DISSERTATION PROJECT

WRITING THE DISSERTATION

TOPIC: Factors Influencing Individuals’ Decision to Utilize Mental Health in South Texas

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Details

The Dissertation: 160 Pages Excluding the first 5 pages, the Index page and the reference pages

I need chapters 1, 2 & 3 in 2 weeks work can continue on the rest of the chapters.

· Follow the Prospectus Overview and Instructions (ATTACHED)

· 160 Pages

· In-text citations is a must on all quotes

· Requires about 200 or more Reference Resources

· References must be within the last 4 years

· Must be Free of Grammatical Errors

Dissertation Prospectus

Factors Influencing Individuals’ Decision to Utilize Mental Health in South Texas

Grand Canyon University

Submitted by:

James Dada

March 7, 2020

The Prospectus Overview and Instructions

Prospectus Instructions:
1. Read the entire Prospectus Template to understand the requirements for writing your prospectus. Each section contains a narrative overview of what should be included in the section and a table with required criteria for each section. WRITE TO THE CRITERIA, as they will be used to assess the prospectus for overall quality and feasibility of your proposed research study.
2. As you draft each section, delete the narrative instructions and insert your work related to that section. Use the criterion table for each section to ensure that you address the requirements for that particular section. Do not delete/remove the criterion table as this is used by you and your committee to evaluate your prospectus.
3. Prior to submitting your prospectus for review by your chair or methodologist, use the criteria table for each section to complete a realistic self-evaluation, inserting what you believe is your score for each listed criterion into the Learner Self-Evaluation column. This is an exercise in self-evaluation and critical reflection, and to ensure that you completed all sections, addressing all required criteria for that section.
4. The scoring for the criteria ranges from a 0-3 as defined below. Complete a realistic and thoughtful evaluation of your work. Your chair and methodologist will also use the criterion tables to evaluate your work.
5. Your Prospectus should be no longer than 6-10 pages when the tables are deleted.

Score

Assessment

Item Not Present

Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required: Not all components are present. Large gaps are present in the components that leave the reader with significant questions. All items scored at 1 must be addressed by learner per reviewer comments.

Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May Be Required Now or in the Future. Component is present and adequate. Small gaps are present that leave the reader with questions. Any item scored at 2 must be addressed by the learner per the reviewer comments.

Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions Required. Component is addressed clearly and comprehensively. No gaps are present that leave the reader with questions. No changes required.

Dissertation Prospectus
Introduction

Mental health is a major issue around the World. The United Nations (UN, 2015), has identified the issue as one of its Sustainable Development Goals. These are a collection of goals designed globally that aim to achieve a sustainable future for all. The UN expressed its uncertainty regarding the extent to which major social determinants of mental disorders are being addressed worldwide (WHO, 2015). Developing a conceptual framework will address the social determinants and align it with its sustainable development goals. This way it can systematically review the pieces of evidence about the social determinants and identify potential mechanisms and targets for interventions (Lund, et.al, 2018). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the U.S. Department of Justice, millions of people suffer from mental illness in this country. The high numbers necessitate raising public awareness and start campaigning for a much better health care system (Hamilton.et.al, 2016). According to the National Alliance on Mental Health (2019), in 2018, 47.6 million people in the U.S. experienced mental illness which means 1 in every 5 adults. 11.4 million Adults between ages 25 and 35 had an episode of serious mental illness in the same year. In 2016, 7.7 million youths aged 6-17 experienced some sort of mental health disorder, while 9.2 million people were reported to have experienced substance use disorder (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2019).

According to Kohn, et al (2018), there is an emphasis on the gap in mental health treatment in America when examined through the prevalence of mental health disorders, the use of mental health services, and the global burden of disease. Statistical data from community-based surveys of mental disorders in the various countries in America including Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States, etc. were utilized. While 42.6% of children and adolescents in the US suffered mental illness, the treatment gap in this group was 64%. The need to address the issue of mental health has not been given enough attention resulting in the wide gap in treatment. Mental disorders in children can be corrected if detected early enough. Unfortunately, most of the caregivers do not have the skills to detect these disorders causing them to advance (Kohn et al, 2018).

According to Bowdoin et al (2018), a patient-centered medical home (PCMH) is a model meant for improving health outcomes while at the same time meant to contain the cost of care. In this study, I will examine the links between care provided inconsistent with the PCMH and healthcare services utilization as well as expenditures for non-aging citizens who are suffering from mental illness in the United States. 6908 non-aging adults suffering from mental illness participated in the 2007-2012 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Utilization of healthcare services was compared with expenditures on care consistent with the PCMH, other participants include a non-PCMH, usual source of care (USC), and participants without a USC. The outcome showed differences in utilization and expenditures between participants who were provided with care consistent with the PCMH and those who had a non-PCMH. USC showed no statistical importance for any healthcare services category. This research study will examine the factors according to mental health providers that influence an individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services in South Texas. This research will help us understand why individuals choose to or not to utilize mental health services in the state.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Introduction
This section briefly overviews the research focus or problem, why this study is worth conducting, and how this study will be completed.
The recommended length for this section is two to three paragraphs.

1. Dissertation topic is introduced along with why the study is needed.

2. Provides a summary of results from the prior empirical research on the topic.

3. Using results, societal needs, recommendations for further study, or needs identified in three to five research studies (primarily from the last three years), the learner identifies the stated need, called a gap

4. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This Introduction section elaborates on the Topic from the 10 Strategic Points
. This Introduction section provides the foundation for the Introduction section in Chapter 1 of the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Background of the Problem

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018), mental health has become a significant public health issue in the United States that requires immediate attention. A mental disorder must be diagnosed at its early stages to avoid the advance effects of it progressing into adolescence (Kohn et al, 2018). According to Grayson (2018), there has been a notable difference in how patients utilize mental health services with patients that experience a high level of burden more likely to utilize mental health services. Similarly, the caregivers that experience serious signs of depression or anxiety in their child or adolescent will tend to use the services more than the caregivers who experience mild or no sign of depression or anxiety. The mental health status of the caregiver is of no significance and does not influence need and utilization (Grayson, 2016).

Misra et al (2017) in their article describe the concept relating to the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for mental health treatment among children in the Southern State Region. According to the authors, CAM use among US children stands at 12%. The Southern State Region has placed a lot of effort into improving the health care treatment of children. The services offered are directly proportional to the allocation provided. Research showed that some institutions have released a lot of funds to run this sector and that the Sothern State Region receives the second-largest allocation for mental health (Mista et al, 2017). Despite all these efforts, there still exists a gap between the treatment of mental health disorders in the US.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Background of the Problem
This section uses the literature to provide the reader with a definition and statement of the research gap and problem the study will address. This section further presents a brief historical perspective of when the problem started and how it has evolved over time.

The recommended length for this section is two-three paragraphs.

1. Includes a brief discussion demonstrating how literature has established the gap and a clear statement informing the reader of the gap.

2. Discusses how the “need” or “defined gap” has evolved historically into the current problem or opportunity to be addressed by the proposed study (citing seminal and/or current research).

3. ALIGNMENT: The problem statement for the dissertation will be developed from and justified by the “need” or “defined gap” that is described in this section and supported by the empirical research literature published within the past 3-5 years.

4. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This Background of the Problem section uses information from the Literature Review in the 10 Strategic Points. This Background of the Problem section becomes the Background of the Study in Note, this section develops the foundation for Chapter 1 in the Proposal. It is then expanded to develop the comprehensive Background to the Problem section and Identification of the GAP sections in Chapter 2 (Literature Review) in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Theoretical Foundations/Conceptual Framework and Review of the Literature/Themes

Theoretical literature

There is the need to understand the consequences of both effective utilization and non-utilization of mental health as it evolved historically. Mental health services in this Southern State have faced several challenges. Texas (2017) asserts that people suffering from mental illness still face problems despite the huge costs that are directed towards healthcare. Schwartz, (2017) in support of the Southern State Region argues that the increased growth-rate of populations in one specific county located in a Southern State has impacted the health sector at large. The high population together with economic constrains has led to few medical insurances which limit access to health. The access to and utilization of mental health care for the populations living in this county has created a gap within the State (Children at Risk, 2013).

Literature Themes

Review of the literature review identified the following themes:

· Lack of proper mental health education and infrastructure has been the major factor affecting the utilization of mental health. Goldman et al (2018) in their research found out that women who had been exposed to sexual abuse and drug abuse formed the high numbers of people who utilize mental health services among the Hispanic and non-white people in the county. Augsberger et al (2015) in support of this research argued that mental health services had been underutilized by Asian women living in this county, as a result of both cultural needs and mismatch of the services offered in the health facilities in this Southern State.

· Lack of medical insurance. Research has shown that many people due to poor economic status have left many people without health insurance as they cannot afford it. This limits many average and lower-class families from accessing mental illness services (Children at Risk, 2013).

· The poor perception among the community members. Researchers reveal that many people who live in this county perceive child mental illness as a mere sign of hunger besides poor diets. This has left many people neglecting the utilization of mental healthcare in the community (Children at Risk, 2013).

The theoretical model for this research gap is the Albert Bandura, Social Cognitive Theory. The Social Cognitive Theory: Examines the context of health promotion and disease prevention. It helps to describe how motivations in health and behaviors are influenced by the interaction of people’s beliefs, environment, and behaviors. It was advocated by famous psychologists Albert Bandura (Morin, 2019).

Major components of the theory concerning individual behavior change include:

· Self-efficacy: The belief that an individual has control over and can execute a behavior.

· Behavioral capability: Understanding and having the skill to perform a behavior.

· Expectations: Determining the outcomes of behavior change.

· Expectancies: Assigning a value to the outcomes of behavior change.

· Self-control: Regulating and monitoring individual behavior.

· Observational learning: Watching/observing outcomes of others’ performance or modeled behavior.

· Reinforcements: Promoting incentives and rewards that encourage behavior change (Eslami et al, 2018).

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework
This section identifies the theory(s) or model(s) that provide the foundation for the research. This section should present the theory(s) or models(s) and explain how the problem under investigation relates to the theory or model. The theory(s) or models(s) guide the research questions and justify what is being measured (variables) as well as how those variables are related (quantitative) or the phenomena being investigated (qualitative).

Review of the Literature/Themes
This section provides a broad, balanced overview of the existing literature related to the proposed
research topic. It describes the literature in related topic areas and its relevance to the proposed research topic findings, providing a short 3-4 sentence description of each theme and identifies its relevance to the research problem supporting it with at least two citations from the empirical literature from the
past 3-5 years.

The recommended length for this section is 1 paragraph for Theoretical Foundations and a bulleted list for Literature Themes section.

1.
Theoretical Foundations section identifies the theory(s), model(s) relevant to the variables (quantitative study) or phenomenon (qualitative study). This section should explain how the study topic or problem coming out of the “need” or “defined gap” in the as described in the Background to the Problem section relates to the theory(s) or model(s) presented in this section. (One paragraph)

1.5

2. Review of the Literature Themes section: This section is a bulleted list of the major themes or topics related to the research topic. Each theme or topic should have a one-two sentence summary.

1.5

3. ALIGNMENT: The Theoretical Foundations models and theories need to be related to and support the problem statement or study topic. The sections in the Review of the Literature are topical areas needed to understand the various aspects of the phenomenon (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) being studied; to select the design needed to address the

Problem Statement

; to select surveys or instruments to collect information on variables/groups; to define the population and sample for the study; to describe components or factors that comprise the phenomenon; to describe key topics related to the study topic, etc.

1.5

4. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

1.5

NOTE: The two parts of this section use information about the Literature Review and Theoretical Foundations/Conceptual Framework from the 10 Strategic Points.

This Theoretical Foundations section is expanded upon to become the Theoretical Foundations section in Chapter 2 (Literature Review). The Theoretical Foundations and the Literature Review sections are also used to help create the Advancing Scientific Knowledge/Review of the Literature section in Chapter 2 (Literature Review).

Reviewer Comments:

Problem Statement

It is not known what influences an individual’s decision to or not to utilize mental health services in the United States. It is not known how mental health providers describe the factors influencing individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services. There are increasing mental health cases among the children in the country, this research seeks to identify the key issues that prevent the people of this country from utilizing the mental health services and facilities.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Problem Statement
This section includes the problem statement, the population affected, and how the study will contribute to solving the problem.
The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. States the specific problem proposed for research with a clear declarative statement.

1.5

Describes the population of interest affected by the problem. The general population refers to all individuals that could be affected by the study problem.

1.5

Describes the unit of analysis.
For qualitative studies this describes how the phenomenon will be studied. This can be individuals, group, or organization under study.
For quantitative studies, the unit of analysis needs to be defined in terms of the variable structure (conceptual, operational, and measurement).

1.5

Discusses the importance, scope, or opportunity for the problem and the importance of addressing the problem.

1.5

The problem statement is developed based on the need or gap defined in the Background to the Study section.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

1.5

NOTE: This section elaborates on the Problem Statement from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Problem Statement section in Chapter 1 and other Chapters where appropriate in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to examine how mental health providers describe the factors influencing individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services in South Texas. The study aims to come with the factors that either influence or deter the people in the State from accessing much-needed mental healthcare. The study will employ a qualitative study that will target mental health providers within the State who are service providers that care for the mentally challenged and compare factors impacting utilization and non-utilization of mental services available in the State. The study will make a recommendation on how to improve the mental health accessibility in the State. It identified multiple factors that are associated with both the utilization and under-utilization of specialty mental health services among the people living in the State such as delays in observing and recognizing the symptoms and how to seek help, the absence of appropriate mental health providers, and lack of health insurance.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This section reflects what the study is about, connecting the problem statement, methodology & research design, target population, variables/phenomena, and geographic location.
The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Begins with one sentence that identifies the research methodology and design, target population, variables (quantitative) or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied and geographic location.

1.5

Quantitative Studies
: Defines the variables and relationship of variables.

Qualitative Studies: Describes the nature of the phenomena to be explored.

1.5

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

1.5

NOTE: This section elaborates on information in the Purpose Statement from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Purpose of the Study section in Chapter 1 and other Chapters where appropriate in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Questions

The following research questions will help to guide this qualitative study:

· RQ1: How do mental health providers describe the influence of self-efficacy on individuals’ decisions to utilize mental health services?

· H1: Self-efficacy influences individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services.

· RQ2: How do mental health providers describe the influence of behavioral capacity on individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services?

· H2: Behavioral capacity influences individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services.

· RQ3: How do mental health providers describe the influence of expectations on individuals’ decisions to utilize mental health services?

· H3: Expectations influence individuals’ decisions to utilize mental health services.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Research Question(s) and/or Hypotheses
· The recommendation is a minimum of two research questions along with related hypotheses and variables is required for a quantitative study.
· Also recommended is a minimum of two research questions along with the phenomenon description is required for a qualitative study.
· Put the Research Questions in the appropriate Table in Appendix B based on whether the study is qualitative or quantitative.

The recommended length for this section is a list of research questions and associated hypotheses (quantitative)

1.
Qualitative Studies:
States the research question(s) the study will answer and describes the phenomenon to be studied.

Quantitative Studies
: States the research questions the study will answer, identifies and describes the variables, and states the hypotheses (predictive statements) using the format appropriate for the specific design and statistical analysis.

Alignment: The research questions are based on both the Problem Statement and Theoretical Foundation model(s) or theory(s). There should be no research questions that are not clearly aligned to the Problem Statement.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section elaborates on the information about Research Questions) & Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Research Question(s) and/or Hypotheses section in Chapter 1 in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study

The results of this research will add considerably to the results of other studies as it provides means by which prevention and intervention efforts will help to raise mental health awareness and the importance of utilizing mental health services among Americans as well as offer culturally sensitive services. The result would direct efforts and focus on reducing the stigma that is associated with mental health problems in the minds of most people (Morin and Cherry, 2019). Besides, the results will help, and be of value to practitioners in determining the necessary strategies to be used to allow more individuals to receive the necessary health care services that they require. It will also help in eliminating the individualized beliefs that tie people from getting the public services they ought to and thus help them be more responsive to the services which are available to them.

Similarly, the result will enhance knowledge of social learning theory through observation and modeling as they both play significant and primary roles in this process, which moves far and beyond Albert Bandura’s behavioral theory, which suggests that all behaviors can or are learned through conditioning, and cognitive theories. Bandura’s social learning theory also proposed that learning also exist or develop simply by observing the actions of others (Morin and Cherry, 2019). Therefore, a learning condition like this may be used in explaining different behaviors, including those factors influencing individuals’ decision to either utilize or not utilize mental health.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

ADVANCING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE and SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This section reiterates the gap or need in the literature and states how the study will address the gap or need and how the research will contribute to the literature, practical implications to the community of interest, and alignment with the program of study.
The recommended length for this section is one to two paragraphs, providing a brief synopsis of each criteria listed below which will be expanded in the proposal.

1. Clearly identifies the “gap” or “need” in the literature that was used to define the problem statement and develop the research questions. (citations required)

Describes how the study will address the “gap” or “identified need” defined in the literature and contribute to /advance the body of literature. (citations required)

Describes the potential practical applications from the research. (citations required)

Identifies and connects the theory(ies) or model(s) that provide the theoretical foundations or conceptual frameworks for the study. (citations required)

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section builds on information about the Literature review and Theoretical Foundations sections in the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Theoretical Foundations section in Chapter 2

Reviewer Comments:

Rationale for Methodology

The most appropriate methodology that will be used in answering the research questions, and which will also address the problem statement is a qualitative methodology (Colorafi and Evans, 2016). The qualitative approach is very effective when a phenomenon that is being queried is properly and effectively defined, and this study has distinctly defined the phenomena of factors influencing the behavior and choices of people in a natural environment to utilize or not utilize Mental Health. The methodology is preferred as it is flexible when researching health science topics to support various medical theories. This will support the research in finding and filling the gap in the study. This methodology was adopted because it will help to provide real-life pieces of evidence from the interview with participants. The literature has determined the causes of the low utilization of mental health in the South to include limitations to accessing health care. It also identified other barriers to specialty mental health care utilization (Augsberger et al, 2015).

· Interviews and Questionnaires will be used to gather accurate information

· Data will be obtained to determine the health-seeking behavior and mental health patients/services in the State

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Rationale for Methodology
The Rationale for Methodology section clearly justifies the methodology the researcher plans to use for conducting the study. It argues how the methodological choice (quantitative or qualitative) is the best approach to answer the research questions and address the problem statement. Finally, it contains citations from textbooks and articles on research methodology and/or articles on related studies to provide evidence to support the argument for the selected methodology.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Identifies the specific research methodology for the study.

Justifies the methodology to be used for the study by discussing why it is an appropriate approach for answering the research question(s) and addressing the problem statement.

Quantitative Studies:
Justify in terms of problem statement and the variables for which data will be collected.

Qualitative Studies:
Justify in terms of problem statement and phenomenon.

Uses citations from seminal (authoritative) sources (textbooks and/or empirical research literature) to justify the selected methodology. Note: Introductory or survey research textbooks (such as Creswell) are not considered seminal sources.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section elaborates on the Methodology and Design in the 10 Strategic Points.

This section becomes the foundation for the Research Methodology in Chapter 1 of the Proposal and the basis for developing Chapter 3, Research Methodology.

Reviewer Comments:

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

The design for this piece of research work will be a qualitative descriptive study that will collect information from service providers in the State, which is aimed at identifying the specific issues that are deterring the utilization of mental healthcare facilities in this South. Qualitative descriptive is the most appropriate design selected because it helps to describe how mental health providers and mental health professionals the factors influencing individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services. (Kim et al., 2017) This method is also justified as it applies the description of the factors in play and how they affect the outcome. According to Kim et al (2017), qualitative-descriptive research is descriptive and helps in describing a natural phenomenon. This method is suitable in research as it will describe factors limiting the utilization of mental healthcare in the county. Literature also supports the fact that issues of underutilized mental health resources and non-institutionalized adults are a behavioral risk factor in the South (Hamilton et al, 2016).

After analysis of the population group, 12 Mental Health Providers were determined to suffice as a sample group. The respondents will be chosen among the mental health providers with a membership of the Mental Health Association in South Texas, which will include focus groups of service providers’ that will form the sample population. The study area for the research will be caregivers, psychiatrists, and therapists’ offices, and counseling facilities within the State. A structured system of interviews with a minimum of 120 questionnaires and 40 mental health providers, will be used as the primary source of data. The data will be collected in three weeks with each respondent given 30 minutes for the interview and filing the questionnaire. Data will be collected for the study using interviews and questionnaires. Notes will be taken; interviews will be tape-recorded and documented properly. Mental health providers with membership in Mental Health Associations will be the main participants in the study based on 5 years’ experience and the willingness to be interviewed. Providers would be selected to complete questionnaire forms that will include basic demographic questionnaire, which will be used based on their experiences.

A consent form will be sent and obtained with signatures. The selected participants will submit the consent forms and complete the interview using Zoom. Data will be collected using a Google Form. Mental health providers/participants’ names will be removed from the data. Descriptive statistics will be used in summarizing the acquired data. Coding will be used to address questions posed and the transcribed interviews and coded data will also be stored on a backup USB thumb drive. Data will remain stored on the researcher’s computer with the password encrypted.

Criterion Score

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Nature of the Research Design for the Study
This section describes the specific research design to answer the research questions and why this approach was selected. Here, the learner discusses why the selected design is the best design to address the problem statement and research questions as compared to other designs. This section contains a description of the research sample being studied, as well as, the process that will be used to collect the data on the sample.

The recommended length for this section is two to three paragraphs and must address each criterion.

1. Identifies and describes the selected design for the study.

Justifies why the selected design addresses the problem statement and research questions.

Quantitative Studies:
Justifies the selected design based on the appropriateness of the design to address the research questions and data for each variable.

Qualitative Studies:
Justifies the selected design based on appropriateness of design to address research questions and study the phenomenon.

Briefly describes the target population and sample for the study.

Identifies the sources and instruments that will be used to collect data needed to answer the research questions.

Briefly describes data collection procedures to collect data on the sample.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section also elaborates on the Design portion of the Methodology and Design section in the 10 Strategic Points
. This section provides the foundation for Nature of the Research Design for the Study in Chapter 1.

Reviewer Comments:

Sources of Data

The interview will utilize structured questionnaires developed by the researcher to uncover the phenomena at hand in addition to face-face interviews for the research that will be structured with questions that require answers on the reasons that causes people to utilize mental health services as well as the hesitation in receiving treatment among the individuals who require mental health treatment. The initial collection of data would involve getting a list of mental health providers who are members of Mental Health Organizations including:

· Mental Health America (MHA)

· National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

· National Alliance on Mental Health (NAMI)

· National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)

Providers would be selected to complete questionnaire forms that include basic demographic questionnaire, which will be based on their experiences. Tools will be used in collecting primary data, while the selected group will be composed of service providers. A tape-recorded analysis will also be used within the focus groups. Furthermore, the research will take note of the factors that providers think can improve the mental health accessibility in the State.

Criterion Score

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

RESEARCH MATERIALS, INSTRUMENTATION, OR SOURCES OF DATA
This section identifies and describes the types of data that will be collected, as well as the specific research materials, instruments, and sources used to collect those data (tests, surveys, validated instruments, questionnaires, interview protocols, databases, media, etc.).

The recommended length for this section is one to two paragraphs. Note: this section can be set up as a bulleted list.

Quantitative- Instruments/Research Materials
:
Provides a bulleted list of the instrumentation and/or materials for data collection.
Describes the survey instruments or equipment/materials used (experimental research) and specifies the type and level of data collected with each instrument.
Includes citations from original publications by instrument developers (and subsequent users as appropriate) or related studies.

Qualitative – Sources of Data:

Describes the structure of each data collection instrument and data sources (tests, questionnaires, interview protocols, observations databases, media, etc.).

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section elaborates on the

Data Collection

from the 10 Strategic Points.

This information is summarized high level in Chapter 1 in the Proposal in the Nature of the Research Design for the Study section. This section provides the foundation for Research Materials, Instrumentation (quantitative) or Sources of Data (qualitative) section in Chapter 3.

Reviewer Comments:

Data Collection

The data collection process will be as follows:

· The process will begin by writing a letter to the dean to get permission.

· After the IRB committee gives its approval for the project to begin, participants will be selected. The study sample is set to include caregivers, service providers, psychiatrists, therapists, school counselors and members of the community.

· Data collection will only start after candidates must have acknowledged and signed the consent form. Furthermore, the dissertation will collect information from a selected group of providers to provide primary data.

· We will communicate with the sample group and allocate everyone specified time that they are free and then will follow up to ensure that all the sample members are included. Moreover, the researcher will ensure that the providers who are to receive questionnaires are directly contacted to make sure that they receive and fill out the questionnaire then send them back.

· It will be collected systematically in a way that begins with interviewing the service providers. The process will be as follows:

· Respondents will be 12 mental health providers given questionnaires to fill.

· Interviews will involve 12 respondents from within the State.

· Respondents will respond to both interviews and the questionnaires.

· Manual coding will be done to all collected data.

· Data will be checked for any errors by both parties before further processing.

· Data will be entered into SciLab for analysis.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT
This section details the data collection process and procedures so that another researcher could conduct or replicate the study. It includes authorizations and detailed steps.
The recommended length for this section is a bullet or numbered list of data collection steps that should not exceed one page.

Quantitative Studies:
Lists steps for the actual data collection that would allow replication of the study by another researcher, including how each instrument or data source was used, how and where data were collected, and recorded. Includes a linear sequence of actions or step-by-step of procedures used to carry out all the major steps for data collection. Includes a workflow and corresponding timeline, presenting a logical, sequential, and transparent protocol for data collection that would allow another researcher to replicate the study.
Data from different sources may have to be collected in parallel (e.g., paper-and-pen surveys for teachers, corresponding students, and their parents AND retrieval of archival data from the school district). A flow chart is ok—”linear” may not apply to all situations

Qualitative Studies:
Provides detailed description of data collection process, including all sources of data and methods used, such as interviews, member checking, observations, surveys, field tests, and expert panel review. Note: The collected data must be sufficient in breadth and depth to answer the research question(s) and interpreted and presented correctly, by theme, research question, and/or source of data.

Describes the procedures for obtaining participant informed consent and for protecting the rights and well-being of the study sample participants.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE:
This section elaborates on the Sample and Location and Data Collection in the 10 Strategic Points
. This section provides the foundation for the Data Collection Procedures section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal. And it is summarized high level in Chapter 1 in Nature of the Research Design for the Study in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Data Analysis Procedures

Data analysis will be conducted using descriptive statistics, followed by its transcription from the tape recorder, then the analysis will be performed based on interviews and focus groups. Data collected will first be manually coded with the themes of the study. The coded themes will then be analyzed, and explanations are given. The overall aim of the analysis will be to find factors influencing individuals’ decision to not utilize Mental Health in one Southern State County. At the initial starting stage, individual interviews will be conducted, recorded and transcribed verbatim. This will be followed by the researcher repeatedly reading and listening to the content to get familiarized with it. As such, the researcher will be able to gain deeper and better familiarization with the contents; he or she will also identify the answers to those questions asked as well as identify the themes. The researcher will use the two theories selected to see if the themes from the interviews align with the theoretical framework.

· Data will be collected and analyzed for the study.

· Descriptive statistics will be used in summarizing the acquired data.

· Coding will be used to address the questions posed.

· A narrative summary will be developed.

Descriptive Statistics

· demographic information

· years of experience

Thematic Analysis

The researcher may choose to adopt the process notes and MAXDQA in organizing and visualizing data. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), the following six-step thematic analysis process is effective in identifying the relevant patterns in data.

· Stage 1: Get familiarized with the data: the researcher is expected to already get familiarized with the contents of the research and have a better understanding of it. This is because the researcher is the individual that will collect the data.

· Stage 2: Generate first codes regarding the significant ideas discovered in the data. Identifications of data and combining pertinent data relating to each code

· Stage 3: This stage allows the researcher to start the search for themes through analysis and a review of the codes and to understand those that can be developed into acceptable themes.

· Stage 4: Reviewing and refining the themes and determining if there are any of them that need to be removed, combined, or if they can be broken down into additional themes.

· Stage 5: Define and name the themes after refining them.

· Phase 6: Generate the final report by the researcher.

Once the researcher is familiar with the data by reading through the data and looking for patterns, he will develop a detailed description of the phenomenon from the synthesis of the data

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
This section provides detailed steps for the analytic procedures to be used to conduct data analysis.
The recommended length for this section is one to two paragraphs, can also be presented in bulleted format.

Describes in detail the relevant data collected for each stated research question and/or each variable within each hypothesis (if applicable).

Quantitative Studies: “In detail” means scales (and subscales) of specified instruments AND type of data for each variable of interest. IMPORTANT: For (quasi) experimental studies, provide detailed description of all treatment materials per treatment condition, as part of the description of the independent variable corresponding to the experimental manipulation.

What:
Describes, in detail, statistical and non-statistical analysis to be used and procedures used to conduct the data analysis.

Quantitative Studies:
(1) describe data file preparation (descriptive statistics used to check completeness and accuracy; for files from different sources, possibly aggregating data to obtain a common unit of analysis in all files, necessarily merging files (using the key variable defining the unit of analysis); (2) computation of statistics for the sample profile; (3) computation of (subscales and) scales; (4) reliability analysis for all scales and subscales; (5) computation of descriptive statistics for all variables of interest in the study (except those already presented in the sample profile); (6) state and justify all statistical procedures (“tests”) needed to generate the information to answer all research questions; and (7) state assumptions checks for all those statistical procedures (including the tests and / or charts to be computed).

Qualitative Studies: This section begins by identifying and discussing the specific analysis approach or strategy, followed by a discussion of coding procedures to be used. Note: coding procedures may be different for Thematic Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Phenomenological Analysis, or Grounded Theory Analysis.

Why:
Provides the justification for each of the (statistical and non-statistical) data analysis procedures used in the study.

Show Steps that Support Evidence

Quantitative Analysis
– states the level of statistical significance for each test as appropriate and describes tests of assumptions for each statistical test.

Qualitative Analysis
– evidence of qualitative analysis approach, such as coding and theming process, must be completely described and included the analysis /interpretation process. Clear evidence from how codes moved to themes must be presented.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section elaborates on the Data Analysis from the 10 Strategic Points. This section provides the foundation for Data Analysis Procedures section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

Ethical Considerations

Before the commencement of the study, I will seek authorization from all the relevant bodies including the IRB for approval. The research will also seek authority from the University board for conducting the research. All the data collected will be purely used for research purposes and remain confidential. The data will remain free to withdraw from respondents from the study. No personal name or organizational names that may bring conflict of interest in the research will be included. The research will remain in the custody of the University will all rights reserved. Additionally, only relevant data will be collected by the researcher, solely for the study. He or she must stay clear of any subjectivity in analyzing the data and must also be proactive at preventing anything that will be harmful to the participants.

Criteria

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Score

(0-3)

Reviewer Score

(0-3)

Ethical Considerations
This section discusses the potential ethical issues surrounding the research, as well as how human subjects and data will be protected. It identifies how any potential ethical issues will be addressed.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Describes site authorization process, subject recruiting, and informed consent processes.

2. Describes how the identities of the participants in the study and data will be protected.

3. Discusses potential ethical concerns that might occur during the data collection process.

4. ALIGNMENT: Ethical considerations are clearly aligned with and relate directly to the specific Data Collection Procedures. This section also identifies ethical considerations related to the target population being researched and organization or location as described in the Purpose Statement section.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

NOTE: This section does not include information from any of the 10 Strategic Points.

This section provides the foundation for Ethical Considerations section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal.

Reviewer Comments:

References

Augsberger, A., Yeung, A., Dougher, M., & Hahm, H. C. (2015). Factors influencing the underutilization of mental health services among Asian American women with a history of depression and suicide. BMC health services research, 15(1), 542.

https://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12913-015-1191-7

Blosnich, J. R., Marsiglio, M. C., Gao, S., Gordon, A. J., Shipherd, J. C., Kauth, M., … & Fine, M. J. (2016). Mental health of transgender veterans in US states with and without discrimination and hate crime legal protection. American journal of public health, 106(3), 534-540.

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2015.302981

Bowdoin, J. J., Rodriguez-Monguio, R., Puleo, E., Keller, D., & Roche, J. (2018). The patient-centered medical home model: Healthcare services utilization and cost for non-elderly adults with mental illness. Oxfordshire,: Routledge. doi:10.1080/09638237.2017.1385744

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018). Mental health: Data and Publications. Retrieved from

https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/data_publications/index.htm

Children at Risk (2013), Fort Bend County Assessment, A Report on the Needs of the Community’s Children, The George Foundation and The Fort Bend Chamber of Commerce, pp. 23.

Children at Risk: The Future of Fort-Bend’s Children 2012-2014. Retrieved from

http://www.thegeorgefoundation.org/media/resources/future-of-fort-bends-children-report-2014

Colorafi, K. J., & Evans, B. (2016). Qualitative descriptive methods in health science research. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 9(4), 16-25.

De Luca, S. M., Blosnich, J. R., Hentschel, E. A., King, E., & Amen, S. (2016). Mental health care utilization: How race, ethnicity and veteran status are associated with seeking help. Community mental health journal, 52(2), 174-179.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10597-015-9964-3

Eslami, A. A., Norozi, E., Hajihosseini, M., Ramazani, A. A., & Miri, M. R. (2018). Social cognitive theory as a theoretical framework to predict sustained abstinence 6 months after substance use treatment. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Taylor & Francis Ltd. doi:10.1080/14659891.2017.1394382

Grayson, H. C. (2016). Caregiver impact on the relationship between need and utilization for child and adolescent mental health: An examination of factors influencing utilization of mental health services Available from ProQuest Central Student. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/1840134079

Hamilton, J. E., Desai, P. V., Hoot, N. R., Gearing, R. E., Jeong, S., Meyer, T. D., … & Begley, C. E. (2016). Factors associated with the likelihood of hospitalization following emergency department visits for behavioral health conditions. Academic Emergency Medicine, 23(11), 1257-1266.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/acem.13044

Kim, Sefcik, & Bradway (2017): Staying focused on non-treatment seekers) Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6552680/

Kohn, R., Ali, A. A., Puac-Polanco, V., Figueroa, C., López-Soto, V., Morgan, K., . . . Vicente, B. (2018). Mental health in the Americas: An overview of the treatment gap. Revista Panamericana De Salud Publica = Pan American Journal of Public Health, 42, e165. doi:10.26633/RPSP.2018.165

Lund, C., Brooke-Sumner, C., Baingana, F., Baron, E. C., Breuer, E., Chandra, P., . . . Saxena, S. (2018). Social determinants of mental disorders and the sustainable development goals: A systematic review of reviews. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(4), 357-369. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30060-9

Mental Health America (2020). The U.S. Mental Health History. Retrieved from

https://www.mhanational.org/our-history

Morin, A. & Cherry, K. (2019). How Social Learning Theory Works. Retrieved from

https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074

Schwartz, A. (2017). A report on the demographic changes and changing needs of fort bend county University

Wang, N., & Xie, X. (2019). Associations of health insurance coverage, mental health problems, and drug use with mental health service use in US adults: An analysis of 2013 national survey on drug use and health. Oxfordshire, : Routledge. doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1441262

Appendix A

10 Strategic Points

My Degree: Ph.D.

Program Emphasis: Industrial & Organizational Psychology

Ten Strategic Points

Comments or Feedback

Broad Topic Area Final Topic

Factors Affecting Utilization of Mental Health in Southern Texas
Factors Influencing Individuals’ Decision to Utilize Mental Health in South Texas

Lit Review
(Theoretical Framework (Theory)
Gaps

Themes
All Citations

Gaps
A. De Luca, Blosnich, Hentschel, King, & Amen (2016). The authors indicate that mental health has emerged as one of the critical areas of focus in recent times, and for a long time, it had been sidelined. However, with the realization that most health conditions are related in one way or another to a mental disorder, this area is now been studied extensively, and more attention has been given to patients.
B. Mental health professionals point to insufficient mental healthcare resources in the United States as one of the major factors contributing to the rising suicide rate in the country. Nevertheless, these professionals noted that emergency providers paly major role at forefront of the problem and may also play significant role in its prevention. The experts reiterated the necessity for providers to possess the skills required for managing patients at lower suicide risk levels, especially in settings in which such patients do not enough access to behavioral healthcare providers and that the providers need to be accustomed to suicide risk, especially when there are widely publicized high-profile instances of suicide.

https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ccm&AN=131266532&site=eds-live&scope=site
.
C. According to Kohn, et. al, (2018), emphasize the gap in mental health treatment in the American Region when examined through the prevalence of mental health disorders, use of mental health services, and the global burden of disease. Statistical data from community-based surveys of mental disorders in the various countries in America including Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States etc. were utilized. The World Mental Health Survey published data were used in estimating professional the treatment gap. For Canada, Chile, and Guatemala, the treatment gap was calculated from data files. The mean, median, and weighted treatment gap, and the 12-month prevalence by severity and category of mental disorder were estimated for the general adult, child-adolescent, and indigenous populations. Disability-adjusted Life Years and Years Lived with Disability were calculated from the Global Burden of Disease study. Mental and substance use disorders accounted for 10.5% of the global burden of disease in the Americas (Kohn, Ali, Puac-Polanco, Figueroa, López-Soto, Morgan, & Vicente, 2018).
D. Wang, & Xie, (2019) Emphasizes the need to eliminate the prevalence of mental health service utilization among many adults in the United States. The authors examined the links between mental health service utilization, health insurance coverage, mental health problems and drug abuse, and the health disparities among communities. In 2013. the authors in conjunction with the National Survey on Drug Use and Health performed a research with 37,424 adults’ respondents, with the outcome that only 5,434 adults were receiving mental health services. The outcome of the research indicated statistics of overall prevalence of mental health services utilization to be around 15%, with the female and the aging population experiencing major depressive episodes, serious psychological distress, and illicit drug or alcohol abuse/dependence were positively associated with mental health service use. Insured African Americans, Asians and Hispanics, and married were negatively associated with mental health service utilization. Adults with varying types of insurances having disparities in accessing mental health services. (Wang, & Xie, 2019).

Theoretical Foundation
The theoretical framework for this research study is the Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which examines the context of health promotion and disease prevention. It helps to describe how motivations in health and behaviors are influenced by the interaction of people’s beliefs, environment, and behaviors (Morin, 2019).

Literature Review
A. Empathic Approach: Emphasized the issues of utilized and underutilized mental health resources and non-institutionalized adults as behavioral risk factors in Southern Texas. Mental health professionals point to insufficient mental healthcare resources in the United States as one of the major factors contributing to the rising suicide rate in the country. Nevertheless, these professionals noted that emergency providers play major roles at the forefront of the problem and may also play significant roles in its prevention. The experts reiterated the necessity for providers to possess the skills required for managing patients at lower suicide risk levels, especially in settings in which such patients do not enough access to behavioral healthcare providers and that the providers need to be accustomed to suicide risk, especially when there are widely publicized high-profile instances of suicide. (Morrisville, North Carolina: AHC Media LLC, 2018).
Professional Development:

Job Satisfaction: Mental health has recently emerged as a critical area of interest as it had been sidelined for years. Due to this realization, the illness is now been studied extensively, and more attention has been given to patients. It has been suggested that most of the chronic conditions and terminal illnesses lead to mental disorders in patients. For many reasons, mental health is now among the priorities of medical practice (De Luca et.al. 2016).

Problem Statement

It is not known how mental health providers describe the factors influencing individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services

Research Questions

RQ1: How do mental health providers describe the influence of self-efficacy on individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services?
RQ2: How do mental health providers describe the influence of behavioral capacity on individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services?
RQ3: How do mental health providers describe the influence of expectations on individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services?

Population
Target Population
Sample

· Location – Southern, Texas. USA
· Target Population:
· Mental Health providers with membership of Mental Health Association in South Texas
· Behavioral Hospitals
· Psychiatrists
· Therapists
Sample:
· The sample will be in South Texas of the United States
· Out of a population of 12 Mental Health Providers
· Questionnaire: Minimum of 120
· Interviews: Minimum of 40 Mental Health providers
.

Describe Phenomena (qualitative) or Define Variables/Hypotheses (quantitative)

To understand why the people living in Southern Texas are not effectively utilizing mental health services
· There is a high rate of mental health conditions in Southern Texas
· Individuals living in South Texas utilizes very low budget allocation on funding of mental health care
· Cost is a factor impacting the population’s utilization of mental health services

Methodology & Design

Qualitative Descriptive Study

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study is to examine how mental health providers describe the factors influencing individuals’ decision to utilize mental health services in South Texas

Data Collection Approach

Mental health providers with membership in Mental Health Associations will be the main participants in the study based on 5 years’ experience and the willingness to be interviewed
· Visits to mental health providers
· Informed & signed consent will be obtained from participants
· Interview with mental health providers recorded on tape
· Sampling Method: Purposeful Sampling
· Sources: Interviews & Questionnaires: Notes will be taken; interviews will be tape recorded and documented properly
· Data will be Collected using a Google form
· Mental health providers/participants names will be removed from the data
· Data will remain stored on the researcher’s computer with password encrypted.

Data Analysis Approach

Descriptive Statistics
demographic information
years of experience
According to Braun and Clarke (2006), the following procedures are recommended for thematic analysis:
· Ensure that researcher is familiar with the data by reading through the data and looking for patterns
· Followed by the researcher beginning coding through identifications of the data and combining pertinent data that relates to each code
· Data will be collected and analyzed for the study.
· Descriptive statistics will be used in summarizing acquired data.
· Coding will be used to address questions asked and the transcribed interviews and coded data will be stored on a backup USB thumb drive
· A narrative summary will be developed.

Appendix C

Demographics of the participants

Sample Population

12 Mental Health Providers in United States

Questionnaire

Minimum of 120

Interviews

Minimum of 40 Mental Health providers in the South

The Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema and Mental Health Help-

Seeking

Submitted by

Breanna Marie Fulton

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctorate of Education

Grand Canyon University

Phoenix, Arizona

August 15,

2018

ProQuest Number:

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that

the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,

a note will indicate the deletion.

ProQuest

Published by ProQuest LLC ( ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.

Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.

ProQuest LLC.
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10932389
2018

GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY

The Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema and Mental Health

Help-Seeking

I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not falsified or plagiarized,

and that I accurately reported, cited, and referenced all sources within this manuscript in

strict compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University (GCU) guidelines. I also

verify my dissertation complies with the approval(s) granted for this research

investigation by GCU Institutional Review Board (IRB).

