Work is attached.

Module 4 – What is Traditional Pottery (Click here to post)

  

New Mexico: Marie Martinez

 .     . 

India: Kummari Tradition

  

North Carolina: Mark Hewitt

Traditional Pottery: Pottery has been an important part of human culture for thousands of years. From prehistoric storage jars to ceremonial bowl, pottery has played a key role in innumerable human endeavors.Pottery is generally considered to be containers made from clay. “Pot” is a term used for any number of container forms. Both words derive from the Old English potian, “to push”. When we consider how the potter pushes as they throw the clay on the wheel, it is easy to see how the process got its name. The term “pottery” may also be used as an adjective with some objects, such as small figurines. (About.com Pottery)  

Assignment

In this assignment you are going to learn how each culture has a difference way of visually expressing itself through the tradition of pottery. After reading Chapter 2.6 in your textbook and watching the 3 videos below write 3 paragraphs  think about how each culture has a different way of visually expressing itself through the tradition of pottery. Use the questions below to inform your discussion.  

· What interested you most about each pottery tradition?

· What makes each culture recognizable to the outside world?

· How are some traditions and potters similar to each other?

· How are they different?

· Are the reasons for carrying on tradition the same? How?

Grading Criteria (300 Words)

· Three paragraphs

· Descriptive comments about each culture’s pottery traditions.

· What you found interesting about the different potters.

· Examples of how they are different and similar.

· I will also be looking for answers that show you have reviewed all the material and have organized your thoughts before writing.

· I will look for facts, fact-based opinions and personal responses.

Gateways to Art – Chapter 2.6

Resources

Resources

Attached Files:

·

 thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-06_20181017.pptx

 

thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-06_20181017.pptx – Alternative Formats

 (35.372 MB) 

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 thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-05_20181017.pptx

 

thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-05_20181017.pptx – Alternative Formats

 (40.075 MB) 

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 thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-04_20181017.pptx

 

thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-04_20181017.pptx – Alternative Formats

 (36.061 MB) 

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 thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-03_20181017.pptx

 

thgatear3_pptlecture_ch2-03_20181017.pptx – Alternative Formats

 (29.19 MB)

Chapter

2

.3
Printmaking

PART 2

MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

Introduction

Printmaking allows the same design to be reproduced and distributed to many people

If an artist creates the master image, supervises the process, and signs the work, it is considered an original print

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Chapter 2.3 Printmaking

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Printing with inks was first used in China to print patterns on fabrics in the third century ce

Original prints differ from commercial reproductions of an artwork, where the artist may not be involved in the process

The production of two or more identical images, signed and numbered by the artist, is called an edition; when an artist produces one print, it is called a monoprint

Each printmaking technique involves a different matrix, or origination point from which the print is derived

There are four main printing processes: relief, intaglio, lithography, and serigraphy

Artists choose a particular technique because they think it will suit the kind of effect they want to achieve

2

Context of Printmaking

Ancient civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia reproduced images using incised stones

The earliest printed artworks on paper were created in China

By the 15th century, woodblock printing workshops became common in Europe as paper became less expensive

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Relief Printmaking

This type of printmaking is achieved by carving away from a block of material, such as wood or linoleum, to create a raised image

Ink is applied to the raised surface (carved areas are not inked)

Image is transferred to paper or similar material by applying pressure

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Relief Printing Process

2.3.1 A brief overview of the relief printing process

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Woodblock
Traditionally, wood has been used for relief prints because it is readily available, familiar to work with, and holds up under the pressure exerted by the printing process
Prints are known as woodcuts

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Albrecht Dürer,
“The Four Horsemen”
2.3.2 Albrecht Dürer,
“The Four Horsemen” from The Apocalypse, 1498. Woodcut, 15¼ × 11″. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Albrecht Dürer,
“The Four Horsemen”
From Dürer’s illustrated Book of Revelation
Craftsmen created a printing block from his original drawing
Resulted in thin lines and detail that could withstand the compression of repeated printings

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

German artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) created a series of fifteen illustrations from the Book of Revelation, a symbolic piece of writing that prophesies the Apocalypse
The horsemen represent Death, Plague, War, and Famine
Unlike cutting from a solid block of wood, a print craftsman stacks and glues a series of thin, sliced layers of wood to create a more stable printing block (similar to plywood) that will be less likely to splinter or crack
The labor was expensive, but the series made Dürer wealthy
8

