As you discovered in Week 2 of the course, formally observing childrens’ behavior is an important step in determining their current stage of development and enhancing our ability to support and foster growth in areas where children may not excel. Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbook describe stages of physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and language development in children 4 – 5 years of age and 6 – 8 years of age. Use the textbook in addition to the video provided with the instructions for this assignment as resources.
Don't use plagiarized sources. Get Your Custom Essay on
Refer to the Week 2 Instructor Guidance for further tips and examples that will support your success with this discussion.
Review Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbook.
Review 10 Effective DAP Teaching Strategies (Links to an external site.).
Review and
download
the Week 3 Exemplar Template. download
Choose one of the below age ranges and corresponding video to use for this assignment.
Age Range
Corresponding Observation Video
Corresponding Developmental Checklist
Early Childhood: 4 – 5 Years of Age
Samantha and Sara Building Towers and Castles (Links to an external site.)
Pick only one child to observe. Samantha is wearing a short sleeve shirt. Sara has long sleeves. Provide the child’s name on your observation form.
Developmental Checklist: 4 To 5 Years
download
Required Resources
Text
Groark, C. J., McCarthy, S. K., & Kirk, A. R. (2014).
Early child development: From theory to practice.
Bridgepoint Education.
Chapter 7: Early Childhood Development (4–5 years)
Chapter 8: Early Childhood Development (6–8 years)
Multimedia
Colorado Department of Education. (2015, February 2).
Asia and lyric building a road together (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/768LalhqnRw
This video shows two children engaged in an activity together and will assist you in your Child Development Observation #2 assignment this week.
Accessibility Statement
(Links to an external site.)Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Colorado Department of Education. (2015, February 3).
Samantha and sara building towers and castles (Links to an external site.)
[Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/XdUx3iHNuhs
This video shows two children engaged in an activity together and will assist you in your Child Development Observation #2 assignment this week.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Web Page
NAEYC. (n.d.).
The Case of Brain Science and Guided Play: A Developing Story (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/may2017/case-brain-science-guided-play
On this webpage, the author provides information about considerations for play that may assist you in your Importance of Play: Interactive Newsletter discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Recommended Resources
Web Pages
Bongiorno, L. (n.d).
10 things every parent should know about play (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from http://families.naeyc.org/learning-and-development/child-development/10-things-every-parent-should-know-about-play
On this web page, the author discusses the importance of play for young children. The author gives examples of the different developmental domains and how play helps a child develop. This information may assist you in your Importance of Play:Interactive Newsletter discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)
Gowmon, V. (n.d.).
Playful quotes for the child in your heart (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from https://www.vincegowmon.com/playful-quotes-for-the-child-in-your-heart/
This web page provides inspiring and playful quotations from a variety of authorities and may assist you in your Importance of Play: Interactive Newsletter discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy does not exist.
NAEYC for Families. (n.d).
The 10 NAEYC program standards (Links to an external site.)
. Retrieved from https://families.naeyc.org/accredited-article/10-naeyc-program-standards
This web page gives an overview of 10 NAEYC standards that help families make good choices in helping their child develop. This information may assist you in your Importance of Play: Interactive Newsletter discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy does not exist.
Early Childhood: 6 – 8 Years of Age
Asia and Lyric Building a Road Together (Links to an external site.)
Pick only one child to observe. Asia is wearing black pants. Lyric is wearing a pink skirt. Provide the child’s name on your observation form.
Developmental Checklist: 6 To 8 Years
download
In your paper,
Complete the sections of the corresponding developmental checklist, including the summary section, that you observed while watching your chosen video.
Note: You will not be able to complete all sections, so many will be left blank.
Paste the checklist on the first page of your assignment (after your title page).
Summarize the typical development that you observed in the child (i.e., the areas that you were able to check off on the checklist).
Explain the developmental concerns you have for this child based on your observation. If you did not see a clear concern, discuss at least one area you were not able to check off the checklist.
Explain, based on your observation and your desired future professional role, how you might support this child using developmentally appropriate practices.
Identify some developmentally appropriate activities you can do with the child to support at least two different developmental domains (physical, social/emotional, self-help, cognitive, language).
Identify one or two considerations or suggestions that should be included into the classroom environment to support the needs of the child.
The Week 3 Assignment
Must be three to four double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages, but including the completed observation checklist) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Writing Center (Links to an external site.)’s (Links to an external site.) APA Style (Links to an external site.) resource.
Must include a separate title page with the following:
Title of paper
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must use at least two scholarly sources in addition to the course text.
To assist you in completing the library research required for this assignment, view this Help! Need Article (Links to an external site.) tutorial, which can help you find a good starting place for your research.
The Scholarly, Peer Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.
To assist you in completing the library research required for this assignment, view the University of Arizona Global Campus Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.) tutorial, which introduces the University of Arizona Global Campus Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips.
Must document any information used from sources in APA style as outlined in the Writing Center’s Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.) guide.
Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.) resource in the Writing Center for specifications.
Runninghead: OBSERVATION #2 1
OBSERVATION #2 4
Week 3: Child Observation #2
Your Name
ECE 205: Introduction to Child Development
Instructor’s Name
Date
Hint: Delete all of these green boxes before submitting the paper to your instructor.
To delete the boxes: click on the edge of each box and press delete.
Child Development Observation #2
In this section, write a brief introduction that will allow your reader to follow the organization of your assignment and the focus of your observation.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
INTRODUCTIONS & CONCLUSIONS
for help.
Developmental Checklist
Add your developmental checklist here, including the summary section. This is the checklist that you completed while watching your child observation video.
Summary of Typical Development
In this section, briefly summarize the development that you checked off in the developmental checklist.
Developmental Concerns
Based on your observation, explain the developmental concerns that you have for this child. If you did not see a clear concern, discuss at least one area you were not able to check off the checklist.
Supportive Practices
Explain how you might best support this child using developmentally appropriate practices. Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.
Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Weeks 2 and 3 readings.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
QUOTING, PARAPHRASING, & SUMMARIZING
for help.
Developmentally Appropriate Activities
In this paragraph, identify some developmentally appropriate activities that you could do with the child to support at least two different developmental domains (physical, social-emotional, self-help, cognitive, language). Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.
Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Weeks 2 and 3 readings.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
INTEGRATING RESEARCH
For help.
Support Considerations
Explain one or two considerations that should be included in the class environment in order to support the needs of the child. Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.
Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Weeks 2 and 3 readings.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
CITING WITHIN YOUR PAPER
for help.
Conclusion
Briefly summarize the ideas that you discussed in your paper, explaining the significance of these ideas.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
INTRODUCTIONS & CONCLUSIONS
for help.
References
Use APA format to cite and reference your class text and at least two additional scholarly sources. Remember, you MUST include in-text citations throughout your paper to show your reader what information you used from these outside sources.
Hint: Ctrl + Click
FORMATTING YOUR REFERENCES LIST
for help.
*In the final version of your assignment, be sure that you have removed all of the hints (green boxes) within the template.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHECKLIST – 4 TO 5 YEARS
Milestones
Date Observed
Gross Motor
Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer
Hops, somersaults
Swings, climbs
May be able to skip
Fine Motor
Copies triangle and other geometric patterns
Draws person with body
Prints some letters
Dresses and undresses without assistance
Cognitive
Can count 10 or more objects
Correctly names at least 4 colors
Works in small groups for 5-10 minutes
Better understands the concept of time
Knows about things used every day in the home (money, food, etc.)
Language
Recalls parts of a story
Speaks sentences of more than 5 words
Uses future tense
Tells longer stories
Says name and address
Self-Help
Uses fork, spoon independently
Can chew with lips closed
Goes to the bathroom independently, with reminders
Undresses independently, may be able to unbutton and unzip
Social/Emotional
Wants to please
Prefers to be with friends
More likely to agree to rules
Likes to sing, dance, and act
Shows more independence
DEVELOPMENTAL RED FLAGS 4-5 YEARS
·
Exhibits extremely aggressive, fearful or timid behavior
· Is unable to separate from parents
· Is easily distracted and unable to concentrate on any single activity for more than 5 minutes
· Shows little interest in playing with other children
· Refuses to respond to people in general
· Rarely uses fantasy or imitation in play
· Seems unhappy or sad much of the time
· Avoids or seems aloof with other children and adults
· Does not express a wide range of emotions
· Has trouble eating, sleeping or using the toilet
· Cannot differentiate between fantasy and reality
· Seems unusually passive
· Cannot understand prepositions (“put the cup on the table”; “get the ball under the couch”)
· Cannot follow 2-part commands (“pick up the toy and put it on the shelf”)
Adapted from the Early Childhood Direction Center – 2018
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Weekly Learning Outcomes
1. Apply knowledge of developmental domains and milestones.
2. Justify the importance of play as a developmentally appropriate practice.
3. Identify ways to support the physical, socio-emotional, and cognitive growth of a child.
Week 3 Overview
Play in early childhood education has been a much-debated topic. Within the field, you will be planning for
experiences to facilitate play among the children, model play, and allow children to engage in unstructured play.
During this week, you will connect play to theory and defend the importance of play.
With much of our culture being focused on academic success, the
importance of play is oftentimes overlooked and undervalued. Play, is
a fundamental part of childhood and many lessons, values, and
quality learning takes place in the form of play. Play contributes to a
child’s cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being and
offers peer-to-peer enjoyment, interaction, creativity, and enjoyment (Ginsberg, 2007). Here is a view of play
from children’s perspective that will put a smile on your face!
Weekly Vocabulary
1. Play: Activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation, especially by children.
2. Typical Development: The term “typical” development is more accepted by parents than the term
“normal” development. Development not only includes similar skills of peers, but also entails such
developmental concepts as maturation, achievement of developmental milestones (significant points of
accomplishments in various skill areas), developmental sequence of skills, and age level expectations.
ECE 205 Week 3 Guidance
Discussion 1: Importance of Play Interactive Newsletter
Many skills are developed in a play-based curriculum. Setting up centers in the classroom provides the
opportunity for you to plan for learning experiences to strengthen skills in each domain. In addition to
this type of structured play, there are also many opportunities for children to learn through play through
unstructured activities. However, you may come across parents or other professionals who do not
understand the importance of play in supporting early childhood growth and development.
Think about your own experience of play – what was your play
like? Who did you play with? What did you play with? What did
you learn from your play-based experiences? Now imagine if all of
those experiences were either taken away or told that they weren’t
meaningful. Structured play, noted above, is more along the lines
of forced learning through “play” while unstructured play is free,
creative, exciting, and authentic. It is a vital part of childhood and learning and as a professional you
may encounter situations with parents who do not believe in the benefits of play and you will need to
educate them on the power of play.
For this discussion: Imagine that you are a teaching assistant for a 3-year-old classroom, and are helping
the lead teacher with the yearly open house. As families are touring the classroom, you overhear several
conversations regarding how much playing children do in this school, and the concerns families have
about the academic growth of their children. After everyone has gone, you talk with the lead teacher about
what you overheard. The teacher comes up with a plan to send home a one page informational letter that
highlights the importance of play, and why it is essential to this classroom. The teacher has asked that
you take the lead on this project and create the letter.
ECE 205 Week 3 Guidance
To prepare for this discussion:
• Read Chapters 7 and 8
• Read Why is play so important?
• Review your post from the Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion in
Week 2.
For your initial post:
� Develop a one-page informational newsletter. You may use the Weekly Food for Thought
template provided or you can create your own using Word Newsletter Templates or another
format of your choice. Your newsletter must include the following:
� A brief introduction that explains play as it pertains to early learning
Instructor Tip: Give an overview of the relationship between play and early
learning. Use research from a scholarly article to support your ideas.
� A general quote or saying about play
Instructor Tip: You can google a quote from someone famous or you can create
your own quote or saying. Make it relevant to play and children.
� Research that supports play being a developmentally appropriate practice for young
children
Instructor Tip: This research needs to be obtained from google scholar or the
Ashford Library. You will need a scholarly article that is supported by research.
Type terms such as “play and development” and “importance of play” into the
search line.
� Specific examples of how you use play your classroom (what types of activities children
engage in)
Instructor Tip: What specific strategies, games, or techniques do you use OR
will you use in your own classroom? Be specific and give an example.
https://bridgepoint.equella.ecollege.com/curriculum/file/b2d6fb25-629e-42e1-a13e-43bf67043c8a/1/Scholarly%2C%20Peer%20Reviewed%2C%20and%20Other%20Credible%20Sources x
Week 3: Instructor Guidance
Weekly Learning Outcomes
All images used under license from istock
8Early Childhood Development (6–8 years)
Creatas Images/Creatas/Thinkstock
“Be who you are and say what you feel. Because those who mind don’t
matter and those who matter don’t mind.”
Dr. Seuss
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
ሁ Summarize why the age range of 6–8 years has been referred to as “the age of reason.”
ሁ Explain how the combination of emerging motor and social-emotional skills, along with growth
patterns at this age, enhance children’s participation in team sports.
ሁ Explain why new contexts like school, sports, and friendships at this age make it important
that children have better concentration, attention, short-term memory, and other executive
functioning skills.
ሁ Describe the differences among self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy.
ሁ Compare and contrast Erikson’s description of this stage of development with Freud’s
latency period.
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Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview
8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds
8.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Summary and Resources
Chapter Overview
Typically children in this stage of early childhood, ages 6–8, are faced with many challenges
that were not apparent earlier, but they have many more sophisticated skills to deal with these
challenges. The opening quotation, widely attributed to Dr. Seuss, is complex but meaningful.
