily at odds with the notion of

self-reliance in Chinese culture. As one student pointed out, ‘many people in China

still believe in this principle, that is, to cultivate one’s person and rectify one’s mind,

regulate one’s family, govern well one’s state and rule well the world’. According to

this principle, the notion of self-reliance is supposedly to encourage people to seek

self-actualization from the personal domain, such as family first before contributing

to the public domain. However, as these students perceived, to a larger extent, this

might discourage people from seeking help.

(ii) Compatibility with the commonsensical beliefs of laobaixing (everyday people)

In terms of helping, is social work and Chinese culture, like the teachings of

Confucius, always compassionate? One student (L5) made a shrewd observation as to

the lack of consistency between traditional and commonsensical Chinese cultural

beliefs:

Although China has some traditional notions of helping people, like extending the
idea of helping your elders to others’ elders and your youngsters to others’
youngsters. But it is only just a few notions, and they spring from some of the ideas
that are related to tracing the root and origin. But deep down, it is still about ‘‘clean
up one’s own snow at the front door and bother not with others’ snowflakes on
their roof’’. (L5)

Social Work Education 535

In addition, high cultural values were also subject to reinterpretation and, as we found

in this study, tended to be seen as incompatible with western social work. For instance,

the Confucian idea of self-reliance implies a self-actualization process but when it is

reinterpreted in people’s everyday lives, it becomes a folklore which promotes the idea

that people should help themselves. As L1 mentioned, there is an old Chinese saying, it is

better to ‘beg for help ourselves than to ask for it from others’. Following this

interpretation, many students also believed that the virtue of self-reliance had led to a

popular commonsensical belief that people should not wash their dirty linen in public.

Z2 provided a popular example which was shared by most respondents who pointed out

the incompatibility of commonsensical everyday Chinese and social work beliefs:

As a traditional Chinese laobaixing’s belief, family should take care of their elderly.
If a child sends their elders to institutions, the elders will have no face and feel this
child has no filial piety. To the child, other people will also point their fingers at
him/her and say he/she has no filial piety because he/she sends their elders to
institutions. Let’s think about it, this may not be compatible. (Z2)

To a large extent, the respondents who saw western social work as incompatible with

Chinese cultural beliefs noted the embedded nature of Confucian ‘familism’—or the

priority of family—in the commonsensical or everyday beliefs of Chinese people.

Family values run so deep that they have created a kind of cultural practice that strongly

discourages people from seeking help from outside their family. If they really need to

ask for help, as many respondents understood it, Chinese people tended to follow a

‘differentiation mode of association’, a conceptual framework of familial relationship

constructed by the late sociologist, Fei Xiaotung (1983). According to this framework,

Chinese culture has a quasi-kinship system which extends from the immediate family

flexibly outward to people who are seen by the family as part of them (Yan, 1998). To

some respondents, this mode of association was very different from the Judeo–

Christian beliefs of western social work which stress fraternity, a love that is owed

equally to everyone. To these respondents, this hierarchical help seeking practice was

incompatible with western social work, which is a form of public service. In the

commonsensical world of China, public servants, even social workers, are generally

perceived as guan (government officials). As some of them mentioned, there is an old

Chinese maxim: even the best guan cannot judge the affairs within one’s family.

In short, judging from the findings, the cultural compatibility issue is inconclusive.

Partly, this is due to the internal inconsistent interpretation of cultural beliefs by

different people, and partly, due to the nature of culture as a constantly changing

phenomenon which is responsive to context. This is particularly true of China which,

in the last three decades, has been undergoing rapid transformation. Some students

are optimistic that the many incompatibilities between Chinese high and low cultural

practices and western social work will soon disappear, particularly in the urban areas.

(iii) Compatibility with dominant political ideology

So far, the communist government of China still insists that socialism is its guiding

ideology although a market economy has become firmly established in China. The

536 M. Chung Yan et al.

most recent policy goal is to establish a harmonious society in China despite the fact

that its ultimate purpose is to ensure stability of society for its economic boom. Many

respondents saw policy goals and purposes as having an emphasis on human value

which was compatible with the humanistic nature of western social work:

I feel that in the planned economy era, there may be some conflicts. However, the
present market economic conditions, under the background of global economy, are
compatible because our government is gradually changing itself, gradually moving
towards humanization, human centred. It has gradually borrowed the western
experiences in resolving social conflicts to handle China’s social problems. (L4)

