The Harvard Business School Publishing Coursepack is required for this discussion. You can purchase it on this link:

Harvard Business course pack

.

In recent years, many firms use algorithms to help make management group’s decisions and optimize operation processes and supply chains. When such algorithms produce unexpected outcomes, bias concerns may arise. Thus, removing these kinds of bias from the data is so critical in data-driven business. Based on this case anlaysis, please elaborate on the questions below.

Q1) Please address the concept of ‘algorithmic bias’ in a marketing context. What is the reason behind the bias in this case?

Q2) How might a firm acquire capability to analyze situations and detect whether algorithmic bias occurs and how it can be mitigated?

Q3) Algorithmic bias can occur even when demographic data is not used as a variable by the algorithm.  What would you play a role as an information sysem manager if a bias was brough to your attention?

Forthcoming | MIS Quarterly Executive 1

The Promises and Challenges of Blockchains12

Recently, blockchain technologies have attracted considerable attention. A distributed
blockchain application performs the vital functions of a trusted third party by using computer
algorithms and cryptography to confirm asset authenticity, authenticate asset ownership, and
validate transactions. Blockchains enable organizations to transact directly with each other.
With a blockchain application, every participating organization has an exact copy of the same
digital ledger. Furthermore, transactions on the shared ledger are immutable, which means
every party can be confident they are dealing with the same data. With one version of the
truth transparently available to all parties, there are no reconciliations, which enables faster
settlement times and lower transaction costs.3 (More information about blockchain technology
is included in Appendix A.)

Initial research focused on the application of blockchain technology in the financial industry,
but more recently supply chains have emerged as the most promising sector. Market forecasters
estimate that between $1.5 billion and $2.1 billion was spent on blockchain technologies in
2018 to enhance traceability and transparency in supply chains and to save costs.4,5 A recent
study found that blockchain technology was being deployed to realize value from provenance

1 Mary Lacity is the accepting senior editor for this article.
2 Authors contributed equally.
3 Lacity M. C. “Addressing Key Challenges to Making Enterprise Blockchain Applications a Reality,” MIS Quarterly Executive
(17:3), September 2018, pp. 201-222.
4 “Does blockchain hold the key to a new age of supply chain transparency and trust? How organizations have moved from block-
chain hype to reality,” Capgemini Research Institute, 2018, available at https://www.capgemini.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/
Digital-Blockchain-in-Supply-Chain-Report .
5  Schatsky, D., Arora, A. and Dongre, A. “Blockchain and the five vectors of progress,” Deloitte Insights, November 24, 2018,
available at https://www2.deloitte.com/insights/us/en/focus/signals-for-strategists/value-of-blockchain-applications-interoperability.
html.

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine
When to Use Blockchain Technologies
Many organizations are looking at blockchain technologies. However, the drawbacks
of blockchain databases (e.g., scalability, capacity, latency, privacy) mean that the
technology is not always appropriate. This article presents a ten-step decision path
that can help determine whether the application of blockchain is justified and, if so,
which kind of blockchain technology to use. We describe how this decision path was
used to develop a blockchain prototype for the Danish maritime shipping industry.1

Asger B. Pedersen2
Netcompany Group

(Denmark)

Marten Risius2
University of Queensland

(Australia)

Roman Beck
IT University at Copenhagen

(Denmark)

2 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

tracking in supply chains at a faster rate than in
banking and financial services.6

One supply-chain-related industry that is
exploring blockchain technology is maritime
shipping. CIOs in this industry have high hopes
for the potential of blockchains to reshape
the sector to potentially reduce transaction
costs.7 Moreover, maritime shipping executives
see blockchains as a feasible technology for
facilitating operations, avoiding financial
penalties, and improving regulatory compliance.
Leading shipping companies such as Mærsk
A/S, APL Ltd., Hyundai Merchant Marine Co.,
and Samsung SDS Co. have already invested
heavily in blockchain technology to replace their
paper-intensive processes; they hope that using
blockchains will generate an additional $1 trillion
in global trade.8

However, determining what kind of
blockchain and which configuration to use has
thus far presented a major obstacle for decision
makers and system architects. While there are
frameworks to address these issues and to
comprehensively explain the technical design9
and business application considerations,10
they fail to address decision makers’ common
questions about whether a blockchain solution
is feasible, and if so, what kind of blockchain
system should be implemented. Each blockchain
implementation requires a carefully considered
decision based on the characteristics of the
individual application.11

In this article, we describe a managerial
framework for addressing these questions. Using

6 Gupta, S. “HFS Top 10 Blockchain Platforms 2018,” HFS Re-
search, November 7, 2018, available at https://www.hfsresearch.com/
top-10-reports/hfs-top-10-blockchain-platforms-2018.
7 Iansiti, M., and Lakhani, K. R. “The Truth About Blockchain,”
Harvard Business Review, January-February 2017, pp. 118-127.
8 Park, K. “Blockchain Is About to Revolutionize the Shipping
Industry”, Bloomberg, April 18, 2018, available at https://www.
bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-18/drowning-in-a-sea-of-
paper-world-s-biggest-ships-seek-a-way-out.
9 Xu, X., Weber, I., Staples, M., Zhu, L., Bosch, J., Bass, L., Pau-
tasso, C. and Rimba, P. “A Taxonomy of Blockchain-Based Systems
for Architecture Design,” 2017 IEEE International Conference on
Software Architecture (ICSA), IEEE, April 2017, pp. 243-252.
10 Glaser, F. “Pervasive Decentralisation of Digital Infrastructures:
A Framework for Blockchain enabled System and Use Case Analy-
sis,” Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences, IEEE, 2017.
11 Risius, M. and Spohrer, K. “A Blockchain Research Framework:
What We (don’t) Know, Where We Go from Here, and How We Will
Get There,” Business & Information Systems Engineering (59:6),
December 2017, pp. 385-409.

a design science research approach (see Appendix
B), we have created this framework based on our
several years’ experience working as blockchain
consultants on projects in both the private and
public sectors, as well as on the knowledge
and understanding gained through heading the
European Blockchain Center.