By the end of this early childhood period, 8 year olds demonstrate the complex thinking and
communication skills needed to understand the “tricky” wording in the quotation and typi-
cally would be able to discuss and debate what this quote means. Better grounded self-esteem
and an increased vocabulary help children ages 6–8 to “[b]e who [they] are and say what
[they] feel.” In particular, the importance of friendships and being selective about which peers
are better friends starts to dominate the 8-year-old child’s social world, giving real meaning
to the idea that “those who mind don’t matter and those who matter don’t mind.” This aware-
ness of peers, developing friendships, and a desire to be part of a social group becomes more
important at this stage, as does moral development. In some cultures, including U.S. culture,
school becomes the central context for development, and for some children, sports play a
large role in developing self-esteem and confidence.
Erickson was one of the few major theorists who recognized the importance of this stage of
development. He thought that children should attain a “sense of industry” at this time and
that, if they did not develop the necessary skills for their new contexts of school, friendships,
and sports, they would develop a “sense of inferiority” (Eccles, 1999). Other theorists, includ-
ing Freud and Piaget, saw development at this age as a time of latency or stability, a time of
little change and a time primarily for waiting to make more substantial changes during ado-
lescence, the next developmental stage (Eccles, 1999).
Developmental skills of children ages 6–8 allow them to be more independent than before and
responsible for their actions. They are in a stage that should be helping them to prepare for
adulthood rather than just waiting for adolescence. However, they begin to look and behave
more like adolescents. They can reflect on their own thoughts and develop ideas. They make
significant progress in academic skills, such as reading and math, that are necessary later in
life. Because of these advances, caregiver expectations for this age group must be appropriate.
Caregivers and educators need to recognize the challenges and responsibilities in their daily
interactions with these children, since this is a time when adults can have lifelong influences
on the children in their care. Caregivers and educators can have a positive effect on children’s
attitudes toward future learning and can provide healthy encouragement and examples for
children’s participation in their own health and advancement.
Chapter Overview
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Section 8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds
At this age, children are more independent in formulating goals and in completing tasks. They
want to adhere to social norms and are able to demonstrate behaviors that adults value, such
as patience, cooperation, respect, compassion, and empathy for others, and they are becom-
ing morally responsible. This is part of the reason why historically this age was referred to as
the “age of reason.” They have some ability to reflect, reason, and use logic, and rather than
behaving positively so that they are not caught being “bad,” children are beginning to show
signs of a conscience. Thus they are capable of taking responsibility for their own actions.
This stage of early childhood is a significant time for children to hone the skills that build
healthy social relationships. Physically they are bigger, stronger, and more agile than before.
Cognitively they begin to understand that the world around them matters and affects them.
They can use language to converse, to entertain, and to communicate complex ideas and
thoughts. Developmentally they are also able to take care of themselves with more advanced
daily living skills in bathing, eating, and dressing.
8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development
in 6–8 Year Olds
Significant change can be observed in the realms of physical growth and motor development
during ages 6–8. Noticeable differences can be seen in a child’s overall body structure, weight,
height, and head circumference. This physical growth links to children’s motor development
and skills, which continue to advance and become more refined at this time.
Physical Growth
At this age children’s bodies change noticeably in size, shape, and proportion. By the time they
are 6 years old, they are about 47 inches tall and weigh 50 pounds (Centers for Disease Con-
trol and Prevention, 2012). Their skeletal structure is maturing, as is apparent in the length-
ening of the legs and trunk, thereby fitting what had been the proportionately larger head of
the younger child. Large muscles of the arms and legs are becoming more developed, allowing
children to do better in athletics and team sports. Additionally, this is a time of large variances
between the size and capabilities of children, which feeds into their developing self-concept.
Gender differences can play into this, with girls being slightly shorter and lighter than boys.
Although it is recognized that both heredity and environment account for differences in body
size, obesity is more common at this time than it was during ages 4 and 5 and should be moni-
tored carefully. Nutrition, activity, and experiences continue to influence the development of
children ages 6–8. For instance, children begin to develop dental cavities and other problems
if their nutrition and dental hygiene are not adequate. They lose their deciduous, or “baby,”
teeth (see Chapter 6), and adult teeth emerge. Also, the brain is continuing to develop through
myelination (building a sheath around the axons of neurons) and by the pruning of synapses
that are not being stimulated.
Weight
At ages 6–8, weight gain is typically steady, at about 6.5 pounds per year for both boys and
girls (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013b). Although nurture (the quantity and quality of
food available) and nature (genetics) continue to have an influence on children’s growth and
weight gain (Charlesworth, Wood, & Viggiani, 2011), their bodies change considerably due to
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 169 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds
an increase in fat tissue. Weight gain and its rate are argued to be more accurate when mea-
suring body mass index (BMI). Body mass index is the ratio of weight to height (American
Academy of Pediatrics, 2003). A BMI over the 95th percentile for age and sex is considered
obese; a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles is considered overweight. See Table 8.1
for facts on childhood obesity.
Table 8.1: Childhood obesity facts in the United States
• The childhood obesity rate has more than doubled in children and tripled in adolescents in the past 30 years.
• The percentage of children ages 6–11 years who were obese increased from 7 percent in 1980 to nearly
18 percent in 2010. Similarly, the percentage of adolescents ages 12–19 years who were obese increased
from 5 percent to 18 percent over the same period.
• In 2010, more than one third of children and adolescents were overweight or obese.
• Overweight is defined as having excess body weight for a particular height from fat, muscle, bone, water,
or a combination of these factors. Obesity is defined as having excess body fat.
• Overweight and obesity are the result of “caloric imbalance”—too few calories expended for the amount
of calories consumed—and they are affected by various genetic, behavioral, and environmental factors.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Overweight and obesity: Data and statistics. Retrieved from http://
www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html.
Health and nutrition are important to healthy outcomes for children at all ages. Yet the period
from ages 6 to 8 is considered to be about the healthiest in a person’s life. At that time, immu-
nities are present and generally an active lifestyle is emerging but, in most cases, unhealthy
habits have not yet been adopted. Therefore, it is a good time to target prevention of risky
health behaviors through direct instruction and modeling of healthy behaviors.
Height and Head Circumference
Height differences among children ages 6–8 can be as much as 4–5 inches, but most children
typically grow about 2–3 inches each year (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013b). Most
children have periods of rapid growth spurts and then times of little growth. Bone age is the
most useful indicator of physical maturation. For example, lower-income status correlates
with delays in bone age, and girls demonstrate a faster rate of growth than boys. Body shapes
at this time generally look more mature because of longer arms and legs and because posture
is typically more erect. Head circumference continues to enlarge until sometime soon after
this period, at about age 10, when it reaches 96 percent of adult size.
Motor Development
Motor development at this age is characterized by growth spurts, weight gain, and improve-
ments in athletic abilities. Children at ages 6–8 can run faster and have better balance than
when they were younger, so they can kick and catch a ball using the new skills they have. They
can also learn to a ride bike and to skate. Yet gender differences exist by this age. Typically,
girls are more agile and have better fine motor skills, whereas boys are bigger and more pow-
erful with greater muscle mass (Green, 2010). Green (2010) posits that these differences are
likely influenced by the amount of participation and practice within gender-typical activities.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 170 4/24/14 12:54 PM
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html
Section 8.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Regardless of the gender differences in development, this is a time when children often enjoy
competitive and physically challenging team games like soccer and basketball. It is a good
time to encourage active participation in sports for health and wellness reasons as well as
for social development. Good sportsmanship and fair play can be taught at this time because
of timely advances in social-emotional and moral development, as well as the need for good
peer relationships.
Some concerns are associated with this period of social and physical integration of new skills
and aspirations. For instance, there has been much controversy over the physical dangers,
especially for head trauma, in sports like football. It has been reported that 7 year olds can
sustain hits of the same force that adult players do (Eldred, 2013). Yet even with these con-
cerns, children continue to play football and other contact sports. This should serve as a
reminder to educators, caregivers, and parents that most team sports and other physical
activities involve some level of risk, so special precautions should be taken. Those precau-
tions include the use of better helmets and less hitting for sports like football. However, care-
givers must also consider that even physical activities with less direct contact (like bicycle
riding) require safety equipment such as helmets and elbow and knee pads.
TIPS ON KIDS AND BICYCLE SAFETY
Safe Riding Tips
• Wear a properly fitted bicycle helmet.
• Adjust your bicycle to fit.
• Check your equipment, especially handlebars, tires, and brakes.
• See and be seen by wearing neon or other bright colors.
• Control your bicycle by keeping at least one hand on the handlebars.
• Watch for and avoid road hazards such as potholes, broken glass, gravel, puddles,
leaves, and dogs.
• Avoid riding at night.
Rules of the Road—Bicycling on the Road
• Go with the traffic flow.
• Obey all traffic laws.
• Yield to traffic when appropriate.
• Be predictable by riding in a straight line and signaling your moves to others.
• Stay alert at all times.
• Look before turning.
• Watch for parked cars.
Sidewalk Versus Street Riding
• Children less than 10 years old are better off riding on the sidewalk.
• For anyone riding on a sidewalk:
Check the law in your state or jurisdiction to make sure sidewalk riding is allowed.
Watch for vehicles coming out of or turning into driveways.
Stop at corners of sidewalks and streets to look for cars and to make sure the drivers see
you before crossing.
• Enter a street at a corner and not between parked cars. Alert pedestrians that you are
near by saying, “Excuse me,” or, “Passing on your left,” or use a bell or horn.
Source: Adapted from National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. (2006). Kids and bicycle safety. Retrieved from
www.nhtsa.dot.gov.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 171 4/24/14 12:54 PM
www.nhtsa.dot.gov
Section 8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Some children naturally prefer using their newfound physical skills for more individual-
oriented athletic activities like bike riding, martial arts, dancing, swimming, track, or tennis.
These sports often involve a level of “team” spirit but allow the child to focus on individual
abilities in a different way than do conventional team sports. Overall, both types of sports can
provide children the feeling of belonging to a community of athletes and peers. The choice is
based on the child’s comfort level, but adults should be mindful that the support provided by
parents and caregivers plays an important role in the child’s growing self-esteem.
In understanding the fine motor improvements in children ages 6–8, awareness of the inte-
gration among all developmental domains and progress in each is important. For example,
because children are assisted by enhanced concentration and patience (see sections on cog-
nitive and social-emotional development), their fine motor skills become more refined. They
can complete more details in their drawings and cut more accurately with scissors. At this
age, children typically can write even smaller and with more precision, within lines and with
more consistent spacing and placement. This skill is improved even further because hand
preference is now established, and children use either the left or the right hand for writing.
8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development
in 6–8 Year Olds
During the ages of 6–8, cognitive development is continuing, as is growth and development of
the brain. This development is demonstrated by skills that build on what has occurred during
previous stages, with characteristic advancements particular to these years.
Brain Growth
The later years of early childhood bring about the continuation of specific brain functioning
that helps to advance the cognitive processes. As described in Chapters 6 and 7, many of the
neurons are connected and significant pruning has occurred by the end of age 5. However,
the brain continues to advance through further pruning and by continuing to add a fatty coat-
ing on the axons. This coating, called myelination, is necessary for more efficient sending of
signals between the neurons. Young brains continuously refine the way information is pro-
cessed, and myelination, in fact, continues throughout life.
Specifically, myelination focuses on the frontal cortex during this time. Synaptic pruning con-
tinues, especially in the frontal and prefrontal cortices. This process decreases the density
of synapses, leaving the remaining neurons more stable (Sowell, Thompson, & Toga, 2007).
Additionally, brain activity changes its patterns at about this time. These activities are mea-
sured by an EEG (electroencephalogram), and findings indicate that up to about preschool
age, children have more brain activity that is characteristic of sleep states even when they
are awake. Gradually these activities, known as theta activity, settle to approximately the
same quantity as the alpha activity. Alpha activity provides the ability to sustain attention. By
around age 7 or 8 years, alpha activity takes over and dominates these brain activity patterns.
These changes suggest that children are now able to think in a more complex manner, help-
ing them to solve problems, plan ahead, set goals, control their attention, and inhibit some
impulses. These behaviors are generally different from what is observed in the preschool
years, demonstrating the link between brain development and behavior.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 172 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Cognitive Development
Cognitive abilities increasingly improve and become more developed at this age. With regard
to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, this is the period in which children transition
from the preoperational stage (ages 2–7 years) into the concrete operational stage (ages
7–11 years). The preoperational stage is based on the child’s understanding of basic sym-
bolic representations, in which something can stand for something else. Egocentrism is also
characteristic of the preoperational stage, in which children can understand things only from
their own perspective. Also, children in the preoperational stage focus on only one aspect of
an object or a situation, which has been termed centration.
Within the concrete operational stage, logical reasoning can now be applied but only to con-
crete things that can be seen, and abstract ideas cannot yet be understood. This means that
children within this stage learn better through hands-on activities. The operations that are
easier now include categorizing the same objects in a variety of classifications like function,
size, shape, and color. However, abstract and theoretical viewpoints and discussions are still
too advanced. Though children cannot yet think in abstract terms, the important concept of
conservation is achieved during this stage. Conservation is the understanding that qualities
of physical objects do not change when they are moved around or arranged differently. Addi-
tionally, children in this stage begin to be less egocentric (Rains, Kelly, & Durham, 2008), and
decentration is also now possible, in that children can now focus on more than just one aspect
of an object or a situation (as compared to centration in the previous stage). Children also
begin to have the understanding of reversibility, in which they are able to think backward
through the steps of an action (Olorunfemi-Olabisi & Tayo-Olajubutu, 2013).