_____________________________________________ ______________________

Breanna Marie Fulton

Date

Abstract

The purpose of this quantitative correlational research was to determine if, and to what

extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the Strong Black

Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in Black women aged 18-65 in the

Southern region of the United States. Data were collected from 153 Black women utilizing

the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale to measure internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema. The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services

measured attitudes toward mental health help-

seeking.

This study utilized gender schema

theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior as the theoretical framework. The guiding

research questions analyzed using Spearman’s rho correlation were: (1)Is there a

correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking, (2) Is there a correlation between the internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness, (3) Is there a correlation

between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking

propensity, (4) Is there a correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman

schema and indifference to stigma. Results of research question one found a significant

correlation, rs (153) =.230, p = .005; two-tailed. Results of research question three

suggested a significant correlation propensity, rs (153) =.281, p = .001; two-tailed. This

research may be significant for mental health care providers to gather a more complete

framework for understanding how internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema may

influence mental health

help-seeking behaviors.

Keywords: Strong Black Woman schema, mental health, help-seeking attitudes,

gender schema theory

Dedication

First, I give honor to the Most High. It is your word, “For I know the plans I have

for you,” declares the Lord, “plans to prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you

hope and a future” (Jeremiah 29:11, NIV) that motivated me to apply to this program. It

has been your promise, “And we know that in all things God works for the good of those

who love him, who have been called according to his purpose” (Romans 8:28, NIV) that

has sustained me to see it to the end of this journey.

To my mother, please know that I am eternally grateful for every sacrifice that

you have made for me since I formed in your womb. Thank you for continuously keeping

me lifted in prayer, as well as showering me with your love and support. To my

grandmother and Aunt Faith, I am tremendously thankful for every reminder that I am

capable, phenomenal, and inspirational. To the one my heart beats for, Lee, you have

been the most amazing support system throughout this arduous process. Thank you for

standing by me during numerous hours of research and writing, believing and pushing me

to continue when I felt like pushing my computer on the floor and giving up, and for

reminding me of my divine purpose and dopeness. For these reasons and countless more,

I love you beyond measure. To my siblings, Reginald and Jazmine, your faith in my

abilities mean more to me than you will ever be able to comprehend. Finally, to every

Black woman on this planet, may you always walk in your purpose, remember your

magic, bend but never break, and never lose your spirit or your sparkle for you are

fearfully and wonderfully made.

vii

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge my phenomenal committee including Dr. Tibbs, Dr.

Pernsteiner, and Dr. Robinson. I truly appreciate all the knowledge, patience, and

persistence that you have given me. I am grateful to have you all as my doctoral

cheerleaders.

I would like to extend a special acknowledgement to my Georgian Hills family

for their support. Principal Dandridge, Dean Miller, and Ms. Washington were always

around to give me that special dose of encouragement that I needed to get my life

together and persevere. Thank you O’Neal and Robinson for consistently motivating me

to get this done and reminding me how awesome graduation will be when the process is

finally over.

Also, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Segura and the English department at

Alcorn State University. It is the time that I spent beneath the shade of giant trees with

those wonderful professors that motivated me to pursue this journey. Thank you for

sharpening my reading, writing, and critical thinking skills.

Dr. Whitfield, thank you for all your help throughout this process. Without your

knowledge and expertise, I wouldn’t be where I am today. Finally, I want to extend my

gratitude to every family member, friend, soror, and colleague that offered me

encouragement and motivation on the days that I needed it the most.

viii

Table of Contents

List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xii

List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study …………………………………………………………………………

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

Background of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………..

Problem Statement ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………………………………………

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses ……………………………………………………………….

Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study …………………………..1

Rationale for Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………1

Nature of the Research Design for the Study ………………………………………………………

Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations …………………………………………………………..

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study ………………………………….

Chapter 2: Literature Review …………………………………………………………………………………

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ………………………………..25

Identification of the Gap ………………………………………………………………………………….

Theoretical Foundation ……………………………………………………………………………………

Review of the Literature ………………………………………………………………………………….3

The strong black woman in contrast to white women. …………………………………

Strong black woman schema. …………………………………………………………………..

Role strain and the strong black woman schema. ………………………………………..

Mental health help-seeking. ……………………………………………………………………..46

Measurements of help-seeking attitudes. ……………………………………………………

Health disparities in the black community. ………………………………………………..

Discrimination based disparities. ………………………………………………………………51

Medical distrust………………………………………………………………………………………

Psychological distress in black women. …………………………………………………….

Coping strategies of black women. ……………………………………………………………

Religious coping. ……………………………………………………………………………………

Methodology. …………………………………………………………………………………………

Instrumentation. ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 3: Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………………….

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………73

Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………………………………………

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses ……………………………………………………………..

Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………………

Research Design……………………………………………………………………………………………..

Population and Sample Selection………………………………………………………………………

Instrumentation ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Validity …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reliability ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Data Collection and Management ……………………………………………………………………..

Data Analysis Procedures ………………………………………………………………………………..

Ethical Considerations …………………………………………………………………………………….

Limitations and Delimitations …………………………………………………………………………..95

Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results ……………………………………………………………………

100

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….100

Descriptive Findings ……………………………………………………………………………………..

102

Descriptive Statistics ……………………………………………………………………………………..

105

Data Analysis Procedures ………………………………………………………………………………1

Instrument Reliability for the Sample ………………………………………………………………

122

Results …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

125

Research question one/hypothesis one. ……………………………………………………1

Research question two/hypothesis two. ……………………………………………………

127

Research question three/hypothesis three. ………………………………………………..127

Research Question Four/Hypothesis Four. ……………………………………………….127

Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..1

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ……………………………………..1

Introduction and Summary of Study ………………………………………………………………..

129

Summary of Findings and Conclusion ……………………………………………………………..1

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking. …………………………………………………………1

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and

psychological openness………………………………………………………………………….

135

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and help-

seeking propensity. ……………………………………………………………………………….135

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and

indifference to stigma. …………………………………………………………………………..1

Implications………………………………………………………………………………………………….

137

Theoretical implications. ……………………………………………………………………….137

Practical implications. ……………………………………………………………………………1

Future implications. ………………………………………………………………………………1

Strengths and weaknesses of the study. ……………………………………………………

139

Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………1

Recommendations for future research ……………………………………………………..

142

Recommendations for future practice. ……………………………………………………..1

References 1

Appendix A. Site Authorization Letter ………………………………………………………………….

179

Appendix B. IRB Approval Letter ………………………………………………………………………..

180

Appendix C. Informed Consent ……………………………………………………………………………1

Appendix D. Copy of Instruments and Permission Letters to Use the Instruments ……..

183

Appendix E. Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation ……………………………………..1

Appendix F. Data Source Table ……………………………………………………………………………1

List of Tables

Table 1. Dimensions of the Strong Black Woman Schema ………………………………………. 8

Table 2. Dimensions of Attitudes toward Mental Health Help-Seeking …………………….. 8

Table 3. Age Group…………………………………………………………………………………………..

103

Table 4.

Marital Status ………………………………………………………………………………………

104

Table 5. Education Level ………………………………………………………………………………….. 104

Table

Household Income ………………………………………………………………………………. 105

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics…………………………………………………………………………….

106

Table 8. Shapiro-Wilk Normality Test Results…………………………………………………….. 1

Table 9. Reliability Coefficients ………………………………………………………………………… 122

Table 10. Correlation Matrix ……………………………………………………………………………..

126

xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Internalization of the strong Black woman schema. …………………………………

107

Figure 2. Black/African American females’ attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

108

Figure 3. The psychological openness of Black/African American females. ……………..

109

Figure 4. The help-seeking propensity of Black/African American females. ……………. 1

Figure 5. The indifference to stigma of Black/African American females. ………………..

111

Figure 6. Normal histogram for internalization of the strong Black woman schema. …. 1

Figure 7. Histogram for attitude toward mental health help-seeking. ………………………. 1

Figure 8. Box and whisker plot for attitude toward mental health help-seeking. ……….. 1

Figure 9. Histogram for psychological openness. …………………………………………………..

116

Figure 10. Box and whisker plot for psychological openness. ………………………………… 1

Figure 11. Histogram for help-seeking propensity. ………………………………………………..

118

Figure 12. Box and whisker plot for help-seeking propensity. ………………………………… 1

Figure 13. Histogram for indifference to stigma. ………………………………………………….. 1

Figure 14. Box and whisker plot for indifference to stigma. ……………………………………

121

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Introduction

A myriad of factors may impact the mental health of women in the United States.

Yet, Black women in the United States have high rates of exposure to stressors that can

negatively influence their mental health (Lacey et al., 2015). However, cultural-based

notions may determine if individuals seek mental health help (Campbell & Long, 2014).

Current research characterizes the Strong Black Woman schema as a culturally imposed

notion of emotional resilience and has been explored as one possible coping mechanism

for African American women (Hamin, 2008; Romero, 2000; Thompson, 2003).

The aim of dissertation study was to determine if, and to what extent, a correlation

existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking. This research was based on the premise that mental

health services are underutilized in the Black community even after removing

socioeconomic barriers such as transportation and cost of care (Jimenez, Cook, Bartels, &

Alegría, 2013). The assertion by Jimenez et al. (2013) suggests that even when barriers to

accessing care are eliminated, mental health services are still being underutilized in the

Black

community.

Although mental health underutilization has been noted, there is a shortage of

literature regarding the role of cultural factors in the decision to seek mental health help

(Abrams, Maxwell, Pope, & Belgrave, 2014; Watson & Hunter, 2015; Watson & Hunter,

2016). Additionally, Donovan and West (2015) suggested that researchers further

examine the correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health

given the negative implications of the endorsement of the schema implied by the results

of their study regarding the schema and stress. Further, Watson-Singleton (2017)

recommended that future research be conducted to assess the Strong Black Woman

schema’s impact on Black women’s health experiences. Consequently, this dissertation

research expanded the knowledge base of mental health help-seeking attitudes and the

Strong Black Woman schema using quantitative measures.

Watson and Hunter (2015) suggested that additional studies regarding the Strong

Black Woman schema be conducted among women of various socioeconomic,

educational, and regional backgrounds. As a result, this research provides a unique

perspective because it utilized data from a range of age groups and diverse backgrounds.

Additionally, the researcher explored the possibility of cultural factors, such as gender

role schemas, playing a role in the underutilization of mental health services. The results

of this research are valuable because it offers a platform for future research to further

evaluate the Strong Black Woman schema and its correlation to mental health-help-

seeking. Since the Strong Black Woman schema has been associated with mental and

physical outcomes (Black & Woods-Giscombé, 2012), understanding the internalization

of the schema may allow mental health professionals to improve effectiveness and

cultural appropriateness of health care delivery service to Black women. Furthermore,

this research provides value to the literature and expands the knowledge base by

extending research on the Strong Black Woman schema from a perspective that has not

been explored sufficiently.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction and rationale for the need to investigate the

correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking attitudes.

Additionally, it contains a review of previously conducted empirical research which

indicates a knowledge gap in the literature. Further, the purpose statement for this study,

the research questions, and hypotheses stated for this study are based on the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and dimensions of the Inventory of

Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health Service (Mackenzie, Knox, Gekoski, &

Macaulay, 2004).

Each research question focuses on the correlation between the internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-

seeking.

Chapter 1 includes the background of the study, states the research problem and purpose,

presents the research questions and hypotheses, and provides the rationale for the

research methodology and design. The significance of the study and advancing scientific

knowledge are also discussed in Chapter 1. In addition, the researcher defines key terms

and discusses the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of this study. Finally,

Chapter 1 concludes with a summary.

Background of the Study

Researchers have suggested that the Strong Black Woman schema can be traced

to slavery and remains pervasive due to the adversities that Black women experience,

such as financial hardship and primary caretaking responsibilities (Romero, 2000;

Thomas, Witherspoon, & Speight, 2004). The capture and subsequent enslavement of

Africans thrust them into an unfamiliar context and culture. However, many Africans

retained their cultural norms and values as Rodgers-Rose (1980) pointed out in her

overview of the history of Black women. Consequently, many of the social norms of

African womanhood were passed down within the new cultural context of slavery and

servitude.

Because of the genesis in slavery, the Strong Black Woman schema relies heavily

on a discourse of strength. The discourse of strength mirrors the primary factors of self-

reliance, caretaking, and affects regulation as identified by Romero (2000) and validated

in a scale by Thompson (2003) and Hamin (2008). The concept of strength, although

generally acknowledged and accepted within the Black cultural context as positive

(Watson & Hunter, 2015), can also be associated with detrimental psychological

outcomes for those attempting to embody this ideal of womanhood (Donovan & West,

2015).

During slavery, Black women found themselves not only responsible for taking

care of their own families and children in the community, but also acting as caretaker in

the slave master’s household (Rodgers-Rose, 1980). Performing the primary caretaking

roles in the slave master’s household called for frequent contact with the master’s family.

It is this recurring contact that may have contributed to the development of the third

component of the Strong Black Woman schema—a need to control the expression of

negative feelings.

Black women in captivity did not have the opportunity to express all the pain,

anger and negative emotions that resulted from their societal position (Broussard,

2013).

Throughout slavery, the Black woman may have developed a façade to mask the true

feelings associated with the subservient position as an enslaved person. Robinson (1983)

detailed the ways the enslaved African woman suffered abuse, exploitation, and

oppression at the hands of her enslavers. Not only was she expected to perform the same

back-breaking work as a man, for as long as a man, but she was also subject to sexual

abuse, physical violence, and the constant threat of the disintegration of her family at the

behest of her enslavers. Therefore, Black women concealing their true feelings may have

developed as a coping mechanism in response to the double bind of experiencing abuse

and oppression while simultaneously having to mask emotional vulnerability (Broussard,

2013).

The ideal of independence as a pertinent characteristic of Black women has been

reflected in both past and present social contexts and reflects cultural expectations as well

as social and economic realities (Wallace, Moore, & Curtis, 2014). Contemporary Black

women descended from women who maintained heavy work ethics and independence

(Robinson, 1983). Thus, the context of slavery potentially exacerbated the traits of

independence and strength. Black men had little opportunity to effectively protect their

women or their families. Accordingly, these factors necessitated the Black woman’s need

to rely on herself (Hurt, McElroy, Sheats, Landor, & Bryant,

2014).

The self-reliance, caretaking, and affect regulation characteristics of the Strong

Black Woman schema may correlate to the underutilization of mental health services in

the Black community. Considering the current underutilization of mental health services

in the Black community, researchers have conducted qualitative research regarding the

association of health outcomes along the intersection of race and gender (Abrams et al.,

2014; Thomas, Hoxha, & Hacker, 2013). Although some research was conducted,

Abrams et al. (2014), Watson-Singleton (2017), and Watson and Hunter (2015) identified

the need for future studies to assess the correlation between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking behaviors among various

socioeconomic, educational, and regional backgrounds.

Problem Statement

It was not known if, and to what extent, there were statistically significant

correlations between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking. Given that the core expectations of the Strong Black

Woman schema include self-reliance, caretaking, and affect regulation, Black women

may feel that seeking mental health help is inconsistent with their culture (Turner et al.,

2016). Although prior studies show that there is a negative link between the Strong Black

Woman schema and depression in middle class Black women, hardly any quantitative

studies have been conducted regarding Black women’s attitudes toward seeking mental

health help using women ages 18-65 which indicates a gap in the literature (Abrams et

al.,

2014; Donovan & West, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2016;

Watson-Singleton, 2017). Black women in the southern region of the United States ages

18-65 were used as the unit of analysis for this research.

This research may assist in closing the gap regarding the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking by adding to the body of

knowledge regarding minorities and mental health help-seeking behaviors. Various

studies have attempted to determine causation for the lack of mental health utilization in

the Black community (Hines, Cooper, & Shi, 2017; Jang, Park, Kang, & Chiriboga, 2014;

Lee, Xue, Spira, & Lee, 2014; Lindsey, Chambers, Pohle, Beall, & Lucksted, 2013).

Additionally, previously conducted research containing Black women has documented an

association between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

psychological distress, low self-esteem, chronic health conditions, and participation in

risky sexual behaviors (Brown, Webb-Bradley, Cobb, Spaw, & Aldridge, 2014; Lewis &

Neville, 2015; Woods-Giscombé, Lobel, Zimmer, Wiley Cené, & Corbie-Smith, 2015).

However, mental health services are still being underutilized in the Black community.

Mackenzie, Erickson, Deane, and Wright (2014) stated that due to the fact mental

health services are still being underutilized, researchers must continuously develop

understandings of help-seeking attitudes as a means of improving access to professional

treatment. Ultimately, this research may contribute to solving the problem by assisting

clinicians in understanding the cultural barriers and attitudes holding Black women ages

18-65 in the South back from seeking mental health help. Additionally, investigating the

correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help -seeking may help inform relevant research and aide in development of mental

health interventions for Black women.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this quantitative correlational research was to determine if, and to

what extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in Black women aged 18-65 in

the Southern region of the United States. This study may address gaps in the literature by

assessing the correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking along each of the Inventory of Attitudes

toward Mental Health Help Seeking

subscales.

One interval scale variable of this research study was the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema as measured by the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale.

The predictor variable of the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema was

defined from the literature as the internalization of the cultural values of self-reliance,

caretaking, and affect regulation as seen in Table 1 (Hamin, 2008).

Table 1.

Dimensions of the Strong

Black Woman Schema

Dimensions of the Strong

Black Woman Schema

Definition of Dimension

Self-reliance Black women having the ability to meet their own needs without

depending on others

(Hamin, 2008).

Caretaking A nurturing characteristic in Black women stemming from an

exaggerated sense of commitment to helping others before themselves

(Hamin, 2008).

Affect regulation A façade of composure and emotional control in the face of stressful

situations (Hamin, 2008).

There were multiple interval scale criterion variables for this dissertation study.

These included attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, psychological openness,

help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma as measured by the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Mental Health Help-Seeking Scale. Attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking was defined as psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and

indifference to stigma as seen in Table 2 (Mackenzie, Gekoski, & Knox, 2006).

Table 1.

Dimensions of Attitudes toward Mental Health Help-Seeking

Dimensions of Attitudes

Toward Mental Health Help-seeking

Definition of Dimension

Psychological

Openness

The willingness to acknowledge mental health issues

(Mackenzie et al., 2006).

Help-Seeking

Propensity

The willingness to seek help for mental health issues

(Mackenzie et al., 2006).

Indifference to

Stigma

Extent to which an individual is concerned with how a

significant individual in their life may perceive help-seeking

(Mackenzie et al., 2006).

Investigating the correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking fills an important gap in

psychological literature (Abrams et al., 2014; Nelson, Cardemil, & Adeoye, 2016;

Watson & Hunter, 2015). Further, doing this through a cultural lens could provide more

information on the unique influences of cultural constructs on mental health help-seeking

in Black populations.

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

The interval predictor and interval criterion variables for this study were as

follows:

PV1: Internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema; Interval scale

CV1: Attitudes Toward Mental Health Help-Seeking; Interval scale

CV2: Psychological Openness; Interval scale

CV3: Help-Seeking Propensity; Interval scale

CV4: Indifference to Stigma; Interval scale

The research questions and hypotheses for this dissertation study were generated

by the research problem: It was not known if or to what extent a correlation existed

between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking. The researcher sought to determine the correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema using the Strong Black Woman

Attitudes Scale and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking through the three

domains of psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma

from the Inventory of Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health Services. The Strong

Black Woman Attitudes Scale (Green, 2012) was the measurement tool used to capture

the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema variable that aligned to gender

schema theory (Bem, 1981). This valid and reliable questionnaire used Likert scale

indices that provided measurements for the variable of internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema. The Inventory of Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health Services

(Mackenzie et al., 2004), a reliable and valid Likert-scale survey instrument, measured

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

A correlational analysis using IBM SPSS (version 24), generated correlation

coefficients between the two variables of internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema as measured by Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale, and the variable of

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking from data collected from the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Mental Health Help-Seeking. To determine which statistical test

accurately measured the data collected from Black women, assumptions must be met and

not violate the requirements for correlation tests of the Pearson’s Product-Moment.

Trajkovski (2016) provided the assumptions that must not be violated to use IBM SPSS

(version 24) tests for correlation. Correlation coefficients determined the significance, if

any, between the correlations of the variables presented in this study.

The four specific research questions, with corresponding null and alternative

hypotheses are as follows:

RQ1: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking?

H10: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-

seeking.

H1a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.

RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and psychological openness?

H20: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.

H2a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.

RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and help-seeking propensity?

H30: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

H3a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and indifference to stigma?

H40: There is not a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

H4a: There is a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study

The underutilization of mental health services in the Black community needs to be

addressed to offer insight into surrounding the under-researched correlation between the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking based on a

call in the literature (Abrams et al., 2014; Nelson et

al., 2016; Watson & Hunter, 2015).

This research may assist in creating a more informed understanding of the Strong Black

Woman schema and its correlation to mental health help-seeking. The current study may

address this need and knowledge gap in the research literature regarding the potential

correlation between the internalization of the schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking across a variety of ages and diverse backgrounds within the Black

community.

Gender schema theory was utilized to support this research. According to Kessler

and McKenna (1978), gender roles are culturally reinforced rules that shape the

appropriate behaviors for men and women. Therefore, gender schema theory allows

researchers to view the Strong Black Woman schema as a Black female gender role that

informs appropriate behavior. Additionally, it is suggested that adherence to masculine

and feminine roles can limit the range of socially acceptable behaviors available to

women and men (Matud, Bethencourt, & Ibáñez, 2014). As a result, gender schema

theory supports the idea that internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema may be

related to attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking.

Traditionally, gender schema theory has not been used as a theoretical foundation

for research involving diverse populations such as people of color (Starr & Zurbriggen,

2017). As a result, this research may advance scientific knowledge by expanding the use

of the theory to Black women who are not traditionally represented in research utilizing

gender schema theory. Additionally, gender schema theorists believe that psychological

well-being was improved when the fulfilled gender role corresponded to the individual’s

gender, and gender-typed people enjoyed better mental health, however, empirical

evidence regarding this theory is incomplete (DiDonato & Berenbaum, 2013).

Consequently, this research may contribute to the gender schema theory by providing

data concerning the way a Black woman’s beliefs around surrounding archetypal female

traits influence her mental health help-seeking behaviors.

The contributions of this study would be of interest to scholars in the fields of

psychology and counseling. Studies on gender schemas and attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking are core areas of research in the field of psychology, to which this

study would be significant. The field of psychology has largely considered

socioeconomic factors as barriers to the underutilization of mental health services, but

seldom explores cultural factors, such as the Strong Black Woman schema, as a barrier

(Kim, Cho, Park, & Park, 2015; Stepanikova, & Oates, 2017). Further, empirical findings

have demonstrated that internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema is associated

with emotional dysregulation, increased distress, and obesity (Romero, 2000; Woods-

Giscombé, 2010). Yet, the correlation between internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking remains unclear

(Watson & Hunter, 2015). Based on the findings, this study addresses the gap related to

the Strong Black Woman and help-seeking attitudes by quantitatively examining the

correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward

mental health help-seeking.

From a practical application standpoint, this study is relevant and timely for the

healthcare sector, which is currently undergoing significant changes in the way patient-

care is delivered with a focus on culturally competent care (Huey, Tilley, Jones, & Smith,

2014). Thus, this research may help clinicians provide more culturally competent care to

Black women. Additionally, the growing interest on identifying predictors of help-

seeking such as culture is important (Guo, Nguyen, Weiss, Ngo, & Lau, 2015). This

proposed study contributes to the literature by considering cultural constructs such as the

Strong Black Woman schema as having a potential correlation to attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking. From this perspective, mental health utilization does not stop at

having access, but also encompasses the role that culture may play in impacting mental

health related decisions. Consequently, this research may assist clinicians in gathering a

better understanding of attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in the Black

community.

In addition, untreated mental health issues in Black women not only impact the

overall health and stability of the African American community, but it could additionally

pose a threat to society. Carrington (2006) argued that mental health issues, left untreated,

can attribute to over use of emergency health care, decrease in quality of life, social and

family problems, employment instability and thereby pose an adverse fiscal impact on the

national economy. Consequently, this research is significant not only for the southern

region in which participants will be from, but potentially for other regions and states

looking to enhance their current understanding of mental health help-seeking in Black

women. Overall, it is important to understand mental health help-seeking in the Black

community and the implications of this include improved psychological care for Black

women along with increased utilization of mental health care (Allen, Balfour, Bell, &

Marmot, 2014).

Rationale for Methodology

The researcher sought to quantify the strength of the correlation between the non-

manipulated predictor variable, internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, and

the criterion variables of attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, psychological

openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma. To meet this objective, a

quantitative approach was used. Studies that are conducted to examine and measure the

strength of causal or correlational relationships between variables through the statistical

analysis of numerical data are best accomplished using quantitative methodologies

(Ingham-Broomfield, 2014; Johnson & Christensen,

2012).

Research has been conducted regarding the Strong Black Woman schema and its

effects on Black women. However, most of the research has investigated the phenomenon

qualitatively (Abrams et al., 2014; Watson & Hunter, 2016). As a result, a quantitative

study investigating the correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking fills a gap in the literature by utilizing a

different methodology

(Abrams et al., 2014).

Since the research questions address the correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking using

statistical data from validated measurement scales, a quantitative design was the

appropriate research approach. Quantitative methods collect numerical data from large

samples and require limited to no interaction between researchers and participants

(McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). Further, this methodology is supported by Groeneveld,

Tummers, Bronkhorst, Ashkiali, and Thiel (2015) who suggested that research problems

addressing human attitudes and behavior be achieved through quantitative measures.

A qualitative methodology would not be the best choice. Yin (2014) noted

qualitative research is needed when “A ‘how’ or ‘why’ question is being asked about a

contemporary set of events over which a researcher has little or no control” (p. 14).

Additionally, qualitative methodology generally consists of structured interviews (Bluhm,

Harman, Lee, & Mitchell, 2011). Qualitative methodologies are best when the researcher

wants to utilize a small number of participants and use their subjective experiences to

amass a deeper understanding of the phenomena (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014).

However, the goal of the research was to determine if, and to what extent, a correlation

exists, therefore making a quantitative methodology the best choice.

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

The researcher of this correlational study used survey methods to collect data

from Black female participants to determine the extent, if any, statistically significant

correlations existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The target population consisted of Black

women ages 18-65 who lived in the Southern region of the United States. The data

collected included information about participants’ demographic characteristics,

information about the Strong Black Woman schema, and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking. The data collected from Black female participants provided the necessary

data to run IBM SPSS (version 24) correlational tests. This was to determine the

statistically significant correlations between variables from Likert-scale item responses.

To conduct correlational test, either a Pearson’s correlation test, linear regression models,

or a nonparametric, Spearman’s rho tests could be utilized for reporting data collected

(Hoare & Hoe, 2013).

According to Curtis, Comiskey, and Dempsey (2016), correlational research can

be used to determine correlations among variables, and to forecast events from current

data and knowledge. Additionally, correlational research analyzes the correlation

between variables without any manipulation from the researcher (Curtis et al., 2016).

Further, a correlational design was appropriate for the study because it allows the

researcher to test the hypotheses regarding the correlations between continuous variables

in sample data (Shaughnessy, Zechmeister, & Zechmeister, 2012). Consequently,

correlational research was the best design for this proposed research study seeking to

determine a correlation between mental health help-seeking and internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking. Differences in attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking among Black women from the Southern region of the

United States established if, and to what extent, a correlation existed between the

predictor variable (internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema) and the criterion

variables (attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, psychological openness, help-

seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma).

Other quantitative research designs would not have provided the data sought in

this research. The present study did not meet the standards required to be considered an

experimental design. These standards include random assignment of cases to groups,

manipulation of the predictor variable, and control over extraneous variables that might

influence the criterion variable (Balaz & Williams, 2015).

A causal-comparative study was considered but rejected since it would require the

establishment of a cause and effect correlation (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013).

Consequently, the research did not reveal the causation of any in correlations discovered

in the data due to the fact it was non-experimental (Cohen et al., 2013; Johnson &

Christensen, 2012). A true experimental design was ruled out for use in this study

because experimental research designs require that the researcher be able to manipulate

the predictor variable and measure the resulting changes in the criterion variable (Johnson

& Christensen, 2012). However, the researcher cannot manipulate the internalization of

the Strong Black woman schema thus eliminating true experimental design as an option.

Quasi-experimental design was not deemed appropriate for this research as it involves

intervention and a control group (Polit & Beck, 2010).

Based on a G*Power sample (Appendix E), 84 Black women were needed to

participate in this research. Consequently, the researcher recruited 200 participants from

the one nonprofit site in the Southern region that provided site authorization for the

researcher. An email invitation to participate in the study was sent to the Black women

participants ages 18-65, that included a link to an online survey including the Strong

Black Woman Attitudes Scale (Green, 2012) and the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward

Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et

al., 2004)

hosted by SurveyMonkey.

Since the participants were gained through voluntary participation, the sample was

considered a volunteer sample.

Definition of Terms

The following terms were used operationally in this study:

Affect regulation. A façade of composure and emotional control in the face of

stressful situations (Hamin, 2008). In the context of the Strong Black woman, it is

presented as a coping mechanism that is necessary to effectively fulfill life demands, such

as caregiving and student responsibilities (Watson &

Hunter, 2015).

Behavioral health. The connection between an individual’s behaviors and well-

being (Barrera, Castro, Strycker, & Toobert, 2013). Behavioral health issues can be

changed by addressing the behavior causing the problem (Baranowski, Cullen, Nicklas,

Thompson, & Baranowski, 2003).

Black. A term used to describe a person with origins of African descent. Black is

often used interchangeably with the term African American. In the United States, the

term “Black people” is a socially-based racial classification related to being African

American with a family history associated with institutionalized slavery (Glenn, 2009).

Caretaking. A nurturing characteristic that causes Black women’s needs to come

second to the needs of others (Hamin, 2008). This characteristic has been described as an

exaggerated sense of commitment to helping others, which leads to self-neglect (Hopkins

& Jackson, 2002).

Culture. A set of values and beliefs people have about how the world works. This

includes the norms of behavior derived from that set of values (Gorodnichenko &

Roland, 2016)

Help-seeking Propensity. The willingness to seek help for mental health issues

(Mackenzie et al., 2006). Additionally, this also includes the aptitude an individual has

for finding help for a mental health issue after they have determined they are willing to

receive help (Mackenzie et al., 2006).

Indifference to stigma. Extent to which an individual is concerned with how a

significant individual in their life may perceive help-seeking (Mackenzie et al., 2006).

The perceptions of mental illness by others lead to stigmatizing attitudes, prejudices, and

actions by families and members of their community (Latalova, Kamaradova, & Prasko,

2014).

Internalization. Reflects an individual’s tendency to integrate and adopt the

practices of others into their own beliefs (Ryan, Rigby, & King, 1993). This process

involves an integration of attitudes, values, and opinions of others into one’s own identity

(Van de Vijver,

2013).

Mental health. An individual’s attitudes toward s themselves regarding, the

realization of potentials, social influences, self-respect, feelings, the perceiving of the

world, and the control of one’s own life (Podgornik & Kovačič, 2014). Keyes (2002)

argued that it takes a combination of emotional, psychological, and social well-being to

be considered mentally healthy.

Psychological openness. The willingness to acknowledge mental health issues

(Mackenzie et al., 2006). Additionally, this includes an individual’s receptiveness to

receiving services after acknowledging a mental health issue (Mackenzie et al., 2006).

Schema. A process of organizing and interpreting information (Piaget, 1970).

Schemas inform a person about what to expect from a variety of experiences and

situations. Schemas are developed based on information provided by life experiences and

are then stored in memory (Anohina-Naumeca, 2016).

Self-reliance. Black women having the ability to meet their own needs without

depending on others (Hamin, 2008). In the context of the Strong Black woman, this is a

necessity due to lack of supportive networks, especially in the absence of male partners

(Abrams et al., 2014).

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations

This section will provide an overview of the assumptions, limitations, and

delimitations present in this research study. Assumptions are described as beliefs held by

the researcher to be true without concrete evidence (Ellis & Levy, 2009). Limitations are

constraints that are beyond the control of the researcher but may affect the outcome of the

study (Ellis & Levy, 2009). Conversely, delimitations are constraints resulting in choices

by the researcher (Ellis & Levy, 2009).

The following assumptions were made in this proposed study:

1. It was assumed that survey participants were honest in their completion of the
online survey items. This assumption was made because participants were told

that their information would be kept confidential thereby potentially

increasing the likelihood that responses would be accurate due to knowing the

information would not be shared. Assuring the confidentiality of the

participant’s data is recommended in the literature to increase survey

participation and valid responses (Johnson & Christensen, 2012; Sauermann

& Roach, 2013). In addition, Keipi, Oksanen, & Räsänen (2015) suggested

that surveys conducted online enhance respondents’ sense of anonymity

thereby increasing their willingness to express their true sentiments.

2. The measurements utilized are valid and reliable measures of the variables as
claimed by the authors of the instruments. The validity of conclusions drawn

from quantitative research are no greater than the validity of the instruments

that provide the data.

The research had the following limitations:

1. Sampling by volunteer means that study participants were self-selected and

thus there are no guarantees that the resulting samples are representative of the

target populations.

2. Self-rating surveys were used to collect data. There is no way to verify that
self-rated responses are accurate.

3. Correlational research can determine relationships; however, it cannot imply
causation (Yilmaz, 201). As a result, exploring the correlation between the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking

did not indicate if one variable is the cause of another.

4. The reliability coefficients for the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking
Mental Health Services instrument ranged from poor to acceptable. As a

result, caution must be exercised when generalizing the findings.

5. Data were collected from participants in one geographical location which also
limits the generalizability of the findings.

The following delimitations were present in

this study:

1. Because the purpose of this research is to determine if, and to what extent, a
correlation existed between the variables, the researcher only collected

quantitative data. This delimitation prohibited the collection of information

that might have broadened the scope and increased the depth, if a qualitative

or mixed method approach had been selected.

2. This research used a volunteer sample from one geographic region. This
sample may not be representative of Black women in other regions of the

Unites States of America.

3. Access to the internet was necessary to participate in this study. Although this
method of data collection was more convenient regarding time and distance,

those without internet access would have had to travel to a place with access

participate.

Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study

A myriad of factors may impact the underutilization of mental health services in

contemporary Black women. While some of these influences may be related to

socioeconomic factors, cultural and historical factors may also influence attitudes toward

mental health help-seeking in this population (Donovan & West, 2015). The Strong Black

Woman schema consists of the factors of caretaking, self-reliance, and affect regulation

as identified by Romero (2000). As a result, social scientists and social critics have

examined the construct of the Strong Black woman as a historical, social, and cultural

idea that informs the well-being and identity development of Black women (hooks,

1993). While the schema is generally acknowledged as positive within the Black cultural

context (Watson & Hunter, 2016), it can also be associated with detrimental

psychological outcomes for Black women (Donovan & West, 2015).

Although research has been conducted regarding the Strong Black Woman

schema, there is a call in the literature to quantitatively examine the schema along with

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking (Donovan & West, 2015). This call in the

literature is present because more of the research regarding phenomenon has been

conducted qualitatively (Abrams et al., 2014; Watson & Hunter, 2016). Therefore, the

purpose of this quantitative, correlational research was to determine if, and to what

extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in 153 Black women aged 18-65

in the Southern region of the United States.

This study utilized gender schema theory (Bem, 1981) as the theoretical

foundation. Gender schema theory asserts that gender roles are culturally transmitted and

inform individuals of appropriate behavior. Conventionally, gender schema theory is not

utilized as a theoretical foundation for research involving people of color (Starr &

Zurbriggen, 2017). Consequently, this research may advance scientific knowledge

through its use of a theoretical foundation which is generally not used with minorities

thereby offering insight into ways to utilize the theory in diverse populations.

Additionally, this research is significant because of the information it may provide to help

clinicians understand how cultural factors may impact the utilization of mental health

services as well as aiding in providing information to implement more culturally

competent mental health care.

This study utilized a quantitative, correlational design to answer the four research

questions used to analyze the correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Quantitative

methodology was selected because it allows numerical statistical analysis with limited

interaction from the researcher (McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). Conversely, qualitative

methodology was rejected due to its use with answering research questions asking how or

why (Yin, 2014) which does not align with the research questions of this study.

Correlational research was selected as the design because of its use in determining the

correlation between variables (Curtis et al., 2016).

In the research study, the predictor variable was the internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema. The criterion variables include attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking, psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to

stigma. The predictor variable was measured using the Strong Black Woman Attitudes

Scale (Green, 2012). The criterion variables were measured using the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et al., 2004). The existing

literature regarding the Strong Black woman schema and other related themes will be

reviewed in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 will include further explanation of the methods used to

collect and analyze data gathered on the variables. After receipt of IRB approval, data

collection commenced and was completed within approximately three days, following the

procedures outlined in detail in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 will provide both a written and

graphic summary of the findings of the analysis. Further, Chapter 5 will include an

interpretation and discussion of the results as they relate to the dissertation topic and the

existing body of research.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem

The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to see to what degree

statistically significant correlations existed between the internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Research on the

Strong Black Woman schema has continued to generate attention in the scholarly

community over the past several decades. However, there is still more to learn

concerning this construct that has implications for various organizations (Abrams et al.,

2014). In fact, research on the strong Black woman and mental health help-seeking is

scarce. The bulk of the existing research is restricted to studying how internalization of

the schema increases vulnerability to stress, anxiety, and depression (Norris & Mitchell,

2013).

Historically, the Strong Black Woman schema has been considered a necessity for

survival of the Black woman. The sociopolitical setting of Black women’s lives forced

Black women to take on the roles of mother, nurturer, and breadwinner out of economic

and social necessity (Schulz & Mullings, 2006). Consequently, the schema developed

because of Black women’s efforts to counterbalance adverse societal characterizations of

Black womanhood, such as Mammy and Welfare Queen, as well as to highlight

unacknowledged qualities that developed and continue to exist despite oppression and

adversity (Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2003; Harris-Lacewell, 2001). However, in recent years,

research has suggested that the affect-regulation, self-reliance, caretaking, and affect-

regulation self-silence dimensions of the Strong Black Woman schema may have adverse

effects on African American women’s psychological health (Donovan & West, 2015).

Further research regarding the association of health outcomes in Black women along the

intersection of race and gender has received qualitative investigation (Abrams et al.,

2014; Thomas et al., 2013). Although research was conducted, Watson and Hunter (2015)

identified the need for future studies to assess the correlation between the internalization

of the Strong Black Woman schema and health and mental health issues, thereby

indicating a gap in the literature which evolved into the problem statement for this

research.

This chapter provides an analysis of the historical background and recent

empirical literature related to the Strong Black Woman schema. Five key themes were

considered and addressed regarding the topic including: (a) Strong Black Woman

schema, (b) Help-seeking Attitudes in African Americans, (c) Health Disparities in the

African American Community, (d) Psychological Distress in Black Women, and (e)

Coping Strategies. There are also various subthemes aligned to each key theme including:

(a) Strong Black Woman in Contrast to White Women, (b) Role Strain, (c) Measurements

of Help-seeking Attitudes, (d) Discrimination Based Disparities, (e) Medical Distrust

Based Disparities, (f) John Henryism, (g) Informal Social Support, and (h) Religious

Coping.

The survey of the literature for this chapter derived from various online databases,

textbooks, and peer-reviewed journals. The researcher conducted a comprehensive

literature review using Grand Canyon University’s Library and Google Scholar. The

databases utilized included eBook Collection, ebrary, EBSCO, Sage Research Methods,

and ProQuest Central. The following keywords and combination of keywords utilized in

the database search were: a strong Black woman schema, psychological distress, help-

seeking attitudes, and discourse of strength. The search for keywords and combinations

of keywords yielded peer reviewed articles, dissertations, books, and other reliable

sources, of which the majority will be cited.

Due to the underutilization of mental health services in Black women, it is critical

that the correlation between the internalization of the schema and attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking is explored to gain further understanding of this dynamic. Further,

this information can help mental health organization leadership grasp the importance of

the schema and its influence on help-seeking decision-making. The absence of this

research along with the call from the scholarly community to explore this construct in

diverse ages, socioeconomic status, and educational backgrounds demonstrates a present

knowledge gap in the literature that needs to be addressed (Abrams et al., 2014; Nelson et

al., 2016; Watson & Hunter, 2015).

Chapter 2 includes a discussion of the gender schema theory as the theoretical

framework for this study. Additionally, this chapter contains a review of the methodology

and instrumentation utilized throughout the literature. A synopsis of gaps in the research

related to the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-

seeking decisions will provide context and additional justification for this research and

the chosen methodology. Finally, a summary will provide an overview of the material

discussed in Chapter 2.

Identification of the Gap

It has been declared that African American adults generally do not seek

professional mental health services to manage psychological stress (Dean, Long,

Matthews, & Buckner, 2017). Generally, cultural factors are known to play a role in

minority group members’ professional health help-seeking attitudes and behaviors

(Cheng, Kwan, & Sevig, 2013). Empirical research findings have established that the

Strong Black Woman schema prompts African American women to exhibit strength, self-

reliance, and self-silence as a response to stressors (Woods-Giscombé, 2010). This form

of coping with stressors can negatively affect the mental health of African American

women (Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2007). However, limited research has been conducted

regarding the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking. As a result,

when determining the direction of this research it was discovered that research gaps

existed in both quantitative and qualitative studies conducted within the last five years.

The current body of literature regarding the Strong Black Woman schema has

principally emphasized the risks associated with the internalization of the schema.

Harrington, Crowther, and Shipherd (2010) found trauma exposure and distress predicted

greater internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, which was associated with

emotional difficulties, eating for psychological reasons, and, ultimately, binge eating.

Further, developing research has linked the schema to adverse outcomes, like depression,

anxiety, and binge eating for African American women (Donovan & West, 2015; West,

Donovan, & Daniel, 2016).