The framework comprises a ten-step
decision path for determining if a blockchain is
applicable and deciding what kind of blockchain
solution would be most suitable. To illustrate
this approach, we have developed a blockchain
prototype for the Danish maritime shipping
industry. The development of the prototype
involved interviews with representatives of
DanPilot (a Danish pilotage company) and with
representatives of the Danish Maritime Authority,
the government agency that regulates maritime
affairs. DanPilot handles the public pilotage
through Danish territorial waters from any
destination in Denmark to all ports in the Baltic
Sea. It employs about 160 pilots and 90 boatmen
who manage approximately 20,000 pilotages a
year.

By describing the framework and prototype,
we are able to provide practitioners in other
business sectors with an urgently needed
decision path that considers the unique attributes
of different types of blockchain (see Appendix
C). The framework will help decision makers not
only to decide whether or not to use blockchain
technology, but also which type of blockchain
to deploy. Although the blockchain decision
path will help organizations to systematically
assess the feasibility of a potential blockchain
solution, practitioners will still have to take
account of the specific circumstances of each
situation. Practitioners will often be faced with
the challenge of resolving complex and potentially
paradoxical business and design trade-offs.12

Using Blockchain Technology
to Address Business

Inefficiencies
Financially challenging times are often a

powerful driver for companies to reevaluate
their processes, and to identify inefficiencies

12 Andriopoulos, C. and Lewis, M. W. “Managing Innovation Para-
doxes: Ambidexterity Lessons from Leading Product Design Compa-
nies,” Long Range Planning (43:1), February 2010, pp. 104-122.

| MIS Quarterly Executive 3

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

and missed opportunities. In the aftermath of
the 2008 financial crisis, the maritime shipping
industry, like many others, has had some
extremely difficult years financially, resulting
from shrinking demand, excessive shipping
capacity and expensive credit.13 Out of necessity,
shipping companies have sought larger, better
and more price-sensitive solutions while at sea
to improve both their operational efficiencies and
their financial performance.14

Challenging circumstances like these are not
unique to maritime shipping. Supply chains, in
general, are a prominent use case for blockchain
technologies as businesses struggle with legacy
systems and paper-based processes, experience
strong price pressure, and rely heavily on
integrated systems and information. Thus, the
blockchain decision path described in this article
is not limited to the maritime shipping industry
but is applicable to other business contexts.

The Danish maritime shipping industry is
representative of the general maritime industry
for several reasons. Denmark is among the
world’s leading shipping nations in terms of
owned and operating tonnage.15 As the sixth-
largest shipping nation, Denmark has devoted
significant effort to overcoming economic
obstacles and staying competitive by investing
heavily in IT-based solutions.16

A comprehensive analysis of operational
processes in the Danish maritime shipping
industry identified a major inefficiency: most
of the data relating to ships’ maintenance, logs,
crews, machinery and monitoring is gathered
and stored locally onboard the ships for
insurance purposes. To make matters worse,
most of this data is stored in paper documents.
For administrative and regulatory purposes
these documents are then duplicated multiple
times and distributed to crews, ships, shipping

13 “The global shipping industry’s woes,” The Economist, Sep-
tember 9, 2012, available at https://www.economist.com/graphic-
detail/2016/09/09/the-global-shipping-industrys-woes.
14  Sanders, U., Faeste, L., Riedl, J., Egloff, C., Lee, D., Klopp-
steck, L., Kolind, J. and Italino, J. Battling Overcapacity in Container
Shipping, March 19, 2015, Boston Consulting Group.
15 “Maritime Denmark a global power hub,” The Danish Govern-
ment Ministry of Industry, Business and Financial Affairs, January
2018, available at https://eng.em.dk/publications/2018/marts/mari-
time-denmark-a-global-power-hub/.
16 “Strategy forDenmark’s Digital Growth,” The Danish Govern-
ment Ministry of Industry, Business and Financial Affairs, 2018,
available at https://eng.em.dk/media/10566/digital-growth-strategy-
report_uk_web-2 .

companies, and maritime authorities. These
processes rely heavily on manual labor in
disparate organizations, leading to incoherent
and dispersed data storage systems.

Shipping companies like Mærsk and
DanPilot, as well as national and international
administrative authorities, like the International
Maritime Organization of the United Nations,
complain about these inefficient processes. In
particular, any compliance failures that arise
within these processes frequently lead to multi-
million-dollar claims, resulting, for example, from
delays in unloading cargo, additional docking
fees, or immobilized cargo ships. Furthermore,
the fragmented and often inconsistent databases
need to be available for public access because
they are often consulted during legal disputes.
As insufficient as they are, the documents in the
authorities’ databases are considered to be most
reliable and most important in legal disputes.

In short, the essence of the major problem
identified in the Danish maritime shipping
industry was that there was no single source of
truth, which was the root cause of substantial
legal problems and financial losses. However,
inefficient business processes resulting from
outdated IT infrastructure provide fertile grounds
for substantial change and improvement.17 To
address these issues, we developed a blockchain
prototype, which illustrates the decision path
necessary for selecting the proper system
solution. These types of issues are clearly evident
in, but not limited to, the maritime shipping
industry. Thus, the general decision steps we
describe can also be applied in other industries.

The Ten-Step Blockchain
Decision Path

We developed our ten-step blockchain
decision path by first reviewing different
blockchain decision paths from public media and

17 Grover, V., Jeong, S. R., Kettinger, W. J. and Teng, J. T. C. “The
Implementation of Business Process Reengineering,” Journal of
Management Information Systems (12:1), Summer 1995, pp. 109-
144.

4 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

practitioners.18,19 We then discussed blockchain
design decisions with a potential system user
(an experienced DanPilot pilot) and a potential
system owner who works for the Danish
Maritime Authority (and is also an experienced
ship inspector at the Nautical Institute). We then
integrated these inputs with our professional
experience in blockchain consulting.