Based on the stages within Piaget’s cognitive development, a child’s understanding of death
goes through a series of stages. In children ages 6 and 7, the concept of object permanence is
present, but the characteristics of egocentrism and their more concrete understanding lead
them to think that death happens only to older people and will not happen to them. By around
the age of 8, children have a more adultlike understanding of death (Speece, 1995).
This is also the time in which children have better attention spans and selective attention,
both of which help them tune out distractions. This is a valuable skill for this stage, since
homework and classroom learning play an important part in academics. Also assisting in aca-
demic and social learning is children’s increased abilities to concentrate and use short-term
memory. These abilities make it easier for children to process information more quickly and
to think about more than one thing at a time. With these improved thinking skills, children
ages 6–8 are better able to plan ahead. It is at this age that children acquire the ability to have
directions provided only once and then proceed to complete the task without additional cues
or direct instruction, a capability that can be attributed to developments in working memory.
Children at this age become increasingly skilled in all of these areas of executive functioning
(see Chapter 2) (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011). Nevertheless,
children’s increased use of technology and media (including the use of computers, smart-
phones, and tablets) can contribute to problems in the realm of attention (American Academy
of Pediatrics, n.d.).
As stated in Chapter 6, technology and interactive media are a large part of children’s lives,
even in early childhood. Children ages 6–8 have the developmental skills needed in all
domains to make use of technology. However, they still need adults’ active involvement
rather than their reactive supervision (Plowman & Stephen, 2005). At this age, they can
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 173 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 6–8 Year Olds
share e-books and digital files as well as conduct videoconferencing to strengthen their
newfound friendships. They can use websites and search engines to follow up on intellec-
tual interests and other broader interests such as team sports, simple cooking demonstra-
tions, world cultures, or craft projects. A wide range of age-appropriate educational soft-
ware can supplement learning of academics through math and literacy games as well as
through other interactive games that explore science and social studies. In addition, chil-
dren ages 6–8 can use digital cameras, scanners, and most computers independently.
These skills can inspire creativity and provide new ways of learning. However, these
opportunities for learning must be monitored carefully so that the type and duration of
technological use are age appropriate and well-balanced with other relationship- and
skill-building activities.
The implication for teachers and other caregivers of this age group is to provide projects that
require planning and action. These activities can include the beginning of lifelong hobbies like
scrapbooking and photography. It is also a good time to encourage competitions in team proj-
ects and to set aside time to talk about feelings and perspectives of others. Effective teaching
of children in this stage of early childhood should include positive reinforcement of skills that
provide successful experiences regarding academics. Cooperative learning techniques that
use small group work and positive individual feedback help to supportively shape each child’s
self-esteem.
MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
A 2ND GR ADER AND TECHNOLOGY
Paul comes home from 2nd grade looking forward to doing his science project.
He can pick his own topic and is eager to use the Internet to find information
about astronomy. Yesterday he figured out ways to produce 3-D planets that move
around each other. His teacher is progressive and sensitive to Paul’s interests by giving him
the opportunity to use a classroom computer with which to present his project. So Paul is
anxious to get started.
However, at this age Paul has a problem balancing his enthusiasm for both astronomy and
technology with other important activities that invest in physical skills, theatre arts, and
other ways that will help to build and maintain peer relationships. His parents are proud of
his frequent but intense ambition to produce his class projects but are also concerned that
he is becoming a loner and isolates himself from peers by the type of tasks he prefers. They
met with his school counselor, who made several recommendations on how to integrate his
interests and skills with peer interactions. Hearing that he, once again, is immersed in a class
project, his parents plan a sleepover for him so that he and a few friends can view and digi-
tally document the stars after hamburgers and hot dogs and a game of stick ball. Paul has also
agreed to help his 6-year-old neighbor, Peggy, put together a play about Pilgrims with her
friends; Paul will be the “cameraman.”
Johner Images/Getty Images
▶ Activities like cooking allow
children to practice planning and
cooperative learning.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 174 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
In addition, theoretical views of how children learn can be
identified. Vygotsky’s approach of scaffolding in teaching
and caregiving (see Chapter 3) is helpful at this develop-
mental stage. To complement the growth of positive self-
esteem (covered later in this chapter), caregivers can use
scaffolding as they subtly decrease the amount of direct
instruction given based on a child’s current skills (pro-
viding enough assistance for the child to accomplish the
step just beyond his or her current skill level). Caregivers
can offer fewer corrections so that the child is permitted
to learn by thinking and acting more and more indepen-
dently. According to Vygotsky, children are also able to
learn vicariously by observing others and imitating skills
and behaviors that produce desired outcomes for others
(also discussed in Chapter 3). See Table 8.2 for a summary
of cognitive skill development at this age.
Table 8.2: Cognitive development for 6–8 year olds
Enjoy planning and building
Expand speaking and listening vocabularies (possibly doubling them)
Show a stronger interest in reading
Increase problem-solving abilities
Have longer attention spans
Enjoy creating elaborate collections
Able to learn difference between left and right
Can begin to understand time and the days of the week
Source: Oesterreich, L. (2004). 6–8 years: Ages and stages. Retrieved from http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications
/PM1530H .
8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
At ages 6–8, children typically have an increased vocabulary and a better understanding of
grammar and word use. They can entertain adults with the spontaneous use of new descrip-
tive words that add flair to the nouns and verbs they had before. If they have developed empa-
thy (see the social-emotional section of this chapter), they can process, use, and appreciate
sarcasm and irony by the end of this period (Nicholson, Whalen, & Pexman, 2013). They know
opposites and enjoy playing word games using rhymes and homonyms, words that sound
the same but have different meanings like wear and where. They can repeat long sentences
share e-books and digital files as well as conduct videoconferencing to strengthen their
newfound friendships. They can use websites and search engines to follow up on intellec-
tual interests and other broader interests such as team sports, simple cooking demonstra-
tions, world cultures, or craft projects. A wide range of age-appropriate educational soft-
ware can supplement learning of academics through math and literacy games as well as
through other interactive games that explore science and social studies. In addition, chil-
dren ages 6–8 can use digital cameras, scanners, and most computers independently.
These skills can inspire creativity and provide new ways of learning. However, these
opportunities for learning must be monitored carefully so that the type and duration of
technological use are age appropriate and well-balanced with other relationship- and
skill-building activities.
The implication for teachers and other caregivers of this age group is to provide projects that
require planning and action. These activities can include the beginning of lifelong hobbies like
scrapbooking and photography. It is also a good time to encourage competitions in team proj-
ects and to set aside time to talk about feelings and perspectives of others. Effective teaching
of children in this stage of early childhood should include positive reinforcement of skills that
provide successful experiences regarding academics. Cooperative learning techniques that
use small group work and positive individual feedback help to supportively shape each child’s
self-esteem.
MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
A 2ND GR ADER AND TECHNOLOGY
Paul comes home from 2nd grade looking forward to doing his science project.
He can pick his own topic and is eager to use the Internet to find information
about astronomy. Yesterday he figured out ways to produce 3-D planets that move
around each other. His teacher is progressive and sensitive to Paul’s interests by giving him
the opportunity to use a classroom computer with which to present his project. So Paul is
anxious to get started.
However, at this age Paul has a problem balancing his enthusiasm for both astronomy and
technology with other important activities that invest in physical skills, theatre arts, and
other ways that will help to build and maintain peer relationships. His parents are proud of
his frequent but intense ambition to produce his class projects but are also concerned that
he is becoming a loner and isolates himself from peers by the type of tasks he prefers. They
met with his school counselor, who made several recommendations on how to integrate his
interests and skills with peer interactions. Hearing that he, once again, is immersed in a class
project, his parents plan a sleepover for him so that he and a few friends can view and digi-
tally document the stars after hamburgers and hot dogs and a game of stick ball. Paul has also
agreed to help his 6-year-old neighbor, Peggy, put together a play about Pilgrims with her
friends; Paul will be the “cameraman.”
Johner Images/Getty Images
▶ Activities like cooking allow
children to practice planning and
cooperative learning.
Section 8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
and define words by function, for example, explaining the use of a fork. Although articulation
problems are common at this age, speech should be intelligible, with the child able to say all
vowels and most consonants. At times, children in this age group may make a few grammati-
cal mistakes when talking and may stutter temporarily.
In general, children at age 8 are speaking in complex and compound sentences that are basi-
cally grammatically correct. They can tell stories and use simple reading and writing for social
uses and they can carry on conversations. Also, some children become experts in texting,
using instant messaging, and making video calls (such as with Skype or Apple’s FaceTime)
with access to cell phones and other devices. Thus, cell phone use and accessibility in class-
rooms is an issue for early childhood professionals.
See Table 8.3 for a breakdown of communication skills by age and type of skill.
AT ISSUE: CELL PHONES AND SCHOOLS: DO THEY MIX?
The benefits and drawbacks of children having cell phones in the classroom
have been debated passionately from both points of view. As time goes on, the
argument grows stronger on the side of allowable use when restricted by clear
policy and limited by time and place. This tipping of the scales is a result of several factors: the
increased accessibility of cell phones for children and decreased inequities that favor students
from more aff luent families; concerns over safety and violence in schools; decreased cost and
improved programs for cell phones; and improved academic information on the Internet.
As cell phone use has grown so widespread, parents who desire a greater sense of safety for
their children have pushed for allowing cell phones in school, believing that they can be in
touch with their children immediately in the case of school or home emergencies (Lenhart,
Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010). School officials also recognize several advantages to allow-
ing students to bring and use cell phones. These school advantages include lower school costs
when children have their own devices rather than using equipment in a computer lab, school
administrators and teachers can focus on teaching rather than enforcing “no tolerance” poli-
cies, and children with extended illnesses can benefit from the use of FaceTime or Skype to
participate in classroom discussions, thus saving the cost of home-visiting teachers.
In addition to these advantages to parents, administrators, and teachers, children also per-
ceive benefits from the use of cell phones in the classroom. For instance, they can receive
immediate feedback from their teachers without embarrassment, and they can capture notes
without the distraction of note-taking. Also, cell phones have multiple features that are appli-
cable to the school curricula, such as mobile apps, access to the Internet for research, an elec-
tronic thesaurus and dictionary, and a calculator, eliminating the additional weight associated
with personal computers, dictionaries, and calculators.
Finally, to address what opponents raise as concerns about the use of cell phones in the class-
room, some policies have proven to be effective. The most useful policy has been the profes-
sional development of teachers in effective educational application of cell phones, including
limiting children’s use to specific activities and times of day to decrease the likelihood of
cheating, and clear rules specifying no texting of friends or playing games during class time.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 176 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Table 8.3: Communication development by age
Skill Type 6 Years 8 Years
Listening
(receptive)
Remembers simple instructions and
information
Follows two- to three-step directions in
a sequence
Listens attentively in group situations; under-
stands and remembers complex information
Follows complex directions
Speaking
(expressive)
Is easily understood
Answers complex “yes/no” questions with ease
Tells and retells stories and events in a logical
order
Expresses ideas with a variety of
complete sentences
Uses most parts of speech (grammar) correctly
Asks and responds to “wh” questions (who, what,
where, when, why)
Stays on topic and takes turns in conversation
Starts conversations
Speaks clearly with an appropriate voice
Asks and responds to many types of questions
Participates in conversations and group discus-
sions with easy verbal volleys
Uses varied vocabulary and elaborate descrip-
tions in speaking
Summarizes a story accurately in accordance
with grammatical rules and varied vocabulary
Asks, answers, and can discuss in detail “wh”
questions (who, what, where, when, why)
Stays on topic, adds more descriptive words,
and can entertain with language
Participates fully and appropriately in
conversations
Reading
(receptive)
Identifies all sounds in short words
Blends separate sounds to form words
Is beginning to use meaning clues in
single sentences
Matches spoken words with print
Knows how a book works (e.g., read form left
to right and top to bottom in English)
Identifies letters, words, and sentences
Reads grade-level material aloud with
some stopping
Has a sight vocabulary of 100 common words
Comprehends the general plot in short stories
Demonstrates full mastery of basic phonics
Uses word analysis skills when reading
Uses clues from language content and structure
to understand what is read
Rereads and self-corrects less frequently
Uses acquired information to learn about
new topics
Asks questions regarding reading material
Reads grade-level materials fluently both
silently and aloud
Predicts and justifies what will happen next
in stories
Compares and contrasts stories
Writing
(expressive)
Expresses ideas through simple writing
Prints clearly
Begins each sentence with capital letters and
uses ending punctuation
Spells frequently used simple words correctly
Writes a variety of short and simple stories,
journal entries, or letters/notes
Includes details in writing
Writes clearly in cursive
Can plan, organize, revise, and edit
Spells simple words correctly, corrects most
spelling independently, and uses a dictionary to
correct spelling
Writes stories, letters, simple explanations, and
brief reports
Section 8.3 Communication Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Development of Humor
The development of humor is closely related to the advanced language and cognitive skills
of children ages 6–8 (Price, 2007). Humor can be used as a communication tool, as a cop-
ing mechanism, or in other practical applications in teaching children at this age. It is
believed to develop in stages, as do the main child development domains. Paul McGhee’s
research in the area of comprehension of humor describes humor as the “violation of cog-
nitive expectancies” either through novelty or incongruities (McGhee, 1971). Thus he sep-
arated humor into two categories, that of novelty humor and incongruity humor.