Other research has highlighted the schema’s correlation to stress and health. In a

study investigating the association between the Strong Black Woman schema, stress, and

breast cancer screening among African American women, Black and Woods-Giscombé

(2012) found that the schema’s coping methods were related to endorsement of “strength

behaviors,” such as deferment of self-care and emotional suppression. Such “strength

behaviors” can have serious health consequences when used over time. For example,

emotional suppression is interrelated to an assortment of negative health outcomes,

including poor immune functioning (Pietromonaco, & Powers, 2015), cardiovascular

disease morbidity (Fernandez & Smith, 2015), and HIV disease progression (Sawamoto

et al., 2016). The schema is hypothesized to increase susceptibility to disease because of

frequent physiological adjustments to psychological stress, resulting in increasing wear

and tear on the body’s regulatory systems (Woods-Giscombé, 2010), leading to

debilitated immune functioning and disease advancement.

The Strong Black Woman schema also has an impact on mental health. Donovan

and West (2015) found internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema to increase

the correlation between stress and depressive symptoms. Donovan and West (2015)

suggested that future research regarding the Strong Black Woman schema explore the

correlation between the schema and health compromising behaviors. Further, West et al.

(2016) completed a thematic analysis of the Strong Black Woman schema which revealed

perceived definitions of the schema as well as the paradox it presents to those who adhere

to it. Consequently, West et al. (2016) suggested several areas for future research. The

authors call for research concerning the Strong Black Woman schema to include women

who are in college, as well as those who never attended. Expanding the range of women

included in future studies has potential to increase the generalizability of the results.

Thus, the gap in the literature addressed by these authors can be filled through this

research study which included

women from diverse backgrounds.

Watson and Hunter (2015) found that African American women who internalize

the schema experience increased anxiety and depression and decreased psychological

openness and help-seeing propensity. Additionally, the study revealed that participants

considered the utilization of counseling and medication to be signs of weakness and

mental instability. The preliminary findings of Watson and Hunter (2015) indicated that

the inherent tensions presented by the Strong Black Woman schema have implications for

help-seeking behaviors. Consequently, Watson and Hunter (2015) noted a gap in the

literature by suggesting that additional research is needed to assess the correlation

between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and psychological help-

seeking attitudes among African American women. As a result, this noted gap in the

literature is being used as the basis for this research and the problem statement: it was not

known if, and to what extent, there was a correlation between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking.

Theoretical Foundation

Gender schema theory (Bem, 1981) was used as a theoretical foundation of this

study since it has been shown to provide insight about the process of gender schema

development and maintenance. Gender schema theory is a social cognitive theory which

proposes that humans schematically organize our thoughts and experiences thus creating

categories and groupings based on similarities or differences. Bem (1981) noted that

gender-linked associations that create a gender schema are intrapersonal. Consequently,

early socialization teaches individuals to associate certain traits with their gender. As

opposed to existing on a continuum, traits are placed in one gender schema or the other

(Bem, 1981).

Bem proposed that children self-select traits not from a wide variety of human

characteristics, but from their own narrow gender schema, thus “cultural myths become

self-fulfilling prophecies” (1981, p. 355- 356). This schema is then reinforced by society

through interpersonal relationships, communities, organizational structures, and the

media (Ridgeway, 2009). Therefore, gender schema theory asserts that individuals

cognitively process and encode what it means to be male or female from the culture that

they live in. As a result, behavior is adjusted to fit in with gender norms and expectations

of their culture. Accordingly, the Strong Black Woman schema is pervasive throughout

the African American community (Woods-Giscombé, 2010).

Lips (2016) suggested that one of the most significant impacts of Bem’s work has

been to bring the invisible but pervasive processes of gender categorization into focus,

and then to use that new visibility to drive social change. Bem (1974) proposed that being

concerned with being a typical girl or boy was limiting and might lead to negative

psychological adjustment. Therefore, gender schema theory may provide insight into the

Strong Black Woman schemas impact on attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. In

order to explore how the Strong Black Woman schema displays a correlation with help-

seeking, the Theory of Planned Behavior could be used. The Theory of Planned Behavior

is a useful framework for predicting intentions to utilize mental health services. The

theory states that intentions to perform specific behaviors can be predicted by three

beliefs: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control

(Ajzen, 1991). Research that has incorporated individual constructs of the Theory of

planned behavior (e.g. attitudes, perceived social norms, or perceived control) in help-

seeking has been mostly correlational and has demonstrated some support for applying

this model to help seeking behaviors (Hammer & Vogel, 2013; Stolzenburg et al., 2018).

However, it seems that the attitudes construct may be more predictive of intention than

the others (Schomerus, Matschinger, & Angermeyer, 2009).

The Theory of Planned behavior provides a framework for the investigation of an

individual’s intent to execute context-specific actions. Therefore, the Theory of Planned

Behavior assumes that human behavior is goal-directed, influenced by the social climate,

and that individuals are logical and rational in their decision making (Ajzen, 1991).

Accordingly, the Theory of Planned Behavior has been identified as one of the well-

studied theories to explain individuals’ social behaviors (Davis, Campbell, Hildon,

Hobbs, & Michie, 2015). Subsequently, the Theory of Planned Behavior is discussed as a

source of decision-making for individuals considering mental health help.

Although Theory of Planned Behavior is one of the most used theories to explain

individual’s social behavior, it has not been without criticism. Sniehotta, Presseau, and

Araujo-Soares (2014) called for retirement of the theory. The authors suggested what is

needed instead of Theory of Planned Behavior is new theories that can be used to explain

behavioral phenomena. Sniehotta et al. (2014) noted that these new hypotheses may

better help people change their behavior and to help those who design and deliver

interventions to help people to do so. Additionally, the theory has been criticized for its

exclusion of unconscious influences on behavior (Sheeran, Gollwitzer, & Bargh, 2013)

and the role of emotions beyond anticipated affective outcomes (Conner, Gaston,

Sheeran, & Germain, 2013).

Conversely, many have responded to the call for the theory to retire. Ajzen (2015)

asserted that the criticism is misguided and based on misunderstandings of the theory.

Additional support for the theory has been provided by previous research showing that

including a measure of attitudes toward not performing a behavior, in addition to attitudes

toward performing the behavior, can significantly improve prediction of intentions

(Ajzen & Sheikh, 2013). Despite the criticism presented, the theory of planned behavior

is useful for investigating behaviors that warrant individual decisions but have varying

levels of social acceptability (Betsch & Haberstroh, 2014).

In sum, the Theory of Planned Behavior uses evaluations of attitudes, subjective

norms, and perceived behavioral control to successfully predict intentions to engage in a

behavior. Although the theory has successfully predicted a multitude of behaviors,

including mental health help-seeking, that prediction may be enhanced by including

cultural factors such as the Strong Black Woman schema into consideration. The current

study seeks to build upon past research by adding to the paucity of theory-based research

on help-seeking while considering the influence of culture and gender. When used

together, gender schema theory would work to provide insight into the Strong Black

Woman schema while the Theory of Planned Behavior would work to provide an

understanding of one’s attitudes toward help-seeking impact their potential utilization of

mental health help. Understanding how these two theories work together can assist

mental health professionals in understanding the cultural barriers that are holding Black

women back from seeking mental health help.

What is known is how the Strong Black Woman schema relates to anxiety and

depressive symptoms based on prior research in the field (Watson & Hunter, 2015). What

was not known was the correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. This quantitative study

may contribute information about how the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema relates to attitudes toward mental health help-seeking which therefore impacts the

utilization of mental health services in the Black community. The researcher addressed

this issue within the context of women from diverse socioeconomic, educational, and

partnered/marital status because of the dearth of research within this environment.

Finally, this study responded to the call by authors to extend the literature regarding the

correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking (Abrams et al., 2014; Watson & Hunter, 2015).

Review of the

Literature

Behavioral health diseases have biological correlates that are subject to influence

by modifiable social, economic, and environmental conditions that affect not only the

individual but the whole community, neighborhood, and population (Shim et al., 2014).

As a result, the underutilization of mental health services continues to be a concern

within the Black culture. As established above, these concerns are widespread and

various studies have attempted to determine causation for the lack of mental health

service utilization in the Black community (Hines et al., 2017; Jang et al., 2014; Lee et

al., 2014; Lindsey et al., 2013). Additionally, previously conducted research containing

Black women has documented an association between the internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and psychological distress, low self-esteem, chronic health

conditions, and participation in risky sexual behaviors (Brown et al., 2014; Lewis &

Neville, 2015; Woods-Giscombé et al., 2015).

Although studies have been conducted, there is limited research regarding the

cultural factors, especially gender schemas such as the Strong Black Woman schema,

which may be impacting the decision to seek mental health help. This restricted

availability of research exposes a knowledge gap in the literature signifying that

developing a study in this area could prove to be valuable to the field. It is with these

thoughts in mind that a literature review will be conducted to examine the concepts

related to the Strong Black Woman schema which potentially influences the decision to

seek mental health help.

To fully develop the topic of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health

help-seeking, there must be consideration of several themes which have been identified

as leading to this construct. First, the Strong Black Woman schema will be examined,

which will lead into a discussion of the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale (SBWAS).

Next, help-seeking attitudes will be examined, consequently leading to a discussion of the

Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (IASMHS) scale. Finally,

an overview of content related to health disparities in the Black community,

psychological distress in Black women, and coping strategies will provide additional

context to the dissertation topic.

The strong black woman in contrast to white women. In addition to describing

and measuring what the strong Black woman is, theorists have also focused on what she

is not. Specifically, the strong Black woman has been contrasted against the normative

female gender norms stereotypically embodied by White, middle-class women (Baker,

Buchanan, Mingo, Roker, & Brown, 2015). Descriptions of Black women as strong,

independent, and aggressive are in stark contrast to descriptions of the mainstream female

gender role as sensitive, emotional, dependent, submissive, and passive (Adams-Bass,

Bentley-Edwards, & Stevenson, 2014). Some have argued that Black women would have

to be stronger than other women, because of the history of slavery and the current

presence of discrimination, single-parent households, and poverty among Black women

(Roberts, 2014; Umberson, Williams, Thomas, Liu, & Thomeer, 2014). Harris (1995)

theorized that this contrast between Black and White women arose during slavery as

Black women were seen working in the fields alongside men and entering White

women’s homes only to take care of their children, cooking, and house cleaning. The life

of a Black woman during this time was defined by struggle and survival, whereas the life

of a wealthy White woman was stereotypically defined as one of privilege and ease

(Harris-Lacewell, 2001).

Qualitative work has also captured Black women’s thoughts and feelings about

their identity in relation to their White counterparts. In a study of Black Caribbean

women from the United Kingdom, participants asserted that the struggle and survival

history of Black women has endowed them with strength and resilience unavailable to

White women from relatively less strife-marked histories (Edge & Rogers, 2005). A

participant in a study of Black West-Indian women from Ontario, Canada echoed a

similar sentiment, “I think Black women are stronger [than Whites]. They’ve been, I

mean, I’m talking about going back with generations, so you were raised to be, you

know, the strength of the home, the mother” (Schreiber, Stern, & Wilson, 2000, p. 41).

This participant owed the greater strength of Black women to managing life as the head

of the household.

Interviews with Black women have uncovered similar comparisons to those

noted by Edge and Rogers (2005) as well as by Schreiber, Stern, and Wilson (2000). In

one study, Black women described other Black females whose lives were not marked

with struggle as “weak,” “not Black,” and “White” (Beauboeuf-Lafontant, 2007, p. 38).

A 29-year-old divorced mother described her cousin as “livin’ the White life” because

she was a successful business owner: “being a Black woman means, you know: You’re at

home, you struggle, you get out once in a while, and that’s supposed to be meaningful to

you” (p. 38). This indicates that some Black women believe that life without struggle

prevents one from being authentically Black and female.

Strong black woman schema. The Strong Black Woman is defined by her

physical strength, emotional invulnerability, struggle, perseverance, self-reliance, and

caretaking (Stanton, Jerald, Ward, & Avery, 2017). The Strong Black Woman schema

mandates that Black women appear physically and emotionally strong in front of others.

It is important to discuss how Black women experience early exposure to the

characteristics associated with the ideal of these socially and culturally based norms of

Black womanhood to garner a deeper understanding of the Strong Black Woman schema

(Belgrave & Abrams, 2016).

In an attempt to integrate overlapping attributes of existing constructs into a single

term, while also expounding upon the defining characteristics of the SBW schema,

Abrams et al. (2014) conducted a thematic analysis to gather a better understanding of the

Strong Black Woman schema. Data were gathered from 44 Black women ranging in age

from 18-91 located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Prominent themes

that emerged as characteristics of the Strong Black Woman schema were (a) Embodies

and Displays Multiple Forms of Strength, (b) Possesses Self/Ethnic Pride in Spite of

Intersectional Oppression, (c) Embraces Being Every Woman, and (d) Anchored by

Religion/Spirituality. Further, the authors advocate for future research to investigate how

identification with the Strong Black Woman schema influences self-care, including

health promoting and health-compromising behaviors thereby enforcing the thought that

there is a gap in the literature.

As noted in the research by Abrams et al. (2014), the discourse of strength is a

pervasive factor in the Strong Black Woman schema. The discourse of strength is

embraced by Black women to secure a position in the social world. However, the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema creates overwhelming feelings and

obligations that often manifest as physical illness and neglectful behavior as revealed in

the literature by Black and Woods-Giscombé (2012). The authors theorized strength as a

culturally suggested coping style that asserts resilience, self-reliance and psychological

hardiness as a survival response to race-related and gender-related stressors. Using

qualitative methods, the researchers investigated the potential for strength as a coping

mechanism to manifest as extraordinary caregiving, emotional suppression and self-care

postponement. The results from this research concluded that these manifestations arise

and often result in a lack of time dedicated to scheduling and attending health screening

appointments, deficient or delayed acknowledgement of breast health symptoms and low

prioritizing of breast care. This research further deduced that the discourse of strength

aspect of the Strong Black Woman schema has the potential to cause Black women to

engage in health compromising behaviors, such as refusing to acknowledge the need to

seek mental health help.

West et al. (2016) highlighted the paradox of the Strong Black Woman schema. A

thematic analysis of approximately 113 participants from an urban university in New

England revealed definitions of a strong Black woman, including, strong, independent,

hardworking, and caring (West et al., 2016). Additionally, participants disclosed that

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema can lead to positive self-image but

cause individuals from other ethnic groups to view the strong Black woman negatively.

Further, the authors asserted that the Strong Black Woman schema may be a positive

practice of coping and a defensive technique for ideal mental health; on the other hand, it

may be an adverse form of coping and a predictive factor for poor mental health

comparable to the findings of Abrams et al. (2014). West et al. (2016) suggested several

areas for future research. First, the authors call for research concerning the Strong Black

Woman schema to include women who are in college, as well as those who never

attended. Expanding the range of women included in future studies has potential to

increase the generalizability of the results. Thus, the gap in the literature addressed by

these authors can be filled through the proposed research study which will include

women from diverse backgrounds.

Nelson et al. (2016) examined perceptions of the strong Black woman in a

sample of 30 Black women utilizing qualitative methodology. The authors determined

that participants characterize the Strong Black Woman/superwoman role through five

characteristics: independence, caretaking, hardworking and high achieving, overcoming

adversity, and emotionally contained. Like the aforementioned study conducted by West

et al. (2016), many participants defined the roles in ways that were empowering and

freeing versus constraining. Contrarily, numerous participants were critical of and

rejected the Strong Black Woman role thus concentrating on its challenging and

inflexible discourse of strength. These negative perceptions highlight the significance of

increasing attentiveness of limiting gendered and racialized role expectations.

Additionally, the results from this study underscored the pervasiveness of the discourse

of strength and familiarity with the Strong Black Woman/superwoman role among Black

women (Nelson et al., 2016). The stories these women shared were very expressive, but

many seemed only to touch the surface. This lack of depth may be a result of the

relentless stigmatization in the Black community, contributing to an unwillingness to

appear vulnerable and underplaying issues of physical and mental health. Consequently,

the authors suggested that future researchers explore how the characteristics of the Strong

Black Woman schema relate to how Black women comprehend and pursue help for their

mental and physical health which indicates a gap in the literature that can be filled

through this proposed research study.

Four measurements of the Strong Black Woman schema were previously

developed to assess the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema. The first was

developed in a dissertation by Thompson (2003) describing preliminary validation of a 30

questions-item entitled “Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale.” Factor analysis suggested

a three-factor structure: Self-Reliance, Affect Regulation, and Care-Taking. Although the

factor structure is in line with previous descriptions of the Strong Black Woman ideal set

forth by Romero (2000), the internal consistency of the total and subscales was low (total

score: alpha = .74; Self-Reliance: alpha = .69; Affect Regulation: alpha = .72; Care-

Taking: alpha = .66). Additionally, self-reliance was negatively correlated with affect

regulation although theoretical and qualitative literature would predict positive

correlations between the three factors. Since counterintuitive results were produced,

Thompson (2003) considered whether the construct of self-reliance was adequately

measured by the scale items. Also, the validation study included both Black and White

women, but did not directly compare groups to determine whether the construct was

specific to Black women. The Strong Black Woman Attitudes scale development study

has not been used in any published studies.

The second measure developed to assess the Strong Black Woman schema was

the Superwoman subscale of the Stereotypic Roles for Black Women Scale (Thomas et

al., 2004). In addition to the Strong Black Woman subscale, the 34-item scale included

subscales for three other stereotypes of Black women: Jezebel, Sapphire, and Mammy.

As the only published quantitative measure of the Strong Black Woman ideal, it is

unfortunate that the reported internal consistency of the Superwoman subscale was low

(alpha = .67). Also, with only 11-items in the subscale, the scale did not adequately cover

the breadth and depth of characteristics outlined by previous literature on the Strong

Black Woman schema. The subscale does not include items that referred to a life defined

by struggle and only included one item related to self-reliance. Also, included were five

items to represent the affect regulation domain but solely signified it with items

discussing the ease/difficulty of sharing problems with others (e.g., “I do not want others

to know if I experience a problem,” “It is difficult for me to share problems with others,”

and “It is easy for me to tell other people my problems.”).

In a follow-up to the Thompson (2003) study, Hamin (2008) revised the Strong

Black Woman Attitudes Scale to further explore the cultural components of the Strong

Black Woman schema, as well as examine its correlation to stress and social support

among Black women. In addition to confirming the existence of a three-factor model, the

results of the study also indicated that the Strong Black Woman schema is a possible

coping mechanism used in relation to stress and issues related to racial identity.

Additionally, Hamin changed the name of the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale to

the Strong Black Woman Cultural Construct Scale. The internal consistency on the

revised scale total score (.76) and subscales; caretaking, affect regulation, and self-

reliance were (.75, .64, and .62) respectively.

Hamin (2008) also measured the Strong Black Woman Cultural Construct

Scale’s ability to predict outcome variables such as racial identity, social support, and

stress. Multiple regression analyses were used to measure the predictability of the Strong

Black Woman Cultural Construct Scale in relation to the variables. Regarding stress, a

construct central to the study, Hamin found that high levels on Strong Black Woman

Cultural Construct Scale predicted both perceived stress and number of stressful events.

Specifically, the overall Strong Black Woman Cultural Construct Scale, as measured by

the total score, predicted stress among study participants. However, the correlation

between the caretaking, affect regulation, and self-reliance subscales and stress varied.

According to Hamin, higher levels of caretaking, as well as higher levels of affect

regulation, were associated with higher levels of perceived stress. In contrast, self-

reliance was found to be negatively associated with perceived stress. In other words,

women who scored higher on the self-reliance subscale had lower levels of perceived

stress.

The most recent measurement of the schema is a revision to Thompson’s Strong

Black Woman Attitudes scale by Green (2012). Green indicated 11 factors on the original

scale did not have adequate factor loadings. As a result, Green’s version of the scale is

comprised of 30 questions with adequate factor loadings. Additionally, responses are

measured on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Almost always). Higher

scores indicate greater internalization of the schema. After revising Thompson’s scale,

Green found adequate internal consistency: α = .80 for the total scale, and the three

subscales of caretaking (.64), affect regulation (.78) and self-reliance (.82).

Throughout the literature, the Strong Black Woman schema is a double-edged

sword representing both an asset and a vulnerability. The results of Black and Woods-

Giscombé (2012), Nelson et al. (2016), West et al. (2016) are similar because they have

all highlighted both positive and negative aspects of the schema. Each author has

suggested that although the schema can be used as a positive coping mechanism it can

lead to health compromising behaviors (Black & Woods-Giscombé, 2012; West et al.,

2016). Romero has stated that, “an overused asset that develops uncritically without

ongoing evaluation and attention to changing needs and demands runs the risk of

becoming a liability” (2000, p. 225). Therefore, examining how this phenomenon

contributes to the current health status of Black women would be significant to the field.

For the purposes of this quantitative research, the instrument used to measure the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema by Black women ages 18-65 was be

the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale, which has been confirmed by Green (2012) as

valid and reliable.

Role strain and the strong black woman schema. Viewing Black women as

unidimensional obscures the detrimental effects of over functioning on their well-being.

Intersectionality occurs when Black women incorporate aspects of stereotypical ideas and

contemporary functions into their lives (Brah & Phoenix, 2013). Literature regarding the

multiple roles that Black women experience and the distress it causes is lacking (Martin,

Boadi, Fernandes, Watt, & Robinson-Wood, 2013).

Multiple roles and multiple expectations can contribute to role strain. Role strain

exemplifies only one possible manifestation of the correlation between historical notions

of African American womanhood and mental health. Contemporary researchers have

begun to explore psychological functioning in Black women in correlation to having

various roles. Although findings have been mixed, such as Giurgescu et al.’s (2015) study

of pregnant Black women, who found that these Black women engaged in multiple roles

lived in lower quality neighborhoods and had increased depressive symptoms while other

studies have found more positive outcomes.

Societal factors such as the historical employment discrimination against African

American men, has left the burden of supporting the African American family on the

woman, thus contributing to the need for her autonomy (Hagelskamp & Hughes, 2014).

Collins (1990) reviewed the socio-historical context of Black women in her exposition on

the politics of gender and sex within the African American community and described

how factors such as high incarceration rates of African American men have subsequently

affected gender roles for African American women.

Comparably, Wyatt (2008) further described how the African American woman’s

multiple roles as primary breadwinner in the household coupled with her already existent

child care responsibilities have compounded her responsibilities as head of household.

Here, again is a social and economic reality which necessitates the over-functioning of

African American women. Therefore, viewing Black women solely through the

stereotypical lens of strength obscures these social pressures and inappropriately locates

her tendency to over function in an inherent character trait rather than as a mechanism for

survival.

The 2010 U.S. Census found that Black women headed 30.1 percent of single

family households as opposed to 9.9 percent of White women. Although in the past

decade, the overall amount of U.S. households headed by women has increased across

races (18.2 percent), African American female headed households have grown far faster

than other races (Lofquist, 2012). As such, the likelihood of Black women as the primary

caretakers of themselves and others seems increasing more likely.

Similarly, Elliott, Powell, and Brenton (2015) pointed out in their qualitative

study of 16 low-income, single Black women that many Black women find themselves

carrying the bulk of responsibility within the home in addition to work duties outside of

the home, as they often are the primary breadwinners in the household. In comparison,

West (1995), who defined role strain as the difficulty in fulfilling role obligations,

discusses this concept as an important barrier to health for African American women.

West (1995) explored role strain in the context of many Black women carrying the sole

responsibility for maintaining their households and on average having fewer finances to

work with as they earn less money than their White counterparts.

However, not all Black women perceive the schema as having deleterious effects.

Contrary to the research of Wyatt (2008), Abrams et al. (2014), in a qualitative study of

the strong Black woman, found that role stress (which is like role strain) can positively

impact coping resources and that multiple role stress does not always negatively impact

mothering roles. One participant commented, “Strong Black Women like our mothers,

our grandmothers, and godmothers, aunts…taught us how to be strong and how to work

with or without a man in our lives, making us Strong Black Women” (Abrams et al.,

2014, p. 18). Essentially, the research denotes that these women, who undertake multiple

roles, also experienced high levels of stress are taught how to navigate these roles and

given ways to cope. Overall, beliefs about the centrality of nurturing, and the controlled

expression of emotions as other aspects of the stereotypical notions of Black womanhood

have also shown negative effects on Black women’s well-being, particularly perceptions

of stress and depression (Rosenthal & Lobel, 2016). Given societal expectations to

smoothly handle multiple responsibilities and support others, Black women may learn to

internalize their problems instead of seeking help for them.

Mental health help-seeking. In the mental health context, help-seeking is an

adaptive coping process that results in the attempt to obtain assistance to deal with a

mental health concern. Several studies have been conducted regarding help-seeking

attitudes (Bromley et al., 2016; Hammer & Vogel, 2013; Henderson, Evans-Lacko, &

Thornicroft, 2013; Reynders, Kerkhof, Molenberghs, & Van Audenhove, 2014; Rüsch et

al., 2013). It has been suggested that belief in the Strong Black Woman schema may limit

self-care activities like seeking psychological services due to the mandate of self-reliance

and caretaking (Jerald, Cole, Ward, & Avery, 2017). The time and additional resources

needed to engage in psychotherapy may be detracting from resources needed to serve the

family, church, and community. Further, it has been concluded that stigma related to

seeking help for mental disorders may cause a service seeking delay which makes it

important to this research regarding the decision to seek mental health help (Pattyn,

Verhaeghe, Sercu, & Bracke, 2014; Sickel, Seacat, & Nabors, 2014; Turner, Jensen-

Doss, & Heffer, 2015). Because the strong Black woman is expected to handle her

problems independently, receiving mental health services may be seen as an admission of

weakness or failure (Harris, 1995; Littlefield, 2003; Thomas et al., 2004). Therefore, it is

important to discuss help-seeking and Black women to garner a better understanding of

the relationship.

Due to the negative attributions associated with seeking help, women who strive

to attain this archetypal image often suffer in silence, feeling frustrated and isolated

because they cannot ask for the support they need (Ashley, 2014; Macías, 2015).

Quantitative research has also suggested that depressed Black women may choose to

uphold the mask of strength rather than seek therapy (Williams, Foye, & Lewis, 2016).

For these reasons, the current study will examine if and to what extent there is a

correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes
toward mental health help-seeking

Researchers have proposed that some individuals may evade seeking mental

health information because it is too threatening due to self-stigma and negative attitudes

(Clement et al., 2015; Corrigan, Druss, & Perlick, 2014; Lannin, Guyll, Vogel, & Madon,

2013; Swan, Heesacker, & King, 2016). However, the link to actual help-seeking

decisions has not been tested; therefore, Lannin, Vogel, Brenner, Abraham, and Heath

(2015) examined if, and to what extent, self-stigma and attitudes negatively influence

decisions to pursue information about mental health concerns and counseling. Using 3

undergraduates, the researchers utilized probit regression models and discovered that

self-stigma negatively predicted decisions to pursue both mental health and counseling

information. Also, participant’s attitudes concerning counseling mediated self-stigma’s

effect on these decisions. Higher levels of distress predicted the likelihood of seeking

mental health information (8.5%) and counseling information (8.4%) for those with high

self-stigma were nearly half of those with low self-stigma (17.1 percent and 15.0 percent,

respectively). These results propose that self-stigma may deter initial decisions to seek

mental health and counseling information. They further denote the need for the

development of interventions aimed at the reduction of mental health help-seeking

barriers.

Cheng et al. (2013) conducted a study using structural equation modeling (SEM)

to explore the effects of psychological distress on perceived stigmatization by others and

self-stigma for seeking psychological help. The sample consisted of 260 Black, 1

Asian American, and 183 Latino American students. Across all 3 groups it was

concluded that higher levels of psychological distress along with perceived racial/ethnic

discrimination accurately predicted higher levels of perceived stigmatization by others for

seeking psychological help. Also, it was concluded that higher levels of psychological

distress along with perceived discrimination predicted higher levels of perceived

stigmatization by others for seeking psychological help. Further, these results accurately

predicted greater self-stigma for seeking psychological help. Moreover, lower levels of

self-stigma for seeking psychological help across all groups was seen in participants with

higher levels of other-group orientation. Interestingly the only group where higher levels

of ethnic identity predicted lower levels of self-stigma of seeking psychological help was

for Blacks which supports the findings of Lannin et al. (2015).

Although stigma has been greatly researched as a barrier to mental health, Abdou

and Fingerhut (2014) proposed that stereotype threat continue to be investigated as a

potential barrier to heath behaviors and outcomes of Black women. Jones et al. (2013)

conducted a study to develop a measure of health- related stereotype threat using sample

of 280 Black collegiate. The findings revealed that Blacks scored significantly higher (M

= 5.4; SD = 1.31) than the midpoint (4.0) on the black-white health-related stereotype

awareness item. These results are indication that participants were conscious of the Black

health inferiority stereotype. Ultimately, the findings suggested that, if Blacks are unable

to protect themselves from health-related stereotype threat, they may delay preventive

measures that might improve their health thus delaying help-seeking.

In accordance with empirical research regarding help-seeking, Sosulski and

Woodward (2013) conducted a study which utilized data from the National Survey of

American Life to examine the usage of professional services and informal support among

Black women with in psychological distress. Forty-seven percent of participants utilized

a combination of both professional services and informal support, fourteen percent relied

on professional services only, two percent used informal support only, and sixteen

percent did not seek help at all. Due to the results, Sosulski and Woodward (2013)

suggested that quantitative and qualitative studies of gender-role-related variables will

explain how much expectations for women within families and communities impact help-

seeking behavior which is like the assertion of Donovan and West (2015) regarding

Black women and mental health help-seeking behavior. The authors noted that the studies

should be designed to conclude whether race plays a substantial role in assisting or

deterring women from seeking help. The authors’ suggestion for future research may

result in improved psychological interventions with increased awareness about culture

and gender. As a result, Black women may seek more help thereby increasing mental

health utilization.

Measurements of help-seeking attitudes. For the purposes of this quantitative

research, the instrument to measure help-seeking attitudes in Black women ages 18-65

will be the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et

al., 2004), a modified version of Fischer and Turner’s (1970) Attitudes toward Seeking

Professional

Psychological Help Scale.

The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking

Mental Health Services is a 24-item scale and has three internally consistent factors:

psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma. According

to the authors of the scale, (1) psychological openness, the extent to which individuals

recognize psychological problems and are open to the possibility of seeking professional

help; (2) help-seeking propensity, the extent to which individuals are willing and able to

seek professional psychological help; and (3) indifference to stigma, the extent to which

individuals are concerned about what important others might think if they were to find

out that he or she was receiving professional psychological help. Example items include:

“There are certain problems which should not be discussed outside of one’s immediate

family” (psychological openness), “If I believed I were having a mental breakdown, my

first inclination would be to get professional attention” (help-seeking propensity), and

“Having been mentally ill carries with it a burden of shame” (indifference to stigma).

Answers could range on a Likert scale from disagree (0) to agree (4).

In the first published study using the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking

Mental Health Services with an all-Black population, Ward, Wiltshire, Detry and Brown

(2013) determined the subscales presented adequate construct validity and internal

consistencies were adequate ranging from 0.73 to 0.81. Results of the study indicated that

the participant’s attitudes suggested they are not very open to acknowledging

psychological problems, are very concerned about stigma associated with mental illness,

and are somewhat open to seeking mental health services, but ultimately prefer religious

coping. Although participants were concerned about the stigma associated with mental

illness and possessed psychological openness, participants were slightly open to pursuing

mental health services. The participant’s openness to seeking mental health services is

consistent with the positive findings of Pedersen and Paves (2014) but in opposition with

the research that suggested that Blacks hold negative attitudes toward help-seeking

(Cheng, McDermott, & Lopez, 2015; Parcesepe & Cabassa, 2013; Wei, Hayden, Kutcher,

Zygmunt, & McGrath, 2013).

Health disparities in the black community. Health disparities are large gaps in

the rates of disease and death between ethnic and socioeconomic status subgroups in a

population (Dunkel Schetter et al., 2013). Belgrave and Abrams (2016) suggested that

there is a need to garner a greater understanding of the complex nature of health

disparities experienced by Black women to move the field forward in making progress

toward achieving health equity for this population. As a result, it is important to discuss

the causes of health disparities in the Black community. This discussion leads to a greater

understanding of the barriers that may contribute to the underutilization of mental health

care in the population.

Research spanning three decades supports the idea that oppressive systems and

discrimination are obstacles that often lead to poorer health for marginalized people

(Williams & Mohammed, 2013). Recently, racism and discrimination as determinants of

health inequalities has received increased attention (Black, Johnson, & VanHoose, 2015;

Chae et al., 2015; Feagin & Bennefield, 2014).

Discrimination based disparities. As cited in Kang and Burton (2014), critical

race research supports that racism produces psychological and emotional injuries that

parallel the posttraumatic effects of combat and other interpersonal traumas. Kang and

Burton (2014) noted that survivors of racism, like survivors of other interpersonal

traumas, experience the event as negative, sudden, and uncontrollable. Aftereffects

include intrusive re-experiencing, avoidance of similar threats in the future, and arousal

manifesting in hypervigilance and sleeplessness (Kang & Burton, 2014).

Similar to the research conducted by Kang and Burton (2014), Versey and Curtin

(2016) investigated both mental and physical health consequences of discrimination, as

well as mediating correlations among African American and White women. The study

utilized data from the Women’s Life Path Study (N = 237). The findings suggested that

discrimination is both directly and indirectly associated with health outcomes for both

Black and White women, mediated by both individual and group level processes such as

self-esteem and structural awareness. Results from this study also indicated that

discrimination is associated with intensified structural awareness and lower self-esteem,

which are both related to poorer health. Therefore, it can be concluded that perceived

discrimination can be associated with health disparities.

Numerous studies have explored the correlation between depression, cultural

stigma regarding depression, and attitudes regarding the Strong Black Woman schema.

However, a definitive link between these has not been found, nor is there a clear

understanding of normative versus distressed Black womanhood. Like Versey and Curtin

(2016), Chen and Yang (2014) conducted a study regarding discrimination and distrust

and came to similar conclusions. Using 9,880 adults from a Southeastern region, Chen

and Yang (2014) found a positive association between discrimination and distrust. More

than 9 percent of the participants reported experiencing discrimination when seeking

health care and possessed significantly higher rates of chronic diseases and depression

than those who reported not being discriminated against. Moreover, those reporting

experiencing discrimination also held greater distrust for the medical system.

Interestingly, more than half of participants who reported discrimination and distrust

were Black. Comparably, Armstrong et al. (2013) investigated the contribution of self-

reported experiences of racial discrimination to racial differences in health care system

distrust 762 Black adults and 1,267 White adults living in 40 metropolitan areas in the

United States. Similar to the results of Chen and Yang (2014), most Black participants

reported experiencing discrimination with 80% of the Black participants reported

discrimination as opposed to the 34% of Whites. Despite presenting information from

both Blacks and Whites, Armstrong et al. (2013) presented only statistics, failing to

provide individual opinions and feelings beyond general insights of perceived racism,

discrimination, and lack of trust for the white healthcare system. The inclusion of these

views could have provided examples of coping strategies used to offset the participants’

perceptions of racism and discrimination.

Perceived racial discrimination is subjective. However, when such the perception

may determine an individual’s perspective of their future, then the perception needs to be

addressed. Chao, Longo, Wang, Dasgupta, and Fear (2014) conducted a study of 394

African Americans to determine whether there was a significant association between

perceived racism, self-esteem, shyness, and psychological distress. The individual

experience of racism was found to have a significant negative impact on preexisting

psychological difficulties, including capacity for coping, stress management, and

vulnerability to the effects of future instances of racism. In other studies cited by Chao et

al. (2014), it was found that more exposure to racism was associated with African

Americans experiencing increased emotional isolation and alienation, less resilience,

fewer coping resources, more difficulty initiating conversations with strangers, lower

usage of counseling services, and greater difficulty trusting counselors who were not

Black.

Medical distrust. The utilization of Black bodies for scientific and medical

breakthrough shaped Black American’s views of the medical profession and medical

institutions (Schwei, Kadunc, Nguyen, & Jacobs, 2014). Throughout history, poor and

enslaved people were used as guinea pigs for doctors to practice medical procedures

which resulted in medical distrust (Feagin & Bennefield, 2014). This “legacy of

mistrust,” or the continuation of a discomfort of medical institutions, carried on after

slavery into the 20th century. By the 1930s, the fear and suspicion became justified again

as Tuskegee Syphilis Study began (Moore et al., 2013). As a result, Black people report

greater levels of medical distrust for the values domain encompassing beliefs about the

honesty, motives, and equity in the medical system as opposed to Whites (Armstrong et

al., 2013).

The Tuskegee Legacy Project surveyed 1133 racially diverse adults in four US

cities. The findings revealed no difference in self-reported willingness to participate in

research between groups, yet Black participants were significantly more likely than white

participants to have a higher fear of participation based on the Guinea Pig Fear Factor

scale (Garza et al., 2017). Given the myriad of factors affecting Black women’s health,

i.e. the historical and contemporary context of unequal access to healthcare, unequal

access to and receipt of medical and psychological treatment, environmental factors,

economic hardship, and the effects of gendered racism, it seems important to consider the

interface of culture with these factors. As a cultural construct, the Strong Black Woman

has been conceptualized as a psychological defensive style and coping mechanism

(Hamin, 2008; Romero, 2000; Thompson, 2003). While this construct may relate to

protecting one’s self against one’s own vulnerabilities and social harms, it may also have

some correlation to how Black women manifest and handle psychological distress as well

as consequently seek help for that distress.

Psychological distress in black women. Black women are at a greater risk for

exposure to multiple traumatic events and are less likely to seek mental health services

than White women (Gobin & Allard, 2016; Stevens-Watkins, Perry, Pullen, Jewell, &

Oser, 2014). Accordingly, many Black women report using avoidant and passive coping

strategies which increases their risk for lower psychological adjustment (Giurgescu et al.,

2015; Lewis, Mendenhall, Harwood, & Huntt, 2013; Stevens-Watkins, Sharma,

Knighton, Oser, & Leukefeld, 2014). Because of low psychological adjustment combined

with the underutilization of mental health services, research on psychological distress in

Black women is prevalent. It is important to this research to examine the literature

regarding psychological distress to gain an understanding of its role in Black women’s

seeking of mental health help.

Watson and Hunter (2015) investigated if, and to what extent, Black women’s

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema predicted increased symptoms of

anxiety and depression and if, and to what extent, attitudes toward professional

psychological help-seeking intensified psychological distress. The researchers collected

data from 95 Black women ranging in age from 18 to 65. Through hierarchical regression

analysis, it was revealed that individuals who demonstrated greater adherence to the

Strong Black Woman schema also demonstrated greater symptoms of anxiety and

depression. Further, it was determined that Black women’s attitudes toward professional

help-seeking did not moderate the associations between endorsement of the Strong Black

Woman schema and anxiety or depression. Consequently, the findings of this study offer

empirical support for the role of cultural factors, like the Strong Black Woman schema, in

Black women’s experience of underutilization of mental

health services.

Stress has also been researched as a type of psychological distress in Black

women. Norris and Mitchell (2013) conducted a study that investigated the stress process

for Black women by developing a model that examined the correlation between (a)

source and type of stress exposure, (b) perceived social support, and (c) the resulting

manifestation of psychological distress. Utilizing data from a 2003 survey by the Center

for the Study of Public Health Impacts of Hurricanes at Louisiana State University, the

researchers completed ordinary least squares (OLS) regression to analyze how the stress-

support-distress process functions with Black women. It was determined that Black

women who reported greater exposure to traumatic life events reported greater levels of

psychological distress. Contrarily, it was reported that chronic stressors had no effect on

psychological distress for Black women. Additionally, younger women and those who

reported lower levels of income reported greater levels of psychological distress than

their older and/or wealthier counterparts.

Continuing with research regarding psychological distress, Donovan and West

(2015) conducted a study using a sample of 92 Black female college students to address a

gap in the literature by quantitatively investigating the correlation among Strong Black

Woman internalization, stress, and anxious and depressive symptoms in this population.

The results revealed that both moderate and high levels of Strong Black Woman

endorsement increase the correlation between stress and depressive symptoms. However,

low levels of Strong Black Woman endorsement do not. This data extends preceding

qualitative discoveries and propose that embracing the Strong Black Woman role

increases Black women’s susceptibility to depressive symptoms associated with stress.

Conversely, Sumra and Schillaci (2015) investigated the interplay between

engagement of seven roles and perceived stress and life satisfaction in a small non-

random sample of women in North America (N = 308). The researchers found a

significant negative correlation between perceived stress and life satisfaction, and role

satisfaction. Additionally, data from multiple regression models did not detect the level of

role engagement as a significant predictor of perceived stress or life satisfaction. Further,

the researchers hypothesized that women engaged in the “superwoman” role would

display higher levels of perceived stress. However, the results revealed that the women in

these roles do not experience higher levels of perceived stress than non-superwomen.

Therefore, the results of this study suggested that engagement in multiple roles, even at

high levels such as those experienced by “superwomen,” is not associated with greater

levels of higher stress, or reduced life satisfaction.

Coping strategies of black women. The Strong Black Woman schema has been

cited as prompting women to use self-reliance and self-silence as coping strategies in

response to stressors (Watson & Hunter, 2015). Coping refers to “cognitive and

behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised

as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 141).

Most prior studies of coping focus on how individuals cope with problems once they

occur, particularly around onset of disease (Jaser, Linsky, & Grey, 2014; Szymanski,

2012).

However, due to the underutilization of mental health services by Black women,

other studies have attempted to understand the coping strategies used by Black women

(Ward et al., 2013). Consequently, studies have found that Black women use a variety of

coping strategies including: support networks, religious coping, and self-care (Holder,

Jackson, & Ponterotto, 2015). It is important to examine the literature regarding the

coping strategies of Black women as alternatives that are used in opposition of mental

health help-seeking. Furthermore, Dunn and Conley (2015) asserted that an enhanced

understanding of the functioning behind differences in coping style may lead to the

advancement and formation of more effective coping interventions.

John henryism. James (1994) constructed the John Henryism hypothesis on the

legend of John Henry. Henry was a Black man with the ability to drive steel pins in

railroad tracks. However, overtime a machine was developed that could complete

Henry’s job. In efforts to remain relevant, John Henry raced against the machine. Henry

won the competition but died from the physical and emotional exhaustion from the

rivalry. Consequently, John Henryism was defined as the sustained, high-effort

psychological response to psychosocial stressors (James, 1994).