We articulate our ten-step decision path as a
series of questions (see Figure 1). The first seven
are increasingly specific questions about whether
the use of blockchain technology would be useful
and feasible; the last three help to determine
which blockchain type would be appropriate
for the particular application (see Appendix C).
Below, we describe each step, outline potential
alternatives to blockchain solutions, and illustrate

18 Meunier, S. “When Do You Need Blockchain? Decision
Models”, Medium, August 4, 2016, available at https://medium.
com/@sbmeunier/when-do-you-need-blockchain-decision-models-
a5c40e7c9ba1.
19 Zubko, H. and Bohner, T. “Lessons Learned from Hyperledger
Fabric PoC Projects,” Hyperledger, April 19, 2018, available at
https://cn.hyperledger.org/blog/2018/04/19/lessons-learned-from-
hyperledger-fabric-poc-projects.

the individual decisions by applying them to the
case of the Danish maritime shipping industry.

Step 1. Is There a Need for a Shared
Common Database?

It is important to remember that, despite all
its various fields of application, a blockchain
is essentially a shared database.20 Thus, the
first step when considering the feasibility of
a blockchain solution is to ask if a database is
needed to provide the required service, and then
consider if a traditional database can adequately
meet the need. If so, established technologies,
rather than a blockchain, should be used to store
data and manage transactions.

In the case of the maritime shipping industry,
each vessel weighing over 100 gross tons
is issued a unique seven-digit international
identification number (IMO-code) by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO). This
number was introduced in 1987 to increase
safety and reduce fraud. As a UN agency, the
IMO sets the standards for safety and acceptable

20 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.

Figure 1: Overview of the Blockchain Decision Path

| MIS Quarterly Executive 5

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

levels of shipping pollution.21 The frequent
need to exchange data among multiple parties,
and the long history of different types of data
storage relating to a ship’s IMO-code, are all
factors indicating a strong need for a database.
In essence, various parties hold, edit, and access
different kinds of data about each vessel (see
Figure 2). This data is of various types and is
stored in various physical and digital formats.
Moreover, the data is owned by different
organizations, whose operations depend on the
exchange of the data.

Maritime shipping therefore provides a clear
example of an industry that needs a shared
common blockchain-based database to prevent
data inconsistency across multiple databases, as
illustrated by the following quote:

“Every time they do something related to the
registry, whether it’s here at the Danish Maritime
Authority or whether its shipping companies,
or brokers, or agents, etc. it’s sent through a
blockchain so everything is updated at once.”
Project Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish
Maritime Authority

During this first step, organizations should
closely consider scalability issues relating to

21 “IMO What It Is,” International Maritime Organization, 2013,
available at http://www.imo.org/en/About/Documents/What%20
it%20is%20Oct%202013_Web .

the amount of data that would be stored on a
blockchain and the rate of change of the data. At
present, storing and exchanging a lot of data on
blockchains can be very slow and expensive due
to prolonged verification periods and transaction
fees. To prevent scalability issues, designers
may consider integrating the blockchain system
with an off-chain database, or simply using a
conventional database instead of a blockchain.
In the case of the maritime shipping industry,
frequent database updates are not required, so
there are no scalability concerns about using a
blockchain solution.

Step 2. Are Multiple Parties Involved?
Step 2 of the decision path considers whether

the application requires the essential blockchain
functionality of a decentralized transactional
database.22 Such a database implies that multiple
parties engage with and interact through the
system. In a blockchain, engagement means that
more than one party contributes, writes, and
updates the data. Therefore, the second question
that needs to be addressed is whether more
than one party is involved with the database.
A blockchain system only makes sense if there
are multiple parties. Otherwise, a centralized
database will provide a more efficient service.

22 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.

Figure 2: Overview of the Diverse Information Associated with a Vessel

6 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

In the maritime shipping case, a blockchain is
appropriate, as shown by the following quote:

“Blockchain can help us obtain better security
when handling documents between different
parties. So that those who are in this chain
handling documents concerning ships would be in
the loop all the time on these documents.” Project
Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish Maritime
Authority

There are multiple parties involved in the
maritime shipping industry. One is the Nautical
Institute (a nongovernmental international
representative body for maritime professionals
involved in the control of sea-going ships),
which works alongside the IMO in a consulting
role. The institute classifies ships based on the
IMO publication that determines rules for each
class for “dynamic positioning.”23 Another is the
Danish Maritime Authority, which is the national
governmental organization responsible for
ensuring shipping companies’ documentation
compliance and their certification requirements
for cargo, safety, and medical restrictions.

The nongovernmental classification companies
are responsible for technical standards and the
maintenance of vessels, and, according to their
class, for conducting checks to ensure that the
requirements for machinery and equipment
are kept up to date. If there are accidents, a
classification company functions as an insurance
company. By underwriting a vessel, the
classification company demonstrates the quality
of a vessel to the owner and the authorities. The

23 “Strategic Plan 2016-2020,” The Nautical Institute, 2016, avail-
able at https://www.nautinst.org/download.cfm?docid=2DE93AEB-
0A7F-41A3-9B53D95DF786E051.

owner of a vessel is often a shipping company,
but a vessel might also be personally owned; the
service area24 of the vessel determines which
certificates and legal requirements it must abide
by. In addition, the governmental authorities seek
to improve transparency by providing the general
public with open access to information about a
vessel.

Given the number and diversity of players in
the maritime shipping industry (see Figure 3), a
blockchain system is a feasible solution.

Step 3. Do the Involved Parties Have
Conflicting Interests and/or Are they
Trusted?

When deciding whether blockchain technology
is appropriate for a use case that involves
multiple parties, it is necessary to assess how
those parties relate to each other. If all parties can
completely rely on each other to provide accurate
and reliable information, blockchain databases
are not necessary. However, a blockchain is
appropriate if there are trust issues or conflicts of
interest between the parties.

The unique advantage of a blockchain is that
it creates a trust-free ecosystem once the data is
uploaded.25 Trust in a blockchain is established
by decentralizing data storage and control
across participating nodes,26 which enables
autonomously running trust-free services in the

24 A ship might be owned, for example, by a company in the
Philippines but service/dock in Denmark. Such a ship would then
be subject to the legal requirements from both the Philippines and
Denmark (not just Denmark or the Philippines).
25 Beck, R., et al., op. cit., 2016.
26 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.