Novelty humor involves perceiving something new and unfamiliar as funny or entertain-
ing. Novelty humor includes common occurrences such as a cat’s licking its own fur, which
may elicit laughter from a child who is observing it for the first time. Incongruity humor
deals with absurd, unexpected, or inappropriate jokes and situations. For example, young
children often go through phases where they find the sounds the body makes (e.g.,
burping) humorous.
McGhee’s model of humor development
begins with the first two stages, stage 0 or
“prehumor” and stage 1, in infancy when the
child is able to notice concrete incongruities
(see Table 8.4 for examples that describe
each of the stages). Stage 2 is evident when
the toddler demonstrates incongruities non-
verbally, followed by stage 3, when 4 and
5 year olds produce incongruity verbally.
Incongruity in early childhood often means
being silly (McGhee, 2002). At ages 6–8, the
silly quality of humor diminishes because
children can understand more complex
humor. Therefore, by stage 4, the last stage
in McGhee’s model, children begin to prefer
humor that offers not only an incongruity
but also an answer to the incongruity.
Table 8.4: Paul McGhee’s stages of humor development
Stage Characteristics and Examples
Stage 0: Laughter without humor
(prehumor)
Children exhibit smiles and laughter.
Stage 1: Laughter at the attachment
figure
Children demonstrate an increasing awareness of interpersonal
surroundings and participate in social humor with a parent or
other attachment figure through games such as peek-a-boo.
Stage 2: Treating an object as a differ-
ent object
Children begin producing “jokes” nonverbally by performing
incongruous actions such as wearing a food bowl as a hat or pre-
tending to talk into a shoe.
▶ In early childhood, children are able to
understand more complex humor that involves
incongruity.
(continued)
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 178 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Stage Characteristics and Examples
Stage 3: Misnaming objects or actions
and playing with words
Once children’s vocabulary hits a critical point, they can extend
incongruity humor to misnaming objects or actions. Children at
this stage often enjoy calling things by their opposite name—
cold as hot, boy as girl. As children’s verbal competence grows,
they are less dependent on objects as the source of humor. They
may experiment with rhyming words, made-up silly words,
and other humorous play that does not directly link to concrete
objects within reach.
Stage 4: Riddles and jokes Children begin to understand that humor has meaning—that
jokes must evolve from something absurd into something that
makes cognitive sense. They often start memorizing riddles and
jokes and using them as a means of initiating social interactions
with peers and adults.
8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
The social-emotional domain of development at this age begins to take major leaps toward
approximating more adolescent-like feelings. Since this stage of early childhood brings about
better and more refined motor, cognitive, and language skills, it is common for children to be
proud of their many new accomplishments and their newfound independence. A child’s belief
that he or she has the skills and abilities needed to achieve goals is referred to as self-efficacy,
which can be initiated and fostered during these years (National Association of School Psy-
chologists, 2010). Children at this age often feel confident and competent and may overesti-
mate their abilities in many areas of development. Characteristic of the earlier years of this
age range is an optimistic impression of self, thereby bringing self-esteem to an all-time high.
Self-esteem refers to a person’s attitude about himself or herself, based on how the person
evaluates his or her own worth.
In developing their social selves, children
begin to notice their peers’ skills and com-
petencies. Children’s comparisons with
peers’ abilities begin during this period,
bringing about more realistic beliefs about
themselves. These sets of beliefs are called
self-concepts. Children with realistic self-
concepts generally have higher self-esteem
and engage in less risky health practices in
the future (Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & de
Vries, 2004).
Toward the end of this age range, around
ages 7 and 8, when children are becom-
ing more realistic in their self-concepts,
they are greatly influenced by how others
▶ Children with realistic self-concepts generally
demonstrate higher self-esteem.
Table 8.4: Paul McGhee’s stages of humor development (continued)
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 179 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
respond to them, including parents, teachers, and peers. Therefore, in addition to providing
guidance for emerging skills at friendship formation, children need appropriate discipline
and structuring of behaviors.
Friendships with peers outside of the family and with siblings are important at this stage.
During these years, however, children are still learning the art of cooperation and sharing,
which means that relationships are often awkward and tumultuous. Skills develop in this
domain through trial and error with peers, and most children feel the pull of peer pressure.
This pull is especially strong because opinions of peers matter now more than ever before.
This makes some children prime targets for bullying. Bullying is repeated, directed, and
intentional physical or verbal behavior that is meant to be harmful to an individual perceived
as weak and vulnerable. Bullying behavior includes threatening, spreading rumors, attacking
someone physically or verbally, and excluding someone from a group knowingly and mali-
ciously (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).
Also typical of ages 6–8 is children’s preference for playmates of the same age and sex. These
children learn by observing and talking with each other, thereby helping to decrease the ego-
centric way of thinking and feeling that is characteristic of younger children. Consequently,
children begin to understand viewpoints and opinions of others and can consider that their
way is not the only way.
Furthermore, as seen in Chapter 3, Erikson’s stage of development for children ages 6–8 is
industry versus inferiority, which continues into puberty. Children begin persevering more
deliberately in tasks and attend to activities and completion of a product more than ever
before. This theory points to the need for adults to provide positive experiences, opportuni-
ties for success, and encouragement in learning in order to avoid the opposite of an industri-
ous child, which would be a child with feelings of inferiority.
Freud looked at this period from another lens and described it as latency, when sexual urges
are dormant so that energy is available for learning. This does not contradict Erikson’s view
but can be seen as a supplement to industry, since latency is thought to quiet distracting urges
and allow for internal drives that focus on learning and production.
Discipline
Setting behavioral boundaries, rules, and age-appropriate discipline should begin long before
ages 6–8; however, these years of childhood bring about new and different behavioral chal-
lenges as children try out their newfound independence from family, advanced physical and
cognitive skills, and complex peer relationships. Discipline is not punishment at any age. But
during these years, caregivers need to be especially sensitive to the child’s growing need for
understanding and internalizing values and for developing morality. Therefore discipline at
this age must be respectful guidance without making the child feel “bad.” It should include
instruction on behaviors that can replace inappropriate behaviors. This can be done by direct
instruction and by modeling good behavior.
To use good modeling techniques, caregivers must provide opportunities for the child to lis-
ten, watch, and try out the behavior. In addition, reinforcing positive behaviors is extremely
effective in establishing wanted behaviors. Positive reinforcements for children at this age
come easily in everyday situations through verbal compliments, smiles, or a simple pat on
the back.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 180 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Children also need to know what is expected of them through rules that are clear and consis-
tently enforced, with consequences that help them experience the result of their behaviors.
Caregivers also should provide developmentally appropriate assistance in better problem
solving through discussions and role-playing, since children at this age are becoming more
logical in their thinking and learn better through interactions. Also, because this age brings
about particular interest in peers, caregivers can ignore simple inappropriate behaviors and
attend to the children who are behaving in a positive manner, being sure the target child for
this disciplinary strategy is observing the positive consequences or reinforcements that the
well-behaving peer is experiencing. If these are not effective as the first line of discipline,
caregivers can use grounding and withholding of privileges for this age group. Not being per-
mitted to participate with peers is often very effective at this age.
Renata, a kindergarten teacher for the past 10 years, describes to her new teach-
er’s aide the difficult task of managing a classroom of 30 students: “If you merely
focus on the disruptive behaviors, you will find yourself wrapped up in traveling
from one minor disruption to another.” The veteran teacher goes on to explain
that it is the small responses to the attentive students that creates a positive
culture in the classroom. “It isn’t the sticker that you put on the paper when the
job is complete, but the positive feedback and attention that you provide during
the activity. If that feedback is sincere and genuine, the students will seek that
experience,” Renata adds.
Ineffective and inappropriate disciplinary tactics at any age include physical discipline such
as hitting, slapping, restraints, and soap or pepper in the mouth and negative psychological
discipline, including ridicule, embarrassment, verbal abuse, threats, and name calling
(Groark & Song, 2012). These methods are never appropriate, but this age group is particu-
larly sensitive to negative discipline approaches. Because self-concepts and self-esteem are
developing, children ages 6–8 can be damaged easily, profoundly influencing future social-
emotional behaviors.
Moral Development
In addition to strategic and appropriate discipline that guides proper behavior at this age,
children’s cognitive and emotional abilities are able to complement the development of their
own sense of morality and values. This means that, although important and necessary, it is
not enough to have a sense of right and wrong, which most children have by this stage of
childhood. They need a sense of morality, which is a higher code of conduct that considers the
quality of action a person takes after the person knows right from wrong. This action includes
considering how the action relates to others’ well-being. Morality is related to conscience and
internal values. However, morality can be learned by observing others and imitating them. It
takes inhibition of some preferences and desires to act in a moral manner.
Harvard University professor Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) believed that people go through six
stages of moral development. He classified these stages into three levels: preconventional
morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality (Kohlberg, 2008). These
six stages and three levels broadly match the age ranges as seen in Table 8.5.
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 181 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.4 Social-Emotional Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Table 8.5: Kolhberg’s theory of moral development (why rules are or are
not obeyed)
Stage Level I: Preconventional Morality Age
1 Obedience and punishment orientation: Rules are obeyed without
question to avoid punishment.
Infancy
2 Self-interest, individualization, and personal gain: Rules are
obeyed for personal benefits and rewards.
Preschool
Level II: Conventional Morality
3 Good interpersonal relationships: Rules are obeyed for approval
by others and based on good motives.
Ages 6–8 and school age
4 Maintaining social order: Rules are obeyed to respect authority
and to maintain order in society as a whole.
Ages 6–8 and school age
Level III: Postconventional Morality
5 Social contract and individual rights: Rules are obeyed if
they make life better for society; otherwise, rules should be
questioned.
Adolescence
6 Universal principles: Morality is based on personal ethics and
principles; these weigh more in decision making than the larger
good.
Adulthood
Source: Crain, W. C. (1985). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. In Theories of development (pp. 118–136). New York: Pren-
tice Hall.
At the preconventional level, children’s ideas of morality begin by abiding by rules in order to
avoid punishment. Also within the preconventional level, children follow rules because they
want to make others like them. These two outcomes benefit the children directly; thus, they
drive children’s morality. The more advanced concepts of right and wrong are not evident at
this level.
The conventional level occurs when children learn about the conventions of rules delivered
by authorities. Children at this level believe they must show respect for authority. Disobey-
ing rules is considered “bad.” Kohlberg believed that some people never move from this level,
so their moral principles are based on following conventional rules set by authority figures.
They do not make decisions or any determinations about morality.
Kohlberg’s final level of moral development is the postconventional level. Children and adults
at this level have learned that there is a difference between right and wrong from a moral
perspective and also from the perspective of rules established by authorities. Those who have
attained this level use their consciences to decide whether breaking a rule is the right thing to
do depending on the context surrounding the action.
Piaget (1965) identified two stages of moral development: the heteronomous moral-
ity of younger children and the autonomous morality of older children. At the stage of
heteronomous morality, children see rules established by authorities to be unbreakable
and unchangeable (Fleming, 2006). Children’s morality is directed by others at this point,
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 182 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Section 8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds
and breaking such rules would lead to negative consequences. At the stage of autonomous
morality, children are at the point in cognitive development when they have the ability to
see others’ viewpoints; they can appreciate that morality should be more autonomous or
self-directed and that good or bad is based on the individual’s intentions (Fleming, 2006).
Decisions should be made based on how they affect others.
8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Self-help at ages 6–8 encompasses a variety of opportunities. For instance, during these years,
it is important to help children make appropriate choices. However, since children are learn-
ing independence, they need a limited number of suitable options from which to choose. Mak-
ing choices in self-help areas can give children at this age a sense of control over what they do
and a sense of responsibility to do the right thing. Since children at this age have better fine
motor skills, they can eat with all utensils, including forks and spoons, and typically can cut
with a knife. Therefore, caregivers can ask children whether a spoon or fork would be pre-
ferred when eating rice or peas, and whether or not they would like to cut their toast in half.
In addition, due in part to better fine motor abilities, children’s hygiene skills are improving
so that they can comb and brush their own hair, bathe independently, and dress completely.
This includes using fasteners like small buttons and zippers and tying shoelaces. They can be
asked to choose among two or three appro-
priate outfits to wear for the day and then
left to complete the task independently.
Self-help at this age must include being
aware of the need for safety and knowing
what to do in a variety of contexts. Although
caregivers must continue to structure the
caregiving environment to avoid hazards,
children at this age are independent and
leave home to be with their peers. They
can follow rules that are clearly stated and
understood. Role-playing a variety of sce-
narios is a fun way to reinforce safety rules.
These role-plays can include practicing fire
safety escape routes, what to do if a stranger
approaches them, or how to cross a road
using crosswalk signals.
Sleeping
Sleep duration at ages 6–8 varies considerably depending on family rules, culture, and indi-
vidual sleep needs. However, poor sleep duration and poor sleep quality—such as inconsis-
tent patterns of sleep, including staying awake later on weekend nights and longer sleep peri-
ods during summers and vacations—have been suspected to be risk factors for unhealthy
development of children. For years, health care professionals have attributed specific health
and behavioral problems such as headaches, hypertension, poor academic achievement,
increased risk of accidents, emotional problems, and other psychiatric symptoms to poor
sleep quality and duration or inconsistent sleep (Paavonen et al., 2002).