John Henryism is regarded as having the willpower to succeed despite barriers

and adversity (Kramer, Johnson, & Johnson, 2015). This coping style may be particularly

prominent in the Black population because of experiences with discrimination and

economic hardships (James, 1994). Furthermore, individuals utilizing this active coping

style possess determination to thrive, a need to have control, and a broad propensity to

not seek help (Griffith, Cornish, McKissic, & Dean, 2016). Ultimately, this sense of

control is used as a problem-solving tactic, especially in an oppressive society.

John Henryism is significant to the experience of Blacks in the United States.

Empirical research supports this assessment by demonstrating that this coping style is

more predominant in Blacks than in Whites (Hudson, Neighbors, Geronimus, & Jackson,

2016). Additionally, the John Henry coping style is theoretically associated to the image

of a “Strong Black Woman,” (Bronder, Speight, Witherspoon, & Thomas, 2014) since

Black women are often perceived to be strong, psychologically impenetrable, and

emotionally secure (Romero, 2000).

Stevens-Watkins et al. (2014) examined the role of culturally relevant factors such

as spirituality, self-esteem, and social support as significant correlates of John Henryism

Active Coping among African American female trauma survivors. The study utilized

secondary data from the B-WISE project (Black Women in a Study of Epidemics) with a

sample of 161 community-based Black women with a self-reported history of trauma.

Results indicate that participants with higher self-esteem and existential well-being were

more likely to cope actively with daily life stressors. Conversely, perceived social support

from family and significant others was not significantly associated with active coping

among the women.

Similarly, Bronder et al. (2014) investigated the John Henryism coping strategy as

a contributor to health disparities in both Black women. The study utilized 314 Black

participants aged 18-70 in the Midwest. Although their study found a negative correlation

between John Henryism and depressive symptomatology, the results did address the

struggle that Black women face with the Strong Black Woman schema. According to the

results, individuals possessing less depressive symptomatology showed increased

internalization of John Henryism. Further, income was inversely related to depression

suggesting that there is a correlation between lower income and depressive symptoms.

Additionally, perceived family support displayed the strongest correlation with John

Henryism. Therefore, informal supports available to an individual may impact the

amount of support they perceive themselves to have.

Informal social support. Informal social support refers to any form of aid from

members of an individual’s social network, such as family, friends, and neighbors

(Taylor, Chatters, Woodward, & Brown, 2013). Prior research has indicated that informal

African Americans report receiving recurrent support from family (Lincoln, Taylor, &

Chatters, 2013). Additionally, social support is associated to less depressive symptoms

and decreased levels of psychological distress (Sultan, Norris, Avendano, Roberts, &

Davis, 2014; Taylor, Chae, Lincoln, & Chatters, 2015;) and African Americans with

reporting low levels of social support report increased suicidal ideation (Kleiman & Liu,

2013).

Considering that studies regarding the social support of ethnic minorities and

social support was lacking, Nguyen, Chatters, Taylor, and Mouzon (2016) examined the

social supports and interaction to diverse subjective well-being indicators in 837 African

Americans aged 55 or older. According to the results, subjective closeness to family was

related to higher levels of life satisfaction and happiness, but not self-esteem. However,

closeness to friends was associated with higher levels of happiness and self-esteem, but

not life satisfaction.

In a longitudinal study, Seawell, Cutrona, and Russell (2014) examined the role of

general and tailored social support in mitigating the deleterious impact of racial

discrimination on depressive symptoms and optimism in 590 Black participants.

Participants reported racial discrimination however, participants also reported being very

optimistic as well as reported relatively few depressive symptoms. Although it was

hypothesized that social support for racial discrimination would reduce depressive

symptoms and increase optimism received mixed results, the data did not support this.

Results indicated that the unique effect of tailored social support was apparent in its

ability to decrease depressive symptoms over time if it increased over the same period.

Further, results indicated that Black women who received high levels of social

support for racial stressors were protected from the negative impact of racial

discrimination on their depressive symptoms. In contrast, women who received low

levels of race-related social support and reported high levels of racial discrimination

experienced the highest level of depressive symptoms. Taken together, results suggested

that Black women should be encouraged to develop and maintain social support networks

that provide tailored support to cope with the deleterious effects racism can have on

psychological well-being.

To give further insight to the topic, Levine, Taylor, Nguyen, Chatters, and Himle

(2015) investigated the informal support networks and Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) in

a population of 3,570 African Americans and 1,621 Blacks of Caribbean descent.

Overall, the results indicated that emotional closeness and contact with family or friends

can be protective factors for SAD and that negative interaction with family is a risk factor

for SAD for these populations. Additionally, more frequent negative interaction with

family members was associated with lifetime and 12-month SAD for both African

Americans and Black Caribbeans. These results support previous findings regarding that

more frequent negative interactions with family has also been linked to increased odds

for having higher levels of psychiatric distress and depression in U.S. Black populations

(Taylor et al., 2015).

Religious coping. The church has historically been the primary source of support,

spirituality, and connectedness for Black women. Research into religious coping has

increased in recent years as well (Gall & Guirguis-Younger, 2013). Many successful

health promotion interventions have been implemented in collaboration with Black

churches (Rowland & Isaac-Savage, 2014; Williams, Gorman, & Hankerson, 2014).

Religion provides ways to respond to events, such as praying, seeking spiritual support,

and engaging in religious rituals. These religious schemas and behaviors may, in turn,

facilitate positive coping outcomes by helping caregivers to process negative events, find

meaning, develop positive or hopeful expectations, and execute coping plans (Pearce,

Medoff, Lawrence, & Dixon, 2016). As a result, the use of religion and religious coping

methods may be particularly relevant in exploring the lack of psychological help-seeking

in Blacks.

Holt, Clark, Debnam, and Roth (2014) examined the role of religious coping as a

mediator of the correlation between religious involvement and health behaviors among

2,370 Black adults. Individuals high in religious beliefs tended to report high levels of

positive and low levels of negative religious coping. Further, findings suggested that

religious beliefs, such as having a close personal correlation with a higher power, are

associated with greater, more positive health behaviors such as vegetable consumption.

Conversely, negative religious coping appeared to play a role in the correlation between

religious beliefs and more negative health behaviors, such as greater alcohol

consumption.

Shervin (2014) investigated the main and buffering effects of positive religious

coping on the association between the number of chronic medical conditions and major

depressive disorder (MDD) among 3,750 African Americans, 1,438 Caribbean Blacks

and 891 Non-Hispanic Whites. Results of the study indicated that multiple chronic

conditions were associated with higher odds of MDD across all ethnic groups.

Additionally, religious coping was associated with lower rates of MDD among Caribbean

Blacks but not African Americans and non-Hispanic Whites. Overall, these findings are

similar to the research that suggested African Americans and Caribbean Blacks have

higher levels of religious coping than non-Hispanic Whites (Assari, 2014).

Kidwai, Mancha, Brown and Eaton (2014) assessed the effect of religious

attendance and spirituality on the correlation between negative life events and

psychological distress using 1,071 individuals aged 30-65 years old from Baltimore.

Results of the study indicate that negative events during the past year are positively

related to current distress. Additionally, respondents who attended religious services had

significantly lower distress as compared to those who never attended services.

Methodology. The purpose of this quantitative correlational research is to

determine if, and to what extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in

Black women aged 18-65 in the Southern region of the United States. Quantitative

methods allow for a narrow focus on a specific set of data (Hussein, 2015). In addition,

quantitative data analysis focuses on numerical correlations though statistical testing as

opposed to patterns and trends which are outcomes of qualitative data.

Most of the research collected on the Strong Black Woman schema has been

qualitative. For example, Robinson, Esquibel, and Rich (2013) explored how

undergraduate women view their Black femininity. Participants revealed the themes of

feeling like ‘the only one’ and Black women’s strength. Further research conducted by

Abrams, Javier, Maxwell, Morgan, Belgrave, and Nguyen (2016) utilized a qualitative

methodology to explore the differences and similarities in gender role beliefs among

Black and Vietnamese women with the results revealing similarities in the embodiment

of strength and self-reliance. Watson and Hunter (2016) also utilized a qualitative

methodology when exploring the competing messages presented in the Strong Black

Woman schema. Similarly, Abrams et al. (2014) utilized a qualitative methodology when

investigating the characteristics of the Strong Black Woman

schema.

On the other hand, West et al. (2016) noted that additional studies regarding the

Strong Black Woman need to be conducted to inform quantitative research which

continues to be “limited in sound psychometrics” for the construct. As a result, limited

empirical articles regarding the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health have

utilized a quantitative methodology. Watson and Hunter (2015) utilized quantitative

methodology when analyzing the main effects of the Strong Black Woman schema and

anxiety and depression. Additionally, Donovan and West (2015) quantitatively examined

the correlations among Strong Black Woman schema internalization, stress, and anxious

and depressive symptoms and suggested that researchers further examine the correlation

between the schema and mental health. Further, Watson-Singleton (2017) used

quantitative methodology to investigate the correlation between the Strong Black Woman

schema and psychological distress. Consequently, the researcher made the choice to

employ a quantitative methodology with a correlational design

The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services has been

used to collect quantitative data in previous studies of mental health help-seeking across a

wide variety of organizations and settings (Brown & McCreary, 2014; Reger et al., 2016;

Segal, Diaz, Nezu, & Nezu, 2014; Ward & Brown, 2015). One study conducted by

Dunford and Granger (2017) sought to assess the correlation between postnatal

depression and help-seeking attitudes utilizing a correlational design. Further, Drapeau,

Cerel, and Moore (2016) employed a correlational study when seeking to determine the

correlation between personality, coping, and perceived closeness with help-seeking.

For the purposes of this study, the methodology and design were selected in the

effort to allow the researcher to investigate if, or to what extent, a correlation existed

between the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking attitudes. Therefore, the

research questions can be explored using a quantitative perspective. Accordingly, after

careful consideration of the rationale for other similar studies as well as the objectives of

this proposed study, it has been determined that the characteristics of a quantitative study

with a correlational research design is the best suited methodology.

Instrumentation. Since this researcher seeks to determine if and to what extent a

correlation existed between the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking attitudes,

two quantitative measures were needed. As a result, the researcher chose to use the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale and the Inventory of Inventory of Attitudes Toward

Seeking Mental Health Services. These measures were selected based on their ability to

capture the valid and reliable quantitative data based on the variables presented.

The 29-item Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale

(Fischer & Turner, 1970) has been used in many previously conducted studies regarding

gender and help-seeking (Yousaf, Popat, & Hunter, 2015). Although the Attitudes

Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale has been widely used, it has

limitations. Two limitations of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional

Psychological

Help Scale are that it does not mention general practitioners as mental health contacts and

was originally only validated with a sample of students (Mackenzie et al., 2004), which

limits the generalizability of the findings.

Due to a lack of generalizability, Mackenzie et al. (2004) created the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services in response to concerns that previous

measures of attitudes toward psychotherapy tended to yield inconsistent results in terms

of correlating with actual help-seeking behaviors (Rogers-Sirin, 2013). The Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services has been utilized in a variety of

populations including (a) geriatrics (Stewart, Jameson, & Curtin, 2015), (b) college

student athletes (Wahto, Swift, & Whipple, 2016), (c) education (Perry et al., 2014), and

(d) military (Segal et al., 2014; van den Berk-Clark, Balan, Shroff, Widner, & Price,

2016). Further, the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services has

been used in several different cultural contexts including Asia (Found, 2016; Pilkington,

Msetfi, & Watson, 2012; Tuliao, Velasquez, Bello, & Pinson, 2016) and Africa (Gesinde

& Sanu, 2015).

The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services has also been

utilized in a variety of studies regarding mental health and help-seeking behaviors.

Watson and Hunter (2015) utilized the measurement to determine whether attitudes

toward professional psychological help-seeking intensified psychological distress.

Additionally, Mesidor and Sly (2014) employed the measurement during their

investigation of the mental health-help seeking intentions among international and

African American college students. Further, Tuliao et al. (2016) utilized the measurement

when exploring the intent to seek mental health help among Filipinos. The Inventory of

Attitudes toward Mental Health Service has been used in a variety of populations and

cultural contexts including Black women of diverse age groups; therefore, the Inventory

of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services was selected as a reliable measure

for assessing attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

As mentioned previously, there is a lack of sound psychometric measures

available to quantitatively asses the Strong Black Woman schema (Donovan & West,

2015). Donovan and West (2015) utilized the Stereotypic Roles for Black Women Scale

in their study regarding stress and the Strong Black Woman schema. However, the

authors reported adapting the measurement for consistency and ease in participant self-

reporting. Additionally, Donovan and West (2015) only utilized one out of the five

subscales and obtained a Cronbach’s alpha of α =.77. Similarly, Watson and Hunter

(2015) utilized the Stereotypic Roles for Black Women Scale to measure the Strong

Black Woman schema but combined two of the subscales and maintained a Cronbach’s

alpha of α =.77.

The Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale was created and validated in a

dissertation (Thompson, 2003). Thompson found adequate internal consistency for the

scale, as measured by Cronbach’s alphas: α= .74, for the total scale and the three

subscales were caretaking: α=.66, affect regulation α=.72, and self-reliance α=.60. This

scale was later revised, validated, and used to measure the correlation between the Strong

Black Woman schema and suicidality in another dissertation (Green, 2012). Green (2012)

found adequate internal consistency: α = .80 for the total scale, and the three subscales of

caretaking α =.64, affect regulation α =.78 and self-reliance α =.82. Consequently, the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale was used to collect quantitative data for the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema due to the higher internal consistency

and lack of need for researcher manipulation of the measurement.

Summary

Black women exist in a socio-historical context which has included a past of

enslavement, racial discrimination and oppression and a legacy of discrimination that has

resulted in the uneven allocation of resources evident today (Broussard, 2013). In a

contemporary context, these women have dealt with stereotypical notions of themselves

in conjunction with social and economic realities that have impacted their psychological

and overall well-being (Abrams et al., 2014). The Strong Black Woman schema has been

introduced to explain one way that Black women have learned to cope with these various

realities.

Although many themes related to this construct exist, the proposed study will

utilize a version of the construct that has theoretical and empirical underpinnings. This

construct is comprised of the three factors of caretaking, self-reliance and affect

regulation, and have been shown to relate to the psychological health of Black women

(Watson & Hunter, 2015). Although researchers have begun to investigate this construct

and have demonstrated its correlation to stress and social support in Black women, this

construct has not been examined in correlation to mental health help-seeking within this

population thereby resulting in a gap in the literature as noted by Watson and Hunter

(2015).

In the review of the literature, the researcher examined several themes related to

the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking

including the schema itself, health disparities in the Black community, psychological

distress, and coping strategies of Black women. In the mental health context, help-

seeking is an adaptive coping process that results in the attempt to obtain assistance to

deal with a mental health concern. Several studies have been conducted regarding help-

seeking attitudes (Bromley et al., 2016; Hammer & Vogel, 2013; Henderson et al., 2013;

Reynders et al., 2014; Rüsch et al., 2013). Currently, the literature indicates many gaps

regarding the Strong Black woman schema and mental health help-seeking (Abrams et

al., 2014; Donovan & West, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2016;

Watson-Singleton, 2017). It has been suggested that belief in the Strong Black Woman

schema may limit self-care activities like seeking psychological services due to the

mandate of self-reliance and caretaking (Jerald et al., 2017). According to Abrams et al.

(2014), strength is a prevalent aspect of the Strong Black Woman schema. Similarly,

Black and Woods-Giscombé (2012) hypothesized that strength is a culturally suggested

coping style that results as a response to race-related and gender-related stressors. The

results of the research by Abrams et al. (2014) as well as Black and Woods-Giscombé

(2012) has suggested that the discourse of strength aspect of the Strong Black Woman

schema has the potential to cause Black women to engage in health compromising

behaviors such as refusing to acknowledge the need to seek mental health help. However,

not all Black women perceive the schema as having deleterious effects. Contrary to the

research of Wyatt (2008), Abrams et al. (2014), found that role stress can positively

impact health-promoting coping strategies.

Recently, racism and discrimination as factors of health disparities has received

increased attention (Black et al., 2015; Chae et al., 2015; Feagin & Bennefield, 2014).

Accordingly, many Black women report using avoidant and passive coping strategies

which increases their risk for lower psychological adjustment (Giurgescu et al., 2015;

Lewis et al., 2013; Stevens-Watkins et al., 2014). Watson and Hunter (2015) investigated

if, and to what extent, Black women’s internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

predicted increased symptoms of anxiety and depression as well as if and to what extent

attitudes toward professional psychological help-seeking intensified psychological

distress. The findings of this study offer empirical support for the role of cultural factors,

like the Strong Black Woman schema, in Black women’s underutilization of mental

health services.

Additionally, Bem’s (1981) gender schema theory is being used as the primary

theoretical foundation. The theoretical foundations reviewed connects gender schema

theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior as the most relevant to address the study

parameters and are related to the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward

mental health help-seeking. Assessment of the non-manipulated, interval scale predictor

variable, the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, was measured using the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale which was proven to be reliable and valid by Green

(2012). Further, the Attitude Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et al.,

2004) was used to measure the non-manipulated, interval scale criterion variables of

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, psychological openness, help-seeking

propensity, and indifference to stigma. The Strong Black Woman schema is proposed as

a cultural coping mechanism and as a possible variable in the correlation between mental

health help-seeking in Black women. Therefore, this research seeks to add a culturally

relevant investigation of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-

seeking to the literature. Additionally, this research seeks to contribute to gender schema

theory by providing a tangible foundation for mental health leaders to produce more

culturally competent and engaging mental health practices for Black women.

Since the researcher sought to determine a correlation between two variables as

opposed to causality, a quantitative, correlational design was used. Correlational research

was the best design because studies that numerically investigate the strength of

correlations between variables require a quantitative methodology (Johnson &

Christensen, 2012). This methodology and research design were specifically chosen to

investigate the research variables to address the proposed research questions and

associated hypotheses. The target population was Black women ages 18-65 who live in

the Southern region of the United States Instruments will be discussed to show the

alignment of the data collection tools to the research questions of the study, as well as the

reliability and validity of the scales.

Chapter 3 highlights the methodology and research design derived from the

research questions. Furthermore, the following chapter includes a review of the problems

statement, research questions and hypotheses, as well as, additional discussion on

instrumentation, population, and sample size, as well as, specific details related to data

collection and analysis. Finally, the proceeding chapter addresses ethical considerations,

limitations and delimitations of the research findings and closes with a summary of

Chapter 3.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

Gender schemas, such as the Strong Black Woman schema may impact decisions

of Black women to seek mental health help. Although studies have been conducted, there

is limited research regarding the cultural factors, especially gender schemas such as the

Strong Black Woman schema, which may be impacting the decision of Black women to

seek mental health help (Watson & Hunter, 2015). As a result, the purpose of this

quantitative correlational research was to determine if and to what extent a correlation

existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking in 153 Black women aged 18-65 in the Southern

region of the United States. The Strong Black Woman schema has been investigated in

several studies regarding internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

psychological distress, low self-esteem, chronic health conditions, and participation in

risky sexual behaviors (Brown et al., 2014; Woods-Giscombé et al., 2015).

This chapter begins with a review of the problem statement and restatement of the

research questions and hypotheses. The methodology and research design will then be

presented with special care taken to connect the methodology with the goals of the

research. In the next section of the chapter, the researcher will describe the research

population and sampling method to be used. Included in this section will be the results of

a G power analysis used to determine sample size requirements for anticipated statistical

analyses.

A section on instrumentation will follow in which the survey to be used in this

study will be described, with emphasis on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale and

the Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services which was used to measure the

internalization of schema and the attitudes toward mental health help-seeking

respectively (see Appendix D). The researcher will then turn the discussion to examine

the validity of the selected measurements. The chapter will then move on to consider

questions of reliability. Data from the existing literature on the reliability of both

measurements will be presented.

Next, the researcher will describe the details of data collection and data

management in sufficient detail so that other researchers could replicate the study if they

desired to do so. Plans for data analysis will follow, which outline the steps through

which data were prepared for analysis and then statistically evaluated to address the

study’s research questions and hypotheses. Measures taken to protect the rights and

confidentiality of study participants and to otherwise meet the ethical principles and

guidelines of the Belmont Report (Resea & Ryan, 1978) will be discussed and the

researcher will conclude the chapter by noting study limitations and delimitations as well

as a summary of the

chapter.

Statement of the Problem

Given that the core expectations of the Strong Black Woman schema include

affect regulation, caretaking, and self-reliance, caretaking, and affect regulation, Black

women may feel that seeking mental health help is inconsistent with their culture

(Watson & Hunter, 2015). Consequently, it was not known if, and to what extent, there is

a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Although prior studies show that there is a

negative link between the Strong Black Woman schema and depression in middle class

African American women, few quantitative studies have not been conducted regarding

attitudes toward seeking mental health help (Offutt, 2013; Snowden, Libby, & Thomas,

2014; Ward et al., 2013).

Several studies have laid the foundation for the current understanding of the

Strong Black Woman schema and associated characteristics (Abrams et al., 2014;

Donovan & West, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2015). Black women often refer to strength

whenever discussing their race and gender (Jones & Shorter-Gooden, 2003). However,

there remains a need to better understand the correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and the decision to seek mental health help (Abrams et al.,

2014; Donovan & West, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2016;

Watson-Singleton, 2017). As a result of this gap, this research determined if and to what

extent there was a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

Accessibility and availability of mental health care services are essential, but the

only reasons individuals choose to seek help for mental health issues. Attitudes and

stigma related to help seeking also determine help seeking intentions (Reynders et al.,

2014). Determining cultural factors that correlate to mental health help seeking attitudes

may increase the utilization of mental health services (Yorke, Voisin, Berringer, &

Alexander, 2016). There was a present gap in the literature that suggested it needed to be

determined if, or to what extent, statistically significant correlations existed between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking. This study could promote further studies in this field for future work on

cultural factors that impact the utilization of mental health services.

A correlational analysis carried out using IBM SPSS (version 24), generated

correlation coefficients between the variables. Internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema was the non-manipulated, interval scale predictor variable for this research. The

interval scale criterion variables included attitudes toward seeking mental health help as

well as psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma. The

instrument used to measure internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema was the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale, originally created by Thompson (2003) and

revised by Green (2012), which is described in detail in the instrumentation section of

this chapter. Permission to use this instrument was given by Dr. Green. Additionally, the

instrument used to measure attitudes toward mental health help-seeking is the Inventory

of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et al., 2004) and did not

require permission to use. Gender schema theory supported both variables as outlined in

Chapter 2.

Four research questions will be addressed in the study as listed below, with

corresponding null and alternative hypotheses:

H1a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.
RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and psychological openness?
H20: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
H2a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and help-seeking propensity?
H30: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

H3a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.
RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma?
H40: There is not a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of
the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.
H4a: There is a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of the

Strong

Black Woman schema and indifference to

stigma.

Research Methodology

Previous researchers have chosen to collect qualitative data on the Strong Black

Woman schema (Abrams et al., 2014; Watson & Hunter, 2016). Conversely, researchers

utilizing the Inventory of Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health Services measurement

have chosen to collect quantitative data (Kessler, Agines, & Bowen, 2015; Nam et al.,

2013; Watson & Hunter, 2015). However, studies where the researcher evaluates

precisely the strength of correlations between variables that are measured numerically

require using a quantitative methodology (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). Thus,

quantitative methodology was chosen for use in the proposed study. The goal of the

research was to evaluate the strength and statistical significance of the correlation

between the predictor (internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema) and the

criterion (attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, psychological openness, help-

seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma) as measured by the Strong Black Woman

Attitudes Scale and Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services.

Additionally, the selected methodology answers the call of previous research to extend

the literature regarding the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking

behaviors in a quantitative manner (Abrams et al., 2014; Nelson et al., 2016; Watson &

Hunter, 2015).

It was not appropriate to utilize a qualitative method in the proposed study.

Qualitative studies explore in great depth and detail a limited number of participants’

subjective experiences and perceptions using a data gathering process that typically

utilizes interviews, direct observations, narrative self-reports, and similar methods (Miles

et al., 2014). However, in the context of this study, the purpose was to determine if and to

what extent a correlation existed between the variables as opposed to providing a deeper

understanding of each variable.

A mixed-method methodology is appropriate in situations where, in addition to

analyzing numerical data, the researcher interacts directly with study participants through

interviews or direct observation to collect qualitative data (Johnson & Christensen, 2012).

As noted above, this study did not involve any such interaction, so a mixed-method

methodology would also be inappropriate here. In sum, a quantitative methodology is the

most appropriate approach to addressing the research questions posed in this study.

Research Design

Although there were several research designs from which to choose, it was

decided that data be collected for this study using a correlational design. Quantitative

correlational research can be defined as a study in which two variables are measured

between the same sample groups to determine if there is a correlation between the

variables (Yilmaz, 2013). This design was selected because it allowed the researcher to

relate internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking in Black women from the Southern region of the United States.

Correlational research is non-experimental in nature (Bryman, 2012). Therefore, cause

and effect are not considered.

A true experimental design was ruled out for use in this study because

experimental research designs require that the researcher be able to manipulate the

predictor variable and measure the resulting changes in the criterion variable (Johnson &

Christensen, 2012). Kerlinger (1986) expressed that, “Nonexperimental research is

systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of

predictor variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they

are inherently not manipulable” (p. 348). The alternative to an experimental design is a

non-experimental design, where two commonly used options are available, i.e., the

correlational research design and the causal-comparative research design (Johnson &

Christensen, 2012).

However, correlational research is a better choice than causal comparative

research because Schenker and Rumrill (2004) noted that causal comparative research

design is appropriate when the researcher uses pre-existing or derived groups to explore

differences between or among those groups. In this study, the researcher did not seek to

stratify the participants into groups to determine differences between or among those

groups. Consequently, the correlational approach is appropriate for the study because the

focus is to investigate the potential correlation between the variables are opposed to cause

and effect. Furthermore, a correlational research design allows the examination of the

strength of correlation between variables. Consequently, this research investigated the

strength of the correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking on an individual level based on the

survey responses from Black women in the Southern region of the United States who

agreed to participate in the study.

Population and Sample Selection

The population of interest for this proposed study is Black women ages 18-65 in

the United States and the target population of this proposed study is Black women

associated with the non-profit that has granted site authorization. Further, the sample

required a minimum of 84 Black women ages 18-65 based on a G*Power Sample size

calculation found in Appendix E. The G*Power parameters were set to provide statistical

power equal to 80 percent to detect a medium-strength effect in the population (?= .30)

using a significance level of α = .05. At the end of the study there were 153 participants.

A G*Power a post hoc analysis detected statistical power equal to .97 with a medium-

strength effect in the population (f = .30) using a significance level of α = .05 with this

sample size. Other quantitative studies investigating the Strong Black Woman schema

have utilized comparable sample sizes. Donovan and West (2015) utilized a sample of

participants to investigate the role of the Strong Black Woman schema and stress.

Additionally, Watson and Hunter (2015) utilized 95 participants to determine the

correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and anxiety.

All Black female participants between ages 18-65 were recruited to participate in

the research through the non-profit organization located in Tennessee that granted site

authorization. The non-profit educates and inspires over 300 women to create change in

their communities. To obtain site authorization, the researcher emailed the director of the

nonprofit a summary of the proposed research topic and ask for permission for site

authorization to ask if surveys flyers could be put up onsite asking for participants. As a

result, the director approved this and drafted a site authorization letter granting the

researcher access to post flyers at the site.

As a result of the process, the sample of Black women who agreed to participate

in the study were deemed a volunteer sample. Unlike probability sampling procedures

(e.g., simple random sampling), which produces a sample that can be assumed to be

representative of the population from which the sample was drawn (at least if the sample

is relatively large), non-probability sampling suffers from the disadvantage of producing

a sample that cannot be assumed to be equivalent to the population from which the

sample was drawn (Landers & Behrend, 2015). Consequently, the population or

populations to which results can be generalized must be defined after the fact. This fact

constrains the external validity of the findings and the degree to which study findings can

be generalized to the intended population. However, the characteristics of the sample will

describe the characteristics of the population to which findings can be generalized

(Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016). In the present study, the population to which findings

were generalized was Black women aged 18-65 in the Southern region of the United

States based on those who were willing to participate in a research study regarding the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

To ensure that participants’ rights as human subjects were protected, the proposed

study protocol and materials were reviewed and approved by the Grand Canyon

University Institutional Review Board (IRB) before any data collection began. The IRB

approval letter is included as Appendix B in the dissertation. The online survey, into

which participants received an email invitation to participate, began with an informed

consent document as seen in Appendix C. Only participants who agreed to the terms of

the informed consent by checking the appropriate box at the end of the document were

allowed to proceed to the rest of the survey where data were collected on demographic

characteristics, internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, and attitudes toward

mental health help-seeking.

Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and participants were free to

discontinue their participation at any time without penalty of any kind by clicking the exit

button at the top of the survey. Additionally, no data were collected that could be used to

identify individual participants. Although SurveyMonkey can collect the IP addresses of

respondents, this feature was turned off to ensure that respondents have complete

anonymity. Data collected for this study will be stored for a minimum of three years on

an independent USB flash drive in a secure location that is accessible only to the

researcher. The flash drive will be physically destroyed following the end of that three-

year period.

Instrumentation

The survey that was used in this study began with the informed consent statement

and demographics. The remaining sections of the survey consisted of the latest, 30-item

version of the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale developed in 2003 by Thompson and

revised by Green in 2011 (Appendix D) as well as the 24-item version of the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services by Mackenzie et al., in 2004

(Appendix D). Permission to use the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale was obtained

from Dr. Brandeis Green, on March 16, 2017. This letter of permission for use can be

found in Appendix D. No permission is required to use the Inventory of Attitudes Toward

Mental Health Services and a copy of this scale denoting no permission for use can be

found in Appendix D.

Responses for the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale are measured on a Likert

scale, ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Almost always). Higher scores indicate greater

identification with this coping style. Items include statements such as ―It pleases me

when others give me feedback that they see me as strong, and ―People think I am strong.

Factor analysis has revealed three subscales: self-reliance, caretaking, and affect

regulation (Green, 2012; Thompson, 2003). Additionally, total scores can be obtained for

the entire scale or for the subscales alone. The original author, Thompson (2003), found

adequate internal consistency for the scale, as measured by Cronbach’s alphas: α= .74,

for the total scale and the three subscales were caretaking α =.66, affect regulation α =.72,

and self-reliance α =.60. After revision, Green (2012) also found adequate internal

consistency: α = .80 for the total scale, and the three subscales of caretaking α =.64, affect

regulation α =.78 and self-reliance α =.82.

The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services is a 24-item scale and

has three internally consistent factors: psychological openness, help-seeking propensity,

and indifference to stigma (Mackenzie et al., 2004). Response options range from 0

(“Somewhat Disagree”) to 4 (“Agree”). Internal consistency reliability coefficients for

the overall measure and the subscales have been found to be strong with Cronbach’s

alphas of α = .82 for psychological openness, α =.76 for help-seeking propensity and α

=.79 for indifference to stigma (Mackenzie et al., 2004) and Mackenzie et al. (2006)

reported that the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services demonstrated

good convergent validity. Participants are asked to indicate which response best

represents their level of agreement with statements such as, “Important people in my life

would think less of me if they were to find out that I was experiencing psychological

problems.”

Ultimately, both scales of measurement produce results from the use of Likert-

type rating scales which was described by Likert (1932) as summative response data

because of his belief that it is rational to obtain an individual’s total scale score by adding

the ratings from subscale scores. However, data obtained using Likert scales are

continuously debated. Dawes (2008) argued that the data from rating scales are ordinal

since there is no way to determine with certainty that equal rating differences (e.g., the

difference between a rating of 1 and 2 or between 4 and 5). Conversely, Meyers, Gamst,

and Guarino (2013) summarized the argument by noting that, “…the vast majority of

research published in the behavioral and social sciences over the past half century or

more has used summative response scales as though they met interval properties. In our

view, this treatment of summative response scales is acceptable, appropriate, and quite

useful” (p. 23). Although the argument of regarding the treatment of Likert scale data is

ongoing, the present research will treat the data produced by the Strong Black Woman

Attitudes Scale and the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services as

interval scale data.

Validity

Hammersley (2008) noted that a study’s validity springs from three sources: (a)

Validity of the measures (i.e., construct validity, the degree to which study instruments

measure the constructs that are claimed); (b) internal validity (i.e., the degree to which

observed causal effects can be unambiguously attributed to the predictor variable whose

effects are being evaluated); and (c) external validity (i.e., the degree to which the study’s

findings can be generalized to other people, places, and times. Elmore (2010) noted that

validity does not reside in the results of a study but rather in the researcher’s

interpretation of those results. Further, Elmore (2010) asserted that researchers who

provide evidence of validity strengthen their arguments and rule out potential confounds.

Consequently, the validity of the measures and external validity must be discussed.

The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services initially included 41-

items, however the authors reduced the number of items in the scale to 24 because of the

results an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using maximum likelihood estimation among

a sample of 208 adult volunteers (Mackenzie et al., 2004). Mackenzie et al. (2004)

reported validity analyses for both a community sample as well as a replication sample.

The reliability for the community sample was reported as r =.33. Reliability for the

replication sample was reported as r =.21.

Recently, Hyland et al. (2015), investigated the construct validity and concurrent

validity of the IASMHS. The results found of their study provided further support for the

construct validity of the scale. All items of the IASMHS displayed statistically significant

factor loadings greater than .30 on each of the respective of the latent factors when

analyzed by Hyland et al. (2015). Thompson (2003) reported the construct validity of the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale as r =.37. Similarly, Green (2012) reported a

construct validity of r =.41.

Reliability

Yilmaz (2013) asserted that reliability means consistency or the degree to which a

research instrument measures a given variable consistently every time it is used under the

same condition with the same subjects. One way to determine if the scores on an

instrument are stable over repeated assessments than to administer the instrument once,

wait an appropriate period, administer the instrument again to the same individuals, and

then evaluate the consistency of the two sets of scores using a correlation or other

measure of score agreement. That methodology, whether used with the same form of the

instrument or alternative forms, is called test-retest reliability (Miller, Lovler, &

McIntire, 2013).

No reports of the test-retest reliability of the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale

nor the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services were found in the

literature. However, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for both instrument’s subscales

have been reported by several authors (Green, 2012; Hyland et al., 2015; Mackenzie et

al., 2004; Thompson, 2003). Each measurement has consistently been associated with

alpha coefficient values ranging from α = .64 to α =.82. It is important to note that the

care-taking subscale of the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale has consistently scored

in the questionable range according to Cronbach’s alpha. Consequently, this lowers the

generalizability of the results regarding the caretaking subscale.

Data Collection and Management

The population for this study included all Black women aged 18-65 in the United

States. The target population consisted of Black women aged 18-65 in the Southern

region of the United States. The site authorization letter can be found in Appendix A. The

sample was comprised of 153 participants associated with the authorized site. To ensure

that participant’s rights as human subjects were protected, the study protocol and

materials were reviewed and approved by the Grand Canyon University Institutional

Review Board before any data collection began. That Institutional Review Board

approval letter is included as Appendix B.

To collect data, the researcher recruited participants from a non-profit site that

educates and inspires women to create change in their communities. One week before the

start of data collection, the researcher posted recruitment flyers at the non-profit with the

requirements for participation and contact information of the researcher. Additionally, the

researcher emailed the contact at the site and asked her to send the flyer to her clients.

Therefore, the researcher did not have personal contact with the organization’s client list

unless the individuals were interested and decided to pursue completing the survey on

their own. One day following the initial email invitation to participate in the study, a

second email was sent to all participants who expressed interest to encourage those who

had not yet completed the survey to do so and to thank those who already completed the

survey. Three days later, the response rate was examined, and it was determined that the

minimum sample size had been achieved and surpassed. As a result of the sample size

requirement being achieved, the survey was closed for responses and data were exported

to SPSS. The researcher utilized listwise deletion to remove participants survey data with

missing values to prepare the data file for analysis, as described in the next section of this

chapter.

Only participants who agreed to the terms of the informed consent were able to

proceed to the remainder of the survey containing demographic information, the Strong

Black Woman Attitudes Scale and Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health

Services. Those who declined the prompts for consent were directed to a message that

invited them to return to the study URL if they decided later that they would like to

participate. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and participants were free to

discontinue their participation at any time without penalty of any kind. Once consent was

obtained, the women were directed to continue to the survey instruments.

The data were collected and stored on SurveyMonkey, a professional survey site.

No data were collected that could be used to identify individual participants. Although

SurveyMonkey can collect the IP addresses of respondents, this feature was turned off to

ensure that respondents have complete anonymity. Data collected for this study will be

stored for a minimum of three years on an independent USB flash drive in a secure

location that is accessible only to the researcher. The flash drive will be physically

destroyed following the end of that three-year period.

Data Analysis Procedures

It was not known if, and to what extent, there were statistically significant
correlations between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking. A quantitative correlational design framed this

research. The tool, IBM SPSS (version 24), analyzed the data received from Strong Black

Woman Attitudes Scale survey and data received from the Inventory of Attitudes Toward

Mental Health Services by running multiple statistical test that determined the

appropriate correlation test to determine statistical significance of the variables (Prion &

Haerling, 2014). The Likert-scaled responses collected from these two instruments were

used to conduct correlation tests between variables. The internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema was calculated by determining the mean of each of the scores from

the scale. The total scale score for attitude toward seeking mental health services was

calculated by determining the mean of each of the scores from the scale. The mean score

was determined for psychological openness subscale items 1,4,7,9,12,14,18, and 21.

Scores for the help-seeking propensity subscale were calculated for each item by

determining the mean of participant’s ratings to items 2,5,8,10,13,15,19, and 22. Scores

for the indifference to stigma subscale were calculated by determining the mean of

participant’s ratings to items 3,6,11,16,17,20,23, and 24. Each instrument was

psychometrically valid and reliable. Score reporting followed the strict adherence to the

design and reporting of values from the psychometric data provided by the authors of the

instruments.

The findings could show either a positive, negative or a null correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking. The Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale measured the internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema. Higher scores on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes

Scale indicated greater internalization of the schema. For the purposes of the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services, higher scores indicated positive attitudes

toward mental health services, whereas lower scores showed lower positive attitudes

toward mental health services.

Each research question was tested independently to investigate the statistically

significant findings of Black women in this study. The data collected from the

participants determined what type of statistical tests to calculate. Nonparametric

(Spearman’s rho) correlation testing was justified according to its respective assumptions.

This was completed in IBM SPSS (version 24). Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality,

histograms, and box and whisker plots were conducted to determine the linearity,

monotonicity, normal distribution of data, and if any outliers were present.

Spearman’s rho correlation tests were determined to be the accurate statistical

tests to determine correlations of the variables of this study. Spearman’s rho correlational

analysis is a measure of the relationship and direction of association between two ranked

variables (Hauke & Kossowski, 2011). Analysis using Spearman’s rho correlation

requires the researcher to make assumptions. The first assumption is that the variables are

ordinal, interval or ratio scale. The second assumption is that the assumptions of the

Pearson correlation are violated (Green & Salkind, 2008).

The following research questions and hypotheses were stated as a framework for

this study:
RQ1: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking?
H10: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.
H1a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.
RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and psychological openness?
H20: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
H2a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and help-seeking propensity?
H30: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.
H3a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma?
H40: There is not a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of
the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.
H4a: There is a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

To test the hypotheses presented in this study, survey data from a volunteer

sample of all 153 Black women who agreed to participate in the research was used. The

data needed to address the four research questions came from participant’s individual

survey responses. These responses included an indication of each respondent’s

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema thus representing the level of the

interval predictor variable represented by that case. In addition, the survey provided

participant’s responses to the Inventory of Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health

Services, from which scores on the 3 dimensions of help-seeking were calculated:

psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma. These 3

dimensions that comprised attitudes toward mental health help-seeking served as the

interval criterion variables in analyses that answered the research questions. Additional

data on participant’s demographics supported analyses designed to describe the sample.

Except for power analysis, which was completed using G*Power software, all

data analyses were completed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) statistical software. In all analyses, missing data were handled by using listwise

deletion of cases with missing data, i.e., if a participant was missing a score on any of the

variables involved in an analysis, that case was excluded entirely from the analysis. The

statistical tests in IBM SPSS (version 24) that included Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality,

histograms, box and whisker plots, and correlation tests visually represented the data

collected to describe the statistically significant correlations present between the variable

of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema with each variable of attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking.

Following the testing for normalcy and linearity, the appropriate correlational

testing, done in IBM SPSS (version 24), determined the coefficient of correlation, the R2

value and the corresponding p-value. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, histograms, and

box and whisker plots also determined if there were no significant outliers and the

monotonicity of the data collected. Various demographics were collected and included

age, relationship status, and educational attainment.

As an initial step for data analysis, scatterplots were conducted first using the

IBM SPSS (version 24), commercial software program. Sainani (2013) reported that for

researchers to understand fully their data points without error, the first step in data

analysis was to create Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, histograms, and box and whisker

plots for each variable that determined if there were any outliers or wild data points when

analyzing all data points. Conducting this step first in the data analysis procedures was

needed to satisfy the correlation test assumption of not having outliers. Analyzing the

scatter plots determined whether the parametric Pearson, multiple linear regression

modeling, or the nonparametric Spearman’s rho correlation tests was the more

appropriate. Once the assumptions for the appropriate correlation tests were satisfied

correlation tests were conducted on the data collected on the Black women in this

research. Completing the IBM SPSS (version 24) correlation modeling determined the

presence of statistically significant correlations between variables. Computing the

strength of the correlations from the correlational models by the reporting of the

coefficient along with the significance of the correlation as measured by the p-value were

the statistical tests followed. Utilizing the function of the bivariate tests on IBM SPSS

(version 24), there was a comparison of the correlation strength and the direction between

data points from the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale and the Inventory of Attitudes

Toward Mental Health Services.

In this study, the correlation analyses measured the strength of the correlation

between the variables, and the statistical significance of the relationship. The study

followed the direction of Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2009) view of correlation coefficients,

r, vary from 0 (no relationship) to 1 (perfect linear relationship) or -1 (perfect negative

linear relationship). Following the hypotheses, if correlations are statistically significant (

p <0.05) the results reject the null hypothesis. On the contrary, if correlations are not

significant (p >.05), then the results fail to reject the null hypothesis. The G*Power

analysis provided in Appendix E shows that the sample size would be adequate to support

the analysis if the projected sample size and response rate was achieved. A total sample

size of 84 cases was needed to provide statistical power equal to 80 percent to detect a

medium-strength effect in the population (? = .30) using a significance level of α = .05.