Figure 3: Key Players in the Maritime Shipping Industry

| MIS Quarterly Executive 7

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

form of “smart contracts.”27 The tamper-resistant
character of blockchains means that participants
can trust the validity of the stored data, rather
than trusting other participants. If the parties
have conflicting interests or the data from each
party cannot be absolutely trusted, blockchains
enable automatic data verification and storage,
which means the parties can reliably transact.
Although the trust-free nature of blockchains
begins to break down when it becomes necessary
for blockchain systems to link digital value to
physical value through trusted interfaces, absence
of trust between the parties and the immutable
log of transactions are very strong reasons for
using blockchain technology.28

Step 3 of the blockchain decision path asks
whether there are trust issues or conflicting
interests between the parties. If there are no trust
issues, multiple copies of a centralized database
or a managed database with assigned “Create-
Read-Update-Delete” (CRUD) rights may offer a
better solution than a blockchain. The answer
to this question in the maritime shipping case
is “Yes,” because, as shown in the quote below,

27 Smart contracts are pieces of code that implement business logic
by transitioning the current database state to the next state.
28 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.

there are several stakeholders with different and
potentially conflicting interests:

“Of course, there [will] always be … shipping
companies [that] might not sail [to] the highest
standards, where the ship does not live up to the
best quality. They might not have an interest in
open data that is accessible, because then we
could simply [rate the] ships. [Making all the
data public] would [mean we could choose]
more secure ships over less secure ships.” Project
Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish Maritime
Authority

A database system for the marine shipping
industry must be able to provide different
functionalities for the various stakeholders
involved (see Figure 3). At the most basic level,
international laws require that any system must
provide data access to the general public (see
Figure 4). Also the Nautical Institute must be
capable of verifying any vessel’s dynamic position
class. Furthermore, the IMO and the Danish
Maritime Authority require certification and
documentation to confirm vessels’ compliance
with (inter)national medical and safety laws. To
match the data with a vessel, these organizations
require the data on technical standards and

Figure 4. Current Public Access to a Vessel’s Dynamic Positioning Information

8 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

maintenance from the classification company
to be linked with the IMO-code. Furthermore,
the Danish Maritime Authority and the shipping
companies both have an interest in supporting
the competitiveness of the shipping companies.

Currently, however, shipping companies are
dissatisfied with the data-access processes. They
complain about conflicting information from the
various sources, untimely communications with
authorities, which delay their operations (e.g.,
booking pilots), and the need to report the same
information back to multiple databases. There
are frequent cases of conflicting information—for
example, when both the operator and “vendor”
(i.e., the company that charters a vessel) are
listed as the owners. Communication delays stem
from the fact that the Danish Maritime Authority
requires all documents to be physically duplicated
in the register to minimize the impact of hacking,
and requires that at least two people manually
check all documents. However, thorough
document validation is necessary in this industry
because some foreign shipping companies
attempt to circumvent certain expensive legal
requirements by sailing under different countries’
flags (see quote below):

“a blockchain means that] those … handling
documents concerning ships would be in the loop
all the time … and would not be able to change or
fake anything without everyone else knowing it.”
Project Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish
Maritime Authority

Individual governments can levy multi-million-
dollar fines for these kinds of violations.

Thus, potential conflicts of interest, as well as
erroneous and conflicting data, demonstrate that
information from the different parties involved
in the maritime shipping industry cannot be
trusted. This indicates that a blockchain solution
is feasible.

Step 4. Can or Do the Participants Want

to Avoid a Trusted Third Party?
In situations where there is a lack of trust

between parties, a trusted third party is often
used to manage transactions. One advantage of
blockchain systems is that they enable peer-to-
peer transactions without relying on a trusted
third-party service, such as an escrow service,
data —feed provider, licensing authority, or

public notary. This characteristic of blockchains
eliminates the need for a central integration
point, which can be a single point of failure that
could be exploited to control and manipulate a
database.29 The autonomous operating nature of
blockchains, together with the trust-free setup of
smart contracts, removes the need for third-party
trust intermediaries.30 However, a trusted third-
party service provider could be used to process
and secure transactions in situations where
all participants have no problems using such a
provider.

At present, there is no third-party service
provider capable of integrating all sources of
information in the maritime shipping industry
and making the data publicly accessible. Indeed,
there are considerable trust issues that would
preclude the use of a third party. Moreover, there
is considerable interest in building a system
that does not require such an intermediary, as
illustrated by the two quotes below:

“… you need to understand … that … banks
have … little trust in each other, so for anything
they do they need to have an intermediary. [This
even applies to] banks in the same company. It
could be [that] banks within Danske Bank [have
so little] trust [in] each other that they always
use an intermediary. So, there could be a trusted
[central] agent …. [But] by using blockchain they
can … eliminate this middle man ….” Project
Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish Maritime
Authority

“The challenge occurs when we have
international stakeholders, where we need to
validate their identity, and [need to validate]
who these people are. It sometimes happens that
the person who is employed by a company needs
to go to a notary to prove that … he is the correct
person. But [even] this is not enough. [The
employee and the notary] … can … be asked [to
go together] to the embassy, which confirms that
the notary is … reputable … and that everything
is ok.” Project Manager and Nautical Advisor,
Danish Maritime Authority

From the above discussion, the answer to
the Step 4 question in the case of the maritime
shipping industry indicates that a blockchain-
based solution is feasible and desirable.
29 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.
30 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.

| MIS Quarterly Executive 9

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

Step 5. Do the Rules Governing System
Access Differ Between Participants?