Artwork: Kitagawa Utamaro, Lovers in an Upstairs Room
2.3.3 Kitagawa Utamaro, Lovers in an Upstairs Room, from Uta Makura (Poem of the Pillow), 1788.
Color woodblock print, 10 × 14½”. British Museum, London, England

Kitagawa Utamaro, Lovers in an Upstairs Room
Utamaro uses multiple blocks in different colors; each color is carefully printed in sequence on
the same sheet of paper
Popular in Japan, ukiyo-e means “pictures of the floating world”
References to a young urban
cultural class

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Kitagawa Utamaro (1753–1806) is regarded as one of the greatest Japanese printmakers
He made images for the Japanese middle and upper classes of figures, theaters, and brothels
10

Artwork: Emil Nolde, Prophet
2.3.4 Emil Nolde, Prophet, 1912. Woodcut, printed in black, composition 12⅝ × 8¾”. MoMA, New York
Digital rights not available for this image. See p. 228 of the textbook.

Emil Nolde, Prophet
Nolde uses the natural character of the wood to suggest the hardships of an austere life
Relief printmaking favors dark images with strong contrast

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Emil Nolde (1867-1956) was a German Expressionist printmaker.
12

Artwork: Hokusai, “The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa”
2.3.5 Katsushika Hokusai, “The Great Wave off Shore at Kanagawa,” from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji, 1826–33 (printed later).
Print, color woodcut. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Hokusai: Using the
Woodblock Printing Method
Hokusai relied on skilled craftsmen who carved his original image into cherry wood
Nine blocks were used in this print; each color required its own relief block

Gateway to Art:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The work of Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) is a fine example of the printmaker’s art
“The Great Wave” was one of ten prints in the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji to use a new blue color, imported from Europe, known as Prussian blue
The sequence of printing was done with great skill, ensuring that each print in the edition matched the others
The blocks of wood were used so many times that the carving eventually deteriorated
Although it is unknown how many prints were made, it is estimated there were more than 5,000
14

Linocut
Linoleum is softer than woodblocks and does not show a wood grain
Linoleum (“lino”) printmaking is done by carving into the surface, then printing the raised surface
left behind
The resulting prints are called linocuts

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Stanley Donwood, “Hollywood Limousine”
2.3.6 Stanley Donwood, “Hollywood Limousine,” from the Lost Angeles series, 2012.
Black screenprint on a silver foil layer, 22 × 35¾”

Stanley Donwood, “Hollywood Limousine”
Donwood is best known for his artwork for the rock band Radiohead
Produced a series that depicts the last days of the city of Los Angeles
Cut into sheets of soft linoleum and printed on fine Japanese paper

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Real name is Dan Rickwood (b. 1968)
The soft linoleum allowed Donwood to capture the myriad of fictional events in great detail, with the kind of clarity that a storybook illustration might have
17

Intaglio Printmaking
Intaglio means “cut into” in Italian
A burin cuts or gouges into a metal or Plexiglas plate
The Ink on the raised surface is wiped away, leaving ink in the scarred surface
The pressure of the printing press squeezes the plate against the paper, transferring the ink

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Intaglio Printmaking Process
2.3.7 A brief overview of the engraving process (intaglio):
1. An image is designed for the plate.
2. Using a sharp tool, the artist incises the image into the plate.
3. The plate is inked.
4. The surface of the plate is wiped, removing all ink except in the grooves
5. Paper is placed on the plate and it is pressed.
6. The paper lifts the ink out of the grooves and the ink is imprinted on the paper
7. The final image is complete. (In most printmaking methods the final image is reversed from the plate or block.)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

19

Engraving
Based on the careful scoring of a metal plate so that clean gouges are created in the surface
An engraving can achieve fine detail, making the resulting print more like the artist’s original drawing

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Albrecht Dürer, Adam and Eve
2.3.8 Albrecht Dürer, Adam and Eve, 1504. Engraving on paper, 9⅞ × 7⅞”.
Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York

Albrecht Dürer,
Adam and Eve
Dürer had a financial reason for choosing to engrave his work:
Because a metal plate is much more durable than a woodblock, he could make and sell many more copies of his image

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Portal Artwork: William Hogarth,
False Perspective
4.5.6 William Hogarth, False Perspective. Engraving from
Dr. Brook Taylor’s Method of Perspective Made Easy, Both in Theory and in Practice, 1754

William Hogarth’s False Perspective is an example of an engraving with fine detail.
23

Drypoint
In drypoint the cutting tool is pulled, leaving a rough edge, or burr
When the plate is wiped the ink is caught under the burr
The result is a less precise line that has more irregularities