Nevertheless, respondents had numerous concerns about the way in which the

liberal and humanistic nature of social work could work harmoniously with existing

political ideology and practice. Intertwined with traditional Chinese culture, the

dominant political ideology has a strong tendency towards centralized control. The

government officials tend to have an omnipresent power in determining people’s

lives. Many wonder, under the tight control of government, how much freedom they

will have to help people:

China does not yet have a free political environment, which is a crucial factor. …
Without a general sense of social mass participation and of the need to fight for
one’s right, the development of social work is quite difficult. For social work is to
encourage people to actively participate in their community, and through their
own effort and the fight for social resources, they can change their existing
conditions. (X3)

Respondents believed that social work as a form of helping that requires a certain

level of autonomy was not compatible with centralized political control in China. As

Z4 noted: ‘To me, social work is grounded in the society. … We have to obey

government law and regulations too, but if we rely too much on government, our

hands are tied in many aspects’. In brief, the respondents had an optimistic view of

the recent policy changes which tended to put more emphasis on human value but

were pessimistic about the tight political control of the regime which had historically

cautioned against people’s freedom, a central principle and value of western social

work.

(iv) Incorporation of unique aspects of Chinese culture

When asked how cultural incompatibility issues might be resolved, the respondents

agreed that indigenization was needed:

[Social work] has to correspond to the mainstream Chinese cultural tradition. I
think any new discipline to be adopted in China has to go through a bentuhuade
(literally means indigenization) process because our traditional Chinese culture is,
in fact, far too persistent. It’s been five, six thousand years. It’s impossible for us to
just let go of so many thousand years of our traditional culture so easily because of
the arrival of a foreign discipline. (L3)

One of the most commonly agreed cultural transformations of this imported social

work—a Judeo–Christian based liberal humanistic helping profession—was its

Social Work Education 537

incorporation of ‘familism’, a fundamental component of both high and low Chinese

cultural practices. Unlike western social work, almost all of the respondents, in one

way or another, expressed the view that social work in China must be grounded in

the familial nature of Chinese culture:

Because of the strong emphasis on family in Chinese culture, particularly in this
aspect, particularly the significant role of family in some fundamental contra-
dictions, the role of family will certainly become a characteristic feature and be
reflected in the development of Chinese social work. In other words, it is possible
that social work in China is not based on individual as a unit but rather on the
family. I feel that in terms of management, it … in the actual implementation
process, it will have a much better effect. Practising social work from the point of
view of the individual as a unit may not be as effective as using family as a unit.
(L8)

In addition, all agreed that cultural transformation has to fit the dominant

ideology in China. Politically, given the existing political and economic conditions,

social work in China must rely on the government. Most respondents were quite

realistic. They agreed that instead of competing with these existing indigenous

organizations, at least for the time being, social work in China must yitu (rely on)

these organizations and the government:

… but now there’s no way, so many responsibilities are undertaken by the
government. That’s why you need to have the support of the government and then
integrate slowly. Take, for example, women’s work is supposed to be carried out by
social workers, but now government has set up Women’s Federation [a
government operated non-governmental organization (GONGO)] to do social
work. But if Women’s Federation is to be cancelled, it is not possible. This is why
you have to rely on Women’s Federation to solve problems which are encountered
by women such as family violence, inequity of property distribution due to divorce.
(Z2)

However, many saw the cultural transformation as a two-way process. They hoped

that this newly imported social work would gradually transform the bentude (literally

means indigenous) practices of these existing organizations:

To them [government officials], the influx of western culture is a challenge and a
test, but changes need to be carried out step by step, that is, to make this system
[existing government departments and GONGOs] an embracing one in order to
enable the western stuff to be incorporated into these systems. (X6)

3. Future Social Work in China

Many of these graduating student respondents found the future of social work in

China too remote from their immediate personal career interests. As mentioned

previously, few would look for jobs that were related to social work. Although most

of them were disenchanted with the virtually non-existent social work job market and

most believed that social work’s development in China would not be simple and

straight forward, they saw a promising future for social work as a measure to tackle

538 M. Chung Yan et al.

the social ills caused by economic reform; in other words, they believed that the

fallout from future economic development would provide opportunities for the

social work profession:

Social work in China is developing very fast now; the development process of social
work is just coinciding with the rising economic period of China. Along with the
economic development, the development of social work in China will be getting
better and better. People’s knowledge level also keeps rising and ideas continue to
be renewed. Social work will certainly be getting better and better. (Y5)

Among the respondents, there was strong agreement that social work can play

multifaceted roles that would be beneficial to society. These roles include counsellor

for individuals and families, organizer in communities, poverty relief worker for the

homeless, panhandlers and/or rural peasants, just to name a few. These students are

hopeful that one day in China social workers would be found not only in the urban

but also in rural areas; not only in the community and government departments but

also in schools, hospitals, correctional facilities, senior homes, and new NGOs.