After establishing that multiple parties with
potentially conflicting interests are involved
and that there are trust and compliance issues,
the next step is to consider whether individuals
require different access rights to the system.
The blockchain architectural design allows for
differing rights for data reading and writing, as
well as access validation rights.31 Furthermore, at
the application layer, smart contracts can govern
different privileges in terms of asset issuers
(e.g., releasing tokens), account managers (e.g.,
controlling and exchanging tokens) or observers
(e.g., receiving and viewing transactions).32 If
all participants have the same access rights, a
relational database offers a more feasible solution
than a blockchain.

Different participants in the maritime shipping
industry play different roles and therefore
require different access rights. For example,
the IMO issues vessel IMO-codes, while the
Nautical Institute issues the license given to
each vessel and the Danish Maritime Authority

31 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.
32 “Participating in a Blockchain”, Chain, 2018, available at
https://chain.com/docs/1.2/core/learn-more/blockchain-participants.

is responsible for maintaining the registry. The
general public also needs to be able to access
information about a vessel. The different rights
of the various participants mean that the rules
governing system access are not uniform, which
indicates that using a blockchain system would be
beneficial (see quote below):

“Mærsk, for example, may be allowed to …
do some things in [the] blockchain, using some
governance rights. That’s one of the things
[among others like the guarantee of information
validity and source identity].” Project Manager
and Nautical Advisor, Danish Maritime
Authority.

Step 6. Do the Rules for Transacting
Remain Largely Unchanged?

The next step in determining whether a
blockchain solution is feasible is to consider how
frequently the rules for transacting change. It is
difficult to accommodate changes in blockchains

Figure 5: Input Requirements for the Blockchain Prototype’s System’s Smart Contract

10 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

because of their consensus-based decision-
making procedures.33,34

Smart contracts that provide blockchain-
based services are autonomously executed,35
making them very difficult to change or update.36
So, for systems where transacting rules change
frequently, it would not be advisable to use
blockchains.

In the case of the maritime shipping industry,
the basic information requirements do not change
(see quote below):

“The register of ships can be compared to the
[stability of the] land register. In our register it is
just registration of ships instead of houses, where
[an entry] depends on [a vessel’s] tonnage.”
Project Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish
Maritime Authority.

Thus, the data necessary for smart contracts
to update and retrieve vessel information could
be standardized (see Figure 5), and a blockchain
solution would be feasible.

Step 7. Is There a Need for an
Objective, Immutable Log?

The common benefit of all types of blockchain
is the immutability and integrity of a non-
repudiable log of transparent transactions.37
The tamper-proof log of historical transactions
is particularly helpful for auditing purposes.38 A
blockchain not only stores current information
but also maintains a log of its history.

In contrast, creating an auditable history
for paper-based records is much more difficult.

33 However, there are examples of changes in blockchain decision-
making. For example, following the siphoning of decentralized
autonomous organization (DAO) tokens through the exploitation of
a coding bug, there was a DAO “hard fork” in Ethereum, leading
to a heavily disputed but ultimately successful change to decision-
making. (A hard fork is a radical change to the protocol that makes
previously invalid blocks/transactions valid (or vice versa); this
requires all nodes or users to upgrade to the latest version of the
protocol software.) In the case of Bitcoin, however, the stakeholders’
inability to agree on a hard fork to solve scaling issues has led to a
so-called governance crisis.
34 Murck, P. “Who Controls the Blockchain?,” Harvard Business
Review (19:1), April 19, 2017, available at https://hbr.org/2017/04/
who-controls-the-blockchain.
35 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
36  Grincalaitis, M. “Can a Smart Contract Be upgraded/modified? 
Is CPU mining even worth the Ether? The Top Questions Answered
Here…,” Medium, February 6, 2018, available at https://medium.
com/@merunasgrincalaitis/can-a-smart-contract-be-upgraded-modi-
fied-1393e9b507a.
37 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.
38 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.

Not only must the authenticity of records be
guaranteed by physical seals and signs—which
can never be entirely trustworthy—but paper
records (and databases) that rely on manual
input are also prone to human error, especially
when transactions must be manually handled on
a regular basis.39 If a system does not require the
guaranteed validity of transactions, and does not
need a definitive validation of transaction details,
such as timestamps and parties involved, then a
regular database may be a simpler solution than
a blockchain.

This is not the situation in the maritime
shipping industry. Since 1987, international
maritime law has required that all relevant
information about any vessel above 100 gross
tons is stored in a way that is auditable in order
to increase safety and prevent fraud (see quote
below):

“[by using blockchain technology] we also
have the benefits of the entire audit trail and the
document flow, or at least the philosophy behind
it.” Project Manager and Nautical Advisor,
Danish Maritime Authority.

DanPilot provides an example of the
administrative challenge of providing access
to historical data. With approximately 20,000
pilotages a year, DanPilot has to respond to
about 55 obligatory data searches each day.
It has had to hire 50 administrative staff
members (approximately 20% of its workforce)
to manage the legal requirements relating to
data in its current system. However, because
all international authorities have their own
disconnected databases and individual
specifications, pilots also have to double-check all
information so they can reasonably demonstrate
that the company is obeying all the many laws.
The Danish Maritime Authority decrees that,
even though a pilot may be given wrong, invalid,
or incomplete data, it is his or her personal
responsibility if something goes wrong—and
the pilot’s license is at risk. The occasional
administrative violations that inevitably occur
frequently lead to multi-million-dollar costs

39 Bauerle, N., and Kuznetsov, M. “Why Use a Blockchain?,”
CoinDesk, 2018, available at https://www.coindesk.com/information/
why-use-a-blockchain/.

| MIS Quarterly Executive 11

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

resulting from delayed cargo clearing, additional
docking fees and contract penalties.40

In addition, the Danish Maritime Authority
makes its vessel register publicly accessible
through a separate database on its website.
However, this database is not the official register
and may contain outdated, altered, or missing
information. Moreover, searching this public
register requires specific knowledge of a vessel—
for example, call-sign, ship name or IMO-code.
All three are unique identifiers of a vessel and,
depending on the flag or organization, the
identifier may change (see quote below):

“… if you dig into the data, trying to figure out
why only the Danish Maritime Authority has [a
vessel listed] as a cargo ship and not a standby
ship, in relation to how it is built from the
classification companies, and in relation to how
it is operated, it becomes very confusing. This is
where I think a blockchain can offer the absolute
truth.” Pilot and Expert Judge, DanPilot.