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Max Beckmann, Adam and Eve
2.3.9 Max Beckmann, Adam and Eve, 1917, published 1918. Drypoint, 9⅜ × 7″. Private collection, New York

Max Beckmann,
Adam and Eve
Beckmann’s uneven line expresses unpredictability and an organic naturalness
The irregular, rough lines of drypoint suit the subject matter
Adam and Eve are becoming aware of their nakedness, uncertain about their future

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Max Beckmann (1884–1950) was a German Expressionist artist.
26

Etching
A metal plate is covered with an acid-resistant coating, into which the artist scratches the design
The plate is immersed in acid
The acid “bites” into the metal where the covering has been removed, making grooves that hold the ink

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Rembrandt van Rijn, Adam and Eve
2.3.10 Rembrandt van Rijn, Adam and Eve, 1638. Etching, 9¾ × 7″. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Rembrandt van Rijn,
Adam and Eve
The Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn was a master of intaglio printmaking, especially etching
Rembrandt brings out details by marring the plate surface more in the areas that will appear darker in the print

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606–1669).
29

Aquatint
The image is created in a coating of powdered rosin (a tree sap)
The rosin is melted onto the surface of the plate, creating a mottled, acid-resistant barrier into which the design is etched
Creates a soft organic texture similar to that of brush and ink

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Another process that requires the use of an acid bath to etch the surface of the plate is aquatint
Despite the name, water does not play a role in aquatint printmaking
Since the rosin leaves irregular areas of the plate exposed, a soft organic texture (similar to that created when one uses brush and ink) dominates the image
30

Artwork: Francisco Goya, Giant
2.3.11 Francisco Goya, Giant,
c. 1818. Burnished aquatint,
first state, sheet size 11¼ × 8¼”. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York

Francisco Goya,
Giant
This print shows the wash-like appearance of the aquatint process
Goya controlled the distribution of rosin to create dark values
Soft, rich implied texture emphasizes that this is a mythical creature

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

32

Mezzotint
The entire surface of the plate is roughened with a rocking tool (a metal object with a spiked, curved bottom)
Areas where light tones are desired are then smoothed
Ink is removed from the smoothed areas when the plate is wiped

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Mezzotints often produce dark, rich values because the ink has many places to settle.
33

Artwork: Dox Thrash,
Defense Worker
2.3.12 Dox Thrash, Defense Worker, c. 1941, Carborundum mezzotint over etched guidelines, 9¾ × 8″. Print and Picture Collection, Free Library
of Philadelphia

Dox Thrash,
Defense Worker
Thrash uses mezzotint over etched guidelines
The dark values reflect the seriousness of the war effort and the spirit of the American worker during World War II
Sponsored by the Works Projects Administration

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

African-American artist Dox Thrash (1893–1965) used more than one printmaking method
The Works Projects Administration was a government program originally created during the Great Depression to employ Americans at a time when jobs were hard to find
Artists, writers, musicians, and others contributed to American culture and infrastructure by applying their skills, first in support of rebuilding America and then, during World War II, in support of the war effort
35

Collography
Collography is created by building up (rather than cutting into) a surface
Artist glues or “collages” materials to a rigid support (e.g. wood or cardboard)
The image can then be inked and printed

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

36

Artwork: Glen Alps,
Roll-Up #2
2.3.13 Glen Alps, Roll-Up #2, 1956. Collagraph, 26¼ × 32½”

Glen Alps, Roll-Up #2
Alps is most closely associated with the development of the collagraph
Pieces of material are glued in a spontaneous way
Surface can be easily manipulated

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Glen Alps (1914–1996) was a longtime faculty member at the University of Washington in Seattle
Alps first used the term collagraph to describe the process
Although Alps did not invent the collagraphic technique, he was the first printmaker to succeed in mastering and promoting the process
38

Lithography
From the Greek for “stone writing”
A planographic process – the print
is made from an entirely flat surface
German author Alois Senefelder devised the process in 1796
Allows the artist to draw a design
in the same way they do a drawing

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

German author Alois Senefelder (1771–1834) was out of money and looking for a cheaper method to print his newest play
The complex presses used nowadays by commercial printers for producing newspapers, magazines, and brochures (“offset lithography”) use thin sheets of zinc or aluminum instead of stone, but the basic principles are the same
Contemporary artists’ lithographic prints are still made on the kind of stone used by Senefelder
39

Lithography Process
2.3.14 A brief overview of the lithography process:
The artist designs the image to be printed.
Using a grease pencil, the design is drawn onto the limestone, blocking the pores.
The stone is treated with acid and other chemicals that are brushed onto its surface. Then the surface is wiped clean with a solvent, such as kerosene.
The stone is sponged so that water can be absorbed into the pores of the stone.
Oil-based ink is repelled by the water and sits only on areas where the oil crayon image was drawn.
Paper is laid on the surface of the stone and it is drawn through a press.
The print is removed from the stone.
The completed image appears in reverse compared with the original design.