Ethical Considerations

Few ethical challenges rose from the research. The researcher acquired proper

Institutional Review Board review and complied with specific consent requirements to

maintain the integrity of the study and reduce ethical concerns. The Institutional Review

Board approval letter is attached as Appendix B to the dissertation. To further ensure the

ethical procedures, this research complied with the basic principles of the Belmont

Report.

One principle of the Belmont report is the respect of persons. Thus, informed

consent was obtained before the participant could answer any survey questions.

Additionally, participation in the study was entirely voluntary and participants were free

to skip questions that they did not want to answer or to withdraw from the study entirely

at any point with no negative consequences. Another principle of the Belmont Report is

beneficence. Although SurveyMonkey can collect respondents’ IP addresses, this feature

was turned off. Additionally, in the reporting of results, data were aggregated and no

information from any single respondent was presented. As a result of this protection,

participants in the study did not risk having personal information exposed. Further, the

final principle of the Belmont Report, justice, was addressed using adults who volunteer

participation.

Lastly, there is always a risk of loss of confidentiality when information is

transmitted electronically, but confidentiality was protected to the greatest extent

possible. SurveyMonkey is an established survey engine platform with state-of-the-art

security features. Data collected for this study will be stored for three years on an

independent USB flash drive in a secure location that is accessible only to the researcher.

The flash drive will be physically destroyed following the end of the three-year period.

Limitations and Delimitations

As with any empirical study, there were limitations and delimitations of this

dissertation study. A limitation is a potential weakness of the study that is out of the

researcher’s control while delimitations are choices made by the researcher about the

study.

This research had the following limitations:

1. Sampling by volunteer means that study participants are self-selected and thus
there are no guarantees that the resulting samples will be representative of the

target populations.

2. Self-rating surveys will be used to collect data. There is no way to verify that
self-rated responses are accurate.

3. Correlational research can determine relationships; however, it cannot imply
causation (Yilmaz, 2013). As a result, exploring the correlation between the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking

will not indicate if one variable is the cause of another.

4. The reliability coefficients for the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking
Mental Health Services instrument ranged from poor to acceptable. As a
result, caution must be exercised when generalizing the findings.
5. Data were collected from participants in one geographical location which also
limits the generalizability of the findings.

One limitation in the study was that the assessments used are self-rated. While

self-rating is common on quantitative instruments (Meyers et al., 2013), it presents

limitations as the study participants may not rate themselves honestly and accurately. A

strategy that can be used to mitigate this limitation is to ensure participants that their

information will be kept confidential in attempts to increase participant honesty and

accuracy in their ratings. Another limitation was that those who agreed to participate in

the study likely have a higher interest in the Strong Black Woman schema and mental

health help-seeking. As a result, this may have provided a set of responses that do not

represent the entire target population including those with a lower level of interest in the

topic. However, the researcher anticipated that individuals would be honest on the

measurements due to their expressed interest in the topic of internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Additionally, the

low reliability coefficients for the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services

instrument and use of a single geographical region limited the generalizability of the

study’s results.

The following delimitations were present in this study:

1. Because the purpose of this research is to determine if and to what extent a
correlation existed between the variables, the researcher will be collecting

only quantitative data. This delimitation prohibited the collection of

qualitative information that might have broadened the scope and increased the

depth if a mixed method approach had been selected.

2. This research will use of a volunteer sample from one geographic region. This
sample may not be representative of Black women in other regions of the

Unites States of America.

3. Access to the internet is necessary to participate in this study. Although this
method of data collection may be more convenient regarding time and

distance, those without internet access must travel to a place with access to

participate.

One delimitation of this study was that volunteer sampling is being considered for

use. Since this study included measurements that self-rated, the researcher wanted to

ensure that those who participated were interested in the study to increase the likelihood

of accurate responses. Another delimitation was that the survey will be administered

online. This limited participation to those who had access to internet. The researcher

chose to use an online assessment method to increase the convenience and efficiency for

those not near the researcher. To mitigate the effects of this delimitation, the researcher

provided a list of places with internet access to the director of the site that provided

authorization for the study. However, considering that computers are available in many

schools and libraries, the researcher felt that the survey was accessible to most of the

target population. The location of the study was also a delimitation. The researcher

considered using a larger sample area to include individuals from all states in the United

States but due to the infeasibility of this concept the researcher rejected this

consideration. The researcher felt that keeping the sample size to a single region allows

for analysis among those in the sample. However, that means that caution should be

exercised when trying to generalize findings from the study outside of the region in

which it was completed.

Summary

Although mental health help-seeking has been explored in a variety of contexts,

there is a dearth of research regarding the cultural schema of the Strong Black Woman

and mental health help-seeking. Given the underutilization of mental health services in

the Black community, it is important that the study of mental health help-seeking be

examined in this population (Watson & Hunter, 2015). The purpose of this quantitative,

correlational research study was to determine if and to what extent a correlation existed

between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward

mental health help-seeking in 84 Black women aged 18-65 in the Southern region of the

United States. To determine if a correlation was present, the researcher utilized a

quantitative methodology with a correlational design. As a result of seeking to determine

a correlation between two variables a quantitative methodology was appropriate

(McCusker & Gunaydin, 2015). Since the research questions were designed to determine

the correlation between the two variables without any manipulation from the researcher, a

correlational design was best (Curtis et al., 2016)

In the research design, the non-manipulated, interval scale predictor variable was

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema. Samples of Black women provided

data on attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, the interval scale criterion variables.

The study used two measurements to gather data for analysis from a volunteer sample of

84 Black women ages 18-65. The measurements included the Strong Black Woman

Attitudes Scale (Green, 2012) which was proven to be reliable and valid (Green, 2012;

Thompson, 2003), as well as the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health

Services (Mackenzie et al., 2004) which was also proven to be reliable and valid (Hyland

et al., 2015). Additionally, questions pertaining to demographics were asked. Further,

maintaining strong ethical considerations and protections for the participants, such as

guaranteeing anonymity and safeguarding all data on a USB drive for three years within a

fire-proof safe only accessible to the researcher, met necessary IRB requirements.

The correlation between the dimensions of both measurements were analyzed

using Spearman’s rho correlation. Spearman’s rho correlation is appropriate for use when

data is ordinal, interval, or ratio (Schmid & Schmidt, 2007). Statistics from the analysis

quantified the strength and direction of the correlation between internalization of the

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The results of the analyses are

presented in Chapter 4. Findings were explained in order of hypotheses before Chapter 4

concludes with a summary. Chapter 5 provides a thorough discussion of the data and

explains its implications for future research.

100

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and

Results

Introduction

The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to determine if, and to

what extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in Black women aged 18-65 in

the Southern region of the United States. Additionally, the researcher assessed the

correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking along each of the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services

subscales.

Chapter 4 outlines the descriptive data of the Black female participants, and the

significant correlations found between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Correlation tests determined the

statistically significant correlations found between variables. This quantitative

correlational research supports the following four specific research questions with

corresponding null and alternative hypotheses:
RQ1: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking?

H01: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.

H1: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.

101

RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and psychological openness?

H02: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.

H2: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and help-seeking propensity?

H03: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

H3: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.
RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma?

H04: There is not a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

H4: There is a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

Chapter 4 is organized by a discussion of the sample demographics, reliability analysis,

descriptive statistics, data screening, research question/hypothesis testing, and

conclusions. Data were analyzed with SPSS 24 for Windows.

102

Descriptive Findings

This research study evaluated the statistical significant relationships between the

variables of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward

mental health help-seeking, psychological openness, help-seeking propensity, and

indifference to stigma in Black women ages 18-65 in the southern region of the United

States. As outlined in Chapter 3, the minimum sample size computed by G*Power for

completing a correlation bivariate normal model exact test with a statistical significance,

power of .80 and an effect size of .30, produced a calculation of 84 as the minimum

sample size (see Appendix E). 153 Black women participated in the study. Over the

course of data collection, the sample size increased from the minimum requirement of 84

a priori to a total participant count of 153 Black women. Once the sample size was

determined to be a sufficient number to begin data analysis, post hoc G*Power analysis

was computed to determine the statistical power of the sample size and was reported a

power at .97 with an alpha at .05 (see Appendix E).

The online informed consent document was embedded within the online survey

provided to participants. By taking the survey, the participants were made aware they

gave their permission for the data collected to be reported in this research (see Appendix

C). Black women who responded to the survey were provided a randomized respondent

number via Survey Monkey settings. All participation in the study was voluntary, and at

any time, participants were given the ability to cancel the survey responses. Participants

were also given the ability to skip answers and the questions were not obligatory due to

the informed consent protocols. Before any final submission of the survey, the participant

103

had an opportunity to review, delete, or change their responses. Once data collection

closed, all data was transferred to IBM SPSS (versions 24).

After transferring data points to IBM SPSS (version 24) and completing listwise

deletion of missing data, all randomly assigned participant numbers were removed from

the downloaded Excel file. This deletion made it so that even the assigned number was no

longer accessible when computing the data analysis charts in IBM SPSS (version 24) and

no participants could be traced. After all data was cleaned, descriptive statistics were

computed. The following descriptive statistics will detail the demographic data collected

from the 153 Black women participants.

The sample consisted of 153 Black/African American females ranging from 18-64

years of age. Half of the sample (50.3%, n = 77) was 25-34 years of age; 29.4% (n = 45)

were 35-44; and 9.8% (n = 15) were 45-54 years of age. Age group is provided in Table

Table 3.

Age Group

Age n % Cumulative %

18-24 14 9.2 9.2

25-34 77 50.3 59.5

35-44 45 29.4 88.9

45-54 15 9.8 98.7

55-64 2 1.3 100.0

Total 153 100.0

Most females (56.9%, n = 87) were either single or divorced. The remaining

43.1% (n = 66) were either married or in a relationship. Marital status is presented in

Table 4.

104

Table 4.

Marital Status

Marital Status n %

Single 69 45.1

Married 48 31.4

Divorced 18 11.8

In a relationship 18 11.8

Total 153 100.0

The sample was highly educated. Most of the participants (88.2%, n = 135) had a

college degree, which ranged from an associate degree to a graduate degree. More than

half (60.8%, n = 93) had graduate degrees. Females with only a high school diploma or

equivalent were in the educational minority (3.9%, n = 6). Level of education for the

sample is presented in

Table 5.

Education Level

Education n % Cumulative %

High school or equivalent 6 3.9 3.9

Some college, no degree 12 7.8 11.8

Associate degree 6 3.9 15.7

Bachelor’s degree 36 23.5 39.2

Graduate degree 93 60.8 100.0

Total 153 100.0

Slightly more than half of the respondents (53.6%, n = 82) reported household

incomes of $50,000 or higher. The top 15.7% (n = 24) had household incomes of

$100,000 or more. Household income is presented in

Table 6.

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Table 6.

Household Income

Income n % Cumulative %

$0-$24,999 18 11.8 11.8

$25,000-$49,999 53 34.6 46.4

$50,000-$74,999 38 24.8 71.2

$75,000-$99,999 20 13.1 84.3

$100,000-$124,999 8 5.2 89.5

$125,000-$149,999 5 3.3 92.8

$150,000-$174,999 5 3.3 96.1

$175,000-$199,999 4 2.6 98.7

$200,000 and up 2 1.3 100.0

Total 153 100.0

Descriptive Statistics

Scores for the variables of interest were computed by calculating the mean

responses for the items corresponding to the variable or subscale. Responses for the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale are measured on a Likert scale, ranging from 0

(Never) to 4 (Almost always). Higher scores indicate greater identification with this

coping style. Therefore, the possible range of scores was 0 to 4. For the sample, scores

ranged from 1.67 to 3.87 (M = 2.71, SD = 0.49). Responses on the Inventory of Attitudes

Toward Seeking Mental Health Services range from 0 (“Somewhat Disagree”) to 4

(“Agree”). Therefore, the possible range of scores was also 0 to 4. For attitudes toward

help-seeking, for instance, scores ranged from 0.79 to 3.38 (M = 1.79, SD = 0.37).

Descriptive statistics are presented in

Table 7.

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Table 7.

Descriptive Statistics

Variable Minimum Maximum M SD

Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema 1.67 3.87 2.71 0.49

Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking 0.79 3.38 1.79 0.37

Psychological Openness 0.38 4.00 1.53 0.58

Help-Seeking Propensity 0.13 3.00 2.15 0.63

Indifference to Stigma 0.13 3.13 1.71 0.43

As aforementioned, both surveys had Likert type items ranging from 0 to 4.

According to the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Help-Seeking higher

scores indicate more positive attitudes while lower scores indicate less positive attitudes

(Mackenzie et al, 2004). Additionally, higher scores on the Strong Black Woman

Attitudes Scale indicate greater internalization while lower scores indicate lower

internalization (Green, 2012).

The minimum score for internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema was

46 while the maximum was 82. Figure 1 shows that the participants of this study

generally indicated greater internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema. For this

sample the mean score for internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema was 59.92.

However, none of the participants reported very low or very high internalization of the

schema.

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Figure 1. Internalization of the strong Black woman schema.

Regarding overall attitudes toward mental health help-seeking the minimum score

reported was 17 while the maximum score reported was 83. Figure 2 shows that

participants reported generally positive attitudes toward seeking mental health help. The

mean score reported was 42.59. However, none of the participants were classified as

having very low or very highly positive attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

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Figure 2. Black/African American females’ attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Regarding psychological openness, the distribution of scores were varied. The

lowest reported score was 3 while the highest reported score was 32. The mean reported

score was 12.24. The complete distribution of scores are presented in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. The psychological openness of Black/African American females.

Participants reported varying degrees of help-seeking propensity. The minimum

reported score was 1 while the maximum reported score was 24. The mean score was

17.12. None of the respondents indicated possessing very high help-seeking propensity.

See Figure 4.

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Figure 4. The help-seeking propensity of Black/African American females.

Like help-seeking propensity, participants reported varying degrees of

indifference to stigma. The minimum reported score was 3 while the maximum reported

score was 27. The mean score was 13.24. None of the respondents indicated very high

indifference as illustrated in Figure 5.

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Figure 5. The indifference to stigma of Black/African American females.

Data Analysis Procedures

All data analyzed were aligned with the research questions posed in this study. To

report accurate correlations, research supported the use of a guideline for interpreting the

correlation coefficients present within findings (Fitzgerald, Rumrill, & Schenker, 2004).

Data collected from the demographics, Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale, and the

Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health Services were used for analysis. Analysis

using Pearson’s correlational coefficient requires the researcher to make three

assumptions. The first assumption is that the variables have a continuous measurement

level. The second assumption is that the variables are normally distributed. The third

assumption is that there is a linear correlation between variable (Green & Salkind, 2008).

112

However, if data does not meet these assumptions then an alternative analysis must be

used.

First, the continuous data, not the categorical data, were screened for normality

with the Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, histograms, and box and whisker plots as

warranted. The Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality is the most powerful normality test

(Razali & Wah, 2011). When p < .05 for the Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, the data are

not normally distributed. The distribution was normal for the internalization of the strong

Black woman schema, p = .104. However, the distributions were not normal for the other

variables of interest. The Shapiro Wilk Test of Normality results are presented in

Table 8.

Shapiro-Wilk Normality Test Results

Variables Statistic df p

Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema .985 153 .104

Attitude Toward Mental Health Help Seeking .965 153 .001

Psychological Openness .928 153 .000

Help-Seeking Propensity .936 153 .000

Indifference to Stigma .968 153 .001

A graphical representation of the distribution for the internalization of the strong

Black woman schema illustrated that the distribution approximated normality. See Figure

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Figure 6. Normal histogram for internalization of the strong Black woman schema.

The distribution for attitude toward mental health help seeking was not normal

according to the Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, p = .001. However, a visual inspection

of the histogram appeared to be normal. See Figure 7.

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Figure 7. Histogram for attitude toward mental health help-seeking.

There appeared to be outliers in the distribution for attitude toward mental health

help-seeking. This was confirmed by generating a box and whisker plot for the data.

Three statistical outliers were observed; one ≤ 0.79 and two ≥ 3.08. See Figure 8.

115

Figure 8. Box and whisker plot for attitude toward mental health help-seeking.

The distribution for psychological openness was not normal according to the

Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, p < .001. A visual inspection of the histogram suggested

that the distribution was slightly skewed to the right, which means that it had a positive

skew. The histogram for psychological openness is presented in Figure 9.

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Figure 9. Histogram for psychological openness.

There appeared to be outliers in the distribution for psychological openness. Four

statistical outliers were observed; ≥ 3.3. A box and whisker plot for psychological

openness is illustrated in Figure 10.

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Figure 10. Box and whisker plot for psychological openness.

The distribution for help-seeking propensity was not normal according to the

Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, p < .001. A visual inspection of the histogram suggested

that the distribution was skewed to the left, which means that it had a negative skew. The

histogram for psychological openness is presented in Figure 11.

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Figure 11. Histogram for help-seeking propensity.

There appeared to an outlier in the distribution for help-seeking propensity. One

statistical outlier was confirmed; ≤ 0.1. A box and whisker plot for help-seeking

propensity is illustrated in Figure 12.

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Figure 12. Box and whisker plot for help-seeking propensity.

The distribution for indifference to stigma was not normal according to the

Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality, p = .001. However, a visual inspection of the histogram

appeared to be normal. See Figure 13.

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Figure 13. Histogram for indifference to stigma.

There appeared to be outliers on both ends of the distribution for indifference to

stigma. Fourteen statistical outliers were confirmed; six ≤ 0.88 and eight ≥ 2.50. A box

and whisker plot for indifference to stigma is illustrated in Figure 14.

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Figure 14. Box and whisker plot for indifference to stigma.

Various methods to exclude statistical outliers were conducted. It was not possible

to exclude every statistical outlier because that would have left only two cases. Moreover,

most (4 out of 5) of the variables originated from one instrument, the IASMHS.

Therefore, excluding some outliers for one variable caused others to have outliers. In

addition, two of the variables; psychological openness and indifference to stigma had

unacceptable reliability. After tests of normality were conducted it was determined that

the data did not meet the assumptions to utilize Pearson’s correlation. As a result,

utilizing Spearman’s rho was necessary for the analyses to proceed as planned.

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Instrument Reliability for the

Sample

Instrument reliability for the sample was tested with Cronbach’s alpha. For the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, the reliability was good (α = .88),

which was higher than what was reported by the original author Thompson (2003), who

reported an alpha of .74. However, for attitudes toward help seeking, the reliability was

poor (α = .59) for the current study based on generally accepted criteria (DeVellis, 2012).

For the subscales on the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services

(IASMHS) scale, the internal consistency ranged from .09 for indifference to stigma to

.76 for help-seeking propensity. Internal consistency coefficients for the Inventory of

Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services subscales were reported to be good

with Cronbach’s alphas of .82 (psychological openness), .76 (help-seeking propensity)

and .79 (indifference to stigma) with an overall internal consistency of .87 (Mackenzie et

al., 2004). Thus, for help-seeking propensity, the reliability for the sample (α = .76) was

consistent with what was reported in the literature (α = .76). Reliability coefficients for

the variables of interest are presented in

Table 9.

Reliability Coefficients

Variable Cronbach’s alpha for

Sample

Interpretation for

Sample

Value Reported in

Literature

Internalization of the Strong Black

Woman

Schema

.875 Good .74 (Thompson,

2003)

Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking .587 Poor .87 (Mackenzie et

al., 2004)

Psychological Openness .372 Unacceptable .82 (Mackenzie et

al., 2004)

Help-Seeking Propensity .756 Acceptable .76 (Mackenzie et

al., 2004)

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Indifference to Stigma .094 Unacceptable .79 (Mackenzie et

al., 2004)

After screening for normality and determining reliability coefficients, the analyses

proceeded as planned. Bivariate correlations using Spearman’s rho were used to explore

correlations between the study variables of internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The correlation coefficient that

demonstrated either a strong, weak or no relationship and those associations found

between variables are reported in the results section of Chapter 4. The p-value was

reported to determine the strength of the relationship against the population surveyed at

0.05 which will be shown further in the findings section of Chapter 4. The findings in this

study will report those levels of measurement, when noted.

With the correlation level of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

as measured by the mean score on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale along with

the mean score of attitudes toward mental health help-seeking as measured by the mean

score on the Inventory of Attitude Toward Seeking Mental Health Services, the first

research question was addressed:

RQ1: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes towards mental health help-seeking?

With the correlation level of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema
as measured by the mean score on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale along with

the mean score of psychological openness as measured by the mean score of questions

1,4,7,9,12,14,18, and 21 on the Inventory of Attitude Toward Seeking Mental Health

Services, the second research question was addressed:

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RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and psychological openness?
With the correlation level of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema
as measured by the mean score on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale along with

the mean score of help-seeking propensity as measured by the mean score of questions 2,

5,8,10,13,15,19, and 22 on the Inventory of Attitude Toward Seeking Mental Health

Services, the third research question was addressed:

RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and help-seeking propensity?

Several pieces of data were utilized to address research question four. First, the

correlation level of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema as measured by

the mean score on the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale was used. In addition to the

correlation level of internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema the mean score of

indifference to stigma as measured by the mean score of questions 3,6,11,16,17,20,23,

and 24 on the Inventory of Attitude Toward Seeking Mental Health Services was used.

As a result, the fourth research question was addressed:

RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma?

All data analysis procedures were conducted based on the alignment of the

research questions posed in this study and strictly adhered to the protocols set forth in

Chapter 3. To ensure that data analysis was carried out under the ethical considerations

established in this study, the following steps were followed: the proposal was approved

through the Academic Quality Review process and an application package was submitted

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to the Institutional Review Board. Once approval was received and documented (see

Appendix B), recruitment for participation in the study began. In Chapter 3, a G*Power

analysis determined the minimum sample recommendation for a correlational study of 84

participants (see Appendix E).

Using a sample size calculator of the minimum participants for the a priori power

analysis, the power was reported at 80%. However, after receiving 153 total respondents

for this research, an additional G*Power analysis had to be conducted to compute the

post hoc statistical analysis (see Appendix E). Recruitment of the sample size was

collected from Black women, ages 18-65 who reside in the Southern region of the United

States. The Spearman’s rho test in IBM SPSS (version 24) visually represented the data

collected to describe the relationships present between variables of internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema

and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Computing the strength of the correlation from the correlational models by the reporting

of the rs coefficient, with the significance of the correlation measured by the p-value,

correlations between variables were found and will be further addressed in the Results

section of Chapter 4.

Results

The researcher of this study recruited 200 Black females for voluntary

participation in this research study. From the 200 recruited women, responses from 47 of

the women contained missing data. Those 47 respondents were removed from the study

using listwise deletion due to missing data points. Listwise deletion is found to be a

common method to employ in statistics when analyzing data that contains missing points

(Sang Kyu & Jong Hae, 2017). After removal of missing data, a sample size of 153 Black

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women participants was determined by the researcher. After the final sample size was

determined, tests for normality were conducted utilizing SPSS (Version 24).

The four research questions and hypotheses were tested using Spearman’s rho. A

correlation matrix for the variables of interest is presented in

Table 10.

Correlation Matrix

Variable Strong Black

Woman
Schema
Attitudes Toward

Mental Health Help

Seeking
Psychological
Openness
Help-Seeking
Propensity

Indifference to

Stigma
Strong Black Woman

Schema
_ .230** -.085 .281** .

151

Attitudes Toward
Mental Health Help
Seeking

_ .514* .739** .653**

Psychological

Openness
_ .019 .179

Help-Seeking

Propensity
_ .287**

Indifference to Stigma _

Note. **p < .01; *p < .05. N = 153 two-tailed.

Research question one/hypothesis one. Is there a correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking? There was a significant correlation between internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, rs (153) =.230, p

= .005, two-

tailed.

H01 stated that there is not a statistically significant correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health

help-seeking. There was a significant correlation between internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, rs (153) = .230, p

= .005, two-tailed. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.

127

Research question two/hypothesis two. Is there a correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness? There

was no significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and psychological openness, rs (153) = -.085, p = .301, two-tailed.

H02 stated that there is not a statistically significant correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness. There

was no significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and psychological openness, rs (153) = -.085, p = .301, two-tailed. Therefore, the

results failed to reject the null hypothesis.

Research question three/hypothesis three. Is there a correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity? There

was a significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and help-seeking propensity, rs (153) = .281, p = .001; two-tailed.

H03 stated that there is not a statistically significant correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity. There

was a significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and help-seeking propensity, rs (153) = .281, p = .001; two-tailed . Therefore, the

null hypothesis was rejected.

Research Question Four/Hypothesis Four. Is there a correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma? There

was no significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and indifference to stigma, rs (153) =.151, p = .065; two-tailed.

128

H04 stated that there is not a statistically significant correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma. There was

no significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

and indifference to stigma, rs (153) = .151, p = .065; two-tailed. Therefore, the results

failed to reject the null hypothesis.

Summary

Four research questions and related hypotheses were tested in this study. It was

determined that there was a significant correlation between internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. There was no

significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema

and psychological openness. There was a significant correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

Additionally, there was no significant correlation between internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

The internal consistency of the IASMHS was acceptable for help-seeking

propensity and good for the internalization of the strong Black woman schema. But, the

internal consistency was poor for attitudes toward help-seeking (composite score) and

unacceptable for psychological openness and indifference to stigma. Due to the lack of

reliability coefficients caution should be exercised when generalizing the results of this

study. However, no significant results were observed for any constructs that were

determined to be unreliable. Implications and recommendations will be discussed in

Chapter Five.

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Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction and Summary of Study

The premise of this research study was to determine if, or to what extent, there

were statistically significant correlations between internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. This research addressed

how internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema correlated with the factors of

psychological openness, help seeking propensity, and indifference to stigma. As outlined

in Chapter 1 and reiterated throughout, the research was supported by an extensive

literature review and the further recommendations by researchers in the field.

There were multiple gaps that substantiated the investigation of this problem, and

those gaps will be further explored in Chapter 5 to show how these findings add to the

body of knowledge on the Strong Black Woman schema (Abrams et al., 2014; Nelson et

al., 2016; Watson & Hunter, 2015). What is known about the effects of internalization of

the Strong Black schema were addressed in Chapter 2 of this study. This study identified

the connections between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking that have not been explored previously, with

the underpinnings of gender schema theory as the basis for the theoretical framework

guiding this research.

Due to the complex nature of attitudes toward mental health help-seeking,

additional theories were proposed to guide this research. The Theory of Planned Behavior

was utilized as a secondary theoretical model. The Theory of Planned Behavior was

included because the theory proposes that one of the main predictors of behavior are the

attitudes related to that behavior (Ajzen, 1991). This research advances scientific

130

knowledge in the field of psychology and counseling in that it has incorporated gender

schema theory as the foundational framework. Traditionally, gender schema theory has

not been used as a theoretical foundation for research involving diverse populations such

as people of color (Starr & Zurbriggen, 2017)

The following research questions and hypotheses were addressed in this

quantitative, correlational study:

RQ1: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking?
H10: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.
H1a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-
seeking.
RQ2: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and psychological openness?
H20: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
H2a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness.
RQ3: Is there a correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and help-seeking propensity?

131

H30: There is not a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.
H3a: There is a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.
RQ4: Is there a correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma?
H40: There is not a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of
the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.
H4a: There is a statistically significant correlation between the internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and indifference to stigma.

A quantitative, correlational study was chosen for this research due to variables

being investigated to determine the significance of correlations present. Spearman’s rho

correlation was determined to be the most appropriate tests for the data collected on

153

Black women participants. Accordingly, correlational tests did not show statistically

significant correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema
and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

The purpose of Chapter 5 will be to address the findings of this study and how

they extend current research in the field. Conclusions of this study are drawn from the

findings and will be presented in this chapter. Implications of this study will be addressed

and will show how the findings add to the current body of knowledge in the field of

psychology and counseling, as well as how these findings could help support dialogue on

cultural factors as potential predictors of mental health help-seeking. Recommendations

will also be discussed for further research to be conducted on Black women and the

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Strong Black Woman schema. There is a need for researchers, educators, and providers to

understand factors regarding the Strong Black Woman schema, so this population will

access services and practices that promote their health (Woods-Giscombé, Robinson,

Carthon, Devane-Johnson, & Corbie-Smith, 2016).

A quantitative methodology with a correlational design measured what, if any,

statistically significant correlations existed between the internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The research

questions guided the study to add to the current body of knowledge of Black women and

their internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema, and the correlation of those

factors with attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. To test the hypotheses, the

Strong Black Woman Attitudes scale measured the variable of internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema and the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mental Health

Services measured the variable of attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Determining those statistically significant correlations or trends within the data

that existed internalization of the schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking

could be used to improve the utilization of mental health services. It has been stated that

African American adults generally do not seek professional mental health services to

manage psychological stress (Dean et al., 2017). Additionally, Jimenez et al. (2013)

suggested that even when barriers to accessing care are eliminated, mental health services

are still being underutilized in the Black community. Further, Donovan and West (2015)

found internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema to increase the correlation

between stress and depressive symptoms and suggested that future research regarding the

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Strong Black Woman schema explore the correlation between the schema and health

compromising behaviors.

The findings of this study could be significant in that they may reveal how

internalization of cultural factors, such as the Strong Black Woman schema, influence

Black women’s attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Incorporating gender

schema theory as well as the Theory of Planned Behavior with Black women broadens

the theoretical framework as a valued model for understanding the internalization of the

Strong Black Woman schema as it relates to mental health help-seeking. Additionally,

this research could create meaningful opportunities for mental health service providers to

become more sensitive to, and aware of, African American culture and the experiences

and perspectives of African American women to better serve these clients.

For the remainder of Chapter 5, for organizational purposes the discussion of the

findings and conclusions are by the research questions that guided the study. Previous

research from the literature review from Chapter 2 will be included in this chapter to

expound upon the findings and connect ideas found within this research to previous work

in the field of psychology. Implications are presented that will address the application of

this research to psychology and counseling, further study opportunities that could

springboard from this work, and the significance of this study within the field of

psychology and counseling.

Summary of Findings and Conclusion

The purpose of this correlational study was to determine if, and to what extent,

statistically significant correlations existed between the internalization of the Strong

Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The organization

134

of this section will be outlined by the variables studied in this research and will provide

the findings and conclusions for all four research questions. Based on the Spearman’s rho

correlational coefficients of the variables presented results either failed to reject the null

hypothesis or rejected the null hypothesis. Previous research discussed at length in

Chapter 2 is included as it relates to each research question and the findings within this

study. The findings will also substantiate the significance of the study and provide future

direction for studies regarding the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema.

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. The findings of this study indicated that

there was a significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. Therefore, the null hypothesis

was rejected for the first research question. Spearman’s rho correlation showed there was

a statistically significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, rs (153) = .230, p = .005; two-

tailed.

The sample of Black women included 153 participants with relatively high

degrees of schema internalization (M=59.92) but more positive attitudes toward mental

health help-seeking (M=42.59). As a result, these findings counter prior research that

found lack of help-seeking to be related to African American women’s internalization of

the Strong Black Woman schema (Nicolaidis et al., 2010). Additionally, this is opposition

to the findings of Watson and Hunter (2015) whose sample held less than favorable

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. However, Black women, consistent with

their socialization as strong Black women, may present as composed and unaffected by

135

various stressors (Romero, 2000). Therefore, this composure may lead to indications of

more positive attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and

psychological openness. The findings of this study indicated that there was no

significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

psychological openness. Therefore, the results failed to reject the null hypothesis for the

second research question. Spearman’s rho correlation showed there was not a statistically

significant correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

psychological openness, rs (153) =-.085, p =.301; two-tailed. These results are counter to

previous research which has demonstrated that psychological openness was inversely

related to the Strong Black Woman schema (Watson & Hunter, 2015), such that Black

women who strongly internalized the schema felt less comfortable discussing emotional

concerns with a mental health professional.

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and help-

seeking propensity. The findings of this study indicated that there was a significant

correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-

seeking propensity. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected for the third research

question. Spearman’s rho correlation showed there was a significant correlation between

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity, rs (153)

=.281, p =.001; two-tailed. These results are similar to the findings of Watson and Hunter

(2015) which suggested that internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

help-seeking propensity share statistical significance.

136

Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman schema and

indifference to stigma. The findings of this study indicated that there was no significant

correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference

to stigma. Therefore, the results failed to reject the null hypothesis for the fourth research

question. Spearman’s rho correlation showed there was not a statistically significant

correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and indifference

to stigma, rs (153) =.151, p =.065; two tailed. Although it has been concluded that stigma

related to seeking help for mental disorders may cause a service seeking delay (Pattyn et

al., 2014; Sickel et al., 2014; Turner et al., 2015), most participants in this study have a

high degree of indifference to stigma. These results are in opposition to the findings of

Watson and Hunter (2015) who reported that greater internalization of the Strong Black

Woman schema approached statistical significance when associated with indifference to

stigma.

The findings from this study help to build on the current research by correlating

the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes mental health help-

seeking. Further, this research provides additional support to explore the schema from a

quantitative perspective as opposed to qualitative which has been the primary basis for

research on the topic. While this study was not able to determine a statistically significant

correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking, this study did include women from a variety of

backgrounds to explore the relationship between the variables.

137

Implications

The results of this study have implications for potential positive social change on

the theoretical level, practical level, and in the future. A review of the academic literature

revealed a plethora of qualitative research on the Strong Black Woman schema. The

researcher noted the absence of quantitative studies on the Strong Black Woman schema.

As a result, additional quantitative research was needed to help scholars gain insight into

the potential correlation between internalization and mental health help-seeking. This

study answered a call in the literature to quantitatively explore the correlation between

the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking.

Implications from this research help mental health care providers piece together a more

complete framework for understanding how internalization of the schema may influence

help-seeking behaviors.

Theoretical implications. At the theoretical level this research may expand the

use of gender schema theory. Conventionally, gender schema theory is not utilized as a

theoretical foundation for research involving people of color (Starr & Zurbriggen, 2017).

However, this research has expanded the use of gender schema theory by utilizing it as

the theoretical framework in research with Black women. According to gender schema

theory, experiences and gender schemas interact to produce gendered perceptions of the

meanings of womanhood as well as behavioral guidelines and expectations for

circumstances (Bem, 1981). For women who internalize the Strong Black Woman

schema, expectations of self-reliance, caretaking, and affect regulation guide perceptions

of womanhood and dictate internalization of experiences and behavior. Data from this

study revealed that most of the women in this study had a high degree of internalization

138

of the Strong Black Woman schema and still possessed moderately positively attitudes

toward mental health help-seeking. This implies that the internalization of the schema

may not always have deleterious effects on attitudes regarding help-seeking behaviors.

Additional implications relate to the secondary theoretical framework, the Theory

of Planned Behavior, chosen for the study. The Theory of Planned Behavior assumes that

human behavior is goal-directed, influenced by the social climate, and that individuals are

logical and rational in their decision making (Ajzen, 1991). However, this research

revealed that the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services was not

internally consistent for this sample of Black women. Women in this sample possessed

high internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema yet moderate degrees of

indifference to stigma. Consequently, this implies that the help-seeking behavior of Black

women may not be as influenced by their social climate.

Practical implications. At the practical level this research may have implications

for the fields of counseling and psychology. Black women, consistent with their

socialization as strong Black women, may present as composed and unaffected by

various stressors (Romero, 2000). However, this could lead Black women to underreport

symptoms of distress due to the core value of self-silence in the schema. As a result,

mental health service providers may need to gather a better understanding of the core

components of high internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema to better assess

and diagnosis potential mental health issues.

Similarly, to many non-dominant cultures, the stigma regarding mental health

issues is also powerful. However, many of the participants in this study reported low

indifference to stigma regarding seeking mental health services, yet mental health

139

services are still underutilized by Black people in the United States. As opposed to

pursuing therapy, many Black women may seek support and comfort from close friends,

family, and church. One implication of the findings of this study is that community-based

support and information regarding ways to seek mental health help might be

advantageous for the Black community. Also, it may be helpful to include information

about the Strong Black Woman schema into mental health provider education to improve

culturally relevant curriculum. When clinically appropriate, it would inform treatment

providers how to join with and provide the most relevant services to Black women.

Future implications. It is important to understand mental health help-seeking in

the Black community and the implications of this include improved psychological care

for Black women along with increased utilization of mental health care (Allen et al.,

2014). As a result of the Strong Black Woman schema being a complex, historically and

culturally embedded ethnic gender role with some adaptive value, it would not be

conceivable to fully unravel the schema. However, calling cognizance to its detrimental

effects might be successfully undertaken. One such approach might be to establish a

website with links to empirical research about the schema as well as resources for seeking

mental health help. The website may be able to generate discussions surrounding the

experiences of strong Black women and may stimulate increased cognizance of the

internalized schema factors. As a result of these discussions, some Black women may be

inspired to increase their mental health utilization.

Strengths and weaknesses of the study. The strength of this quantitative,

correlational research study was that it shed light on the correlation between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking

140

attitudes. Additionally, one alternate hypotheses was accepted for the research question

regarding the correlation between the internalization of the schema and help-seeking

propensity. There was a statistically significant correlation found between the variable of

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity.

Another strength of this study lies in the demographic profile of the sample. There

was a call from the scholarly community to explore the Strong Black Woman schema in

diverse ages, socioeconomic status, and educational backgrounds (Abrams et al., 2014;

Nelson et al., 2016; Watson & Hunter, 2015). This study included women who fell

between the ages of 18-64 with most them being between 25-44. Additionally, this

sample included both women who had been to college and those who had not been to

college which answers the call in the literature from West et al. (2016). Furthermore, this

research also included women from diverse socioeconomic background with participants

demonstrating a range of incomes.

Conversely, this study contained several limitations. One limitation of the study is

that it utilized a volunteer sample. Consequently, there is a large difference between the

educational level of the volunteer sample and the general population. Over 84% of the

Black women of the sample population hold bachelor’s degrees or higher. However, of

the overall population of female Black U.S citizens enrolled at post-secondary institutions

in 2014-2015, 37.4% of the Black females were awarded bachelor’s degrees or higher

(Ginder, Kelly-Reid, & Mann, 2016). As a result, these results may not be representative

of an entire population because it is likely that this method of recruitment resulted in a

sample of participants who were more aware of or interested in the Strong Black Woman

schema compared to Black women within the general population.

141

An additional limitation of this study is that it utilized a correlational design.

Because of the study’s correlational design, causality cannot be inferred from the results.

Also, the sample of this study consisted primarily of Black women living in the Southern

region of the United States which limits the understanding of this topic with Black

women in other regions. Another limitation of this study is that it utilized self-rated

surveys and as a result the researcher cannot guarantee the accuracy of the participant

responses.

Lastly, the low reliability coefficients for the Inventory of Attitudes Toward

Seeking Mental Health Services with this sample is a limitation of this study. According

to an EBSCOhost search, the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health

Services has been utilized in 130 studies. The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking

Mental Health Services was selected over several other reliable help-seeking attitudes

instruments. The 29-item Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help

Scale (Fischer & Turner, 1970) has been used to measure attitudes in many, if not most,

of the previous studies on gender and help-seeking. Although the Attitudes Toward

seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale has been used widely as a measure of

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking, the instrument has not been used to examine

how attitudes toward mental health help-seeking may be related to masculine or feminine

gender norms (Yousaf et al., 2015). As a result, the researcher decided to utilize The

Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking Mental Health Services (Mackenzie et al., 2004)

which was designed as an alternative to the Attitudes Toward seeking Professional

Psychological Help Scale.

142

Recommendations

The current study represents an effort to explore how cultural factors, such as the

Strong Black Woman schema correlate with attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

These findings extend the current literature regarding the role of the Strong Black

Woman schema and mental health help-seeking attitudes which may impact the

underutilization of mental health services. Although these findings address certain gaps in

the literature, additional research is needed to further understand, and hopefully address,

mental health help-seeking disparities.

Recommendations for future research. Most participants in the current study

reported a moderate degree of indifference to stigma. However, the strong Black woman

is expected to handle her problems independently, receiving mental health services may

be seen as an admission of weakness or failure (Harris, 1995; Littlefield, 2003; Thomas et

al., 2004). As a result, further qualitative and quantitative research is needed to

investigate the possible risks Black women may encounter when they possess attitudes

toward mental health and help-seeking behaviors that are not commonly accepted in the

culture.

Strength is a core aspect of the Strong Black Woman schema that has been

described as an obligation to resist being vulnerable and an unwillingness to ask for help

(Black & Woods-Giscombé, 2012; Woods-Giscombé, 2010). Conversely, participants in

this study reported low to moderate degrees of psychological openness. However, this

research did not inquire if specific events would increase of decrease a participant’s

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. As a result, future research should

quantitatively explore whether trauma or other stressful life experiences correlate with

143

attitudes toward mental health help-seeking among Black women with varying degrees of

Strong Black Woman schema internalization. These findings would provide greater

insight into how the Strong Black Woman schema correlates with mental health help-

seeking attitudes particularly during times of amplified stress.

The sample of this study was highly educated. Most of the participants had a

college degree with over half of participants having graduate degrees. As a result of the

educational background, the women in this sample may have a higher socioeconomic

status than other women in the Southern region and Black women in general.

Consequently, Black women with higher socioeconomic status may have more ethnically

diverse social circles (Park, Denson, & Bowman, 2013). Experience with diverse ideals

of womanhood may decrease the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and

cause these women to be more accepting of seeking mental health help. Therefore, the

correlation between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and mental

health help-seeking attitudes may be even stronger for low income women than for the

women in the current study’s sample. Additional quantitative research is needed to

determine if and to what extent a correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema

and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking is similar for Black women across

various levels of socioeconomic status.

Lastly, participation in this study was limited to Black women in the Southern

region of the United States. However, similar qualitative research on the internalization

of the Strong Black Woman has been conducted in England (Edge & MacKian, 2010)

and Canada (Jackson & Naidoo, 2013). As a result, quantitative studies in either other

144

regions or other countries may reveal different results regarding the Strong Black Woman

schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking.

Recommendations for future practice. Findings of this quantitative research

offer several recommendations for practice based on the findings of this study.

Information provided in this study may assist mental health professionals in building

strong relationships with their Black female clients by acknowledging the Strong Black

Woman schema and how it may contribute to Black women’s attitudes and behaviors

regarding mental health. Mental health professionals possessing knowledge about the

Strong Black Woman schema may make Black women feel understood and thus build

their confidence in seeking help from mental health professionals.