Mike Watson Images/moodboard/Thinkstock
▶ Promoting independence in self-care like
hygiene skills will increase the child’s sense of
control and responsibility.
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Section 8.5 Self-Help Development in 6–8 Year Olds
Sleep patterns in children ages 6–8 have been studied to determine normal ranges and risk
factors for a variety of health and behavioral outcomes such as obesity and hyperactivity.
Nixon et al. (2008) found that children in this age group who slept less than 9 hours were
more likely to be overweight or obese and to have more body fat. The range of sleep time
reported by parents was 7–13 hours. Children who went to bed after 9:00 p.m. had signifi-
cantly shorter sleep duration, by more than 41 minutes. Nixon et al. (2008) concluded that
bedtime is an important determinant of sleep duration in children.
If sleep problems are suspected, educators and caregivers should be aware that parent report
is not necessarily the best way to assess whether a child is getting enough sleep. In surveys by
the National Sleep Foundation (2007), 90 percent of parents thought their children were get-
ting enough sleep, and at the same time over 25 percent of children fell asleep in class at least
once a week (Bronson, 2007). Causes of poor sleep quality may be sensitivity to environmen-
tal noise or light at night and activity level during the day. Children living in high-trafficked
urban areas may be disturbed by noise during the night. Noise inside the home can also be
part of the problem especially if television, music, or loud conversations are disrupting sleep
hours. Overstimulated and overscheduled children may have difficulty winding down. Chil-
dren’s use of screen technology and media can contribute to this overstimulation with video
games, online and computer tablet games, as well as constant “connectedness” via texting,
video calls, and social media. Children at this age from low-income families are more suscep-
tible than their peers to the effects of poor sleep. Results may include being depressed, sick,
or overweight. Poor sleep is likely to affect brain development, presenting behavior related to
poor emotional regulation (National Science Foundation, 2010).
According to sleep experts, children ages 5–12 need 10–11 hours of sleep each night (National
Sleep Foundation, n.d.). Yet this is the age at which social and sports activities are placing
more demands on children. Caregivers and teachers should look for signs of insufficient sleep
or poor sleep quality. These signs include yawning, drowsiness, binge eating, moodiness, and
depression (Bronson, 2007). If signs persist, a parent meeting may be necessary.
Elimination
By ages 6–8, most elimination occurs naturally and without much attention. However, some
children have wetting (enuresis) and soiling (encopresis) problems that need attention.
Because of the social-emotional stage children are in at this time, such experiences could
be quite humiliating. Children may not admit to elimination problems, but if these become
frequent they may be symptomatic of medical or behavioral problems, some being serious.
TIPS ON SLEEP FOR CHILDREN AGES 6–8
• Teach children about healthy sleep habits.
• Continue to emphasize the need for a regular and consistent sleep schedule
and bedtime routine.
• Make children’s bedrooms conducive to sleep—dark, cool, and quiet.
• Keep television, computers, and other screen technology and media (including cell
phones and tablets) out of the bedroom.
• Avoid caffeine.
Section 8.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Physically there could be bowel obstructions that need medical attention. Occasionally such
elimination behaviors are intentional and indicate problems with parents or other family
members. This situation should be referred to a mental health specialist. In any case, encop-
resis and enuresis are frustrating disorders when they occur at this age.
Nocturnal enuresis refers to involuntary bedwetting in children who are at an age when
they typically have bladder control. Nocturnal enuresis may begin long after, even years after,
a child has been toilet trained. It is quite common, occurring in about 6 percent of 5 year olds
and in 3 percent of 10 year olds. It is not of concern if it is rare or an isolated instance. How-
ever, enuresis may signal a urinary tract infection, so it should not be dismissed if it recurs
(Lissauer & Clyden, 2011). To learn nighttime continence, children need parental support and
approval, not reprimands, and they need to be relatively free from stress. This could become a
problem in educational and after-school settings if daytime fatigue, embarrassment, or inter-
nalizing behaviors such as suppressing emotions, playing in solitude, or keeping secluded
result. If caregivers suspect elimination problems, they must approach the issue with sensi-
tivity and confidentiality.
8.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Red flags in children ages 6–8 years are quite different from those in previous age groups.
They are generally more subtle and can go unnoticed. They often include behaviors that care-
givers feel are not “quite right,” like a child’s lack of energy, isolation from activities, gradual
or slight loss of previously demonstrated motor skills, or signs of anxiety. Due to improved
cognitive and communication skills, children at this age are better at hiding or covering up
such behaviors. Once a teacher or caregiver notices red flags and suspects a problem, the situ-
ation must be handled with sensitivity so that self-esteem is not negatively affected. Refer-
rals should be made in collaboration with parents. Research has shown that the outcomes of
referrals are “adequate” only if two criteria are met: (a) A live person has to be reached within
three calls, and (b) that live person offers an appointment. In addition, in families where, for
example, Spanish is the primary language, the language becomes an access barrier and the
result is that fewer than half of callers obtain an appointment. This finding implies that the
live person reached must respond in the home language (Williams, Perrigo, Banda, Matic,
& Goldfarb, 2013) or that teachers and caregivers need to take a more active role in facilitat-
ing the referral.
Red flags that should be attended to during ages 6–8 include the following:
• Excessive fatigue or daytime sleepiness
• Soiling, wetting, or fecal retention
• Nocturnal enuresis
• Perceptual motor issues like decreased coordination (can’t gallop, skip, do jumping
jacks) and difficulty with left-right discrimination, difficulty with sensory stimula-
tion, and the like
• Lack of a sense of humor and apparent disinterest in any attempt at humor
• Hyperactivity
• Antisocial behavior
• Anxiety or phobias
• Refusal to attend school
• School underachievement
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 185 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Summary and Resources
autonomous morality Piaget’s stage of
morality believed to take place when chil-
dren have the ability to see others’ view-
points. Thus children can appreciate that
morality should be more autonomous or
self-directed and that good or bad is based
on the individual’s intentions, not only rules.
body mass index (BMI) The ratio of
weight to height.
bullying Repeated, directed, and intentional
physical or verbal behavior that is meant
to be harmful to an individual perceived as
weak and vulnerable.
conventional morality Kohlberg’s level
of morality in which children learn about
the conventions of rules delivered by
authorities. Children believe they must show
respect for authority and that disobeying
rules is “bad.”
encopresis The involuntary elimination
of fecal matter at an age by which children
typically have bowel control.
enuresis The involuntary elimination of
urine at an age by which children typically
have bladder control.
heteronomous morality Piaget’s first
stage of morality, during which children
see rules established by authorities to be
unbreakable and unchangeable.
incongruity humor One of Paul McGhee’s
categories of humor; involves the percep-
tion of something as absurd, unexpected, or
inappropriate.
negative psychological discipline The
use of ridicule, embarrassment, verbal
abuse, threats, or name calling to discipline
children.
nocturnal enuresis Involuntary bedwet-
ting at an age by which children typically
have bladder control.
novelty humor One of Paul McGhee’s cat-
egories of humor; involves the perception of
something as new and unfamiliar as funny
or entertaining.
Summary and Resources
Ages 6–8 represent a stage of early childhood quite different from those that precede it, as
children begin to demonstrate increasingly adultlike thoughts and behaviors. Children at
this age have newfound independence from family; have advanced physical, cognitive, and
communication skills including well-developed humor; and begin to build complex, lifelong
friendships. This occurs partly because brain development is continuing in a way that allows
more complex thinking, which results in planning, goal setting, inhibition of impulses, and
control of attention. Children at this age also build enduring characteristics like self-esteem,
morality, responsibility for their own behaviors, and independence in task completion and
decision making. These characteristics, if developed appropriately and positively, can be asso-
ciated with success in school, sports, and even with the achievement of future goals like long-
term relationships, marriage, and employment.
Thus, this stage of early childhood creates important and somewhat different responsibili-
ties for teachers, caregivers, and parents, along with more advanced strategies of teaching.
For instance, children must learn their own role in new areas of self-help such as safety. They
need to understand the impact of sleep, nutrition, and exercise on their health and learning,
and they should be encouraged to be productive, industrious, and moral. Teachers and care-
givers will be more effective in enhancing these skills in children by using subtle and sensitive
scaffolding, positive modeling of desired behaviors, and interactive direct teaching methods.
Key Terms and Concepts
gro81431_08_c08_167-188.indd 186 4/24/14 12:54 PM
Summary and Resources
Discussion Questions
1. Theorists including Freud and Piaget saw development at ages 6–8 as a time of
latency and stability. Do you agree with this perspective? Why or why not?
2. Discuss the development of humor in children. Can you think of examples of each
stage in children you know?
3. Why is discipline an important consideration for children this age? Identify key rec-
ommendations regarding discipline to foster social-emotional development.
4. Describe changes in peer relationships and friendship. How does bullying affect
development? Brainstorm ways to identify and reduce bullying among peers in chil-
dren ages 6–8.
5. Review the development of morality according to Kohlberg and Piaget. Discuss how
adverse events in early childhood could affect moral development.
Observational Activities
The following activities encourage opportunities to see child development in action. Arrang-
ing occasions to observe or interact with children of various ages creates critical moments to
synthesize the learning in this text.
1. Witnessing humor development; jokes on you. Children love to laugh, but what each
child finds funny can vary. Schedule some time with a 6, 7, or 8 year old. Prior to
the engagement, rehearse several child-friendly jokes (e.g., 15 Great Jokes for Kids).
Take note of the child’s age and what jokes he or she finds humorous. If the jokes are
not a hit, improvise with some physical comedy like silly faces, pretend falling down,
or goofy dancing.
obesity Having excess body fat, and falling
above the 95th percentile of weight-for-age.
overweight Having excess body weight for
a particular height, from fat, muscle, bone,
water, or a combination of these factors, and
falling between the 85th and 95th percen-
tiles of weight-for-age.
physical discipline The use of hitting,
slapping, restraints, or soap or pepper in the
mouth, for example, to discipline children.
postconventional morality Kohlberg’s
final level of moral development; when chil-
dren are able to think abstractly and have
learned that there is a difference between
right and wrong from a moral perspective
and also from the perspective of rules estab-
lished by authorities.
preconventional morality Kohlberg’s first
level of moral development; when children’s
sense of right and wrong is based on avoid-
ing punishment and wanting to make others
like them.
self-concept The set of beliefs a person has
about himself or herself.
self-esteem The attitude a person has
toward herself or himself based on how the
person evaluates his or her worth.
2. Witnessing cognitive development; problem solved. You can see children’s growth in
cognitive functioning as you observe how they solve problems. Books provide many
storylines in which a child can be probed with questions about what a character
should do next. You can consult a list of books that feature problem-solving sce-
narios; however, most quality books render the opportunity to ask a child questions.
Take note of how complex and imaginative the child’s problem-solving solutions are.
3. Witnessing variation with an age; kick it. It has been stressed throughout each of the
chapters that development, while falling in a typically predictable pattern, varies for
every child. This is evident when attending a children’s sporting event. Youth leagues
usually group teams by age, but you will find that, despite their ages being alike, the
children will look and perform very differently. In observing an event, take note of the
range of physical statures, skills, and attention to the game and rules that you see.
Web Resources
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/index.html
This website offers facts and solutions to childhood overweight and obesity.
American Academy of Pediatrics
http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/Pages/default.aspx
This website provides information on feeding, nutrition, and fitness for all developmental
stages from infancy to young adulthood.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
http://www.stopbullying.gov/
This website provides information from various government agencies on how kids, teens,
young adults, parents, educators, and others in the community can prevent or stop bullying.
National Center for Biotechnology Information
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
The center advances science and health by providing access to biomedical and genomic
information.
Technical Assistance Center on Social Emotional Intervention for Young Children (TACSEI)
http://www.challengingbehavior.org/do/resources/backpack.html
Of particular interest on this website is the “Backpack Connection Series,” which is a series of
handouts in four categories, including behavior, emotions, routines and schedules, and social
skills. Each handout can be placed in a child’s backpack so that teachers and parents or care-
givers can work together to help young children develop social-emotional skills and reduce
challenging behavior.
“The moment you doubt whether you can fly,
you cease for ever to be able to do it.”
Peter Pan (J. M. Barrie, 1904)
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
ሁ Summarize cognitive milestones of children ages 4 and 5 years.
ሁ Describe how to communicate appropriately with children ages 4 and 5 years.
ሁ Describe appropriate techniques for working with children ages 4 and 5 years.
ሁ Describe how to assist 4 and 5 year olds in positive social interactions.
ሁ Identify and encourage healthy eating habits in children.
ሁ Describe and recognize typical developmental red flags for children ages 4 and 5 years.
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Chapter Overview
Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview
7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Summary and Resources
Chapter Overview
Although some researchers refer to ages 3–8 as early childhood, there is no debating that a
3 year old is very different from an 8 year old. For this reason, it is important to recognize the
significant stages within early childhood and the reason for the division of ages in Chapters
6, 7, and 8. Whereas Chapter 6 discussed the egocentric toddler (ages 1–3 years) learning
to gain motor control and speech, this chapter discusses the more coordinated, complex-
thinking 4 and 5 year olds. Important changes take place from the time a child just turns
3 years old until he or she reaches 5 years old, and these changes affect all developmental
domains. Children who are 4 or 5 years old are interested in the world around them, open to
and wanting experiences and interactions outside of the family unit. This stage of early child-
hood is truly a time for more active exploration, and this exploration is driven by a curiosity
that seems to dominate all aspects of daily activities.