Given the fluctuating and highly documented
nature of shipping operations—which

40 Pittalis, E., Sleiman, T., Washington, T. and Leech, J. “No ex-
ceptions from insurers in 2020 for IMO non-compliance,” S&P Glob-
al, 2018, available at https://www.platts.com/latest-news/shipping/
london/feature-no-exceptions-from-insurers-in-2020-for-26884390.

often depend on not entirely trustworthy
information—an objective and immutable
log provided by a blockchain would be highly
beneficial, as illustrated by the following quote:

“[In terms of meeting the legal requirements],
I am not for one second in doubt that this
[blockchain prototype] could be used to exchange
information easily and smoothly.” Project
Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish Maritime
Authority.

Step 8. Is Public Access Required?
For the Danish maritime shipping industry,

the answers to the questions in Steps 1 to 7
indicate there is a valid use case for a blockchain
database. Step 8 (and the next two) determine
which type of blockchain should be used. As
described in Appendix C, there are three main
types—permissionless and public and private
permissioned. The choice depends on whether
a governance mechanism for controlling access
to and participation in the network is needed.
Control functions in a blockchain depend on
whether there is a need to manage writing rights.
For a permissionless blockchain, new users can
join at any time; they can validate and transmit

Figure 6: Blockchain Prototype’s Mode of Operation

12 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

transactions, as well as append or mine41 blocks.
Permissioned blockchains only allow pre-
registered nodes to validate transactions.42,43
Permissioned blockchains are more suitable
for regulated industries or use cases that
have “know-your-customer” regulations. The
permission information can be stored either on-
or off-chain.44

As the quote below shows, different
stakeholders in the maritime shipping industry
have different rights within the system:

“We have all the different stakeholders
segmented into categories, which will require
some kind of access control to get into the
system, like a protected [permissioned]
blockchain.” Project Manager and Nautical
Advisor, Danish Maritime Authority

While the general public only needs to read
the data, other stakeholders have various writing
rights for their respective data responsibilities.
These various rights indicate that the maritime
shipping industry requires a permissioned
blockchain. To increase the system’s ease of use,
we decided to make the prototype available to
“heavy” and “light” nodes.45

Step 9. Are Transactions Public?
After considering what writing rights will be

required, the next step is to decide who will be
allowed to read blockchain data,46 which will
determine whether a public or private blockchain
should be used. If the transactions can be viewed
by the general public, a public blockchain like

41 For an explanation of the term “mine” in relation to block
chains, see https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Mining.
42 Beck, R., Müller-Bloch, C. and King, J. L. “Governance in the
Blockchain Economy: A Framework and Research Agenda,” Journal
of the Association for Information System (19:10), December 2018,
pp. 1020-1034.
43 Peters, G. W. and Panayi, E. “Understanding Modern Banking
Ledgers through Blockchain Technologies: Future of Transaction
Processing and Smart Contracts on the Internet of Money,” chapter
in Banking Beyond Banks and Money A Guide to Banking Services in
the Twenty-First Century, Springer, 2016, pp. 239-278.
44 Swanson, T. “Consensus-as-a-service: a brief report on the emer-
gence of permissioned, distributed ledger systems,” April 6, 2015,
available at http://www.ofnumbers.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/
Permissioned-distributed-ledgers .
45 Clients using heavy nodes download the entire blockchain plat-
form and need to download every new block before a correct updated
output is reliable. This enables the maritime authorities and shipping
companies to prevent fraudulent database manipulations. Light nodes
do not store the entire blockchain but enable efficient reading access 
to the blockchain system.
46 Beck, R., et al., op. cit., 2018.

Bitcoin or Ethereum should be chosen. A system
that regulates reading access requires a private
blockchain such as IBM’s Hyperledger Fabric.

As mentioned earlier (and reinforced by the
quote below), in the case of the maritime shipping
industry, the general public only requires reading
access, while the remaining stakeholders have
different writing rights:

“In the ship registry there is no confidential
information—everything is publicly available—
which is one of the things a new [blockchain-
based] ship registry should provide as open data.”
Project Manager and Nautical Advisor, Danish
Maritime Authority

The industry, therefore, requires a
permissioned public blockchain that checks
individual rights when logging a transaction
(i.e., creating or updating data) or a call request
(i.e., reading data). As shown in Figure 6, our
prototype was designed to operate in this way.
Such a system disentangles the reading rights
(i.e., general citizen) and writing rights (i.e.,
shipping companies, classification companies,
flag-states, IMO, Nautical Institute) of the
different stakeholders.

Step 10. Where is Consensus
Determined?

A permissioned blockchain is required if
reading and/or writing access needs to be
limited, with one or more authorities acting
as the gatekeeper for participation. These
authorities determine who may join a network
(and read information), initiate transactions,
or mine blocks.47 Whether to use a private or
public permissioned blockchain depends on
how consensus for the validity of transactions is
determined.

Private permissioned blockchains determine
the validity of transactions within the
organization. Examples of this type of blockchain
include IBM’s Hyperledger Fabric and R3’s Corda.
Hyperledger Fabric, for example, does not require
computationally intensive mining, but relies on a
consensus mechanism of trusted validating peer
nodes that multicast transaction requests to all

47 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.

| MIS Quarterly Executive 13

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

other validating peers to reach consensus and
ultimately execute transactions.48

Public permissioned blockchains (sometimes
referred to as hybrid blockchains) have more
finely differentiated rights,49,50 where consensus is
established between participating organizations.
Examples include Ripple, Multichain, Eris, and
a private iteration of Ethereum. It should be
noted that public permissioned blockchains also
have a consensus mechanism. The two types of
permissioned blockchain differ only in terms of
how they determine consensus.