Results of this study found a significant, weak, negative relationship between the

internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and help-seeking propensity. As a

result, mental health professionals should consider how identification with this schema

prevent Black women from seeking help. Therefore, it is it is important for mental health

professionals to consider culturally relevant strategies to connect with Black women.

‘‘Sister circles’’ have been suggested as a promising outlet for psychological support for

Black women experiencing mental health conditions (Neal-Barnett et al., 2011).

Accordingly, it may be advantageous to start mental health professional moderated social

media groups in which strong Black women can post about their experiences, provide

support and information for each other, and have access to a mental health professional.

Additionally, based on the finding of the relationship between internalization of

the schema and help-seeking propensity, Black women who strongly identify with the

Strong Black Woman schema may not feel comfortable discussing their challenges. As a

145

result, mental health professionals should consider providing group treatment offerings

particularly for Black women. A group setting may allow these women to see that they

are not alone in seeking help and increase their comfort in discussing their experiences

and challenges.

146

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179

Appendix A.

Site Authorization Letter

Site authorization is on file at Grand Canyon University.

180

Appendix B.

IRB Approval Letter

181

Appendix C.

Informed Consent

182

183

Appendix D.

Copy of Instruments and Permission Letters to Use the Instruments

184

185

186

Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale

187

188

Appendix E.

Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation

189

190

Appendix F.

Data Source Table

Correlation Matrix
Variable Strong Black
Woman
Schema
Attitudes Toward
Mental Health Help
Seeking
Psychological
Openness
Help-Seeking
Propensity
Indifference to
Stigma
Strong Black Woman

Schema
_ .230** -.085 .281** .151

Attitudes Toward
Mental Health Help
Seeking
_ .514* .739** .653**
Psychological
Openness
_ .019 .179
Help-Seeking
Propensity
_ .287**
Indifference to Stigma _

Note. **p < .001; *p < .05. N = 153, two-tailed.

The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered

Comment by GCU: American Psychological Association (APA) Style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6th edition, second printing of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, footnotes, and the reference page. For specifics, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition, second printing. For additional information on APA Style, consult the APA website:

http://apastyle.org/learn/index.aspx

NOTE: All notes and comments are keyed to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition, second printing.
GENERAL FORMAT RULES:
Dissertations must be 12 –point Times New Roman typeface, double-spaced on quality standard-sized paper (

.5″ x 11″) with 1-in. margins on the top, bottom, and right side. For binding purposes, the left margin is 1.5 in. [8.03]. To set this in Word, go to:
Page Layout >
Page Setup>
Margins >
Custom Margins>
Top: 1” Bottom: 1”
Left: 1.5” Right: 1”
Click “Okay”
Page Layout>
Orientation>
Portrait>
NOTE: All text lines are double-spaced. This includes the title, headings, formal block quotes, references, footnotes, and figure captions. Single-spacing is only used within tables and figures [8.03].
The first line of each paragraph is indented 0.5 in. Use the tab key which should be set at five to seven spaces [8.03]. If a white tab appears in the comment box, click on the tab to read additional information included in the comment box. Comment

GCU: Formatting note: The effect of the page being centered with a 1.5″ left margin is accomplished by the use of the first line indent here. However, it would be correct to not use the first line indent, and set the actual indent for these title pages at 1.5.” Comment by GCU: If the title is longer than one line, double-space it. As a rule, the title should be approximately 12 words. Titles should be descriptive and concise with no abbreviations, jargon, or obscure technical terms. The title should be typed in uppercase and lowercase letters [2.01].

Submitted by

Insert Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic Credentials) Comment by GCU: For example: Jane Elizabeth Smith

Equal Spacing

~2.0” – 2.5”

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctorate of Education

(or) Doctorate of Philosophy

(or) Doctorate of Business Administration

Equal Spacing~2.0” – 2.5” Comment by GCU: Delete yellow highlighted “Helps” as your research project develops.

Grand Canyon University

Phoenix, Arizona Comment by GCU: HINT: There are several “styles” that have been set up in this GCU Template. When you work on your proposal or dissertation, “save as” this template in order to preserve and make use of the preset styles. This will save you hours of work!

[Insert Current Date Until Date of Dean’s Signature]

GCU Dissertation Template V8.3 01.18.18

© by Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic Credentials), 2018 Comment by GCU: NOTE: This is an optional page. If copyright is not desired, delete this page. The copyright page is included in the final dissertation and not part of the proposal. Comment by GCU: For example: © by Jane Elizabeth Smith, 2012
This page is centered. This page is counted, not numbered, and should not appear in the Table of Contents.

GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY Comment by GCU: The Signature Page is only included in the final dissertation and not part of the proposal.

The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered Comment by GCU: If the title is longer than one line, double-space it. The title should be typed in upper and lowercase letters.

by
Insert Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic Credentials) Comment by GCU: For example: Jane Elizabeth Smith

Approved

[Insert Current Date Until Date of Dean’s Signature]

DISSERTATION COMMITTEE:

Full Legal Name, Ed.D., DBA, or Ph.D., Dissertation Chair

Full Legal Name, Ed.D., DBA, or Ph.D., Committee Member

ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:

________________________________________

Michael R. Berger, Ed.D.

Dean, College of Doctoral Studies

_________________________________________

Date

GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY Comment by GCU: This page is only included in the final dissertation and not part of the proposal. However, the learner is responsible for ensuring the proposal and dissertation are original research, that all scholarly sources are accurately reported, cited, and referenced, and the study protocol was executed and complies with the IRB approval granted by GCU.

The Dissertation Title Appears in Title Case and is Centered

I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not falsified or plagiarized, and that I accurately reported, cited, and referenced all sources within this manuscript in strict compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University (GCU) guidelines. I also verify my dissertation complies with the approval(s) granted for this research investigation by GCU Institutional Review Board (IRB).

_____________________________________________ ______________________

[Type Doctoral Learner Name Beneath Signature] Date Comment by GCU: This page requires a “wet signature.”
Remove the brackets and type in the learner’s name. The learner needs to sign and date this page and insert a copy into the dissertation manuscript as an image (JPEG) or PDF text box. This page must be signed and dated prior to final AQR Level 5 review.

Abstract Comment by GCU: On the first line of the page, center the word “Abstract” (boldface) Style with “TOC Heading”
Beginning with the next line, write the abstract. Abstract text is one paragraph with no indentation and is double-spaced. This page is counted, not numbered, and does not appear in the Table of Contents.
Abstracts do not include references or citations.
The abstract should be between 150-250 words, most importantly the abstract must fit on one page.
The abstract is only included in the final dissertation and not part of the proposal.

The abstract is required for the dissertation manuscript only. It is not a required page for the proposal. The abstract, typically read first by other researchers, is intended as an accurate, nonevaluative, concise summary, or synopsis of the research study. It is usually the last item completed when writing the dissertation. The purpose of the abstract is to assist future researchers in accessing the research material and other vital information contained in the dissertation. Although few people typically read the full dissertation after publication, the abstract will be read by many scholars and researchers. Consequently, great care must be taken in writing this page of the dissertation. The content of the abstract covers the purpose of the study, problem statement, theoretical foundation, research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology, design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a valid conclusion of the research. The most important finding(s) should be stated with actual data/numbers (quantitative) or themes (qualitative) to support the conclusion(s). The abstract does not appear in the table of contents and has no page number. The abstract is double-spaced, fully justified with no indentations or citations, and no longer than one page. Refer to the APA Publication Manual, 6th Edition, for additional guidelines for the development of the dissertation abstract. Make sure to add the keywords at the bottom of the abstract to assist future researchers. Comment by GCU: Please note this is crucial and must be included in the abstract at the final dissertation stage. This is required for dean’s signature.

Keywords: Abstract, assist future researchers, 150 to 250 words, vital information Comment by GCU: Librarians and researchers use the abstract to catalogue and locate vital research material.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

ABSTRACT

(Dissertation Only—Not Required for the Proposal)
The abstract is typically read first by other researchers and is an accurate, non-evaluative, concise summary or synopsis of the research study. The abstract provides a succinct summary of the study and MUST include the purpose of the study, theoretical foundation, research questions (stated in narrative format), sample, location, methodology, design, data analysis, and results, as well as, a valid conclusion of the research. Abstracts must be double-spaced, fully justified with no indentions. (one page)

The abstract provides a succinct summary of the study and MUST include: the purpose of the study, theoretical foundation, research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology, design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a valid conclusion of the research. Note:
The most important finding(s) should be stated with actual data/numbers (quantitative) ~or~ themes (qualitative) to support the conclusion(s).

The abstract is written in APA format, one paragraph fully justified with no indentations, double-spaced with no citations, and includes key search words. Keywords are on a new line and indented.

The abstract is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.

1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.

2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations.

Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.

Reviewer Comments:

Dedication Comment by GCU: The Dedication page is the first page in the dissertation with a Roman Numeral. In the final dissertation, this is usually page vi, so we have set it as vi.

An optional dedication may be included here. While a dissertation is an objective, scientific document, this is the place to use the first person and to be subjective. The dedication page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the Table of Contents. It is only included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the page break below. Comment by GCU: If you cannot see the page break, click on the top toolbar in Word (Home). Click on the paragraph icon. ¶Show/Hide button (go to the Home tab and then to the Paragraph toolbar).

Acknowledgments Comment by GCU: See formatting note for Dedication

An optional acknowledgements page can be included here. This is another place to use the first person. If applicable, acknowledge and identify grants and other means of financial support. Also acknowledge supportive colleagues who rendered assistance. The acknowledgments page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the table of contents. This page provides a formal opportunity to thank family, friends, and faculty members who have been helpful and supportive. The acknowledgements page is only included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the page break below. Comment by GCU: If you cannot see the page break, click on the top toolbar in Word (Home). Click on the paragraph icon. ¶Show/Hide button (go to the Home tab and then to the Paragraph toolbar).
Do not use section breaks!

Table of Contents
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Study 6
Problem Statement 7
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses 11
Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study 14
Rationale for Methodology 16
Nature of the Research Design for the Study 17
Definition of Terms 19
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations 21
Assumptions. 22
Limitations and delimitations. 22
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study 24
Chapter 2: Literature Review 26
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem 26
Identification of the Gap 28

Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework

30
Review of the Literature 32
Methodology and instrumentation/data sources/research materials 36
Summary 39
Chapter 3: Methodology 42
Introduction 42
Statement of the Problem 43
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses 44
Research Methodology 45
Research Design 47
Population and Sample Selection 48
Quantitative sample size 48
Qualitative sample size 50
Research Materials, Instrumentation OR Sources of Data 54
Trustworthiness (for Qualitative Studies) 58
Credibility. 59
Transferability 59
Dependability. 60
Confirmability. 61

Validity (for Quantitative Studies)

Reliability (for Quantitative Studies)

Data Collection and Management

65
Data Analysis Procedures 67

Ethical Considerations

70
Limitations and Delimitations 73
Summary 74
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results 76
Introduction 76
Descriptive Findings 77
Data Analysis Procedures 81
Results 83
Summary 91
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 94
Introduction and Summary of Study 94
Summary of Findings and Conclusion 95
Implications 98
Theoretical implications. 98
Practical implications 99
Future implications 99
Strengths and weaknesses of the study 99
Recommendations 100
Recommendations for future research 100
Recommendations for future practice. 101
References 104
Appendix A. Site Authorization Letter(s) 108
Appendix B. IRB Approval Letter 109
Appendix C. Informed Consent 110
Appendix D. Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instruments 111
Appendix E. Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation (Quantitative Only) 112
Appendix F. Additional Appendices 113

List of Tables Comment by GCU: This List of Tables has been set up to update automatically (when you click to do so). The List of Figures “reads” the style “Table Title,” which should be used in the text for the table title and subtitle of each table. Check “Help” in Word on how to update the TOC.
The List of Tables follows the Table of Contents.
The List of Tables is included in the Table of Contents and shows a Roman numeral page number at the top right. The page number is right justified with a 1 in. margin on each page. Dot leaders must be used. The title is bolded.
On the List of Tables, each table title and subtitle will appear on the same line are single spaced if more than one line, and double-spaced between entries. See 5.01-5.19 for details and specifics on Tables and Data Display. The preferences for the Table of Figures (style for the List of Tables) have been set up in this template.
The automatic List of Tables (set up here) uses the style “Table of Figures, which has been formatted to achieve correct single space/double space formatting.
All tables are numbered with Arabic numerals in the order in which they are first mentioned. [5.05]

Table

Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is Single Spacing and
Should Look Like this Example 79

Table 2. Equality of Emotional Intelligence Mean Scores by Gender 85

Table 3. The Servant Leader 87

Note: Single space multiple-line table titles; double space between entries per example above. The List of Tables and List of Figures (styled as Table of Figures) have been formatted as such in this template. Update the List of Tables in the following manner: [Right click Update Field Update Entire Table], and the table title and subtitle will show up with the in-text formatting. After you update your List of Tables, you will need to manually remove the italics from each of your table titles per the example above.

List of Figures Comment by GCU: This is an example of a List of Figures “boiler plate.” Freely edit and adapt this to fit the particular dissertation. In Word, “overtype” edits and adaptations.
The List of Figures follows the List of Tables. The title “List of Figures” is styled as Heading 1.
The List of Figures is included in the Table of Contents (which will show up automatically since it is styled as Heading 1). and shows a Roman numeral page number at the top right.
The list of figures has been set up with the style “Table of Figures,” for which all preferences have been set in this template (hanging indent tab stop 5.99” right justified with dot leader).
Figures, in the text of the manuscript, include graphs, charts, maps, drawings, cartoons, and photographs [5.21]. In the List of Figures, single-space figure titles and double-space between entries. This has been set up in the “Table of Figures” style in this template. See 5.20-5.30 for details and specifics on Figures and Data Display.
All figures are numbered with Arabic numerals in the order in which they are first mentioned. [5.05] The figure title included in the Table of Contents should match the title found in the text.
Note: Captions are written in sentence case unless there is a proper noun, which is capitalized.

Figure 1. IRB alert.

Figure 2. Correlation for SAT composite score and time spent on Facebook. 88

Note: single-space multiple line figure titles; double-space between entries per example in List of Tables on previous page. Use sentence case for figure titles. After you update your List of Figures, you will need to manually remove the italics per the example above.

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Comment by GCU: This heading is styled according to APA Level 1 heading (style: “Heading 1”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table of contents

Introduction

Comment by GCU: This heading is styled according to APA Level 2 heading (style: “Heading 2”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table of contents

This section describes what the researcher will investigate, including the research questions, hypotheses, and basic research design. The introduction develops the significance of the study by describing how the study is new or different from other studies, how it addresses something that is not already known or has not been studied before, or how it extends prior research on the topic in some way. This section should also briefly describe the basic nature of the study and provide an overview of the contents of Chapter 1.

The GCU Dissertation Template provides the structure for the GCU dissertation. The template provides important narrative, instructions, and requirements in each chapter and section. Learners must read the narrative in each section to fully understand what is required and also review the section criteria table which provides exact details on how the section will be scored. As the learner writes each section, s/he should delete the narrative and “Help” comments, but leave the criterion table, after each section, as this is how the committee members will evaluate the learners work. Additionally, when inserting their own narrative into the template, leaners should never remove the headings, as these are already formatted, or “styled.” Removing the headings will cause the text to have to be reformatted, that is, you will need to reapply the style. “Styles” are a feature in Word that defines what the text looks like on the page. For example, the style “Heading 1, used for Chapter headings and the List of Tables title, the List of Figures title, the References title, and the Appendices title, has set up to conform to APA: bold, double spaced, “keep with next,” Times New Roman 12. In addition, the automatic TOC “reads” these styles so that the headings show up in the TOC and exactly match those in the text.

The navigation pane in Word shows the first and second level headings that will appear in the Table of Contents. To access the navigation pane, click on Home in a Word document>View Pane. Learners should consult their course e-books for additional guidance on constructing the various sections of the template (e.g., Grand Canyon University, 2015, 2016, 2017a, 2017b).

Learners should keep in mind that they will write Chapters 1 through 3 as the dissertation proposal. However, there are changes that typically need to be made in these chapters to enrich the content or to improve the readability as the final dissertation manuscript is written. Often, after data analysis is complete, the first three chapters will need revisions to reflect a more in-depth understanding of the topic and to ensure consistency. Engaging in scholarly writing, understanding the criterion rubrics, and focusing on continuous improvement will help facilitate timely progression. Comment by GCU: Include one space after the final sentence punctuation in the dissertation.

To ensure the quality of both the proposal and final dissertation and reduce the time for AQR reviews, writing needs to reflect doctoral level, scholarly-writing standards from the very first draft. Each section within the proposal or dissertation should be well organized and easy for the reader to follow. Each paragraph should be short, clear, and focused. A paragraph should (1) be three to eight sentences in length, (2) focus on one point, topic, or argument, (3) include a topic sentence the defines the focus for the paragraph, and (4) include a transition sentence to the next paragraph. Include one space after each period. There should be no grammatical, punctuation, sentence structure, or APA formatting errors. Verb tense is an important consideration for Chapters 1 through 3. For the proposal, the researcher uses future tense (e.g., “The purpose of this proposed study is to…”), whereas in the dissertation, the chapters are revised to reflect past tense (e.g., “The purpose of this study was to…”). Taking the time to ensure high-quality, scholarly writing for each draft will save learners time in all the steps of the development and review phases of the dissertation process.

As a doctoral researcher, it is the learner’s responsibility to ensure the clarity, quality, and correctness of their writing and APA formatting. The DC Network provides various resources to help learners improve their writing. Grand Canyon University also offers writing tutoring services through the Center for Learning Advancement on writing basics; however, the writing tutors do not provide any level of dissertation editing. The chair and committee members are not obligated to edit documents. Additionally, the AQR reviewers will not edit the proposal or dissertation. If learners do not have outstanding writing skills, they may need to identify a writing coach, editor, and/or other resource to help with writing and editing. Poorly-written proposals and dissertations will be immediately suspended in the various levels of review if submitted with grammatical, structural, and/or form-and-formatting errors.

The quality of a dissertation is evaluated on the quality of writing and based on the criteria that GCU has established for each section of the dissertation. The criteria describe what must be addressed in each section within each chapter. As learners develop a section, first read the section description. Then, review each criterion contained in the table below the description. Learners use both the overall description and criteria as they write each section. Address each listed criterion in a way that it is clear to the chair and committee members. Learners should be able to point out where each criterion is met in each section.

Prior to submitting a draft of the proposal or dissertation or a single chapter to the chair or committee members, learners should assess the degree to which each criterion has been met. Use the criteria table at the end of each section to complete this self-assessment. The following scores reflect the readiness of the document:

0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions Are Required. Comment by GCU: Format with style “List Bullet.”
Numbered or bulleted lists are indented .25 inch from the left margin. Subsequent lines are indented further with a hanging indent of .25” per the example in the text. Each number or bullet ends with a period. Bullet lists use “List Bullet” Style. Numbered lists use “List Number” Style.

1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations.

3 = Item is Exemplary. No Revisions Required.

Sometimes the chair and committee members will score the work “between” numbers, such as a 1.5 or 2.5. The important thing to remember is that a minimum score of 2 is required on each criterion on the prospectus, proposal and dissertation before one can move to the next step. A good guideline to remember is that learners are not finished with the dissertation until the dean signs the cover page.

Learners need to continuously and objectively self-evaluate the quality of writing and content for each section within the proposal or dissertation. Learners will score their work using the learner column in the criteria tables as evidence that they have critically evaluated their own work. When learners have completed a realistic, comprehensive self-evaluation of their work, then they may submit the document to the chair for review. Rating work as all 3’s will indicate that the learner has not done this. The chair will also review and score each section of the proposal and dissertation and will determine when it is ready for full committee review. Keep in mind the committee review process will likely require several editorial/revisions rounds, so plan for multiple revision cycles as learners develop their dissertation completion plan and project timeline. Notice the tables that certain columns have an X in the scoring box. As mentioned above, the chair will score all five chapters, the abstract and the reference list; the methodologist is only required to score Chapters 1, 3, and 4 and the abstract; the content expert is only required to score Chapters 1, 2, and 5 and the abstract. The chair and committee members will assess each criterion in their required chapters when they return the document with feedback.

Once the document has been fully scored and approved by the chair and committee, and is approved for Level 2 or 5 review, the chair will submit one copy of the proposal or dissertation document with the fully scored assessment tables and one copy of the document with the assessment tables removed for AQR review. Refer to the Dissertation Milestone Guide for descriptions of levels of review and submission process.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Introduction
This section provides a brief overview of the research focus or problem, explains why this study is worth conducting, and discusses how this study will be completed. (Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Dissertation topic is introduced and value of conducting the study is discussed.

Discussion provides an overview of what is contained in the chapter.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.

Reviewer Comments:

Background of the Study Comment by GCU: This heading uses the style “Heading 2” [3.03].

The background section of Chapter 1 describes the recent history of the problem under study. It provides a summary of results from the prior empirical research on the topic. First, the learner identifies the need for the study, referred to as a gap, which the dissertation study will address. Strategies learners can use to identify a need or gap include:

Using results from prior studies.

Using recommendations for further study.

Using societal problems documented in the literature.

Using broad areas of research in current empirical articles.

Using needs identified in three to five research studies (primarily from the last three years.

Next, the learner builds an argument or justification for the current study by presenting a series of logical arguments, each supported with citations from the literature. This need, called a gap, developed from the literature, is the basis for creating the problem statement. A local need is appropriate for a study. However, the learner needs to situate the “need” or problem by discussing how it is applicable beyond the local setting and contributes to societal and/or professional needs. The problem statement is developed based on the need or gap defined in the Background to the Study section.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Background of the Study
Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page

The background section of Chapter 1 provides a brief history of the problem.
Provides a summary of results from the prior empirical research on the topic.
Using results, societal needs, recommendations for further study, or needs identified in three to five research studies (primarily from the last three years), the learner identifies the stated need, called a gap.
Builds a justification for the current study, using a logical set of arguments supported by citations.
The problem is discussed as applicable beyond the local setting and contributes to societal and/or professional needs.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Problem Statement Comment by GCU: Levels of headings must accurately reflect the organization of the paper [3.02–3.03].
For example, this is a level 2 heading, and has been “styled” as Heading 2.

Research problems are socially constructed, meaning that a problem may not be considered one until society recognizes it as a problem. For example, spousal abuse was recognized as a problem after women earned more rights. Research problems are not determined only by how much one knows about it, but by the need to investigate phenomena that affect people in order to improve their lives (Krysik & Flynn, 2013).

The Problem Statement section begins with a declarative statement of the problem under study, such as “It is not known if and to what degree/extent…” or “It is not known how/why…”

Other examples are:

It is not known _____.

Absent from the literature is______.

While the literature indicates ____________, it is not known in (school/district/organization/community) if __________. Comment by GCU: Format bulleted lists using the style “List Bullet.”
The preferences for this style are: Numbered or bullets are indented .25 inch from the left margin, subsequent lines are indented further to .25 inches. Each number or bullet ends with a period. These preferences have been set in this dissertation template.

This section then describes general population affected by the problem along with the importance, scope or opportunity for the problem and the importance of addressing the problem. Questions to consider when writing the problem include:

What is the need in the world or gap in the literature that this problem statement addresses?

What is the real issue that is affecting society, students, organizations?

At what frequency is the problem occurring?

What is the extent of human suffering that the problem produces?

Why has the problem received lack of attention in the past?

What does the literature and research say about the problem that can and should be addressed at this time?

What are the negative outcomes that this issue is addressing?

This section ends with a description of the unit of analysis, which is the phenomenon, individuals, group or organization under study. Specifically, at the conceptual level, the unit of analysis is the entity/thing (social organization, community, group, individual, social artifacts, policies/principles, or phenomenon) that the researcher wants to be able to say something about. It is the main focus of the study. The unit of analysis is that which the researcher is studying. At the implementation level, the unit of analysis gets determined and defined by the research question/problem statement.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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Problem Statement
Minimum three or four paragraphs or approximately one page

States the specific problem proposed for research with a clear declarative statement.
Discusses the problem statement in relation to the gap or need in the world, considering such issues as: real issues affecting society, students, or organizations; the frequency that the problem occurs; the extent of human suffering the problem produces, the perceived lack of attention in the past; the discussion of the problem in the literature and research about what should be addressed vis à vis the problem; the negative outcomes the issue addresses.

Describes the general population affected by the problem. The general population refers to all individuals that could be affected by the study problem.
Example: All older adults in the US who are 65 yrs. or older. The target population is a more specific sub-population of interest from the general population, such as low income older adults (≥ 65 yrs.) in AZ. Thus, the sample is derived from the target population, not from the general one.

Describes the unit of analysis, which is the phenomenon, individuals, group or organization under study.

Discusses the importance, scope, or opportunity for the problem and the importance of addressing the problem.

The problem statement is developed based on the need or gap defined in the Background to the Study section.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Purpose of the Study

The Purpose of the Study section of Chapter 1 provides a reflection of the problem statement and identifies how the study will be accomplished. It explains how the proposed study will contribute to the field. The section begins with a declarative statement, “The purpose of this study is….” Included in this statement are also the research design, target population, variables (quantitative) or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied, and the geographic location. Further, the section clearly defines the variables, relationship of variables, or comparison of groups for quantitative studies. For qualitative studies, this section describes the nature of the phenomenon/a to be explored. Keep in mind that the purpose of the study is restated in other chapters of the dissertation and should be worded exactly as presented in this section of Chapter 1. Comment by GCU: Note: Each paragraph of the dissertation must 3-5 sentences at minimum, and no longer than one manuscript page [3.08].

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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Chair Score

Methodologist Score

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PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Minimum two to three paragraphs

Begins with one sentence that identifies the research methodology and design, target population, variables (quantitative) or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied and geographic location.
This can be presented as a declarative statement: “The purpose of this study is….” that identifies the research methodology and design, population, variables (quantitative) or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied and geographic location.

Describes the target population and geographic location.

Quantitative Studies
: Defines the variables and relationship of variables.

Qualitative Studies: Describes the nature of the phenomena to be explored.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

Comment by GCU: Insert the correct heading based on the methodology for your study. Qualitative studies use the header “Research Questions”; Quantitative and Mixed Method studies use the header “Research Questions and Hypotheses.”

This section narrows the focus of the study and specifies the research questions to address the problem statement. Based on the research questions, it describes the variables or groups and their hypothesized relationship for a quantitative study or the phenomena under investigation for a qualitative study. The research questions and hypotheses should be derived from, and are directly aligned with, the problem statement and theoretical foundation (theory(s) or model(s). The Research Questions and/or Hypotheses section of Chapter 1 will be presented again in Chapter 3 to provide clear continuity for the reader and to help frame data analysis in Chapter 4.

If the study is qualitative, state the research questions the study will answer, and describe the phenomenon to be studied. Qualitative studies will typically have one overarching research question with three or more subquestions. If the study is quantitative or mixed methods, state the research questions the study will answer, identify the variables, and state the hypotheses (predictive statements) using the format appropriate for the specific design. For quantitative studies, the research questions align with the purpose statement. Quantitative studies will typically have three or four research questions and associated hypotheses; mixed method studies can use both, depending on the design.

In a paragraph prior to listing the research questions or hypotheses, include a discussion of the research questions, relating them to the problem statement. Then, include a leading phrase to introduce the questions such as: The following research questions guide this qualitative study:

RQ1: This is an example of how a qualitative research question should align within the text of the manuscript. Indent .25 inches from the left margin. Text that wraps around to the next line is indented using the Hanging Indent feature at .5.” Comment by GCU: Indent .25 inches from the left margin. Text that wraps around to the next line is indented using the Hanging Indent feature at .25.” The style for this is “List RQ.”
Note: For the GCU template, the research questions and hypotheses are double spaced and do not follow the APA number or bullet list format for line spacing.

RQ2: Add a research question here following the format above. Additional research questions should follow the same format.

Or, for a quantitative study the research questions are formatted as below. The following research question and hypotheses guide this quantitative study:

RQ1: This is an example of how a quantitative research questions and hypotheses should align within the text of the manuscript. Indent .25 inches from the left margin. Text that wraps around to the next line is indented using the Hanging Indent feature at .5.” Comment by GCU: Use the “Style” called “List RQ to format the RQs and hypotheses.

H01: The null hypothesis that aligns to the research question is listed here. Comment by GCU: The null hypothesis is listed before the alternative hypothesis.

H1a: The alternative hypothesis that aligns to the research question and null hypothesis is listed here. Repeat this pattern for each quantitative research question and associated hypotheses.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Research Question(s) and/or Hypotheses
Minimum two to three paragraphs or approximately one page

Qualitative Studies:
States the research question(s) the study will answer and describes the phenomenon to be studied. Note: The research questions provide guidance for the data which will be collected to answer the research questions; they do not identify the instruments.

This section includes a discussion of the research questions, relating them to the problem statement. The research questions need to be connected to the theory(s) or model(s) from the theoretical foundation section, as well.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study

The Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study section identifies the “gap” or “need” in the literature that was used to define the problem statement and develop the research questions. Further, it describes how the study will address the “gap” or “identified need.” The section describes how the research fits with and will contribute to or advance the current literature or body of research. Although this advancement may be a small step forward in a line of current research, it must add to the current body of knowledge and align to the learner’s program of study. The section also discusses the implications of the potential results based on the research questions and problem statement, hypotheses, or the investigated phenomena. Further, it describes the potential practical applications from the research. The section identifies the theory(ies) or model(s) that provide the theoretical foundations or conceptual frameworks for the study. Finally, it connects the study directly to the theory and describes how the study will add or extend the theory or model.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

ADVANCING SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE and SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
(Minimum one to two pages)

Clearly identifies the “gap” or “need” in the literature that was used to define the problem statement and develop the research questions.

Describes how the study will address the “gap” or “identified need” defined in the literature and contribute to the body of literature.

Describes how the research fits with and will contribute to or advance the current literature or body of research

Describes the potential practical applications from the research.

Identifies the theory(ies) or model(s) that provide the theoretical foundations or conceptual frameworks for the study.

Connects the study directly to the theory and describes how the study will add or extend the theory or model.

Describes how addressing the problem will add value to the population, community, or society.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Rationale for Methodology

The Rationale for Methodology section of Chapter 1 clearly justifies the methodology the researcher plans to use for conducting the study. It argues how the methodological choice (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods) is the best approach to answer the research questions and address the problem statement. Finally, it contains citations from textbooks and articles on research methodology and/or articles on related studies to provide evidence to support the argument for the selected methodology.

For qualitative designs, this section states the research question(s) the study will answer and describes the phenomenon to be studied. For quantitative designs, this section describes the research questions the study will answer, identifies and describes the variables, and states the hypotheses (predictive statements) using the format appropriate for the specific design. Finally, this section includes a discussion of the research questions, relating them to the problem statement. This section should illustrate how the selected methodology is aligned with the problem statement, providing additional context for the study.

Criterion*

(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Rationale for Methodology
(Minimum two to three paragraphs)

Identifies the specific research methodology for the study.

Justifies the methodology to be used for the study by discussing why it is an appropriate approach for answering the research question(s) and addressing the problem statement.

Quantitative Studies:
Justify in terms of problem statement and the variables for which data will be collected.

Qualitative Studies:
Justify in terms of problem statement and phenomenon.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

This section describes the specific research design to answer the research questions and why this approach was selected. Here, the learner discusses why the selected design is the best design to address the problem statement and research questions as compared to other designs. This section contains a description of the research sample being studied, as well as, the process that will be used to collect the data on the sample. The design section succinctly conveys the research approach to answer the research questions and/or test the hypotheses. This entails the learner describing the unit(s) of observation, which may be individuals, groups, documents, artifacts, databases, based on the data collection plan and instruments/sources. At the conceptual level, the unit of observation is the entity or thing (organization, individual, condition) the researcher will observe, measure and/or collect data on. The unit of observation is that which the researcher will collect data on. At the implementation level, the unit(s) of observation is/are determined and defined by the data collection approach(es).

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Nature of the Research Design for the Study
Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Identifies and describes the selected design for the study.

Justifies why the selected design addresses the problem statement and research questions.

Quantitative Studies:
Justifies the selected design based on the appropriateness of the design to address the research questions and data for each variable.

Qualitative Studies:
Justifies the selected design based on appropriateness of design to address research questions and study the phenomenon.

Briefly describes the target population and sample for the study.

Identifies the sources and instruments that will be used to collect data needed to answer the research questions.

Briefly describes data collection procedures to collect data on the sample.

Describes the unit(s) of observation, which may be individuals, groups, documents, artifacts, databases, based on the data collection plan and instruments/sources. For example, units of observation may be individuals or documents.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Definition of Terms

The Definition of Terms section of Chapter 1 defines the study constructs and provides a common understanding of the technical terms, exclusive jargon, variables, phenomena, concepts, and technical terminology used within the scope of the study. Terms are defined in lay terms and in the context in which they are used within the study. Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph in length. This section includes any words that may be unknown to a lay person (words with unusual or ambiguous meanings or technical terms).

Definitions must be supported with citations from scholarly sources. Do not use Wikipedia to define terms. This popular “open source” online encyclopedia can be helpful and interesting for the layperson, but it is not appropriate for formal academic research and writing. Additionally, do not use dictionaries to define terms. A paragraph introducing this section prior to listing the definition of terms can be inserted. However, a lead-in phrase is needed to introduce the terms such as: “The following terms were used operationally in this study.” This is also a good place to “operationally define” unique phrases specific to this research. See below for the correct format:

Abbreviations. Do not use periods with abbreviated measurements, (e.g., cd, ft, lb, mi, and min). The exception to this rule is to use a period when abbreviated inch (in.) to avoid confusion with the word “in.” Units of measurement and statistical abbreviations should only be abbreviated when accompanied by numerical values, e.g., 7 mg, 12 mi, M = 7.5 measured in milligrams, several miles after the exit, the means were determined [4.27]. Comment by GCU: All terms should be styled as Heading 4 (level 4 headings).

Spaces. Do not use periods or spaces in abbreviations of all capital letters unless the abbreviation is a proper name or refers to participants using identity-concealing labels. The exception to this rule is that a period is used when abbreviating the United States as an adjective. Use a period if the abbreviation is a Latin abbreviation or a reference abbreviation [4.02]. Use standard newspaper practice when presenting AM and PM times, as in 7:30 PM or 6:00 AM.

Term. Write the definition of the word. This is considered a Level 4 heading., Make sure the definition is properly cited (Author, 2010, p.123). Terms often use abbreviations. According to the American Psychological Association [APA] (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010), abbreviations are best used only when they allow for clear communication with the audience. Standard abbreviations, such as units of measurement and names of states, do not need to be written out. APA also allows abbreviations that appear as words in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2005) to be used without explanation [4.22-4.30]. Comment by GCU: It is vital to include page numbers with in-text citations: “p.” for a single page, “pp.” for more than one page (e.g., p.12, and pp. 123-124).
NOTE: Page or paragraph numbers are included with a direct quote.

Time units. Only certain units of time should be abbreviated. Do abbreviate hr, min, ms, ns, s. However, do not abbreviate day, week, month, and year [4.27]. To form the plural of abbreviations, add “s” alone without apostrophe or italicization (e.g., vols, IQs, Eds). The exception to this rule is not to add “s” to pluralize units of measurement (12 m not 12 ms) [4.29].

Criterion*

(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Definitions of Terms
(Each definition may be a few sentences to a paragraph.)

Defines any words that may be unknown to a lay person (words with unusual or ambiguous meanings or technical terms) from the research or literature.

Defines the variables for a quantitative study or the phenomena for a qualitative study from the research or literature.

Definitions are supported with citations from scholarly sources.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations

This section identifies the assumptions and specifies the limitations, as well as the delimitations, of the study. Define the terms and then list the limitations, delimitations and assumptions. Provide a rationale for all statements.

Assumptions. An assumption is a self-evident truth. This section lists what is assumed to be true about the information gathered in the study. State the assumptions being accepted for the study which may be methodological, theoretical, or topic-specific. Provide a rationale for each assumption. Additionally, identify any potential negative consequences of the assumptions for the study. For example, the following assumptions were present in this study: Comment by GCU: This heading is formatted according to APA Level 3 heading (style: “Heading 3”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table of contents
The preferences have been set for this style; those preferences are: 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, Lowercase Heading. [See 3.03]

1. It is assumed that survey participants in this study were not deceptive with their answers, and that the participants answered questions honestly and to the best of their ability. Provide an explanation to support this assumption. Comment by GCU: Formatting numbered lists: Use the style, set in this template, called “List Number.” It has been set up according to the following specifications:
Indent .25 inches from the left margin. Text that wraps around to the next line is indented using the Hanging Indent feature at .5.” Each number or bullet ends with a period. Bullet lists use “List Bullet” Style. Numbered lists use “List Number” Style.

1. It is assumed that this study is an accurate representation of the current situation in rural southern Arizona. Provide an explanation to support this assumption.

Limitations and delimitations. Limitations are things that the researcher has no control over, such as bias. In contrast, delimitations are things over which the researcher has control, such as location of the study. Identify the limitations and delimitations of the research design. Provide a rationale for each limitation and delimitation, discuss associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability of the findings based on the limitations and delimitations. Address study limitations inherent in the method, study design, sampling strategy, data collection approach or instruments, and data analysis. For example: The following limitations/delimitations were present in this study:

Lack of funding limited the scope of this study. Provide an explanation to support this limitation. Discuss associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability of the findings.

2. The survey of high school students was delimited to only rural schools in one county within southern Arizona, limiting the demographic sample. Provide an explanation to support this delimitation. Discuss associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability of the findings.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

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Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
(Minimum three to four paragraphs)

Provides a definition of the terms: assumptions, limitations, assumption, limitation and delimitations at the beginning of each section.

States the assumptions being accepted for the study (methodological, theoretical, and topic-specific).
Provides a rationale for each assumption.

Identifies limitations of the research method, design sampling strategy, data collection approach, instruments and data analysis.
Provides a rationale for each limitation.
Discusses associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability of the findings.

Identifies delimitations of the research design and associated consequences for the generalizability and applicability of the findings.
Provides a rationale for each delimitation.

The section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Summary

and Organization of the Remainder of the Study

This section summarizes the key points of Chapter 1 and provides supporting citations for those key points. It then provides a transition discussion to Chapter 2 followed by a description of the remaining chapters. For example, Chapter 2 will present a review of current research on the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Chapter 3 will describe the methodology, research design, and procedures for this investigation. Chapter 4 details how the data was analyzed and provides both a written and graphic summary of the results. Chapter 5 is an interpretation and discussion of the results, as it relates to the existing body of research related to the dissertation topic. For the proposal, this section should also provide a timeline for completing the research and writing up the dissertation. When the dissertation is complete, this section should be revised to eliminate the timeline information. Comment by GCU: When it is necessary to divide a paragraph at the end of the page, two lines must appear at the bottom of the page (widow) and two at the top of the following page (orphan). This is called “widow/orphan” control, and has been set up on the Normal Style in this template.

Criterion*
(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

Chapter 1 Summary and Organization of the remainder of the study
(Minimum one to two pages)

Summarizes key points presented in Chapter 1.

Provides citations from scholarly sources to support key points.

Describes the remaining Chapters and provides a transition discussion to Chapter 2. For proposal only, a timeline for completing the research and dissertation is provided.

The chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.

All research presented in the chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited, and included in the reference page according to APA standards.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Chapter 2: Literature Review Comment by GCU: This chapter should be an exhaustive review of the literature, minimum of 30 pages, but likely much longer as you need to continue to add and synthesize the most recent publications related to your research topic. Comment by GCU: Use INSERTPage Break to set new page for new chapter.
Do not use hard returns to get there.
Do not insert a section break.

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem

This chapter presents the theoretical framework for the study and develops the topic, specific research problem, question(s), and design elements. In order to perform significant dissertation research, the learner must first understand the literature related to the research focus. A well-articulated, thorough literature review provides the foundation for a substantial, contributory dissertation. The purpose of Chapter 2 is to develop a well-documented argument for the selection of the research topic, to formulate the research questions, and to justify the choice of research methodology. A literature review is a synthesis of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is not an expanded annotated bibliography or a summary of research articles related to thru topic.

The literature review will place the research focus into context by analyzing and discussing the existing body of knowledge and effectively telling the reader everything that is known, or everything that has been discovered in research about that focus, and where the gaps and tensions in the research exist. As a piece of writing, the literature review must convey to the reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and build an argument in support of the research problem.

This section describes the overall topic to be investigated, outlines the approach taken for the literature review, and the evolution of the problem based on the “gap” or “need” defined in the literature from its origination to its current form. Make sure the Introduction and Background section of the literature review addresses all required criterion listed in the table below. Learners may want to create a subsection title for the Introduction section and for the Background to the Problem section to provide clarity to the reader.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION (TO THE CHAPTER) AND BACKGROUND (TO THE PROBLEM)
(Minimum two to three pages)

Introduction
: Provides an orienting paragraph so the reader knows what the literature review will address.

Introduction
: Describes how the chapter will be organized (including the specific sections and subsections).

Introduction:
Describes how the literature was surveyed so the reader can evaluate thoroughness of the review. This includes search terms and databases used.

Background:
Discusses how the problem has evolved historically into its current form.

Background
: Describes the “gap” or “need” defined in the current literature and how it leads to the creation of the topic and problem statement for the study. Note: This section should be a significant expansion on the Background to the Problem section in Chapter 1.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Identification of the Gap

All learners must identify a gap or stated need for their authentic dissertation research. The gap, or stated need, for the dissertation is the difference between what is known in a field of research and what is not yet known. The gap is created by synthesizing the literature related to a societal need and/or broad topic. The stated need is defined from the literature from recent years, usually within the last five years. Lack of research on a topic is not a reason to do a dissertation. Just because something has not been researched does not mean it should be. Therefore, the learner must be “well read” on their topic to identify ways their study will add to the existing body of knowledge on the topic.

There are a variety of ways to synthesize the literature to define the gap. Below is a set of steps that may be used:

First, explore original literature on this “societal” or big problem to determine has been discovered and what still needs to be discovered. Then, summarize and compare and contrast, the original literature on this problem.

Second, while exploring the original literature identify the broad topics and problems researched. Explore the evolution of the research on the problem. How did the focus change? What findings emerged from these studies?