Just as the toddlers discussed in Chapter 6 are developmentally different from the 4 and
5 year olds discussed in this chapter, the older 6–8 year olds discussed in Chapter 8 are sig-
nificantly more advanced than 4 and 5 year olds. Children ages 6–8 are developing individual
identities, creating complex relationships with peers, and forming their own unique opinions.
Compared to toddlers or 4 and 5 year olds, these children are advanced!
In Oh, the Places You’ll Go! (1990), Dr. Seuss writes “So be sure when you step. Step with care
and great tact and remember that Life’s a Great Balancing Act. . . . And will you succeed?
Yes! You will, indeed! (98 and 3/4 percent guaranteed.) KID, YOU’LL MOVE MOUNTAINS!”
This quote talks about stepping “with care and great tact” and compares life to “a great bal-
ancing act.” The journey through ages 4 and 5 is similar to the journey Dr. Seuss
describes and is closely related to the opening chapter quote from J. M. Barrie’s Peter Pan
(1904) that describes a young child’s attempts at independence (flying) and feelings of self-
doubt that are typical for this age group.
Children ages 4 and 5 years are a fascinating group. They have imaginations and opinions.
In addition, this stage brings about more cooperation in play and attention to rules, details,
and tasks. The motor skills of 4 and 5 year olds take a leap as they become more dexterous
with fine motor skills, thereby becoming gradually more independent in their own care. Gross
motor capabilities allow better balance in bicycling and provide coordination in ball games
and other play. In language development, children provide clearer answers to questions and
engage in more conversations among peers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 148 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
In addition, the self-help skills of 4 and 5 year olds are becoming more refined, and increased
independence is demonstrated in dressing, eating, and elimination. Therefore, children at this
age find themselves in an uncertain position of wanting independence but needing guidance
and support. Socially and emotionally they are most comfortable with family members and
close friends, but in their own world of peers they often bounce from one friend to another
with preference for certain characteristics in peers becoming apparent.
Caregivers and educators find that the intense levels of emotions and activity of children ages
4 and 5 years can be tiring but also endearing. Because this is a time to ensure school readi-
ness, early care environments must provide such skills, getting children off to a good start.
Both academic and nonacademic skills mastered at this time influence children’s ability to
succeed in reading, writing, and math, once they begin school.
7.1 Physical Growth and Motor Development
in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Continuing into ages 4 and 5, physical growth and motor development build off of growth and
skills accomplished during the previous stages of development. Physical growth and change
are unique to each child, and motor development progresses in an individualized manner as
well. These processes interact and contribute to changes in physical appearance, mobility,
and other motor abilities during these years.
Physical Growth
As a toddler continues through early childhood and enters the age range of 4–5 years, physi-
cal maturation continues. Physical growth may occur at different times for children at these
ages, so these children often come in a variety of shapes and sizes, even at the same age. In
general, children will begin to gain muscle and lose baby fat during this period, making their
limbs and torsos slimmer and longer over time. A 4- or 5-year-old child will often increase
in height faster than in weight, resulting in a very thin body shape. This is normal at this age.
Facial features also continue to mature, becoming more adult-like as the skull bones elongate
and the jaw widens. A wider jaw bone also makes room in the child’s mouth for permanent
teeth to come in.
Motor Development
Because motor development is a process
that continually builds on already-mastered
skills, children of the same age may be at
very different levels of motor development.
Motor development is growing more sophis-
ticated at this point, and greater strides are
made in fine motor skills. These basic gross
and fine motor movements are important
as children transition to a classroom envi-
ronment and engage in physical games, dra-
matic play, and crafts.
▶ With more advanced gross motor skills than
during toddlerhood, preschoolers can engage in
physical games and sports with their peers.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 149 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Generally, children emerging from toddlerhood and entering preschool age (around 4 or
5 years old) are advancing with most gross motor skills. These children have mastered walk-
ing and can even run, stop, and change directions with ease. Children at this age can also go
up and down steps independently with alternating feet, and can easily accomplish most of the
large muscle movements needed for athletic play, such as kicking, throwing overhand, and
catching. Children around the age of 4 and 5 are usually very energetic and use physical play
a lot. Galloping, tumbling, and other playful movements are common and much enjoyed. An
older child (around 5 years old) is even more skillful and can walk heel to toe, run on tiptoes,
hop and balance on one foot, and climb. These gross motor skills allow for swimming, bicy-
cling, swinging a bat or racket, and pumping skillfully on a swing.
Fine motor development progresses quite a bit during these years as children gain more con-
trol of their small muscle movements. Attendance in a preschool setting also helps children to
master these skills. Children at this age learn to draw shapes with straight lines, like crosses,
squares, and even triangles and diamonds. They begin to trace lines and even print large let-
ters. They also can use scissors to cut along a line, and with help will eventually be able to
cut while moving the paper to cut curves and circles. As fine motor skills develop, children’s
drawings will become more recognizable. Activities requiring smaller grasps and refined
movements like fitting small pieces into jigsaw puzzles, turning small dials and knobs, and
sculpting with clay help to develop fine motor skills.
Gross and fine motor skills allow for group games and activities with peers and adults that
help to foster social-emotional, cognitive, and communication development. See Table 7.1 for
details on motor development, both gross and fine.
Table 7.1: Observable motor development in children ages 4 and 5
Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills
Can balance on one foot for 10 seconds or more
Can do a forward roll
Can swing and can climb with good coordination
Can run and hop
May be learning to skip
Can use utensils to feed self, including a fork, a
spoon, and possibly a table knife
Can copy shapes like triangles, circles, or squares
and can draw a person with a body
Can print some letters
Can don and doff clothes without much help
Can take care of toileting needs without much help
Source: Adapted from American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013a). Ages and stages, developmental milestones: 4 to 5 years old.
Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to
-5-Year-Olds.aspx.
7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development
in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Continuing into ages 4 and 5, children’s cognitive development is advancing alongside their
progress in brain growth and development. Brain growth and cognitive skills continue to
increase in complexity, building on the development made in the toddler years.
Section 7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Brain Growth
The cognitive processes of 4 and 5 year olds are advancing and are facilitated through spe-
cific brain development. Neurons, at this time, are connecting and more synaptic pruning
occurs, leaving the remaining connections stronger and more efficient (Brown & Jernigan,
2012; Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Myelination also continues so that axons are coated to be
more efficient in sending signals back and forth between neurons (Brown & Jernigan, 2012).
At this time, executive functioning abilities (discussed in Chapter 2) strengthen so that skills
of attention, short-term memory, and rule changing become apparent and assist in learning
and socializing (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2011). Related to this
continuing brain development is the finding that children in higher-quality early learning
programs develop improved behaviors such as the ability to remember details and to make
plans and other skills that help in school and group participation like taking turns, waiting
before speaking, and working with others (Child Care Aware of America, 2013).
Cognitive Development
The thought processes of children ages 4 or 5 years are more complex than those of toddlers.
At this age, children are capable of understanding new concepts, solving problems on their
own, considering options, and identifying rudimentary cause-and-effect principles. Children
learn more advanced cognitive skills primarily through social interactions and experience
with the environment. Advancements in children’s communication skills provide for richer
interactions and experiences because they can better convey their own thoughts and under-
stand the thoughts of others. Caregivers can help children to develop more sophisticated cog-
nition by discussing everyday events with them.
Steve (preschool teacher): Good morning Patti. How are you today?
Patti (4 year old): Good. I had bananas and there was a deer. It looked like a
horse, but small. Why was the deer there?
Steve: I don’t know where the deer was, Patti. Where did you see the deer?
Patti: In my backyard. It was eating our garden!
Steve: Oh, no! Maybe he was really hungry!
Patti: He WAS really hungry, but my dad was mad at him. I told my dad that he
had to eat breakfast, too!
Steve: Just like when you ate your bananas, right?
Patti: Right. I had bananas and the deer ate our garden.
Steve: Why do you think your dad was mad at the deer?
Patti: I don’t know . . . . He was just eating! He should be allowed to eat!
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 151 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Conversation comes naturally in the care of 4- and 5-year-old children because they often ask
a lot of questions to help feed their curiosity about the world around them. A very simple
statement may spur a series of what, why, how, when, and where questions. It is important for
caregivers and teachers to be patient and engage with children to try to answer all questions.
Children should also be able to answer similar questions when asked. This back-and-forth
dialogue offers many rich experiences for children and is essential for development in many
domains. Responses should be age appropriate without oversimplifying, but with an appro-
priate amount of detail. Children provide cues that often demonstrate their level of interest
and the extent of details needed. Behaviors that indicate the topic is not of interest include
looking away, becoming fidgety, and asking irrelevant questions. Cues that indicate genuine
interest and a need for more details include the asking of relevant questions and visually
attending to the task or speaker.
By age 4, a typically developing child under-
stands time-oriented words like soon,
now, and later. Children at around this age
understand size relationships (including
bigger and smaller), concepts of different
and same, and location words like here,
there, under, over, and in. They also can fol-
low multistep commands, such as, “Go to
your bookshelf, choose what book you’d
like us to read together, and bring it to the
couch.” Children at around 5 years will be
able to follow multistep commands that
are not logically related, such as, “Put Blue
Bunny in the toy box and then put your shirt
and socks back on.”
Sometime during the ages of 4 or 5, children
begin to recognize common properties or
patterns across objects. Identifying these
patterns gives way to categorization skills.
In child-care centers, teachers often make
a game of categorizing by asking children
to put the blue blocks together, the red blocks together, and the green blocks together. The
teacher affirms the children’s success when the task is done and then mixes up the blocks and
asks them to ignore the colors and put the big blocks together and the small blocks together.
This game also helps children to practice following rules. With more advanced cognitive skills,
including basic memorization, children at this age are able to engage in group activities with
rules. Children in this age group may be at different skill levels, but typically they know their
first and last names as well as their ages, they are able to count up to 5 or even 10, they can
name at least four colors, and they recognize basic shapes.
Counting is an obvious foundation for later math skills, but many other concepts that should
be mastered in this stage of life help to lay the groundwork needed for later mathematical
mastery. Play is a wonderful way for children of this age to experience the world around them.
Play can also help children gain an understanding of the concepts of volume, speed, length,
height, and other measurements that are important later for comprehending mathematics. In
addition to having children learn through daily experiences, it is important for caregivers to
be intentional in teaching the foundations needed for later mathematics.
Tim Hall/Taxi/Thinkstock
▶ Typically, a preschooler can count up to 5 (or
even 10), and can name four or more colors.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 152 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.2 Brain Growth and Cognitive Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
This is also the time when children learn the skills that will lead later to reading and writ-
ing, also known as early literacy. Reading books, singing songs, making rhymes, and even
engaging in simple conversation all help to further develop interest in communication and to
reinforce the concept that ideas are conveyed through language. Early literacy includes hav-
ing fun with language, creating an interest in books and other written materials, and experi-
encing the technical basics of reading (including reading from front to back and left to right).
For example, reading the words on street signs, cereal boxes, and other environmental print;
making up silly new words; playing rhyming games; engaging in group or individual story
time; and singing along with familiar songs can help children to develop early literacy skills
(Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003).
Children typically begin to identify different genders at age 4. A child’s initial understand-
ing of gender differences may rely heavily on observable, and often incorrect, characteristics
assigned to each gender by the child’s own experiences. For example, a child may observe that
females wear necklaces and males wear baseball hats. Therefore, anyone wearing a baseball
hat is male and anyone wearing a necklace is female. This is called gender typing. Gender
typing is related directly to the cognitive skill of categorization. It helps children to better
distinguish and contrast between two groupings. At this level of gender recognition, children
often believe that gender can be changed. Later, in middle childhood, comes the understand-
ing that gender is constant throughout life. See Table 7.2 for more details on cognitive devel-
opment in 4 and 5 year olds.
Table 7.2: Cognitive development in children ages 4 and 5
Can answer simple questions easily and logically
Can count 10 or more objects
Can name at least four colors correctly
Is better able to understand the concept of time as well as the order of activities throughout the day (e.g., break-
fast in the morning, lunch in the afternoon, and supper at night)
Knows what things are used in the home context every day (including money, food, and appliances)
Source: Adapted from American Academy of Pediatrics. (2013a). Ages and stages, developmental milestones: 4 to 5 years old.
Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/preschool/pages/Developmental-Milestones-4-to-5
-Year-Olds.aspx.
Because children at the ages of 4 and 5 years are developing abstract thinking, use creative
play skills, and have good fine motor skills, including eye-hand coordination, the time is ripe
for advancing technological skills and for integrating the use of interactive media and other
technology into early childhood programs. For instance, the use of digital photo journals to
document skills and fun activities and the use of video to record dramatic play, storytell-
ing, and dancing and singing can be motivating to 4 and 5 year olds (Ching, Wang, & Kedem,
2006). Children at this age often use touch screens at museums and in some libraries and can
discover the usefulness of websites on computers to learn more about diverse cultures. Advo-
cates for the use of technology in early childhood programs believe that age-appropriate use
of such technology can expand social connections (Buckleitner, 2000) and enhance a child’s
imagination. Others believe that overuse can lead to social isolation and reduced attention
spans (Alliance for Children, 2004).
Section 7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
“I WANT TO GO TO SCHOOL!”
Miss Isabella’s early childhood center for 4 and 5 year olds has a long waiting
list. She has “fun” areas of play that children talk about for years after they enter
school-age programs. Parents also promote it by word-of-mouth to their friends
and neighbors. What’s so special and enticing? Everything!