Concluding Comments
In this article, we have provided a step-by-

step decision path that managers can follow
to identify whether they have a valid case for
adopting a blockchain solution, the alternatives to
blockchain they should consider, and which type
of blockchain to use. The series of simple yes-no
questions will help practitioners decide when to
use a blockchain and which type of blockchain
technology to deploy. In reality, however, design
requires much more than binary decisions,
and involves complex and possibly paradoxical
trade-offs. These trade-offs can be localized to
the actual design characteristics, but they also
need to take account of the broader business
requirements and constraints.51

When assessing the practicality of a blockchain
solution, practitioners therefore need to carefully
evaluate the feasibility of design solutions being
able to meet different business requirements.
For example, if there are pressing regulatory
requirements for an auditable and immutable
log (Step 7), a blockchain solution might be the
best option regardless of the other decision
steps. As a rule of thumb, we usually advise that a
blockchain is feasible if at least five out of the first
seven questions are answered with “Yes.” Even so,
practitioners need to carefully balance various
potentially paradoxical business and design
requirements for each individual case.

We have illustrated the 10-step decision path
by applying it to the case of the Danish maritime

48 Castro, M. and Liskov, B. “Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance,”
Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design
and Implementation, February 1999, pp. 173-186.
49 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.
50 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
51 Andriopoulos, C., and Lewis, M. W., op. cit., 2010.

shipping industry, where we have developed a
blockchain-based prototype to overcome the “no
single source of truth” problem. This problem
frequently leads to substantial operational
inefficiencies and costs resulting from delayed
discharge of cargo, additional docking fees, or
tied-up resources (e.g., immobilized vessels). A
shipping company employee who participated
in our research estimates that the costs of
developing and rolling out a blockchain system
would be well below the fees and costs associated
with just one of the frequently occurring cargo-
clearance delays.

Inefficient processes using partly paper-
based documentation, redundant data storage,
and inefficient communications are not confined
to the maritime shipping industry. We believe,
therefore, that managers in other industries
pondering whether to adopt blockchain solutions
will also benefit from the decision path described
in this article.

Appendix A: Brief Description of
Blockchain Technology

In essence, a blockchain is a distributed
transactional database that is shared among
multiple parties (see figure). To perform a
transaction, users reference each other through
their public keys and use their private keys
to cryptographically sign transactions.52 Each
successful transaction on the blockchain indicates
an update to the database that is replicated
and stored by each participant. Transactions
are aggregated and appended to the database
in blocks,53 and can be automatically managed
through smart contracts. Services that are
based on one or more smart contracts are
called decentralized applications (DApps).54,55
The essential blockchain benefits derived from
these functionalities include immutability, non-
repudiation, data integrity, transparency, and the
potential for equal rights of participants.56

52 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
53 Xu, X., et. al., op. cit., 2017.
54 Lacity, M. C. “Addressing Key Challenges to Making Enterprise
Blockchain Applications a Reality,” MIS Quarterly Executive (17:3),
September 2018, pp. 201-222.
55 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
56 Xu, X., et al., op. cit., 2017.

14 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

Blockchain systems are commonly
distinguished in terms of public or private access
to reading blockchain data and the permissioned
or permissionless rights to validate data (see
Appendix C). However, despite a common
view that blockchains have the potential for
revolutionizing the economy at large,57 the
technology also has limitations compared
with other distributed databases (including
capacity, latency, and privacy) that must be taken
into account when considering a blockchain
solution.58,59

Appendix B: Research Approach

We applied a problem-centered design
science research approach to develop a proof-of-
concept prototype that addresses the needs of
the maritime shipping industry. The stages of this

57 Beck, R., Czepluch, S. J., Lollike, N. and Malone, S. “Block-
chain: The Gateway to Trust-free Cryptographic Transactions,” 24th
European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS), Association
for Information Systems, June 2016.
58 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
59 Xu, X., et. al., op. cit., 2017.

approach are depicted in the figure and described
below.60

The Problem-Centered Solution
The maritime shipping industry is currently

experiencing significant financial challenges. This
has encouraged stakeholders across the industry
to reconsider their processes and identify
opportunities for improving them. Most of the
current administrative processes require a lot
of human attention, which causes inefficiencies,
errors, and delay that can lead to considerable
costs and financial penalties. The root cause of
the problems is the lack of a single source of
truth. The goal of our research project was to
demonstrate a solution that could overcome the
problems.

Identify Problem and Motivation. The
main problems arising from the lack of a single
source of truth in the maritime shipping industry
are financial penalties resulting from delays in
unloading cargo, and shipping companies forging
documentation to avoid proper occupational
health regulations and to circumvent legal
requirements.

60  Peffers, K., Tuunanen, T., Rothenberger, M. A. and Chatterjee, 
S. “A Design Science Research Methodology for Information System
Research,” Journal of Management Information Systems (24:3),
2007, pp. 45-77.

Core Components of a Blockchain System

| MIS Quarterly Executive 15

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

Objective of the Solution. To explore the
potential use of a blockchain solution, we first
conducted interviews with representatives of
various stakeholders in the Danish maritime
shipping industry. Next, we used the 10-step
decision path to confirm that a blockchain
solution was feasible and to identify which type
of blockchain should be used. We then decided
to develop a proof-of-concept blockchain
prototype. The main objectives of the prototype
were to improve the efficiency of administrative
processes, to make them more reliable and
trustworthy, and to make documents more easily
verifiable. By conducting interviews before
developing the prototype, we were able to ensure
that we chose the most appropriate and most
beneficial solution (see table in Appendix C).

Design and Development. The solution
needs to allow the general public to access the
data, and also to manage the specific permissions
required by participants from the different
industry stakeholders for logging changes. To
accommodate the variety of reading and writing
rights, we opted to use a public permissioned
blockchain on the Ethereum private net to
develop the prototype.61 Initially, the Danish
Maritime Authority was the “super user” who
managed permission rights.

Stakeholders access the blockchain either
through a heavy or light node depending on
whether writing rights are required or permitted.