As one student noted, the public has already started paying attention to the

multiple roles that social work can play in various aspects of Chinese society.

Say for example … the China Central Television Station has once in its ‘‘Focus
Interview’’ programme introduced some new occupations which included social
work. In the programme, they said social work could contribute greatly to the
communities, the hospitals and helping homeless panhandlers. They also reported
some social work practice activities. For example, they mentioned how social work
could be practised in hospitals. (L7)

Respondents were hopeful that when more Chinese people realized the benefits of

social work, they would accept it, especially given major reform in China aimed at the

construction of a harmonious society and the massive structural changes in Chinese

society which would create demand for professional social workers’ services:

… social work’s development will become faster and faster, and its scope bigger
and bigger. I think in the next couple of years, a sense of general awareness will be
formed—whenever the word ‘‘social work’’ is mentioned, everyone knows what
social work is about, what it does; knows the kind of service, the kind of notion and
the kind of value system it is. (Y1)

Many respondents believed that a major obstacle to social work’s development in

China would be lack of government support. Without government support,

hundreds of social work graduates, like themselves, would be out of work:

The most urgent problem is that students of over 200 universities in China are
going to graduate and enter the society, but our efforts will have been wasted as
many social work students probably will have to find jobs in other areas. Isn’t this
loss of professional students to other areas a waste of resources? (Z3)

They hoped that the government would soon introduce institutional changes and

not only classify social work as an occupation but also recognize its professional

status by introducing a registration system. In addition, promotion of the profession

was important. They also hoped that the government would take the lead in

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promoting social work. They firmly believed that when more people came to know

about what social work was, they would accept this emerging profession as a new

social measure of helping people to resolve their problems:

To raise the recognition status of social work, the government has to support and
introduce it to various units and make them understand what social work is about.
Various enterprising units will get to know social work more and more. Not only
will enterprise units understand more and more about what social work is, business
units as well as other units will too. Wait till some units which need employees have
completely understood what social work is about and when they feel the need, they
will start seeking help from social workers. (X4)

To conclude, the stories of these 32 graduating students indicate that they have

gone through a rough process in the last three or four years. Perhaps their roller

coaster experience may also reflect the struggle of the development of social work in

China both in school and in the society at large. In their opinion, the cultural

compatibility of social work with Chinese culture was not a black and white issue,

particularly when cultures in China were themselves incoherent and changing.

However, they did agree that social work in China must have its own characteristics.

One of these characteristics is the cultural adaptation of western social work. In

addition, social work in China, as they saw it, should be contextually grounded in the

contemporary Chinese society which was generally recognized as highly politically

controlled. This is particularly important when the support of the government is so

critical to social work’s development in China. In their opinion, without the

government support, even with its great potential, social work would have a hard

time flourishing.

Conclusion

This exploratory study of graduating social work students from a city in China

provides a ‘snapshot’ of the perspective of a particular group of students. Given the

small-scale nature of the study, these findings cannot be generalized to the wider

population of social work students or graduates in China. Nevertheless, given the lack

of empirical information on social work’s development in China, the perspectives of

these 32 students provide some, albeit not generalizable, understanding of the current

situation and concerns about social work’s development in China. The speed of social

work education’s development in China is almost beyond comprehension. However,

as found in this study, there is another story to be told about the ‘roller coaster

experience’ of students, the majority of whom were assigned to the social work

programme without their consent and without any prior knowledge and under-

standing of what social work was about. As Yan and Cheung (2006) observed, this

phenomenon is largely due to higher education reform which is massively expanding

higher education but limiting the expansion to several selected ‘new’ disciplines,

social work being one of the chosen few.