Not only does Miss Isabella offer clean, safe, and cheerful play areas with pretend kitchen and
dress-up activities, but she also has riding and climbing areas and “bouncy” items to promote
gross motor skills and to allow children the opportunity to let off energy. In addition, she has
quiet reading and listening “soft places” that offer choices of hard books and e-books and
other parts of the center where children can use hands-on manipulative toys like small Legos,
large lightweight indestructible blocks, and sensory materials like water and sand tables. But
the all-time favorite is the interactive media area, where Miss Isabella always assigns her best
adult volunteers to be involved with the children by providing support in the proper use of the
technology provided, such as computers, tablets, digital cameras, and recording devices. They
also monitor and guide children in taking turns, sharing, and being innovative.
Some of the innovations that volunteers have encouraged in this area of the center include
promoting a “media team” through which children buddy-up and share roles as they go off
into the other play areas to document art, science, and cooking projects; interview class-
mates on topics of interest; or record each other’s stories about their in-school experiences.
Technology users also partner with children in other play areas to create imaginative dances
or to act out stories that can be recorded. These videos and audio recordings are often shared
at “family night” in various parts of the room, just as are other craft projects. The energy and
pride just f lows from the children and their families in Miss Isabella’s early childhood center!
7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
As children leave toddlerhood and enter into the more social and complex world of the ages
of 4 and 5, they also enter into the world of constant communication. Children at this age are
very verbal and talk seemingly nonstop at times. The topic of conversation can range from
serious musings about their surroundings and emotions, to nonsensical jokes and memo-
rized rhymes. This flurry of sophisticated speech leads to development in almost all other
domains. It is important to encourage talk at this time, and to seek advice from a specialist if
any delays are suspected (see section on developmental red flags).
At around age 4, a child is typically using approximately 1,500 words formed in complete
short sentences (Children’s Hospital of the King’s Daughters, 2006). At around age 5, the
child’s vocabulary is increasing to more than 2,000 words, with sentences made up of five or
more words, and using all parts of speech (Mannheim, 2012). Children at this age are able to
understand most of what is said in both the home and the school contexts (American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association, n.d.a). For many years, theorists have recognized the impor-
tance of interaction for vocabulary development. However, the development of language is
much more complicated than associating words with their definitions. Children also use the
different aspects of what is said—like inflection, volume, and rhythm—to determine meaning.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 154 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.3 Language Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
These aspects of speech are called paralinguistics. The use of paralinguistics to develop lan-
guage becomes more sophisticated as a child develops. For example, a recent study showed
that 5 year olds, but not 4 year olds, were able to use the emotional cues conveyed in speech to
determine the speaker’s intended meaning (Berman, Graham, Callaway, & Chambers, 2013).
A child’s words at 4 and 5 years are much more recognizable than a toddler’s words. As a child
continues to practice saying different words, each consonant and vowel sound becomes more
refined to form discernable syllables. This clearer speaking of words is called enunciation.
Children ages 4 and 5 years old like familiar stories and may ask to hear their favorites over
and over with few word changes. Repeating rhymes, singing songs, and playing word games
are among the favorite activities at this age. Communication skills are growing rapidly at this
time, and all of these activities help to advance this domain and even build literacy skills for
later in life.
Children may make up their own words and repeat sounds over and over. It is also common
for children at this age to involuntarily repeat a syllable, or the first consonant of a word, over
and over before completing the word or phrase. This repetition is known as stuttering. Stut-
tering in early childhood does not necessarily indicate a cause for concern. A child’s ideas may
come faster than his or her verbal skills can process them. Caregivers who notice stuttering
should be sure to give the child undivided attention and not comment on the stuttering.
By age 5, as their verbal communication skills progress, children will begin to use the correct
rules for language, such as order of words (e.g., “I will go to the car”), different words for the
same meaning (e.g., we and us), and different forms of the same word to indicate past, pres-
ent, and future tenses (e.g., play, plays, played). This set of language rules is called grammar.
Grammar continues to develop through school age. By the age of 5, children will often begin
to recognize and read common words in their favorite books. Having conversations, reading
books, and singing songs with children can help them to continue development of vocabulary,
pronunciation, and grammar. See Table 7.3 for detailed information on communication devel-
opment in 4 and 5 year olds.
Table 7.3: Communication development in children ages 4 and 5
Understanding Talking
Pays attention to a short story and answers simple
questions about it
Understands most of what is said at home and
in school
Understands simple humor
Hears differences among rhyming words
Has improved reading comprehension
Names some letters and numbers
Uses sentences that give lots of details (“The biggest
peach on the table is mine because I washed it.”)
Tells stories that stick to topic
Expresses self easily to other children and adults
Says most sounds correctly, except a few, such as l, s,
r, v, z, ch, sh, and th
Says rhyming words
Uses the same grammar as the rest of the family, but
in simpler sentences
Section 7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Children at ages 4 and 5 blossom socially.
They enjoy and prefer to be with other chil-
dren and quickly gain the skills needed to
function in a community of peers. Children
are driven by the desire to be liked and place
the utmost importance on friends. Especially
when introduced into structured child-care
settings and preschool classrooms, children
develop skills to thrive in larger groups of
peers. This includes sharing, sympathizing
with others, communicating, compromis-
ing, setting and testing boundaries, and fol-
lowing rules. However, because these skills
are still being developed, children at this
age rely on adult supervision to help use
them appropriately.
Kirsten was quiet when she first
started coming here about 5 weeks
ago. She would go sit on one cor-
ner of the mat on the side of the room and roll a car back and forth while she
watched the other kids. We worked closely with her, suggesting things she could
say to the other kids and helping them play together. Eventually, Kirsten became
comfortable interacting with Blair. They still don’t share very well, but they love
to play at the water table together and help each other on and off the swings
outside.—Preschool teacher
According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (see Chapter 3), children at
4 and 5 years of age are transitioning between the stages of autonomy versus shame and doubt
(ages 2–3) and initiative versus guilt (ages 4–5), which necessitates working toward a sense of
self-control and the ability to initiate one’s own activities, respectively. These stages are well
represented within the social-emotional realm, as they apply directly to a child’s ability to be
autonomous and in control within social situations and play interactions with both adults
and peers.
Imaginative play is very important at this time, and children often engage in make-believe
play together. Because of the newly identified genders, make-believe play often includes gen-
der roles. Imaginary friends are also common during this period. At this age, children’s active
imaginations and desire for social interaction often lead them to create fictional characters
that function as constant companions. This is completely normal and typically fades out as the
child ages. However, children at this age are able to differentiate between real and pretend.
Justin always tells us about the “preetles” that live in the bathtub under the
water. None of my other kids had imaginary friends, if that’s what the pree-
tles are anyway. He’s never been able to tell me exactly what they are, but he
seems to think they are just great! He actually likes to take baths now instead of
screaming, so we love the preetles!—Jolie (mother of three)
Susanne Dittrich/
Fuse/Thinkstock
▶ Preschool-age children see friendships as
increasingly important and want to be liked by their
peers. Many social-emotional skills emerge and are
strengthened during this developmental period.
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Section 7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
It is important for caregivers to help children at this age to maneuver through social-
emotional development. Discussing feelings and encouraging verbal expressions of anger,
frustration, and disappointment can be valuable tools that children use throughout life to
cope with negative feelings. Friendships are fluid at this age, but caregivers can help children
ages 4–5 years to appreciate friends and begin to understand the feeling of loyalty. Adults can
help children talk about what characteristics they like about their friends and then help them
to imitate those characteristics to be a good friend to others. Imitating positive behaviors is a
great way to capitalize on a child’s desire to be liked.
Children learn what is socially unacceptable by trying and testing out different behaviors.
Children at this age will naturally push limits to get a sense of what is acceptable. They may
use profane language to shock and get attention from adults. For similar reasons, children at
this age will test boundaries with authority figures by talking back. Their active imaginations
can also easily lead to confusion between fantasy and reality or simple confusion of the facts,
which may be misinterpreted as lying. In addition, their active play can also lead to aggressive
physical play. It is important to set clear and firm boundaries and to be consistent with con-
sequences for negative behaviors. If any of these negative behaviors is allowed, children may
think they are acceptable and have a much harder time correcting them when they are older.
Children ages 4 and 5 years can have a tendency to be bossy at times. They are exercising
independence and trying out new social roles within their world. Sometimes social situations
result in aggression between peers. This aggression can be with the intent to hurt another
child, or it can be motivated by a particular goal, like getting a desired toy from another child.
Some theorists suggest that there are more instances of aggression within a new group of
peers at these ages, though eventually a social hierarchy is established and the rate of aggres-
sion decreases (Strayer, 1980). Often, in a group play setting a dominant child will emerge
and control play situations. Other peers are typically quick to allow the dominant child to take
over and follow that child’s lead. The tendency for some children to take over and for others
to follow their lead willingly is referred to as social dominance (Pellegrini et al., 2007).
We went through a few weeks in the beginning where Amanda was biting some
of the boys. It was only outside and only the boys. There was no real aggression
toward the other girls. We tried to pay close attention to the situations, and
it didn’t seem to be toy motivated. After a few days of it we asked her mother.
Turns out she has two brothers at home who may be a little bossy or rough
at times. So, we paid closer attention to the boys’ behavior, too, and really
encouraged turn-taking, sharing, and other mutually respectful activities to
help Amanda feel more confident around them and to build their relationships.
—Assistant teacher
This is also the time when morality begins to develop. Children ages 4 and 5 years are eager to
please adults in roles of importance, like parents and caregivers. Children begin to show true
guilt for questionable actions and sincere concern for others. These are the seeds of moral
development, which continues through late early childhood (see Chapter 8).
Although 4 and 5 year olds are excited to form social circles, they may also have a fear of the
unknown. Most children at this age have formed strong attachments to their primary caregiv-
ers and experience a considerable amount of fear if that person leaves. Children may also be
wary of places and situations with which they are not familiar.
It is important for caregivers to support children at this age to overcome fears, build a solid
moral foundation, and learn social appropriateness. Children need positive feedback from
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 157 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.4 Social-Emotional Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
trusted adults to tell them when they are on the right track, in turn building positive self-
esteem. They also need a structured and safe environment in which to explore social and
emotional situations while exercising some newfound independence. Children at all ages
need discipline, but it is important to understand that discipline is not punishment (see Chap-
ter 8 for a definition of punishment and discipline). Good discipline is guidance and is espe-
cially important in the context of social-emotional development at ages 4 and 5 years.
Over the past two decades, preschool classrooms that teach children with special needs along-
side typically developing children have become increasingly commonplace. These integrated
preschool classrooms are called inclusive programs. Children who appear different or act dif-
ferently from the typical child may create wariness, yet inclusive programs have many benefits
to all of the students involved. Typically developing peers get to practice skills while guiding
other children. Confidence and empathy are improved. Children with special needs can observe
and learn to imitate typically developing peers. However, regardless of the setting, preschoolers
with disabilities engage in fewer social interactions, group play, and conversations than typi-
cally developing children, offering far fewer opportunities to develop social skills. In addition,
their social skills are lost faster than those of children without disabilities if the skills are not
used, acknowledged, and appreciated by others (Kennedy, 2013). Caregivers can help sustain
social-emotional progress in children with and without disabilities by acknowledging and
encouraging positive social interactions between peers whenever possible.
TIPS ON SUPPORTING STRONG SOCIAL-
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Caregivers create supportive social-emotional environments when they . . .
• Design learning centers that create small-group social environments
• Be socially competent play partners, modeling what play conversations sound like
• Model play that includes children with special needs
• Provide open-ended materials (e.g., blocks, clothing for dramatic play, and natural
materials such as rocks, seashells, sand, and water) that stimulate conversation
• Encourage children to engage with each other and ask questions
• Keep a strong presence during center time, offering problem-solving assistance as
necessary
• Assist with children’s diverse ways of initiating play with one another
• Incorporate activities that allow children in inclusive classrooms to get to know each
other, for example, with circle-time songs and activities that emphasize friendship,
children’s names, and their similarities and differences
Caregivers should use observation to determine . . .
• Each child’s current social skills
• Areas of strength and growth for all children
• Children’s individual interests
• Times when each child is most likely to interact with peers
• The level of inclusion for each child during play, especially the inclusion of children
with special needs
• Each child’s ability to initiate interactions and to respond to the initiations of others
• Where and when conflicts occur most frequently
• Whether any child is being socially rejected
Section 7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
Children ages 4 and 5 are typically much more independent than toddlers. They are able to
do the majority of self-help tasks with supervision and some assistance from adults. Chil-
dren at this age can feed themselves with the proper utensils, dress themselves if the clothing
does not involve complicated layers or fasteners, eliminate without much assistance, brush
their own teeth, and clean their bodies with supervision. Allowing children to do much of the
self-help tasks independently at this age helps to build confidence, improve problem-solving
skills, and enhance motor development.
Sleeping
By 4 years of age, some children still take one nap in the afternoon for approximately
1–2 hours. Napping is typically phased out around this time, although children should con-
tinue a napping routine if they get very tired or cranky in the late afternoon. Children who do
not need an afternoon nap may still benefit from quiet time.