Third, describe the research from the past 2 to 3 years to discover what has been discovered, and elaborate to discuss what still needs to be researched or discovered. Discuss the trends and themes that emerged. What has been discovered? What do researchers say still needs to be researched or discovered?

Fourth, define the proposed topic and problem statement, by synthesizing the recent studies, including trends, limitations, and defined future research needs.

While the verbiage in this section highlights a set of steps designed to help GCU doctoral learners identify the gap or need for their study, there are other methods that can be used. These include replication studies, recommendations for future research from prior studies and literature reviews, adding to a broadly researched area, reframing problems and synthesizing areas of research to define a new or innovative area of research. This section must clearly identify the specific sources that form the basis for the gap. Learners can access further information on these strategies in the Doctoral Community, dc.gcu.edu, under the Residency tab, and GCU e-Book (Grand Canyon University, 2017b).

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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CHAPTER 2: IDENTIFICATION OF THE GAP
(Minimum two pages)

Summarizes the “societal” or big problem. Highlights what has been discovered and what still needs to be discovered related to the topic from literature or research dated within the last five years.

Discusses and synthesizes the evolution of the research on the problem. Specifically:
· Identifies the key sources used as the basis for the gap
· Identifies trends in research and literature.
· Identifies how the research focus has changed over the recent past (five years).
· Discusses key findings that emerged from recent studies.
· Discusses limitations or prior research and defined future research needs.

From the findings of research studies and evolution of recent literature on the topic, defines the problem statement for the study.

Reviewer Comments:

Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework

This section identifies and discusses the theory(ies) or model(s) that provide the foundation for the research study. It also contains an explanation of how the problem under investigation relates to the theory or model. The seminal source for each theory or model presented in this section should be identified and described.

For a quantitative study, the theory(ies) or models(s) guide the research question(s), justify what is being measured (variables), and describe how those variables are related. In a qualitative study, the theory(ies) or model(s) guide the research question(s) and help describe the phenomena being investigated (qualitative). This section also includes a discussion of how the research question(s) align with the respective theory(ies) or model(s) and illustrates how the study fits within the prior research based on the theory(ies) or model(s).

The learner should cite references reflective of the foundational, historical, and current literature in the field. Seminal works are usually more than five years old; it is important to include those, as well as relevant, more recent literature on the theory. Overall, the presentation in this section should reflect that the learner understands the theory or model and its relevance to the proposed study. The discussion should also reflect knowledge and familiarity with the historical development of the theory.

Criterion

*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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theoretical foundations and/or conceptual framework
(Minimum two to three pages)

Identifies a model(s) or theory(ies) from seminal source(s) that provide a reasonable conceptual framework or theoretical foundation to use in developing the research questions, identifying variables/phenomena, and selecting data collection instruments.

Cites the appropriate seminal source(s) for each theory or model.

Includes a cogent discussion/synthesis of the theory or model and justifies the theoretical foundation/framework as relevant to the study. Connects the study directly to the theory and describes how the study will add or extend the theory or model.

Quantitative Studies: Have one theory for each variable. For example, use the model the survey is based on. Use the theory or model upon which the instrument is based.
Distinguishes between the model/theories being used for research questions and data collection versus the background models and theories generically relevant to the study.

Builds a logical argument of how the research questions are developed based on the theoretical foundation for the study.

Reflects understanding of the foundational, historical, research relevant to the theoretical foundation/framework.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Review of the Literature

This section provides a broad, balanced overview of the existing literature related to the proposed research topic. The Review of Literature identifies themes, trends, and conflicts in research methodology, design, and findings. It provides a synthesis of the existing literature, examines the contributions of the literature related to the topic, and justifies the methodological approaches used for the research based on related empirical studies. Through this synthesis, the researcher applies this information to define the research gaps as well as to the creation of the plan and approach for their proposed study.

Citations are provided for all ideas, concepts, and perspectives. The researcher’s personal opinions or perspectives are not included. Chapter 2 must be a minimum of 30 pages in length. However, it is important to note that a well-written comprehensive literature review will likely exceed this minimum requirement. The literature review must be continuously updated throughout the dissertation research and writing process. Chapter 2 needs to include a minimum of 50 peer-reviewed, empirical research articles, and 75% of all references within this chapter (and in proposal/dissertation) must be within the past five years. Seventy five percent (75%) of the sources must be dated within five years of the proposal defense date and five years of the dissertation defense date, and updated as appropriate at the time of the dissertation defense. Other requirements for the literature review include:

Quantitative study: Describes each research variable in the study discussing the prior empirical research that has been done on the variable(s) and the relationship between variables.

Qualitative study: Describes the phenomena being explored in the study discussing the prior research that has been done on the phenomena.

Discusses the various methodologies and designs that have been used to research topics related to the study. Uses this information to justify the proposed design.

Argues the appropriateness of the dissertation’s instruments, measures, and/or approaches used to collect data.

Discusses and synthesizes studies related to the proposed dissertation topic. This may include (1) studies describing and/or relating the variables (quantitative) or exploring related phenomena (qualitative), (2) studies on related research such as factors associated with the themes, (3) studies on the instruments used to collect data, (4) studies on the broad population for the study, and/or (5) studies similar to the proposed study. The themes presented and research studies discussed and synthesized in the Review of Literature demonstrates a deep understanding of all aspects of the research topic. The set of topics discussed in the Review of Literature must demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the broad area in which the research topic exists.

Discusses and synthesizes the various methodologies and designs that have been used in prior empirical research related to the study. Must use authoritative sources information to justify the proposed design. Provides discussion and justification for the instrumentation selected for the study. This section must argue the appropriateness of the dissertation’s instruments, measures, and/or approaches used to collect data. Empirical research must be used to justify the selection of instrument(s).

Each major section in the Review of Literature includes an introductory paragraph that explains why the particular topic was explored relative to the dissertation topic.

Each major section in the Literature Review includes a summary paragraph(s) that (1) compares and contrasts alternative perspectives on the topic, (2) provides a synthesis of the themes relative to the research topic discussed that emerged from the literature, (3) discusses data from the various studies, and (4) identifies how themes are relevant to the proposed dissertation topic.

The types of references that may be used in the literature review include empirical articles, a limited number of dissertations (no more than 5), peer-reviewed or scholarly journal articles, and books (no more than 5-10) that present cutting-edge views on a topic, are research based, or are seminal works.

Provides additional arguments for the need for the study that was defined in the Background to the Problem section.

The body of a literature review can be organized in a variety of ways depending on the nature of the research. However, clearly explain the approach taken to the organization and flow of the topics for the Review of Literature section, explaining the organization in an introductory section for the Review of Literature. Learners will work with the chair and committee to determine the best way to organize this section of Chapter 2 as it pertains to the research design. Make sure to include a section for methodology and instrumentation (see the rubrics, below).

Chapter 2 can be particularly challenging with regard to APA format for citations and quotations. Refer to the APA manual frequently to make sure citations are formatted properly. It is critical that each in-text citation is appropriately listed in the Reference section. Incorrectly citing and referencing sources is a serious scholarly and ethical violation, particularly at the doctoral level when writing the dissertation. As an emerging scholar, learners must demonstrate the capability and responsibility to properly cite and reference every single source referenced in the literature review and in throughout the dissertation! Note that all in-text citations within parentheses must be listed in alphabetical order with semicolons between each citation (e.g., Barzun & Graff, 1992; Calabrese, 2006; Hacker, Somers, Jehn, & Rosenzweig, 2008; Mason, 2010; Nock, 1943; Squires & Kranyik, 1995; Strunk & White, 1979).

As a rule, if a direct quote comprises fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into the narrative and enclose it with double quotation marks. The in-text citation is included after the final punctuation mark [6.03]. The final punctuation mark in quoted text should be placed inside the quotation mark.

For a quote within a quote, use a set of single quotation marks. Here is an example of a direct quote within a quote integrated into the narrative. In the classic introspective autobiography, The
Memoirs of a Superfluous Man, one reads that, “one never knows when or where the spirit’s breathe will rest, or what will come of its touch. ‘The spirit breathes where it will,’ said the Santissimo
Salvatore, ‘and thou hearest the sound thereof, but cannot tell whence it cometh or whither it goeth.’” (Nock, 1943, p.187) [4.08]. Comment by GCU: Book titles, periodicals, films, videos, television shows, and non-English words and phrases appear in italics. [4.21]
Names of the titles of short articles and essays appearing in periodicals are set off by quotation marks. Comment by GCU: In addition to non-English phrases, acts, wars and treaty names appear in italics. [4.21]

As a rule, if a quote comprises 40 or more words, display this material as a freestanding block quote. Start formal block quotes on a new line. They are indented one inch in from the left margin. The entire block quote is double-spaced. Quotation marks are not used with formal block quotes. The in-text citation is included after the final punctuation mark. [6.03]. Below is an example of a block quote: In an important biography, The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin, historian H. W. Brands writes:

In February 1731, Franklin became a Freemason. Shortly thereafter, he volunteered to draft the bylaws for the embryonic local chapter, named for St. John the Baptist; upon acceptance of the bylaws, he was elected Warden and subsequently Master of the Lodge. Within three years, he became Grandmaster of all of Pennsylvania’s Masons. Not unforeseeable he—indeed, this was much of the purpose of membership for everyone involved—his fellow Masons sent business Franklin’s way. In 1734 he printed The Constitutions, the first formerly sponsored Masonic book in America; he derived additional [printing] work from his brethren on an unsponsored basis. (Brands, 2000, p. 113) Comment by GCU: Block quotes are indented .5 inches. To create a block quote, highlight the entire paragraph and click on the “increase indent” button.

Methodology and instrumentation/data sources/research materials. The final section of Chapter 2 focuses on the methodologies and instrumentation in the empirical studies reviewed in Chapter 2. Unlike the methodology and instrumentation sections in Chapters 1 and 3, this section provides a clear overview of how the empirical studies in the literature review were conducted. This provides evidence for the methodology and instrumentation the learner selects for the study. For example, the key studies may show which instruments were used for studies on particular forms of leadership, and the discussion would point out how such instruments were used and why. That may support an argument by the learner about his or her choice of instrument for the study.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
(Minimum 30 pages)

This section must be a minimum of 30 pages. The purpose of the minimum number of pages is to ensure that the overall literature review reflects a foundational understanding of the theory or theories, literature and research studies related to the topic. A well-written comprehensive literature review that reflects the current state of research and literature on the topic is expected and will likely exceed 30 pages. Literature reviews should be updated continuously. This is an ongoing process to dissertation completion.

Quantitative Studies:
Describes each research variable in the study discussing the prior empirical research that has been done on the variables and the relationship between the variables.

Qualitative Studies:
Describes the phenomena being explored in the study discussing the prior research that has been done on the phenomena.

Themes or Topics (Required):
Discusses and synthesizes studies related to the proposed dissertation topic. May include (1) studies focused on the problem from a societal perspective, (2) studies describing and/or relating the variables (quantitative) or exploring related phenomena (qualitative), (3) studies on related research such as factors associated with the themes, (4) studies on the instruments used to collect data, (5) studies on the broad population for the study, and/or (6) studies similar to the proposed study. The themes presented and research studies discussed and synthesized in the Review of Literature demonstrates understanding of all aspects of the research topic and the research methodology.

Methodologies used in prior research on the topic (required):
Section is built on prior research studies and does not include references to methodology books and articles. What other methods have been done in similar studies on the topic?
Discusses and synthesizes the various methods that have been used in prior empirical research related to the study to present the best methodology for the proposed study. This section demonstrates broad understanding of methodologies used in research area.

Instruments/data sources/research materials used in prior studies on the topic (required):
Provides discussion of instruments, sources of data or research materials used in closely-related empirical studies on the topic (dated within last 3 to 5 years).
Demonstrates understanding of the instruments used in prior studies on the topic.
Synthesizes the information to recommend the instruments to be used for the study.

Structures literature review in a logical order, including actual data and accurate synthesis of results from reviewed studies as related to the learners own topic. Provides synthesis of the information not just a summary of the findings.

Includes in each major section (theme or topic) within the Review of Literature an introductory paragraph that explains why the particular topic or theme was explored relative to the overall dissertation topic.

Includes in each section within the Review of Literature a summary paragraph(s) that (1) compares and contrasts alternative perspectives on the topic and (2) provides a synthesis of the themes relative to the research topic discussed that emerged from the literature, and (3) identifies how themes are relevant to the proposed dissertation topic and research methodology.

Provides additional arguments for the need for the study that was defined in the Background to the Problem section.

Ensures that for every in-text citation a reference entry exists. Conversely, for every reference list entry there is a corresponding in-text citation. Note: The accuracy of citations and quality of sources must be verified by learner, chair and committee members.

Uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and government/foundation research reports. Note: A minimum of 50 peer-reviewed, empirical research articles are required for the literature review.

Verifies that 75% of all references are scholarly sources within the past 5 years for the proposal and 5 years for the dissertation. The 5-year time frame is referenced at the time of the proposal defense date and at the time of the dissertation defense date. Note: Websites, dictionaries, publications without dates (n.d.), are not considered scholarly sources and should not be cited or present in reference list.

Avoids overuse of books and dissertations. Comment by GCU: When citing books and dissertations this implies that you have read the entire book or dissertation. Be mindful of this as you select sources. Dissertations are not considered peer-reviewed research, so limit the number of referenced dissertations to 3-5 total.

Books:
Maximum of 10 scholarly books that present cutting edge views on a topic, are research based, or are seminal works.

Dissertations:
Maximum of 5 published dissertations.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Summary

This section succinctly restates what was written in Chapter 2 and provides supporting citations for key points. The summary section reflects that the learner has done his/her “due diligence” to become well-read on the topic and can conduct a study that will add to the existing body of research and knowledge on the topic. It synthesizes the information from the chapter to define the “gaps” in or “identified research needs” arising from the literature, the theory(is) or model(s) to provide the foundation for the study, the problem statement, the primary research question, the methodology, the design, the variables or phenomena, the data collection instruments or sources, and the population to be studied. Overall, this section should help the reader clearly see and understand the relevance and importance of the research to be conducted. The criteria listed in the table below are required for this section. The Summary section transitions to Chapter 3 by building a case for the study, in terms of research design and rigor, and it formulates the research questions based on the gaps and tensions in the literature.

Criterion

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Chapter 2 Summary
(Minimum one to two pages)

Synthesizes the information from all prior sections in the Literature Review using it to define the key strategic points for the research.

Summarizes the gaps and needs in the background and introduction describing how it informs the problem statement.

Identifies the theory(ies) or model(s) describing how they inform the research questions.

Justifies the methodology, design, variables or phenomena, data collection instruments or sources, and population to be studied.

Builds a case (argument) for the study in terms of the value of the research and how the research questions emerged from the review of literature.

Reflects that the learner has done his or her “due diligence” to synthesize the existing empirical research and write a comprehensive literature review on the research topic.

Summarizes key points in Chapter 2 and transitions into Chapter 3.

The chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.

All research presented in the chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected, academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited and included in the reference page according to APA standards.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

Chapter 3 documents how the study is conducted in enough detail so that replication by others is possible. The introduction begins with a summary of the research focus and purpose statement to reintroduce the reader to the study. This can be summarized in three to four sentences from Chapter 1. This section also outlines the expectations for this chapter.

Remember, throughout this chapter, that verb tense must be changed from present or future tense (proposal) to past tense (dissertation manuscript). At the dissertation stage, all comments regarding “the proposed research” or “the proposal” must be removed and edited to reflect the fact that the research has been conducted. Furthermore, consider what happened during data collection and analysis. Sometimes, the research protocol ends up being modified based on committee, AQR review, or Institutional Review Board (IRB) recommendations. After the research study is complete, make sure this chapter reflects how the study was actually conducted.

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CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION
(Minimum two to three paragraphs)

The introduction restates the purpose statement to the study. This section also outlines the expectations for this chapter.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Statement of the Problem

This section restates the research problem for the convenience of the reader. Then, edit, blend, and integrate the problem statement into a narrative discussion that addresses how the problem statement addresses the gap in the literature, as described in the Problem Statement section in Chapter 1. Change future tense in proposals to past tense for dissertation manuscripts.

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
(Minimum one to two paragraphs)

The research problem (Problem Statement) is restated for the convenience of the reader from Chapter 1.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

This section restates the research question(s) (qualitative and quantitative) and the hypotheses (quantitative) for the study from Chapter 1. For a quantitative study, it then presents the matching hypotheses and explains the variables. For a qualitative study, it then describes the phenomena to be understood as a result of the study. The section also briefly discusses the approaches to collecting the data to answer the research questions. For a quantitative study, it describes the instrument(s) or data source(s) to collect the data for each and every variable. The variables are described at the conceptual, operational and measurement levels. For example, a conceptual level of a variable in a school setting may be student achievement. The operational level of the variable may be student performance in social studies. The measurement level for the variable may be individual student scores on the high stakes test, or percentage of overall students passing the test (at the school level).

For a qualitative study, this describes the instrument(s) or data source(s) to collect the data to answer each research question. It also discusses why the design was selected to be the best approach to answer the research questions, test the hypotheses (quantitative), or understand the phenomena (qualitative). Remember to change future tense to past tense for dissertation manuscripts.

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESES
(Minimum one to two pages)

Qualitative Studies: Restates the research questions and the phenomena for the study from Chapter 1.

Quantitative Studies:
Describes the variables, at the conceptual, operational and measurement levels, then restates the research questions from Chapter 1, and presents the matching hypotheses.

Describes the nature and sources of necessary data to answer the research questions (primary versus secondary data, specific people, institutional archives, Internet open sources, etc.).

Quantitative Studies:
Describes the data collection methods, instrument(s) or data source(s) to collect the data for each variable.

Qualitative Studies
: Describes the data collection methods, instruments, and/or data sources to collect the data to answer each research question.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Methodology

This section describes the research methodology for the study (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed) and explains the rationale for selecting this particular methodology. It also describes why this methodology was selected as opposed to the alternative methodologies. This section should elaborate on the Methodology section (from Chapter 1) providing the rationale for the selected research method (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed). This section may bring in additional arguments based on the empirical studies used in the Methodology section in Chapter 2. This section justifies why the selected methodology is better than the alternative methodologies. Arguments are supported by citations from articles and books on research methodology and/or design. It is also appropriate in this section to outline the predicted results in relation to the research questions and hypotheses based on the existing literature. Learners should refer to their course e-books, specifically the RES-866 e-book (Grand Canyon University, 2016), for more information on developing this chapter.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(Minimum one to two pages)

Provides a rationale for the research methodology for the study (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed) based on research books and articles.

Provides a rationale for the selected the methodology based on empirical studies on the topic.

Justifies why the methodology was selected as opposed to alternative methodologies.

Uses authoritative source(s) to justify the selected methodology.
Note:
Do not use introductory research textbooks (such as Creswell) to justify the research design and data analysis approach.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Design

This section elaborates on the nature of the Research Design for the Study section from Chapter 1. It includes a detailed description of, and a rationale for, the specific design for the study and describes how it aligns to the selected methodology indicated in the previous section. GCU core designs for quantitative studies include descriptive/survey, correlational, causal-comparative, quasi-experimental, and experimental. GCU core designs for qualitative designs include case study, narrative, grounded theory, and phenomenological. Additionally, this section must describe why the selected design is the best option to collect the data to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. Learners should refer to their course e-books (Grand Canyon University, 2015, 2016, 2017b), for more information on developing this section.

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RESEARCH DESIGN
(Minimum one to two pages)

Elaborates on the research design from Chapter 1. Provides the rationale for selecting the research design supported by empirical references. Justifies why the design was selected as the best approach to collect the needed data, as opposed to alternative designs.

Quantitative Studies:
Provides the variable structure and states the unit of analysis. and unit of observation. If multiple data sources have different units of observation, specify the key variable for matching cases.

Qualitative Studies:
Provides the unit of analysis and the unit of observation. If multiple data sources have different units of observation, specify the matching cases.
In qualitative study designs the units of analysis (or observation) are each sample participant. In case study design (single or multiple), the unit of analysis is a “bounded system” in its own right. This could include one individual, one family, one group, one community, one school, one policy, one region, one state, one country, etc. The sample may include several participants, but these must be members of a homogeneous unit representing the “bounded system” that is the case study unit.

Uses authoritative source(s) to justify the design.
Note:
Do not use introductory research textbooks (such as Creswell) to justify the research design and data analysis approach.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Population and Sample Selection

This section discusses the setting, the population of interest, target population, and study sample. Researchers should identify each of these explicitly within the section. The discussion of the sample includes the research terminology specific to the type of sampling for the study. This section should include the components listed in the criterion table.

Quantitative sample size. The purpose of computing the sample size for a proposed study is to state the target sample size. The sample size needs to be computed for the unit of analysis. In quantitative studies, it is important to distinguish between the computed minimum sample size (a priori sample size) and the target sample size. The target sample size should be 15-20% larger than the computed minimum sample size. The following steps will be useful:

1. State the computed minimum sample size, and

2. Provide the evidence, which would be one of the following:

a. G*Power output(s) of the sample size computation(s) for the statistical procedure(s) needed to answer the research questions;

b. In case G*Power does not include a planned procedure, the computation can be done using an alternative software. G*Power software, which can be downloaded from this link:

http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html

(Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007; Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner, & Lang, 2009). GCU recommends using an alpha error of 0.05, a medium effect size, and statistical power of 0.80, for calculating the sample size. In rare instances, the learner can justify why their sample may not be that suggested by G-Power and as such it becomes a study limitation. Include a graphic image of the G*Power in an Appendix, with a screen shot.

c. For a nonparametric procedure, the computation for the corresponding parametric procedure + 15% (state this generic rule of thumb with appropriate reference), or

d. Authoritative reference(s) from statistics sources regarding range of sample size for which a specific procedure is appropriate.

e. For repeated measures (using primary data) and longitudinal studies (using secondary data), discuss attrition rate and compute the target sample size (number of complete cases in the final dataset) considering that rate.

Planning ahead. It is important to anticipate that attaining sufficient sample size may not go according to plan. The following steps help researchers develop a plan to handle problems that may (and often do) emerge. For studies with planned parametric statistical procedures, provide the minimum sample for the parametric analysis as well as for the alternative nonparametric analysis, in case the data show major violations in the test(s) of assumption that cannot be resolved. In such a case, retain the largest number as the computed minimum sample size. To be on the safe side, consider the need to discard from the raw data file incomplete cases and outliers—to be able to do that, the target sample size should be 15-20% larger than the computed minimum sample size.

Qualitative sample size. Sample sizes in qualitative research are smaller than those in quantitative research. The criterion table below specifies sample size and adequacy of data for several qualitative research designs. GCU has provided guidelines regarding sample size for each of the core designs, which are based on the traditions of design and analysis in qualitative research (Grand Canyon University, 2015, 2016, 2017a, 2017b). See Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006), and Mason (2010) for two examples that discuss the sufficiency of sample size in qualitative research.

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POPULATION AND SAMPLE SELECTION
(Minimum one to two pages)

Describes:
The population of interest (The group to which the results of the study will be generalized or applicable) (such as police officers in AZ),
The target population from which the sample is selected (such as police officers in AZ who belong to the police fraternal association).
The study sample (individuals drawn from target population who provide final source of data) (final number from whom complete data were collected).

Site Authorization and Recruitment

Describes the process for obtaining site authorization to access the target population.
Describes the site authorization process (what needs to be included in request) confidentiality measures, study participation requirements, and geographic specifics.
If public data sources or social media are used to collect data, although site permission is not required, provide arguments and evidence as to why these sources can be used without site permission.
Describes the sampling strategy and process for recruiting individuals to comprise the sample.

Quantitative Sample Size Requirements

Describes the expected study sample and the proposed and rationale:
An a priori or equivalent analysis and/or post hoc Power Analysis is required to justify the study sample size based on the anticipated effect size and selected design. Certain procedures are applicable for small samples. Those situations must be justified through computation or literature. Justification is based on the selected design and statistical procedures.
G*Power or equivalent computation is required. G*Power software can be downloaded from the link presented below http://www.gpower.hhu.de/en.html using an alpha error of 0.05, a medium effect size and statistical power of 0.80 for each statistical analysis that is proposed.”

For proposals, this section discusses a priori computation and for dissertation, this section discusses both a priori and post hoc computation of statistical power based on actual sample size obtained through data collection. Screenshots of the computation for each statistical test (proposals – a priori and dissertation – a priori and post hoc) should be included in the Appendix
When calculating the expected return rate for questionnaires and surveys, assume the return rate is 5-10% when no incentives are provided and 15-20% when incentives are provided.

Attrition:
When doing repeated measures studies in an experiment, learners should consider probable loss to attrition.

Qualitative Sample Size Requirements:
The sample size should be stated for each form of data collection including interviews, observations, questionnaires, documents, artifacts, visual data such as drawings and photographs, etc.

Case Study:
Guideline: A minimum of 10 participants or cases in the final sample for interviews. Learners should pursue a minimum 20 individuals to recruit to account for attrition; minimum of three sources of data; must demonstrate triangulation of the data across two sources for each RQ. Case study interviews may include closed-ended questions with a dominance of open-ended questions; should be no less than 30 minutes; no less than five pages of participant responses/speech in the transcribed data per interview, single spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman. A minimum of 50 questionnaires if the questionnaires will be used for thematic analysis. The size for other sources (e.g., number of documents or artifacts, observations, etc. should also be identified.

Phenomenology
: Guideline: Minimum of 8 interviews. Learners should pursue 12 individuals to interview to account for attrition. Interviews should be 60-90 minutes. There should be no less than 12 pages of transcribed data, single spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman, per interview. Interview questions must be open-ended.

Descriptive:
Guideline: A minimum of 10 participants in the final sample. Learners should pursue a minimum 20 individuals to recruit; 2 sources of data; no less than 5 pages of transcribed data, single spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman, per interview.

Narrative:
Purpose is a collection of stories around a phenomenon. Protocol offers questions that get the participant to tell their personal story regarding a phenomenon including the roles of stakeholders. Guideline: Minimum of 8 interviews. Learners should pursue 12 participants to account for attrition. Interviews should be 60-90 minutes. There should be no less than 12 pages of transcribed data, single spaced, 12 pt. Times New Roman, per interview. Interview questions must be open-ended.
Note: A key criterion for selecting a sample size for a narrative study is to elicit long, in-depth of stories about the phenomenon which may be hours long.

Grounded Theory:
Grounded theory studies yield a theory or model. Usually two rounds of data collection with interim analysis. Minimum of 50 pages of transcribed data from interviews, open-ended questionnaires, or other data sources. Transcripts are 12point font and single spaced. Studies typically have a minimum of 10-30 interviews (45-60 minutes in length) and/or 40-60 open-ended questionnaires. Interview questions must be open-ended.

Questionnaires or Surveys:
If used in the study the minimum number should be 40. This data collection method can be used in different qualitative designs.

Strategies to account for attrition:
Students should consider the anticipated sample size will not be reached, so must provide a justification or alternative plan for the study (expanding time frame, expanding target population, changing design to bring down sample size needed, or adding an additional data collection approach, adjust an analysis).

Defines and describes the sampling procedures (such as convenience, purposive, snowball, random, etc.) supported by scholarly research sources. Includes discussion of sample selection, and assignment to groups (if applicable), and strategies to account for participant attrition.
For a purposive sample identify the screening criteria and device for screening the participants (egg: demographic questionnaire, expert knowledge of topic, screening questions such as years of experience in a position).

Describes the study sample size. Provides evidence (based on the empirical research) literature that sample size is adequate for the research design and meets GCU required sample size requirements (listed in criteria below).

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Research Materials, Instrumentation OR Sources of Data Comment by GCU: For quantitative studies use Instrumentation for the heading. For qualitative studies use Sources of Data for the heading.

This section fully identifies and describes the types of data that will be collected, as well as the specific research materials, instruments, and sources used to collect those data (tests, questionnaires, interviews, data bases, media, etc.). Discuss the specific research materials, instrument, or source to collect data for each variable or group for a quantitative study. Discuss the specific research materials, instrument(s), or source(s) to collect information to describe the phenomena being studied for a qualitative study. Use the “Instrumentation” heading for a quantitative study. Use the “Sources of Data” heading for qualitative research. Use the “Research Materials” heading is using materials for experiments other than instruments. Use appropriate APA level subheadings for each data collection instrument, sources, or research material and place a copy of all instruments and research materials in an appendix. For example, a subheading of “Sources of Data” might be “Interviews,” which should begin a new paragraph, and the term “Interviews” should be styled as Heading 3.

If you are using an existing instrument, make sure to discuss the characteristics of the instrument in detail. For example, on a preexisting survey tool describe: how the instrument was developed and constructed, the validity and reliability of the instrument, the number of items or questions included in the survey, the calculation of the scores, and the scale of measurement of data obtained from the instrument. Learners must also obtain all appropriate use permissions from instrument authors. Please note that GCU does not recommend developing or modifying instruments for quantitative studies and permission to do so must be obtained from the Assistant Dean.

For quantitative studies, distinguish between the validated instruments and the questions added by the researcher. The latter have to be justified as (1) data for one or more variables of interest in the study (included in the analysis), or (2) data needed for the sample profile (must be relevant to the topic), or (3) combination of both. Separate appendices required for each instrument; the validated instruments (or watermarked samples thereof) have to be accompanied by authors’ or vendors’ permission to use. Information required for quantitative validated instruments: (1) number and labels of scales (and subscales); (2) number or items per scale (and subscale); (3) type of scale/data (e.g., Likert scales produce technically ordinal data—ONLY SOME have a format that allows for APPROXIMATION to continuous data—required justification of approximation, with references); (4) method of data aggregation (e.g., for continuous scales: sum vs. mean vs. other mathematical formula).

For quantitative studies, describe the method of instrument administration. All instruments will be administered together, in a single session via online survey. If different instruments are administered separately to different participants, generate separate data files, establish the unit of analysis and create an identification for that as the key variable that will be used to merge the files—make sure to collect data for the key variable from all participants (include the key variable in all instruments).

If using research materials for an experiment for a quantitative study, discuss in detail not only the materials, but also the structure of the experiment or study. Describe all materials and how they will be used. Describe how the participant(s) interact with the materials during the experiment. In psychology and business, an experiment can be run to collect data for experimental, correlation and causal comparative designs. If using psychology data collection software tools such as e-Prime, learners should provide a copy of the software contract showing they are licensed to use the software. Validity and reliability of the experiment and materials must be argued using literature and similar studies.

For qualitative and quantitative studies, the learner often uses data sources other than instruments. These data sources may include databases, journals, participant drawings, photographs, documents, artifacts, and media. Additionally, learners will most likely develop their own interview or focus group guide, observation checklist, or other protocol when conducting a qualitative study. Therefore, learners must describe in detail the process used to develop the instrument, including the research, literature, theory or expert in the field used to develop and justify the questions. Additionally, learners must describe how the validity and reliability of the instrument was established, which often include expert panel review, member checking, field testing and/or pilot testing.

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RESEARCH MATERIALS, INSTRUMENTATION, OR SOURCES OF DATA
(Minimum one to three pages)

Data Collection Instruments/Materials
:
Provides a detailed discussion of the instrumentation and/or materials for data collection which includes validity and reliability of the data. collection instrument or experiment.
Includes citations from original publications by instrument developers (and subsequent users as appropriate) or related studies.

Data Collection Instruments/Materials:

Describes the structure of each data collection instrument and data sources (tests, questionnaires, interviews, observations data bases, media, etc.).
When using materials for an experiment, describes the structure of the experiment and the materials used for it. Specifies the type and level of data collected with each instrument.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Trustworthiness (for Qualitative Studies)

This section describes the four key elements that together serve to produce confidence in the research procedures and results of a qualitative study. These elements constitute the overarching concept of “trustworthiness.” The four elements are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Credibility and transferability are the qualitative version of validity, and dependability and confirmability are the qualitative version of reliability.

Learners can start this discussion by (1) defining the concept (e.g., credibility), (2) identifying the “threats” (biases or weaknesses) inherent in their methodology (design, sampling, data collection procedures and sources of data/instruments, and data analysis), and (3) describing how they will minimize such threats (e.g., reflexivity for subjective bias in qualitative data analysis). The following are steps taken by a qualitative researcher to ensure the research is trustworthy, and are from Shenton (2004, p. 73), based on Guba’s (1981) four criteria for trustworthiness. The researcher should address as many as are applicable to the design selected.

Credibility. Credibility refers to how well the study’s findings accurately represent the experiences of participants for the sample under study. In other words, credibility describes the internal validity of the study. Some strategies qualitative researchers use to ensure credibility include:

Adoption of a well-established data collection plan.

Fundamental knowledge of naturalistic inquiry, which is the essence of naturalistic inquiry is that research is conducted in natural settings, that is, in settings where the participants live or engage in activities that are relevant to the phenomenon under study. (Armstrong, 2010; Lincoln & Guba, 1985)

Deep engagement, which means sufficient time is given to listen, document, and achieve saturation of data.

Member checking, which increases the authenticity of the final transcript.

Narrative truth, which means the researcher represents the authenticity of participants’ reflections, comments, stories, and perspectives.

Negative cases and rival explanations, which include evidence that does not fit the pattern that emerges during analysis, and provide explanation.

Researcher reflexivity, which is how the researcher maintain awareness about how results unfold, documenting emerging patterns. The researcher’s positionality or “reflective commentary:” allows researcher to clearly state the lens through which the social world is interpreted and discuss how the researcher’s background influences data collection and analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Thick description, which is the context(s) of the participants be described in a rich and detailed manner.

Triangulation via use of different data collection methods, different informants, different locations

Researcher experience, which includes a description of background, qualifications, and experience of the researcher (researcher positionality)

Transferability. Transferability refers to the degree to which findings are applicable to policy, practice, and future research, or the degree to which the results of a qualitative study apply to other people or contexts. Transferability addresses the external validity and is the qualitative version of “generalizability” of the study’s results.

Thick description that provides background data to establish context of study and detailed description of phenomenon in question to allow comparisons of the context can be made to other contexts. The greater the detailed description of the phenomena, the more meaningful the results may be when informing another context.to be made.

Sampling sufficiency, which refers both to the sample size and to the appropriateness of the sample, so that the participants experience the phenomena so that the data collected from them provide insight into the phenomena.

Dependability. Dependability refers to the degree to which research procedures are documented and are reliable. Techniques used to demonstrate dependability include:

Audit trail, which is documentation of the inquiry process.

Evidence, which includes full transcripts, careful documentation of data gathering sessions, media (audiotapes, videotapes, documents, photographs) Employment of “overlapping methods.”

An in-depth methodological description that provides a comprehensible record of how data were collected and analyzed. Meticulous description increases soundness of study that can be useful for future studies.

Records of the data analysis process, which includes codebooks, how coding schemes were developed, documentation of initial codes secondary codes, categories, with multiple examples from the dataset (interview transcripts, observational records, focus group transcripts, for example).

Clear alignment of gap, problem statement, research questions, methodology, research design.

Peer debriefing, which includes consulting with mentors or experienced qualitative researchers to discuss and receive feedback on the study, prior to, during, and after the completion of the study.

Test the strength of the analysis and interpretation, which includes checking analysis and interpretation against documents, records, recordings (the dataset).

Confirmability. Confirmability refers to the objectivity or the ability of others to confirm or corroborate findings (Chess, 2017, section 3, para. 3). Qualitative researchers develop confirmability through:

Coding, which is clear and well defined; the naming of patterns identified in the data; patterns can include stories, ideas, specific participant-offered terms, and phrases.

Providing ample evidence to support claims.

Intercoder reliability. The extent to which two researchers, coding data based on the same codebook (an inductively developed list of codes and their definitions) code the data in the same way.

Rival explanations and negative cases. Identify examples that do not fit a pattern that is emerging. These might indicate an alternative organizing scheme, or may be the exception that proves the rule (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Patton, 1999)

In-depth methodological description to allow integrity of research results to be scrutinized.

Admission or statement of researcher’s beliefs and assumptions.*

Recognition of shortcomings in study’s methods and their potential effects.*

*These are covered in the assumptions and limitations sections of the dissertation.

Criterion
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TRUSTWORTHINESS (for Qualitative Studies)
Trustworthiness is the term used to describe the elements that establish the credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the study.
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Qualitative “validity” is composed of credibility and transferability.
Strategies generally include rigorous techniques and methods, thick description, audit trails, evident methodological processes and procedures, well-defined coding, ample examples of quotes, and findings that clearly emerge from the data.

· Defines the concepts of credibility, transferability
· Credibility: discusses how the study represents the participants’ experiences
· Transferability: discusses how the study’s findings may be applicable to policy, practice, future research

· Describes the threats to the credibility and transferability of the study inherent in the study design, sampling strategy, data collection method/instruments, and data analysis
· Addresses how these threats will be minimized

Qualitative “reliability” is composed of dependability and confirmability.
Establishes consistency and repeatability of data collection through in-depth documented methodology; detailed interview/observation/data collection protocols and guides; creation of research data-base; and/or use of triangulation.

· Defines concepts of dependability and confirmability

· Dependability: discusses how the study documents research procedures

· Confirmability: discusses how the study could be confirmed or findings corroborated by others

· Describes the threats to dependability and confirmability of the study inherent in the study design, sampling strategy, data collection method/instruments, and data analysis
· Addresses how these threats will be minimized

Appendices must include copies of instruments, materials, qualitative data collection protocols, codebook(s), and permission letters from instrument authors (for validated instruments, surveys, interview guides, etc.)

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Validity (for Quantitative Studies)

This section describes and defends the procedures used to determine the validity of the data collected. Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. Ask if what is being measured is what was set out to be measured. Researchers must be concerned with both external and internal validity. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of the study are generalizable (quantitative) or transferable (qualitative) to the population. Internal validity refers to the rigor with which the study was conducted (study design, theory instrumentation, measurements, etc.). For this section, provide specific validity statistics for quantitative instruments, identifying how they were developed. Explain specific approaches on how validity will be addressed for qualitative data collection approaches.

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VALIDITY (for Quantitative Studies)
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Quantitative Studies
: Provides specific validity statistics for quantitative instruments, identifying how they were developed. Validated surveys cannot be used in part or adapted. Validated instruments borrowed by the learner must be included in the proposal/dissertation appendices as a pdf or jpeg document along with the learner’s word file of his/her version of the instrument (whose content should be identical with that of the original pdf). NOTE: Learners should not modify or develop quantitative instruments without permission from the Assistant Dean.

Appendices must include copies of instruments, materials, and permission letters from instrument authors (for validated instruments, surveys, etc.)

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Reliability (for Quantitative Studies)

This section describes and defends the procedures used to determine the reliability of the data collected. Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any measuring procedure is replicable and yields the same result with repeated trials. For this section, provide specific reliability statistics for quantitative instruments, identifying how the statistics were developed. Explain specific approaches on how reliability will be addressed for qualitative data collection approaches.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

RELIABILITY
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Quantitative Studies:
Provides specific reliability statistics for quantitative instruments, identifying how the statistics were developed. Explains specific approaches on how reliability will be addressed for qualitative data collection approaches.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Data Collection and Management

This section details the entirety of the process used to collect the data. Describe the step-by-step procedures used to carry out all the major steps for data collection for the study in a way that would allow another researcher to replicate the study. Think of this section of Chapter 3 as a recipe, that needs to be carefully followed to produce the best possible study results (or “entrée”). Review the Criteria Table below for the exact requirements in this section. It is critical this section is clear, comprehensive, and details the exact steps used in the data collection process.

Criterion
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DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT
(Minimum one to three pages)

Quantitative Studies:
Describes the procedures for the actual data collection that would allow replication of the study by another researcher, including how each instrument or data source was used, how and where data were collected, and recorded. Includes a linear sequence of actions or step-by-step of procedures used to carry out all the major steps for data collection. Includes a workflow and corresponding timeline, presenting a logical, sequential, and transparent protocol for data collection that would allow another researcher to replicate the study.
Data from different sources may have to be collected in parallel (e.g., paper-and-pen surveys for teachers, corresponding students, and their parents AND retrieval of archival data from the school district). A flow chart is ok—”linear” may not apply to all situations

Qualitative Studies:
Provides detailed description of data collection process, including all sources of data and methods used, such as interviews, member checking, observations, surveys, and expert panel review. Note: The collected data must be sufficient in breadth and depth to answer the research question(s) and interpreted and presented correctly, by theme, research question and/or instrument.

Describes the procedures for obtaining participant informed consent and for protecting the rights and well-being of the study sample participants.
Include site authorization letter(s) and participants’ informed consent (parents’ consent and children’s consent, as needed) in appendices.

Describes how raw data are prepared for analysis (i.e., transcribing interviews, conducting member checking, downloading from SPSS and checking for missing data).
Describes (for both paper-based and electronic data) the data management procedures adopted to maintain data securely, including the length of time data will be kept, where it will be kept, and how it will be destroyed

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Data Analysis Procedures

This section provides a step-by-step description of the procedures to be used to conduct the data analysis. The key elements of this section include the process by which raw data were prepared for analysis and then subsequently analyzed. Overall, be sure that the language used to describe the data analysis procedure is consistently used in Chapters 4 and 5.

Criterion
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Chair Score

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DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
(Minimum one to three pages)

Lists the problem statement or purpose statement, along with the research question(s). Also includes the null and alternative hypotheses for quantitative studies.

Describes in detail the relevant data collected for each stated research question and/or each variable within each hypothesis (if applicable).

Describes, in detail, the data management practice including how the raw data were organized and prepared for analysis, i.e., ID matching of respondents who may respond to more than one survey/instrument, coding/recoding of variables, treatment of missing values, scoring, calculations, etc.

Qualitative Studies:
(1) describes transcription process for interviews, focus groups, descriptive statistics (mean scores, percentages) calculated for surveys, observation checklists, etc.

What:
Describes, in detail, statistical and non-statistical analysis to be used and procedures used to conduct the data analysis.

Qualitative Studies: This section begins by identifying and discussing the specific analysis approach or strategy, followed by a discussion of coding procedures used. Note: coding procedures may be different for Thematic Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Phenomenological Analysis, or Grounded Theory Analysis.

Why:
Provides the justification for each of the (statistical and non-statistical) data analysis procedures used in the study.
If a change in analysis was made, explains what was actually done versus what was planned and why.

How:
Demonstrates how the statistical and non-statistical data analysis techniques align with the research questions/design.