Demonstration. We demonstrated the design,
development, and benefits of the prototype

61 The interactive prototype can be accessed at https://projects.
invisionapp.com/share/7KBLNHNTZ#/screens/232477611.

blockchain solution to the Danish Maritime
Authority. The demonstration showed the
feasibility of applying a blockchain solution
across the entire maritime shipping industry.
Moreover, the prototype included signed and
executed smart contracts, which allowed the
general public to follow changes in the ship
registry. The smart contracts were written in the
Solidity programming language.

The insights gained from the design decisions
during the development of the prototype enabled
us to validate the 10-step blockchain decision
path.

Evaluation. A further interview with a
representative of the Danish Maritime Authority
evaluated the prototype solution against the
qualities and requirements gathered in the
earlier interviews. This evaluation confirmed the
blockchain prototype was consistent with the
actual needs and constraints of the industry.

Communication. We discussed the prototype
results, and the use of the blockchain decision
path, with blockchain consultants. Additionally,
in early 2018, the Danish government published
Strategy for Denmark’s Digital Growth,62 which
included a commitment to use a blockchain-
powered solution for the ship register.

Outcome of the Research Project
The prototype demonstrated that blockchain

technology can provide a suitable and effective
solution for the identified problem-centered issue

62 Available at https://eng.em.dk/media/10566/digital-growth-
strategy-report_uk_web-2 .

Problem-Centered Design Science Approach

Problem-
oriented
Approach

Design and
Development

Ensure
stakeholders’

rights and
permissions are
managed and

can be executed

Identify Problem
and Motivation

Economically
suffering industry

lacking single
source of truth

Define Objectives
of a Solution

Efficient, reliable
and easily
verifiable

documentation

Evaluation

Assess the
prototype’s

performance
against

requirements

Communication

The prototype was
publicly presented

as part of the
Danish Digital

Growth Strategy

16 MIS Quarterly Executive | misqe.org | © 2019 University of Minnesota

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

in the maritime shipping industry by establishing
a single source of truth.

Appendix C: The Three Types of
Blockchain63

The last three steps of the 10-step blockchain
decision path determine which type of blockchain
should be used. The three types are summarized
in the table and described below.

The Three Blockchain Types

● A permissionless public blockchain is an
open network that enables anyone to join
(examples include Bitcoin and Ethereum).
With this type of blockchain, all users
can read, write, and verify transactions.
This type of blockchain can replace the
role of a trusted third party. Trust is built
between peers in the network because
they all have to abide by the established
consensus mechanism. The most popular
consensus mechanisms are Proof of Work
(PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS). In a PoW
system, miners in the network compete
computation-wise by solving the hash
function of the next block. PoS defines the
next valid block in a more deterministic

63 Castro, M. and Liskov, B., op. cit., 1999.

way, depending on the stake that different
miners hold (e.g., number of tokens).

● A permissioned public blockchain is a closed
network, where only verified and trusted
nodes can participate (examples are
Ripple, Multichain, Eris and Hyperledger
Fabric). This type is also called a “hybrid
blockchain,” because all participants can
view the data, but only authorized users
can validate transactions.64 Users are
authorized through a network consensus
after providing the necessary proof of
eligibility. However, if there are no trust
issues among users, the only reason
for using a hybrid blockchain would
be the immutable logging of historical
transactions for auditability purposes.65

● A permissioned private blockchain
is a closed network that allows only
authorized users to read, submit, and
validate transactions66 (examples
include Hyperledger Fabric and
Corda). Transactions are verified or the
blockchain’s consensus is determined
within an organization. Commonly, a
Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (pBFT)
protocol is used, which requires a certain
percentage of previously verified nodes
to confirm the transactions. This makes

64 Beck, R., et al., op. cit., 2018.
65 Glaser, F., op. cit., 2017.
66 Beck, R., et. al., op. cit., 2018.

The Three Blockchain Types

Blockchain Type Properties

Permissionless public blockchain
Anyone can join the network, and read, write and verify
transactions through Proof of Work or Proof of Stake.

Permissioned public blockchain
Only trusted and validated peer nodes may join the network.
Consensus is determined between participating organizations.

Permissioned private blockchain
Only trusted and validated peer nodes may join the network.
Consensus is determined within an organization through, for
example, a Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance63 algorithm.

| MIS Quarterly Executive 17

A Ten-Step Decision Path to Determine When to Use Blockchain Technologies

the pBFT model more efficient than PoW
as the miners are not competing and only
doing the computations to benefit the
network.

Note that the same blockchain application
can operate as more than one type. For example,
Hyperledger Fabric can be used to provide a
permissioned public or permissioned private
blockchain.

About the Authors

Asger B. Pedersen
Asger Pedersen (ASGER1989@GMAIL.COM)

is a consultant at Netcompany Group and runs
the Blockchain Center of Excellence. He has a
master’s degree in software development and
technology, with a specialization in blockchain,
from IT University at Copenhagen, and a
bachelor’s degree in technology, management,
and marine engineering from Svendborg
International Maritime Academy. He has won nine
hackathons in the EU, most recently “ID at Work,”
on the subject of digital identity.

Marten Risius
Marten Risius (m.risius@business.uq.edu.au)

is a senior lecturer in information systems at the
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
His research focuses on managerial and societal
issues relating to social media and blockchain
technologies. His work has been published in
various international journals and presented at
peer-reviewed conferences. Marten has been
internationally recognized with various academic
and industry awards as well as research grants.
His work has also been featured in public
media—for example, The Boston Globe.

Roman Beck
Roman Beck (romb@itu.dk) is a professor

at IT University of Copenhagen and head of the
European Blockchain Center. His research focuses
on how blockchain technology is changing the
nature of work, with an emphasis on governance
and value creation in decentralized systems. His
research has been published in over 120 journal
and peer-reviewed conference articles. Roman
is the conference co-chair for the International
Conference of Information Systems (ICIS) 2022,
and convener of the ISO TC 307 WG 5 Blockchain

& Distributed Ledger Technology standardization
group on Blockchain Governance. He is featured
in the blockchain documentary film, Blockchain
City.

Copyright of MIS Quarterly Executive is the property of MIS Quarterly Executive and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.