At nighttime, 4 and 5 year olds should get
11–13 hours of sleep (National Sleep Foun-
dation, 2013a). However, getting enough
high-quality sleep can be a challenge for
some children this age who are energetic
and always active. Many parents find it dif-
ficult to get their 4- or 5-year-old child to go
to sleep at a reasonable time at night, and
some find it just as difficult to keep them
sleeping through the early hours of the
morning. To complicate matters, an over-
tired and cranky child is harder to convince
to go to bed. Consistent sleep times and bed-
time routines can help children mentally
and physically prepare for sleep and get
better sleep throughout the night. Adequate
sleep is critical for optimal development
at this age. Studies indicate a connection
between inadequate sleep in preschool-
ers and behavior issues in the classroom.
One study in particular found a link between parental-reported sleep routine disturbances
and teacher-reported negative behaviors in the classroom (Bates, Viken, Alexander, Beyers,
& Stockton, 2003). Behavior issues caused by inadequate sleep can inhibit social experiences
and other learning opportunities. Overcoming these early bedtime challenges is critical for
optimal development.
Feeding and Eating
Progress in a child’s motor, cognitive, and physical development allows for independence at
mealtimes. Children at this age are able to use everyday utensils to feed themselves. They
know the proper use for bowls, plates, cups, forks, knives, spoons, and straws. Although some
children may be able to prepare themselves simple meals like pouring a bowl of cereal, they
Fuse/Thinkstock
▶ Preschoolers should get 11–13 hours of sleep
during the night.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 159 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Section 7.5 Self-Help Development in 4 and 5 Year Olds
should still be supervised and supported at this age. In particular, caregivers need to provide
children with nutritious food.
Forming healthy eating habits in early childhood and getting balanced daily nutrition are key
components to warding off obesity and malnutrition in childhood and throughout adult life.
All adults who interact with children on a daily basis can help by setting a good example with
food selection and portions, helping children to select a variety of nutritious foods, and fol-
lowing eating schedules. According to a U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research
Service report, 21 percent of U.S. households with children do not have a secure food supply,
putting the children at risk of being undernourished (Coleman-Jensen, Nord, & Singh, 2013).
When families use starchy foods low in nutrients to make financial ends meet, children may
become either obese or undernourished. Preschool programs have the opportunity to edu-
cate children and their families about good nutrition (Center for the Study of Social Policy,
2013). See more on childhood obesity in Chapter 8.
Food safety is also important to minimize children’s illnesses. Proper storage, washing, and
cooking of food can help to keep unwanted germs at bay.
Elimination
Toileting should be mastered at this age, although occasional bedwetting may occur and is not
necessarily a cause for concern. If bedwetting is frequent or accompanied regularly by night-
mares, it may be indicative of a deeper issue. A pediatrician or perhaps a specialist should be
consulted.
Hygiene
Oral hygiene is important to teach as children ages 4 and 5 learn daily routines and take a
more active role in cleaning themselves. Children should be taught to brush teeth at least
twice a day, in the morning and before bed, and to floss at least once per day. Children should
also have an established routine of visiting a dentist every 6 months.
As children ages 4 and 5 become more social beings, they interact with adults and peers more
and more. Playing with toys in groups, reading books with caregivers, and learning to share
with other children all bring opportunities to swap germs. Because children this age are still
developing their immune systems, they are susceptible to common viruses. Teaching proper
cleaning routines, like washing hands after going to the bathroom, can help.
TIPS ON PROPER FOOD SAFETY
• Clean. Wash hands and surfaces often.
• Separate. Don’t cross-contaminate. For example, after cutting meat, wash the
knife before using it to cut vegetables.
• Cook. Cook to proper temperature using a food thermometer.
• Chill. Refrigerate properly.
Source: ChooseMyPlate.gov. (n.d.). Food safety: Preschoolers’ immune systems are still developing. Retrieved from
ht tp://w w w.choosemyplate.gov/preschoolers/food-safet y.html.
Section 7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Regular bathing should also be part of the routine. Making bathtime fun and allowing enough
time to play can be crucial for keeping it a pleasant part of the day.
Paul has made such great progress with his morning and evening routines! It
used to be such a struggle just to get him to brush his teeth. He would do what-
ever he could to get out of it. It took a long time, but trying to make it fun rather
than a chore and being persistent with the routine has really paid off. We sing a
little song together while we get the toothbrush ready, and after we are done we
finish the song. It’s much more bearable for both of us!—Brian (father)
Dressing
Children ages 4 and 5 can mostly dress themselves and should be given the opportunity to do
so, as long as they are safe and supervised. As fine motor skills continue to develop, children
may still need assistance with small snaps, buttons, and zippers, but allowing them to try for
themselves will help to develop these skills.
Caregivers can offer alternative methods to
help put on coats, shoes, and other cloth-
ing if a child needs some assistance. Inde-
pendence is important for developing skills
related to these tasks, but support should
be given when the task gets too frustrat-
ing. A particular teaching strategy has the
caregiver take the task to the final step and
then the child completes it. This technique
is called backward chaining. For example,
a child learning to button can have the adult
line up the button with the hole and push
it partly through. Then the child pulls it the
rest of the way. Next time the child can be
encouraged to push and pull the button
through the hole. After several successes,
the child learns to do all steps in buttoning,
including aligning the button with the hole, pushing, and finally pulling it through. This is an
alternative to forward chaining, in which a child is taught the first step in a task, with each
successive step taught in the correct sequence. Learning can also take place by observing
peers or an adult complete a task, and can also be encouraged with the use of prompting
(verbal or physical) from step to step (Shrestha, Anderson, & Moore, 2013). The technique
selected must be individualized to the child’s unique strengths and needs.
7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
By age 4, a typically developing child should have achieved multiple milestones in all of the
developmental domains. Red flags may be more apparent to a parent, teacher, or caregiver
during this time than previously. Because the earliest interventions hold the most promise for
addressing developmental concerns, it is important to recognize developmental red flags as
early as possible. Table 7.4 describes some observable red flags in various domains.
▶ Preschoolers increasingly have the ability to
dress themselves but may still need assistance
from adults for buttons, buckles, snaps, or zippers.
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Section 7.6 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Table 7.4: Developmental red flags in children ages 4 and 5
Domain Red Flag
Motor Movements seem shaky or stiff
Arms and hands seem very weak
Not able to cut along a straight line
Not holding crayons or pencils with thumb and fingers
Not able to draw a circle, square, and cross
Not able to put on own shirts, pants, socks, and shoes (with some help
with fasteners)
Not able to feed self well with a spoon and fork
Cognitive Not able to name the basic colors and shapes
Does not understand the concept of past, present, and future
Not interested in pretend play
Constantly moves from one activity to another and can stay with an activity only
for brief periods
Not able to understand the rules of a basic game, such as memory or other
preschool games
Not able to tell basic facts about self (e.g., full name, age, city in which the child
lives, street name)
Not able to count five objects
Does not recognize name when seeing it printed
Communication Not easily understood by others
Has difficulty putting sentences together
Has lots of grammatical difficulties in sentences
Has difficulties with concepts such as prepositions (position words such as
behind, beside, etc.), colors, size, categories
Does not ask questions
Does not follow verbal directions
Social-emotional Not interested in playing with other children
Not able to share or take turns with other children
Wants to be dependent on caregivers for everything
Extremely “rigid” about routines; becomes extremely upset when things are
changed
Has extreme difficulty separating from primary caregiver
Is too passive or fearful, and does not want to try things other children the same
age are doing
Has extreme fears that interfere with daily activities
If any of these red flags are observed, parents should be advised to consult with the child’s
doctor or a developmental specialist.
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 162 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Summary and Resources
backward chaining A particular teaching
technique in which the caregiver takes a
task to the last stage and allows the child to
complete it.
early literacy A set of skills developed in
early childhood that form the foundation for
later reading and writing.
enunciation Speaking in a clear and com-
prehendible manner.
gender typing Mentally assigning specific
characteristics to males and other specific
characteristics to females.
grammar A set of rules for a spoken and
written language.
inclusive programs A classroom or pro-
gram that integrates children with special
needs and challenges with typically develop-
ing children.
social dominance The tendency for some
children to take over and for others to will-
ingly follow their lead.
stuttering Involuntarily repeating a syllable
or the first consonant of a word.
Summary and Resources
Children ages 4 and 5 years are typically joyful and driven by their newfound curiosity. Skills
across domains work together to help children at this age explore their world and become
social creatures. Increased fine motor skills allow children to engage in crafts and play games
together while communication helps children convey their ideas and talk about their emo-
tions. Imagination begins to filter through much of their play and adds a tinge of drama to
their actions. Children at this age are beginning to understand the rules and properties of the
world around them. Night versus day, summer versus winter, right versus wrong, and likes
versus dislikes all begin to emerge in children’s minds.
Children ages 4 and 5 are also energetic and ready to learn. They are eager to try out their
new skills and have an urge for independence, but they still need considerable support to stay
safe and navigate the world around them. Their caregivers play a large role in showing them
how to interact with others, how the day should be structured, how to show caring and com-
passion, and how to solve problems. Simple conversations with 4 and 5 year olds can have
significant positive impacts on their cognitive, communication, and social-emotional devel-
opment. Children at this age can be great conversationalists and will usually continue to ask
questions as long as they are receiving age-appropriate answers.
At this age, children have the cognitive ability and physical coordination to take care of many
of their daily needs. They can feed themselves, sleep regularly, clean and dress themselves,
and use a toilet. Although these tasks are completed with little support, children at this age
still need help knowing when it is time for a nap, when to have a healthy snack, and when to
practice their cleaning routines.
Key Terms and Concepts
Discussion Questions
1. Discuss ways that caregivers can support a 4 or 5 year old’s development of auton-
omy and independence while still maintaining necessary boundaries. What strate-
gies could be used?
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 163 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Summary and Resources
2. Imagine a group of children ages 4 and 5 years playing a game of duck, duck, goose.
What domains of child development are at play during this game? Considering this
example, discuss the importance of play for a child’s developmental progress.
3. Why is discussing everyday events important for a 4 or 5 year old’s cognitive devel-
opment? How does this strategy compare with the more structured teaching of
academic-related topics during these years?
4. What are some possible benefits and some possible challenges of caring for children
in an inclusive classroom?
5. Why is it important to consult with a doctor or developmental specialist as early as
possible if there are concerns with a child’s development? What might be the conse-
quences if concerns are not addressed?
6. What are some ways caregivers can support a 4 or 5 year old’s efforts to make
friends and interact with them?
7. In what ways are children at ages 4 and 5 years very different from toddlers? In what
ways are they similar?
Observational Activities
The following activities encourage opportunities to see child development in action. Arrang-
ing occasions to observe or interact with children of various ages creates critical moments to
synthesize the learning in this text.
1. Witnessing fine motor advancements; bon appetit. Improving fine motor skills
allows children ages 4 and 5 years to perform new activities. One endeavor that
children tend to enjoy is assisting with cooking. Even greater pride is seen when
they get to take the lead. With the parent’s permission, arrange a time to don your
chef ’s hat with a child. Making “ants on a log” is an excellent adventure in fine motor
skills. Coach the child through the cutting in half (in a sawing motion) of a washed
celery stalk using a small knife. Instruct the child to spread peanut butter or cream
cheese along the inside of the celery. Finalize the concoction by having the child
place raisins along the peanut butter or cream cheese. This may be the child’s first
opportunity to demonstrate these particular skills. Watch the child’s dexterity and
adjustments as he or she maneuvers this task.
2. Witnessing language progression; rhyme time. Many children are quite used to
hearing nursery rhymes or stories that have a rhyming pattern. Making up their own
rhyme words can be even more fun. With a child age 4 or 5, recite the first lines of a
nursery rhyme, but when you come to the point in the second line pause and have
the child say aloud the rhyming word (e.g., Hickory dickory dock, the mouse ran up
the ______ ). After going through the standard responses, encourage the child to think
of other words that rhyme. Children commonly make up some inventive words,
which is fine, but more important is their grasping of the rhyming concept. Notice
how many rhyming words the child can insert.
3. Witnessing social development; tea for two. Children age 4 or 5 will start to display new
patterns in play. At this age they will gain the skills needed for interactive or coopera-
tive play versus their prior parallel-play skills. Further emerging is the development
of their imagination, which makes dramatic play like dress-up or tea parties a good
way to practice these new skills. Schedule a time to partake in either of these activi-
ties with a child of this age and ask the parents if they have dress-up clothes or child
tea sets (substitute plastic or unbreakable cups, if needed). Note the child’s ability
to take turns with you and ask you questions (e.g., asking you if you would like more
gro81431_07_c07_147-166.indd 164 4/24/14 12:53 PM
Summary and Resources
tea). Although children at this age are often egocentric, this game often elicits their
directed interactions with you. This is also a wonderful time to role-play and practice
manners; don’t forget to say “please” and “thank you.”
Web Resources
Fred Rogers Center Early Learning Environment
http://ele.fredrogerscenter.org/
This website provides resources for understanding early literacy and activities for adults to
do with children to promote early literacy skills.
National Sleep Foundation
http://www.sleepforkids.org/html/tips.html
This website offers tips for healthy sleep habits for kids.
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/autism/detail_autism.htm
This government website provides information on the inheritance, symptoms, and treatment
of autism.
Center for Early Literacy Learning
http://www.earlyliteracylearning.org/
This organization promotes the use of evidence-based early literacy learning practices.
The website includes resources for early childhood intervention practitioners, parents, and
caregivers.
Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning
http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/
The center aims to support and improve young children’s social-emotional outcomes. The
website includes extensive resources for states, trainers, families, teachers, and caregivers.
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