Quantitative Analysis
– states the level of statistical significance for each test as appropriate, and describes tests of assumptions for each statistical test.

Provides evidence that quantity and quality of data is sufficient to answer the research questions. This must be present in this section or in an appendix including data samples.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Ethical Considerations

This section should demonstrate adherence to the key principles of the Belmont Report (respect, justice and beneficence) in the study design, sampling procedures, and within the theoretical framework, research problem, and questions. Learners should clearly discuss how data will be stored, safeguarded, and destroyed, as well as how the results of the study will be published. This section should also reference IRB approval to conduct the research, which includes subject recruiting, informed consent processes, and the voluntary nature of study. Please see the Figure 2 below regarding IRB approval requirements. Additionally, the learner should identify the potential risks for harm that are inherent in the study, in lieu of just listing what they are doing to ensure confidentiality. Finally, the IRB approval letter with the protocol number, informed consent/subject assent documents, site authorization letter(s), or any other measures required to protect the participants or institutions, must be included in the appendices.

IRB Alert

Please be aware that GCU doctoral learners may not screen, recruit, or collect any data until they receive Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval and obtain a signed D-50 form. IRB review occurs after the proposal is approved by AQR and the proposal defense is completed. Learners are responsible for knowing, understanding, and following the IRB submission and review processes. Screening, recruiting participants, and collecting data in advance of IRB approval is a serious research ethical violation, with legal and federal regulatory implications to the University. If a learner chooses to screen or recruit study participants, or collects data in advance of obtaining IRB approval (IRB approval letter and D-50 form), s/he will be subject to serious academic disciplinary action by the Institutional Review Board and Code of Conduct committee. This may include collecting new data or requiring the learner to start over with a new research study. In addition, the Code of Conduct committee will issue a disciplinary action that may include warning, suspension, or dismissal from the program.

Note: Learners should NEVER proceed with any aspect of participant screening, recruiting, interacting with participants, or collecting data in advance of receiving the IRB approval letter and the signed D-50 form. The chairs and committee members are trained on these requirements; however, the learner is ultimately responsible for understanding and adhering to all IRB requirements as outlined in the University Policy Handbook and Dissertation Milestone Guide.

Figure 1. IRB alert.

Criterion
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ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
(Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Provides a discussion of ethical issues, per Belmont Report and IRB guidelines, related to the study and the study population of interest.
Explains which principles / issues are relevant to the study.
Identifies the potential risks for harm that are inherent in the study.

Describes the procedures for obtaining informed consent and for protecting the rights and well-being of the study sample participants.

Addresses key ethical criteria of anonymity, confidentiality, privacy, strategies to prevent coercion, and any potential conflict of interest.

Describes the data management procedures adopted to store and maintain paper and electronic data securely, including the length of time data will be kept, where it will be kept, and how it will be destroyed.
Explains what he/she planned to do / did to implement each of the principles / issues that are relevant the study data management, data analysis, and publication of findings.

Note:
Learners are required to securely maintain and have access to raw data/records for a minimum of three years. If asked by AQR reviewer or CDS representative, learner must provide all evidence of data including source data, Excel files, interview transcripts, evidence of coding or data analysis, or survey results, etc. No dissertation will be allowed to move forward in the review process if data are not produced upon request.

Includes copy of IRB Informed Consent (Proposal) and IRB Approval letter (Dissertation) in an Appendix.
All approvals, consent forms, recruitment, and data collection materials are mentioned in the Data Collection section and included in separate appendixes (with appropriate in-text references).

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Limitations and Delimitations

While Chapter 1 addresses the broad, overall limitations and delimitations of the study, this section discusses, in detail, the limitations and delimitations related to the research methodology and design and potential impacts on the results. The section also describes any limitations and delimitations related to the methods, sample, instrumentation, data collection process and analysis. Other methodological limitations and delimitations of the study may include issues regarding the study design, sample in terms of size, population and procedure, instrumentation, data collection processes, and data analysis. This section also contains an explanation of why the existing limitations are unavoidable and are not expected to affect the results negatively.

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LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS
(Minimum two to three paragraphs)

Reiterates those limitations listed in Ch. 1 and explains why the existing limitations are unavoidable.
Describes any delimitations related to the methodology, sample, instrumentation, data collection process and analysis.
Note: This section must be updated as limitations emerge in the data collection/analysis, and then incorporated in Chapter 5 the limitations overall and how the study results were affected.

States consequences of each limitation and delimitation in terms of data quantity, quality, and validity / generalizability of the findings.
Discusses strategies to minimize and/or mitigate the negative consequences of limitations and delimitations.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Summary

This section restates what was written in Chapter 3 and provides supporting citations for key points. The summary should demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the overall research design and analysis techniques. The Chapter 3 summary ends with a discussion that transitions the reader to Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
(Minimum one to two pages)

Summarizes key points presented in Chapter 3 using authoritative, empirical sources/citations.

Document shows alignment of title, problem statement, purpose statement, RQs and hypotheses, methodology, design, data collection and instruments, and analysis.

Ends Chapter 3 with a transition discussion to focus for Chapter 4.

The Chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.

All research presented in the Chapter is scholarly, topic-related, and obtained from highly respected academic, professional, original sources. In-text citations are accurate, correctly cited and included in the reference page according to APA standards.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the collected data, how it was analyzed and then to present the results. This section of Chapter 4 briefly restates the problem statement, the methodology, the research question(s), hypothesis(es) or phenomena, and then offers a statement about what will be covered in this chapter. Chapter 4 should present the results of the study as clearly as possible, leaving the interpretation of the results for Chapter 5. Make sure this chapter is written in past tense and reflects how the study was actually conducted.

This chapter typically contains the analyzed data, often presented in both text and tabular, or figure format. To ensure readability and clarity of findings, structure is of the utmost importance in this chapter. Sufficient guidance in the narrative should be provided to highlight the findings of greatest importance for the reader. Most researchers begin with a description of the sample and the relevant demographic characteristics presented in text or tabular format. Ask the following general questions before starting this chapter:

1. Is there sufficient data to answer each of the research question(s)/hypothesis(es) asked in the study?

1. Is there sufficient data to support the conclusions made in Chapter 5?

1. Is the study written in the third person? Never use the first person.

1. Are the data clearly explained using a table, graph, chart, or text?

Visual organizers, including tables and figures, must always be introduced, presented and discussed within the text first. Never insert them without these three steps. It is often best to develop all the tables, graphs, charts, etc. before writing any text to further clarify how to proceed. Point out the salient results and present those results by table, graph, chart, or other form of collected data.

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INTRODUCTION (TO THE CHAPTER)
(Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Reintroduces the purpose of the research study.

Briefly describes the research methodology and/or research questions/hypotheses tested.

Provides an orienting statement about what will be covered in the chapter.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Descriptive Findings

This section of Chapter 4 provides a narrative summary of the population or sample characteristics and demographics of the participants in the study. It establishes the number of subjects, gender, age, education level or employee classification, (if appropriate), organization, or setting (if appropriate), and other appropriate sample characteristics (e.g., education level, program of study, employee classification, etc.). The use of graphic organizers, such as tables, charts, histograms and graphs to provide further clarification and promote readability, is encouraged to organize and present coded data. Ensure this data cannot lead to anyone identifying individual participants in this section or identifying the data for individual participants in the data summary and data analysis that follows.

For numbers, equations, and statistics, spell out any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading – or reword the sentence to place the number later in the narrative. In general, use Arabic numerals (10, 11, 12) when referring to whole numbers 10 and above, and spell out whole numbers below 10. There are some exceptions to this rule:

If small numbers are grouped with large numbers in a comparison, use numerals (e.g., 7, 8, 10, and 13 trials); but, do not do this when numbers are used for different purposes (e.g., 10 items on each of four surveys).

Numbers in a measurement with units (e.g., 6 cm, 5-mg dose, 2%).

Numbers that represent time, dates, ages, sample or population size, scores, or exact sums of money.

Numbers that represent a specific item in a numbered series (e.g., Table 1).

A sample table in APA style is presented in Table 1. Be mindful that all tables fit within the required margins, and are clean, easy to read, and formatted properly using the guidelines found in Chapter 5 (Displaying Results) of the APA Publication Manual 6.0 (2010). Comment by GCU: Each table must be numbered in sequence throughout the entire dissertation (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), or within chapters (Table 1.1, Table 1.2 for Chapter 1; Table 2.1, Table 2.2 for Chapter 2, etc.).

Table 1.
Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is Single Spacing and Should Look Like this Example Comment by GCU: See 5.08 to 5.19 in the APA Manual for table layout guidelines
Comment by GCU: Use style “Table Title” for Table title and subtitle: After the Table title use two soft returns [SHIFT + RETURN] and then italicize the table subtitle.

Variable

Column A
M
(SD) Comment by GCU: Statistical symbols in tables must be italicized. Comment by GCU: Use Word’s “table” tool (search Help for assistance).
Text in tables should be Times New Roman, font size 10, single spaced with 2 pts. before and after. These preferences have been set in the “Table Text” style.
Place borders at the top and foot of the table, and below the header row(s). Do not place any vertical borders in a table.

Column B
M (SD)

Column C
M (SD)

Row 1

10.1 (1.11)

20.2 (2.22)

30.3 (3.33)

Row 2

20.2 (2.22)

30.3 (3.33)

20.2 (2.22)

Row 3

30.3 (3.33)

10.1 (1.11)

Note
. Adapted from “Sampling and Recruitment in Studies of Doctoral Students,” by I.M. Researcher, 2010, Journal of Perspicuity, 25, p. 100. Reprinted with permission. Comment by GCU: Permission must be obtained to reprint information that is not in the public domain. Letters of permission are included in the appendix. [See 5.16]

Criterion
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DESCRIPTIVE FINDINGS
(Number of pages as needed)

Provides a narrative summary of the population or sample characteristics and demographics.

Quantitative Studies:

Presents the “Sample (or Population) profile,” using statistics for the demographics collected from or retrieved for the actual sample or population.
If the actual sample is smaller than the a priori sample, the learner must discuss consequences (e.g., limitations, change of statistical analysis procedures, possibly even change of design).
The second section of Descriptive Data should be “Descriptive statistics for the variables of interest” (analyzed to answer the RQs). For composite continuous variables, reliability coefficients computed on the study data precede the descriptive statistics and have to be compared with coefficients reported by instrument authors and prior users. Low reliability (< 0.7) may require changes in design and analysis (dropping variables with unreliable data). In case of changes of statistical analysis that became necessary during the computation of descriptive statistics, the learner will present and justify the new statistical procedures. Qualitative Studies: Presents the "Sample (or Population) profile," using statistics for the demographics collected from or retrieved for the actual sample or population. X Includes a narrative summary of data collected (e.g., for qualitative studies, samples of collected data should be included in an Appendix.) X Uses visual graphic organizers, such as tables, histograms, graphs, and/or bar charts, to effectively organize and display coded data and descriptive data. For example: Quantitative Studies: sample-level frequencies and descriptive or graphic comparisons of study-relevant groups. If the intended analysis involves parametric procedures, tests of assumptions are required to evaluate sample distribution (skewness and kurtosis data and charts) normality and homogeneity of variance. If nonparametric procedures are used, justification must be provided. Qualitative Studies: Discuss and provide a table showing number of interviews conducted, duration of interviews, #pages transcript; # observations conducted, duration, #pages of typed-up field notes, # of occurrences of a code, network diagrams, model created, etc. X Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format. X *Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the following scale: 0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are Required. 1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are Required. 2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions May be Suggested or Required. 3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required. Reviewer Comments:

Data Analysis Procedures

This section presents a description of the process that was used to analyze the data. If hypotheses or research question(s) guided the study, data analysis procedures can be framed relative to each research question or hypothesis. Data can also be organized by chronology of phenomena, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches as deemed appropriate according for a qualitative study.

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DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
This section presents a description of the process that was used to analyze the data. If hypotheses or research question(s) guided the study, data analysis procedures can be framed relative to each research question or hypothesis. For a qualitative study, data can also be organized by chronology of phenomena, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches as deemed appropriate. (Number of pages as needed)

Describes in detail the data analysis procedures.

Qualitative Studies:
Coding procedures must be tailored to the specific analytical approach; they are not generic.
Start discussion of data analysis procedures by identifying and describing the analytical approach (e.g., thematic analysis, Phenomenological analysis).
Describes coding process, description of how codes were developed, how categories were developed, how these are related to themes. Provide examples of codes and themes with corresponding quotations, demonstrating how codes were developed into themes. Provides evidence of initial and final codes and themes in text or an Appendix.

Quantitative Studies:
The preparation of the data file ought to be presented BEFORE the Descriptive Findings. If the analysis is run as planned, the learner will present the results of the statistical procedures per RQ. If the analysis had to be changed, the learner will present the results of the new procedure(s) per RQ. No analyses unrelated to the RQs are allowed. Results tables have to be included in text. For each question, the learner will comment on the relevant statistics and will draw a conclusion in terms of accepting the null or the alternative hypothesis stated for that question. It is possible that a single statistical procedure may generate the statistics needed to answer multiple RQs—in that case, the learner will present the analysis results, with appropriate table(s), and then state and answer the RQs in due order.

Explains and justifies any differences in why data analysis section does not match what was approved in Chapter 3 (if appropriate).

Quantitative Studies:
Changes in the analysis have to be justified earlier (as recommended above). In a rubric, the order of evaluation criteria is not important, BUT in the TEMPLATE, it is very important (changes may have to be made at different points in data processing for different reasons).

Provides validity and reliability of the data in statistical terms for quantitative research OR describes approaches used to ensure validity and reliability for qualitative data including expert panel review of questions, practice interviews, member checking, and triangulation of data, as appropriate.

Identifies sources of error, missing data, or outliers and potential effects on the data. Discuss the limitations this places on the study results.

Describe Power Analysis and Test(s) of Assumptions (as appropriate) for statistical tests.

Quantitative Studies:
Justifies how the analysis aligns with the research question(s) and hypothesis(es) and is appropriate for the research design.

Qualitative Studies
: Justifies how the analysis aligns with the research question(s), and how data and findings were organized by chronology of phenomena, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches as deemed appropriate.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Results Comment by GCU: When reporting statistics in the narrative, be sure to italicize statistical and mathematical variables, e.g., F test, t test, population size N, p = .03. Use commonly accepted abbreviations for statistical symbols.

This section, which is the primary section of this chapter, presents a summary and analysis of the data in a nonevaluative, unbiased, organized manner that relates to the research question(s) and/or hypothesis(es). List the research question(s) as they are discussed to ensure that the readers see that the question has been addressed. Answer the research question(s) in the order that they are listed for quantitative studies. Learners can organize data in several different ways for qualitative studies including: by research question, by themes and patterns, or by other approaches deemed appropriate for the study.

The results must be presented without implication, speculation, assessment, evaluation, or interpretation. Discussion of results and conclusions are left for Chapter 5. Refer to the APA Style Manual for additional lists and examples. In quantitative dissertations, it is not required for all data analyzed to be presented; however, it is important to provide descriptive statistics and the results of the applicable statistical tests used in conducting the analysis of the data. It is also important that there are descriptive statistics provided on all variables. Nevertheless, it is also acceptable to put most of this in the appendix if the chapter becomes too lengthy.

Required components include descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics describe or summarize data sets using frequency distributions (e.g., to describe the distribution for the test scores in a class of 30 pupils) or graphical displays such as bar graphs (e.g., to display increases in a school district’s budget each year for the past five years), as well as histograms (e.g., to show spending per child in school and display mean, median, modes, and frequencies), line graphs (e.g., to display peak scores for the classroom group), and scatterplots (e.g., to display the relationship between two variables). Descriptive statistics also include numerical indexes such as averages, percentile ranks, measures of central tendency, correlations, measures of variability and standard deviation, and measures of relative standing.

Inferential statistics describe the numerical characteristics of data and then go beyond the data to make inferences about the population based on the sample data. Inferential statistics also estimate the characteristics of populations and test hypotheses about population parameters using sampling distributions, estimation, or hypothesis testing. Table 2 presents example results of an independent t test comparing Emotional Intelligence (EI) mean scores by gender.

Table 2.
Equality of Emotional Intelligence Mean Scores by Gender

t test for Equality of Means

1.908

34 Comment by GCU: Do not exceed 3 decimal points for numerical values in tables.

.065 Comment by GCU: To vertically center text in each cell, highlight cells, right click when cursor is in cells to format, click Table Properties > Cell > click on image with centered text

For qualitative studies, it is important to provide a complete picture of the constant comparative analysis conducted or of the coding pursued to arrive at a set of themes or conclusions about the subject. In qualitative studies, if thematic analysis is used, the questions to ask include the following:

1. What themes occur in interviews and field notes?

1. Does the study provide samples that the themes exist by using interviews or field notes?

1. What topics were mentioned most often?

1. What issues were most important to the people in the study?

1. How do the participants view the topic of research?

1. What kinds of relationships are apparent? (e.g., strict inclusion, cause-effect, function, sequence)?

1. How can the categories identified in the data be ordered into meaningful, grounded theories?

After completing the first draft of Chapter 4, ask these general questions:

1. Are the findings clearly presented, so any reader could understand them?

1. Are all the tables, graphics or visual displays well-organized and easy to read?

1. Are the important data described in the text?

1. Is factual data information separate from analysis and evaluation?

1. Are the data organized by research questions?

Chapter 4 can be challenging regarding mathematical equations and statistical symbols or variables. When including an equation in the narrative, space the equation as one would words in a sentence: x + 5 = a. Punctuate equations that are in the paragraph, as one would a sentence. Remember to italicize statistical and mathematical variables, except Greek letters, and if the equation is long or complicated, set it off on its own line.

Refer to the APA manual for specific details on representation of statistical information.

Basic guidelines include:

Statistical symbols are italicized (t, F, N, n)

Greek letters, abbreviations that are not variables and subscripts that function as identifiers use standard typeface, no bolding or italicization

Use parentheses to enclose statistical values (p = .026) and degrees of freedom t (36) = 3.85 or F(2, 52) = 3.85

Use brackets to enclose limits of confidence intervals 95% CIs [- 5.25, 4.95]

Make sure to include appropriate graphics to present the results. Always introduce, present, and discuss the visual organizers in narrative form. Never insert a visual organizer without these three steps.

A figure is a graph, chart, map, drawing, or photograph. Below is an example of a figure labeled per APA style. Do not include a figure unless it adds substantively to the understanding of the results or it duplicates other elements in the narrative. If a figure is used, a label must be placed under the figure. As with tables, refer to the figure by number in the narrative preceding the placement of the figure. Make sure a table or figure is not split between pages. Below is another example of a table that the characteristics of a servant leader. Comment by GCU: See 5.20-5.30 for details on correct APA style. Comment by GCU: You must reference tables and figures in the text prior to displaying the graphic.

Table 3.
The Servant Leader Comment by GCU: In addition to numbering the table, name the table.

Trait

Descriptors

Values People

By believing in people
By serving other’s needs before his or her own
By receptive, non-judgmental listening

Develops People

By providing opportunities for learning and growth
By modeling appropriate behavior
By building up others through encouragement and affirmation

Builds Community

By building strong personal relationships
By working collaboratively with others
By valuing the differences of others

Displays Authenticity

By being open and accountable to others
By a willingness to learn from others
By maintaining integrity and trust

Provides Leadership

By envisioning the future
By taking initiative
By clarifying goals

Shares Leadership

By facilitating a shared vision
By sharing power and releasing control
By sharing status and promoting others

Note. Derived from Laub, J. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the servant organizational leadership assessment (SOLA) instrument (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Database. (UMI No. 9921922)

Figure 2. Correlation for SAT composite score and time spent on Facebook. Comment by GCU: In general, high quality graphics software handle the technical aspects of constructing figures.” [5.22].
Each figure must be numbered in sequence throughout the entire dissertation (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.),
Alternatively, Figures can be numbered indicate which chapter the future is in, such as Figure 1.1, Figure 1.2 for Chapter 1; Figure 2.1, Figure 2.2 for Chapter 2, etc.). Comment by GCU: Formatting Tip:
The caption for each figure should be placed below the figure, and be “styled” as “Caption” (as this one is). The caption must be in sentence case.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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RESULTS
This section, which is the primary section of this chapter, presents an analysis of the data in a non-evaluative, unbiased, organized manner that relates to the research question(s) and/or hypotheses. List the research question(s) as you are discussing them in order to ensure that the readers see that the question has been addressed. Answer the research question(s) in the order that they are listed. (Number of pages as needed)

Data and the analysis of that data are presented in a narrative, non-evaluative, unbiased, organized manner.

Quantitative
data
are organized by research question and/or hypothesis. Findings are presented by hypothesis using section titles. They are presented in order of significance if appropriate.

Qualitative data
may be organized by theme, participant and/or research question.

Qualitative Studies:
Results of analysis are presented in appropriate narrative, tabular, graphical and/or visual format. If using thematic analysis, coding and theming process must be completely described in the results presentation. Integration of quotes in the results presentation to substantiate the stated findings and build a narrative picture is required. Data analysis should include narrative story for narrative analysis; case study summary for case study; model or theory for grounded theory.
Learner describes thematic findings mostly in own words in narrative form as if they are telling their story or summarizing their experiences, and then use selected quotes (ideally one or few sentences, no longer than one paragraph) to illustrate.

Includes appropriate graphic organizers such as tables, charts, graphs, and figures.

Quantitative Studies:
Results of each statistical test are presented in appropriate statistical format with tables, graphs, and charts.
· Tables and/or figures are included for descriptive findings.
· Tables and/or figures are included for assumption checks.
· Tables and/or figures are included for and results.

Qualitative Studies:
As appropriate, tables are presented for initial codes, themes and theme meanings, along with sample quotes.

Sufficient quantity and quality of the data or information appropriate to the research design is presented in the analyses to answer the research question(s) and or hypotheses. Evidence for this must be clearly presented in this section and in an appendix as appropriate.

Quantitative Studies:

· Discuss quantity in relation to the actual sample (or population) size,
· Discuss quality in relation to sampling method, data collection process, and data completion/accuracy.
Note: AQR reviewer may request to review raw data at any time during the AQR process. Additional data collection may be required if sufficient data is not present.

Quantitative Studies:

· Inferential statistics, require tests of normality, tests of assumptions, test statistics and p-value reported for each hypothesis.
· Control variables (if part of the design) are reported and discussed.
· Secondary data treatment of missing values is fully described.
· Outlier responses are explained as appropriate.

Qualitative Studies:

· Qualitative data analysis is fully described and displayed using techniques specific to the design and analytic method used.
· Data sets are summarized including counts AND examples of participant’s responses for thematic analysis. For other approaches to qualitative analysis, results may be summarized in matrices or visual formats appropriate to the form of analysis.
· Outlier responses are explained as appropriate.
· Findings may be presented as themes using section titles for thematic analysis, as stories for narrative designs, as models or theories for grounded theory, and as visual models or narrative stories for case studies.

Appendices must include qualitative or quantitative data analysis that supports results in Chapter 4 as appropriate (i.e. source tables for t test/ANOVA; or coding and theming process or codebook, if not included directly in Chapter 4).

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Summary

This section provides a concise summary of what was found in the study. It briefly restates essential data and data analysis presented in this chapter, and it helps the reader see and understand the relevance of the data and analysis to the research question(s) or hypothesis(es). Finally, it provides a lead or transition into Chapter 5, where the implications of the data and data analysis relative to the research question(s) and/or hypothesis(es) will be discussed. The summary of the data must be logically and clearly presented, with the information separated from interpretation. For qualitative studies, summarize the data and data analysis results in relation to the research question(s). For quantitative studies, summarize the statistical data and results of statistical tests in relation to the research question(s)/hypothesis(es). Finally, provide a concluding section and transition to Chapter 5.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

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SUMMARY
This section provides a concise summary of what was found in the study. It briefly restates essential data and the data analysis presented in this chapter, and it helps the reader see and understand the relevance of the data and analysis to the research questions or hypotheses. Finally, it provides a lead or transition into Chapter 5 where the implications of the data and data analysis relative to the research questions and/or hypotheses will be discussed. (Minimum one to two pages)

Presents a clear and logical summary of data.

Quantitative Studies:
Summarizes the statistical data and results of statistical tests in relation to the research questions/hypotheses.

Qualitative Studies:
Summarizes the data and data analysis results in relation to the research questions. Summarizes data across research questions for case studies, narratives, and grounded theory.

Discusses limitations that emerged based on data analysis and how the interpretation of results may be effected by the limitations. Data limitations are added to Chapters 1, 3, 5 and discussed as appropriate.

Provides a concluding section and transition to Chapter 5.

The Chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction and Summary of Study

This section introduces Chapter 5 as a comprehensive summary of the study framework including a recap of the essential 10 strategic points of Chapters 1-3. It reminds the reader of the importance of the topic and briefly explains how the study intended to contribute to the body of knowledge on the topic. It further reminds the reader of the research question(s) and illustrates how the data analysis approach (not findings) reported in Chapter 4 aligns to answering the research questions. It informs the reader that conclusions, implications, and recommendations will be presented.

Chapter 5 is perhaps the most important chapter in the dissertation manuscript because it presents the researcher’s contribution to the body of knowledge. For many who read research literature, this may be the only chapter they will read. Chapter 5 typically begins with a summary of the essential points made in Chapters 1 and 3 of the original research proposal and includes why this topic is important and how this study was designed to contribute to the understanding of the topic. The remainder of the chapter contains a summary of the overall study, a summary of the findings and conclusions, recommendations for future research and practice, and a final section on implications derived from the study.

No new data should be introduced in Chapter 5; however, references should be made to findings or citations presented in earlier chapters. The researcher can articulate new frameworks and new insights. The concluding words of Chapter 5 should emphasize both the most important points of the study, study strengths and weaknesses, and directions for future research. This should be presented in the simplest possible form, making sure to preserve the conditional nature of the insights.

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INTRODUCTION and SUMMARY OF STUDY
This section introduces Chapter 5 as a comprehensive summary of the entire study. It reminds the reader of the importance of the topic and briefly explains how the study intended to contribute to the body of knowledge on the topic. It informs the reader that conclusions, implications, and recommendations will be presented. (Minimum two to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Provides a comprehensive summary of the study framework including a recap of the 10 strategic points.

Reminds the reader of the research questions and how the reported data analysis (not findings) align to answering the research questions.

Provides an overview of why the study is important and how the study was designed to contribute to our understanding of the topic.

Provides a transition, explains what will be covered in the chapter and reminds the reader of how the study was conducted.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Summary of Findings and Conclusion

This section of Chapter 5 is organized by research question(s)/hypothesis(es), and it conveys the specific findings of the study. The section presents conclusions made based on the data analysis and findings of the study and relates the findings back to the literature, significance of the study in Chapter 1, Advancing Scientific Knowledge in Chapter 1. Significant themes/ findings are compared and contrasted, evaluated, and discussed in light of the existing body of knowledge. The significance of every finding is analyzed and related to the significance section and advancing scientific knowledge section of Chapter 1. Additionally, the significance of the findings is analyzed and related back to Chapter 2 and ties the study together. The findings are bounded by the research study parameters described in Chapters 1 and 3, are supported by the data and theory, and directly relate to the research question(s). No unrelated or speculative information is presented in this section. This section of Chapter 5 should be organized by research question(s), hypothesis(es), theme, or any manner that allows summarizing the specific findings supported by the data and the literature. Conclusions represent the contribution to knowledge and fill in the gap in the knowledge. They should also relate directly to the significance of the study. The conclusions are major generalizations, and an answer to the research problem developed in Chapters 1 and 2. This is where the study binds together. In this section, personal opinion is permitted, as long as it is backed with the data, grounded in the research methods and supported in the literature.

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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
This section is organized by research question/hypothesis, and it conveys the specific findings of the study. It presents all conclusions made based on the data analysis and findings of the study. It relates the findings back to the literature, referring to the literature discussed in the Advancing Scientific Knowledge section and the Significance of the Study section in Chapter 1. It also discusses the significant themes and findings relative to the body of knowledge covered throughout Chapter 2. (Minimum three to five pages)

Organizes Chapter 5 using the same section titles as Chapter 4, by research question(s)/hypothesis(es) or by themes. Significant themes/ findings are compared and contrasted, synthesized and discussed in light of the existing body of knowledge covered in Chapter 2

Summarizes study findings. Compares, contrasts and synthesizes study findings in context to prior research on the topic (Chapter 2). Provides a cogent discussion on how the study is aligned to and/or advances the research on the topic.

Illustrates that findings are bounded by the research study design described in Chapters 1, 2 and 3.

Illustrates how findings are supported by the data and theory, and how the findings directly align to and answer the research question(s).

Discusses significance (or nonsignificance) of findings and relates each of the findings directly to the Significance of the Study section and Advancing Scientific Knowledge section of Chapter 1.

Refrains from including unrelated or speculative information in this section.

Provides a conclusion to summarize the findings, referring back to Chapter 1, and tying the study together.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Implications

This section should describe what could happen because of this research. It also tells the reader what the research implies theoretically, practically, and for the future.

Additionally, it provides a retrospective examination of the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2 considering the dissertation’s findings. A critical evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the study and the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data, should also be presented. The section delineates applications of new insights derived from the dissertation to solve real and significant problems. Implications can be grouped into those related to theory or generalization, those related to practice, and those related to future research. Separate sections with corresponding headings provide proper organization.

Theoretical implications. Theoretical implications involve interpretation of the dissertation findings in terms of the research question(s) and hypothesis(es) that guided the study. It is appropriate to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the study critically and include the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the method and data. It should also include a critical, retrospective examination of the framework presented in the Chapter 2 Literature Review section considering the dissertation’s new findings. Comment by GCU: This is “Heading 3 (APA Style Level 3, i.e., 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, Sentence case). [See 3.03]

Practical implications. Practical implications should delineate applications of new insights derived from the dissertation to solve real and significant problems. These implications refer to how the results of the study can be applied in professional practice. Comment by GCU: This is “Heading 3 (APA Style Level 3, i.e., 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, Sentence case). [See 3.03]

Future implications. Two kinds of implications for future research are possible: one based on what the study did find or do, and the other based on what the study did not find or do. Generally, future research could look at different kinds of subjects in different kinds of settings, interventions with new kinds of protocols or dependent measures, or new theoretical issues that emerge from the study. Recommendations should be included on which of these possibilities are likely to be most fruitful and why. Comment by GCU: This is “Heading 3” (APA Style Level 3, i.e., 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, Sentence case). [See 3.03]

Strengths and weaknesses of the study. This section discusses all limitations of the study. Additionally, it critically evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the study. Finally, it discusses the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data analysis and results.

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IMPLICATIONS
This section should describe what could happen because of this research. It also tells the reader what the research implies theoretically, practically, and for the future. (Minimum one to four pages)

Theoretical implications. Provides a retrospective examination of the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2 in light of the dissertation’s findings.

Theoretical implications.
Connects the findings of the study back to the theoretical framework/conceptual framework and the study results are discussed in context to how the results advance a practitioner’s knowledge of that theory, model or concept.

Practical Implications and Future Implications.
Connects the study findings to the prior research discussed in Chapter 2, and develops practical and future implications for research based on new insights derived from the research and how the results advance practitioners knowledge of the topic and how the results may influence future research or practice.

Strengths and Weaknesses.
Indicates all limitations of the study, critically evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the study, and the degree to which the conclusions are credible given the methodology, research design, and data analysis and results.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Recommendations

This section allows the learner to add recommendations for future study based on the results of their authentic dissertation research. In this section, summarize the recommendations that result from the study. Each recommendation should be directly linked to a conclusion.

Recommendations for future research. This section should present recommendations for future research, as well as give a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. Additionally, this section discusses the areas of research that need further examination, or addresses gaps or new research needs the study found. The section ends with a discussion of “next steps” in forwarding this line of research. Recommendations relate back to the study significance and advancing scientific knowledge sections in Chapter 1. Comment by GCU: This heading is formatted according to APA Level 3 heading (style: “Heading 3”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will affect the automated table of contents
The preferences have been set for this style; those preferences are: 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, sentence case. [See 3.03]

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This section should contain a minimum of four to six recommendations for future research as well as a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. The recommended research methodology/design should also be provided. (Minimum one to two pages)

Lists a minimum of four to six recommendations for practitioners and for future research.

Identifies and discusses the areas that need further examination, or that will address gaps or needs the study found.

Provides recommendations that relate back to the study significance and advancing scientific knowledge sections in Chapter 1 and theoretical foundation section in Chapter 2

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Recommendations for future practice. This section outlines recommendations for future practice based on the results and findings of the study, as well as, a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. It provides a discussion of who will benefit from reading and implementing the results of the study and presents ideas based on the results that practitioners can implement in the work or educational setting. Unrelated or speculative information that is unsupported by data is clearly identified as such. Recommendations should relate back to the study significance section in Chapter 1. Comment by GCU: This heading is styled according to APA Level 3 heading (style: “Heading 3”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table of contents
The preferences have been set for this style; those preferences are: 12 pt. Times New Roman, Indented, Boldface, sentence case. [See 3.03]

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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PRACTICE
This section should contain 2-5 recommendations for future practice based on the results and findings of the study as well as a full explanation for why each recommendation is being made. (Minimum three to four paragraphs or approximately one page)

Lists two to five recommendations for future practice.

Discusses who will benefit from reading and implementing the results of the study.

Discusses ideas based on the results that practitioners can implement in the work or educational setting.

Omits unrelated or speculative information that is not unsupported by data.

Provides recommendations that relate back to the study significance section in Chapter 1.

The Chapter is correctly formatted to dissertation template using the Word Style Tool and APA standards. Writing is free of mechanical errors.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

References Comment by GCU: This page must be entitled “References.” This title is centered at the top of the page. All text should be in 12-point Times New Roman font and double-spaced.
The Reference list should appear as a numbered new page following Chapter 5 and preceding the Appendices. The title of the section “References” should be styled as Heading 1.
The Reference list provides necessary information for the reader to locate and retrieve any source cited in the body of the text. Each source mentioned must appear in the Reference list. Likewise, each entry in the Reference list must be cited in the text.
The citations in the Reference list should be styled using the “Refs” style.
NOTE: The “Refs” style has been set up as a hanging indent of 0.5” and be double-spaced. Examples of common references are provided below. See APA 6.0 Edition Chapter 7, 6.22 for specific reference formatting instructions. For more information on references or APA Style, consult the APA website: at http://apastyle.org

Armstrong, J. (2010). Naturalistic inquiry. In N. J. Salk (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 880-885). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Comment by GCU: After completing the Reference list, it is important to cross-reference the in-text citations with the items in the Reference list to be certain that all in-text citations are in the Reference list and all items in the Reference list have an in-text citation. Using the Ctrl-F function helps to search for references within the dissertation.

Barzun, J., & Graff, H.F. (1992). The modern researcher: A classic work on research and writing completely revised and brought up to date. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Brands, H. W. (2000). The first American: The life and times of Benjamin Franklin. New York: Doubleday.

Calabrese, R. L. (2006). The elements of an effective dissertation & thesis: a step-by-step guide to getting it right the first time. Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield Education.

Chess, P.S. (2017). Chapter 3: Validity and reliability in qualitative research. In Grand Canyon University (Ed.), GCU doctoral research: Advanced qualitative research methods. Retrieved from

http://lc.qa.gcumedia.com/res855/gcu-doctoral-research-advanced-qualitative-research-methods/v1.1/#/chapter/3

Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39, 124–130.

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175-191.

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149-1160.

Grand Canyon University. (Ed.). (2015). GCU doctoral research: Foundations and theories. Phoenix, AZ. Retrieved from http://lc.gcumedia.com/res850/gcu-doctoral-research-foundations-and-theories/v1.1/#/home

Grand Canyon University (Ed.). (2016). GCU doctoral research: Quantitative and qualitative research concepts. Phoenix, AZ. Retrieved from: http://lc.gcumedia.com/res866/gcu-doctoral-research-quantitative-and-qualitative-research-concepts/v1.1/#/home

Grand Canyon University. (2017a). GCU doctoral research: Advanced qualitative research methods. Phoenix, AZ. Retrieved from: http://lc.qa.gcumedia.com/res855/gcu-doctoral-research-advanced-qualitative-research-methods/v1.1/#/home

Grand Canyon University. (2017b). GCU doctoral research: The dissertation process. Phoenix, AZ. Retrieved from: http://lc.gcumedia.com/res885/gcu-doctoral-research-the-dissertation-process/v1.1/#/home

Guba, E. G. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 29, 75–91.

Guest, G., Bunce, A., Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods 18(1), 59-82

Hacker, D., Somers, N., Jehn, T., & Rosenzweig, J. (2008). Rules for writers. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Laub, J. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the servant organizational leadership assessment (SOLA) instrument (Doctoral Dissertation, Florida Atlantic University). Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Database. (UMI No. 9921922)

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE

Krysik, J.L & Flynn, J. (2013). Research for effective social work practice (3rd Ed.). New York: Routledge.

Mason, M. (2010). Sample size and saturation in PhD studies using qualitative interviews. Forum: Qualitative Research 11(3).

Nock, A. J. (1943). The memoirs of a superfluous man. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (2010). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. (6th edition) (ISBN 10: 1-4338-0559-6; ISBN 13: 978-1-4338-0561-5; ISBN 10: 1-4338-0561-8). Comment by GCU: NOTE: If the author is not named, list the reference by the title.

Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22, 63-75.

Squires, D. A., & Kranyik, R. D. (1995). The comer program: changing school culture. Educational Leadership, 53(4), 29-32.

Strunk, W. I., & White, E.B. (1979). The elements of style. New York: Macmillan Publishing, Inc.

Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score

Chair Score

Methodologist Score

Content Expert Score

QUALITY OF SOURCES & REFERENCE LIST
For every in-text citation a reference entry exists; conversely, for every reference list entry there is an in-text citation. Uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and government/foundation research reports. The majority of all references must be scholarly, topic-related sources published within the last 5 years. Websites, dictionaries, and publications without dates (n.d.) are not considered scholarly sources and should not be cited or present in the reference list. In-text citations and reference list must comply with APA 6th Ed.

Uses a range of references including founding theorists, peer-reviewed empirical research studies from scholarly journals, and government /foundation research reports.

Note:
A minimum of 50 peer-reviewed, empirical research articles are required for the literature review.

Verifies that 75% of all references are scholarly sources within the last 5 years. The 5-year time frame is referenced at the time of the proposal defense date and at the time of the dissertation defense date.

Note:
Websites, dictionaries, publications without dates (n.d.), are not considered scholarly sources and should not be cited or present in reference list.

Avoids overuse of books and dissertations.

Books:
Maximum of 10 scholarly books that present cutting edge views on a topic, are research based, or are seminal works.

Dissertations:
Maximum of 5 published dissertations.

Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA format.

Reviewer Comments:

Appendix A.
Site Authorization Letter(s) Comment by GCU: FORMATTING TIP: after the Appendix Title use SHIFT + RETURN to create a “soft return.” This will ensure the title and subtitle have the same heading style (e.g., Heading 1), and will ensure the subtitle automatically shows up in the TOC. See note below the TOC in this Template.

This is a required Appendix for Level 2 and Level 5 Reviews.

For purposes of confidentiality, this will be removed prior to Dean’s signature and the following text will be inserted:

Site authorization(s) on file at Grand Canyon University.

Appendix B.
IRB Approval Letter

This is not the D-form! Use the approval letter that you received upon IRB approval.

This Appendix is required in the full dissertation only.

Appendix C.
Informed Consent

This is a required Appendix.

The text to the informed consent that will be provided to learners after IRB approval (at proposal stage), or the text of informed consent that was provided (without signatures) at dissertation stage, should be attached here.

Appendix D.
Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instruments

This is a required Appendix.

Appendix E.
Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation (Quantitative Only)

Required for both proposal and dissertation:

Proposal must include the a priori computation of the sample size;

The dissertation must include the a priori computation of sample size, and, if the recruited sample size is smaller than the a priori sample size, it must also include a post hoc computation of the effect size at power level 0.80.

Include a screen shot (graphic image) of the G*Power output.

Appendix F.
Additional Appendices

Additional appendices may include statistical results, interview transcripts, raw data (as appropriate), or other critical information pertinent to the dissertation. Consult with the chair on additional appendices appropriate for the dissertation.

GCU Dissertation Template V8.3 01.18.18

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DISSERTATION PROJECT

Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework

Validity (for Quantitative Studies)

Reliability (for Quantitative Studies)

Data Collection and Management

Ethical Considerations

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Comment by GCU: This heading is styled according to APA Level 1 heading (style: “Heading 1”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table of contents

Introduction

Background of the Study Comment by GCU: This heading uses the style “Heading 2” [3.03].

Problem Statement Comment by GCU: Levels of headings must accurately reflect the organization of the paper [3.02–3.03]. For example, this is a level 2 heading, and has been “styled” as Heading 2.

Purpose of the Study

Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study

Rationale for Methodology

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

Definition of Terms

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations

Summary

Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem

Identification of the Gap

Review of the Literature

Summary

Chapter 3: Methodology

Statement of the Problem

Research Methodology

Research Design

Population and Sample Selection

Research Materials, Instrumentation OR Sources of Data Comment by GCU: For quantitative studies use Instrumentation for the heading. For qualitative studies use Sources of Data for the heading.

Trustworthiness (for Qualitative Studies)

Data Analysis Procedures

Limitations and Delimitations

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results

Descriptive Findings

Data Analysis Procedures

Results Comment by GCU: When reporting statistics in the narrative, be sure to italicize statistical and mathematical variables, e.g., F test, t test, population size N, p = .03. Use commonly accepted abbreviations for statistical symbols.

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction and Summary of Study

Summary of Findings and Conclusion

Implications

Recommendations

Appendix B. IRB Approval Letter

Appendix C. Informed Consent

Appendix D. Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instruments

Appendix E. Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation (Quantitative Only)

Appendix F. Additional Appendices

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Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Report

Case Study

Letter

Article

Coursework

Speech

Q & A

Critical Thinking

Areas of Expertise

Essay

Thesis

Presentation

Dissertation

Term Paper

Research Paper

Book Review

Assignment

Problem Statement Comment by GCU: Levels of headings must accurately reflect the organization of the paper [3.02–3.03].
For example, this is a level 2 heading, and has been “styled” as Heading 2.

Appendix B.
IRB Approval Letter

Appendix C.
Informed Consent

Appendix D.
Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to Use the Instruments

Appendix E.
Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation (Quantitative Only)

Appendix F.
Additional Appendices