The sudden expansion of social work education has led to numerous problems,

such as a lack of professionally qualified social work academics (see Table 1), teaching

540 M. Chung Yan et al.

materials, and field placements as documented in the literature. However, despite all

of these difficulties, social work educators in China, at least as reported by these 32

students, have achieved a great deal of success in nurturing a new generation of social

work trained personnel. The experiences of these students suggest that, in the end,

although this unwilling choice might not offer them an immediate and prosperous

career, most of them believed that they had gone through a very meaningful training

which would be useful to them personally regardless of what they were going to do in

the future. Also, as indicated in the findings, most of them also recognized the need

for and usefulness of social work for China. With this seed firmly planted, there is a

good reason to believe that social work in China will gradually flourish.

Nonetheless, to many of these students social work remains a ‘virtual occupation’.

The social work that they have learnt so far is an intellectual construction of their

teachers who themselves mostly have no social work training and experience. An

indigenized Chinese social work model is still far from being realized. As reflected in

the literature, cultural compatibility is a continuing concern for those pursuing the

indigenization of social work in China (e.g. Yan, 1998; Tsang and Yan, 2001; Yuen-

Tsang, 2002; Yip, 2007). However, thus far, no concrete proposal has been offered.

Learned from their teachers, most students interviewed envisioned that social work in

China should match the Zhongguo guoqing (which roughly means the unique

conditions of China), including its rich culture. Despite its simplicity, the students of

this study offered a particular perspective which might, at least, point to a first step in

the cultural indigenization of social work in China. To them, social work in China, at

least in the near future, must reconcile with ‘familism’—a cultural emphasis on the

importance of family—which is deeply embedded in Chinese culture.

Furthermore, the ‘possibility’ of social work in China is limited by the complete

absence of social work jobs in China which most of these students found most

disappointing. Ironically, so far the development of social work has been confined to

within higher education as an academic discipline. As a field of practice, social work

is largely under-developed in China. Like their teachers, these students also see that

the future development of social work in China lies in the hands of the government.

In other words, the raison d’être of social work in China cannot be detached from its

social assignment—a social safety valve to ensure social stability and economic

prosperity. If this is true, then it is almost expected that social work in China has a

very important political responsibility. Therefore, one of the so-called Chinese

characteristics of social work in China, as most students perceived, is a high level of

state stewardship.

Indeed, in December 2006, the China Communist Party issued a resolution to

create a critical mass of social workers as part of the national effort to build a

harmonious society in China. This resolution has led to a national system of social

work registration under the leadership of the Ministry of Civil Affairs. As announced

by the Deputy Minister, it is expected that a team of more than 100,000 registered

social workers at three different levels—advanced, intermediate and junior—will be

created in five years (see http://www.mca.gov.cn/sw/fugle_show6.asp). Yet, to this

group of students this news might have come too late. Nevertheless, this development

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has offered new hope and raised the morale of social work educators and students in

China, although it is not known how registration would directly affect the job

market.

To conclude, the speed and scale of social work’s development in China is perhaps

the fastest and largest in the world since the inception of social work in the Anglo–

American world a century ago. It has drawn increasing attention from the

international social work community since social work in China has the potential

to be larger than the whole profession of social work outside China! Certainly, some

experiences in China, be they good or bad, are worth learning about. This study offers

some evidence of current developments in China from the students’—as yet

neglected—perspective. To understand this phenomenal development more fully,

further research is needed.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank Professor Mel Gray for her comments and suggestions for

this paper.

Notes

[1] To prevent losing the original meaning, some key Chinese terms are used in this paper and the

closest English interpretation is provided in parentheses.

[2] We use the term western only to simplify the discussion. The authors would like to

acknowledge that both conceptually and empirically, there are many ways of practising social

work and diverse discourses of what social work is in developed countries.

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Appendix: Interview Guide

1. Why did you decide to study social work?

2. Please tell me how your teachers describe social work.

a. Please also tell me given what you are taught, how you will define social work.

3. From what you know about social work, in what areas and how, you think, social

work can contribute to the Chinese society.

4. Many people have said that social work is a western construct. Please tell me how

you understand social work within the Chinese context.

a. Do you think the social work values you learned in class are compatible with your

understanding of Chinese culture and the prevailing political ideologies in China? If

yes, how? If no, how incompatible and how will you deal with this incompatibility?

5. Please tell me, from your perspective as a social work student, what are the major

problems of the development of social work in China?

6. What will you foresee for the future of social work in China?

7. What will you foresee for your own future as a social work student?

8. Please name three major obstacles that you think are critical to social work

development in China. Why these three?

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