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Honoré Daumier, Rue Transnonain, April 15, 1834
2.3.15 Honoré Daumier, Rue Transnonain, April 15, 1834, 1834. Lithograph, 11½ × 17⅝”.
Metropolitan Museum, New York

Honoré Daumier, Rue Transnonain, April 15, 1834
Daumier uses the lithographic process to tell the citizens of Paris about an incident of police brutality
He worked for a monthly magazine

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Thinking that an attack had come from a residence, authorities entered and ruthlessly killed everyone inside
Honoré Daumier (1808–1879), a great critic of the French government’s treatment of workers, drew this massacre in gruesome detail
42

Portal Artwork: Toulouse-Latrec,
La Goulue at the Moulin Rouge
2.7.16 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, La Goulue at the Moulin Rouge, 1891. Lithograph in black, yellow, red, and blue on three sheets of tan wove paper, 6’2½” × 3’9⅝”. Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec used lithography for a light-hearted purpose in his poster promoting a famous Parisian destination.
43

Serigraphy
(Silkscreen Printing)
A versatile process, capable of placing ink on a wide variety of surfaces
First developed in China during the Sung Dynasty (960–1279)
Uses a stencil process

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artists value, amongst its many other virtues, serigraphy’s potential for printing strong colors
Can be used to create a large number of prints
The silkscreen itself is nowadays a fine mesh, usually made out of nylon
As the printmaker moves the squeegee over the screen, the mask prevents ink from passing through in unwanted areas
44

Artwork: Andy Warhol,
Four Marilyns
2.3.16 Andy Warhol, Four
Marilyns, 1962. Acrylic, silkscreen ink, pencil on
linen, 29 × 21½”. Sold at Phillips, New York 2014

Andy Warhol,
Four Marilyns
Warhol deliberately repeats the image to comment on the nature of mass-produced images in advertising
Emphasizes the flatness and lack
of depth in the image of Marilyn
Photographic silkscreen over aluminum paint

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

American artist Andy Warhol (1928–1987) reproduces a photo taken at the height of the actress’s career
Shows how her image has become a commodity rather than a genuine attempt to capture her individuality
The repeating “clones” of Marilyn also accentuate the degeneration that occurs when an original is copied
46

Artwork: Melanie Yazzie, Untitled
2.3.17 Melanie Yazzie, Untitled, 2016. Screen print. Mesa Contemporary Art, Arizona

Melanie Yazzie,
Untitled
Yazzie uses a spontaneous and expressive approach to her work
Explores her Navajo heritage and the human condition
Multi-layered work with two images; the second is superimposed over the first layer

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Navajo printmaker Melanie Yazzie (b. 1966)
Yazzie’s spontaneous approach to the screen-printing process contrasts with the well-planned methods that most printmaking demands
She uses an impulsive approach to express the human condition combined with an intimate view of her people’s history
The energetic character of her work projects an optimistic vision of the future, in contrast to the past hardships imposed on indigenous people
48

Editions
Prints are produced in limited numbers of identical impressions, called editions
Each print in the edition is assigned a number in the production sequence
Although they could create more, most artists decide to print a set number of prints: a limited edition

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The printmaker has the ethical responsibility for making sure each print is similar enough to the others so that each person who buys a print has a high-quality image
A print marked 2/25 is the second print in an edition of twenty-five
Artist’s proofs (A/P) are used by the printmaker to check the quality of the process
Destroying the plates protects the integrity of the edition, making each print rarer and therefore more valuable
49

Monotypes and Monoprints
These print techniques enable an artist to produce a one-of-a-kind image
A monotype image prints from a polished plate (e.g. glass or metal)
Monoprints can be made using any print process

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Hedda Sterne, Untitled (Machine Series)
2.3.18 Hedda Sterne, Untitled (Machine Series), 1949. Trace monotype, design 12 × 16⅜”.
Harvard Art Museums, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Hedda Sterne, Untitled (Machine Series)
Sole woman in a group of abstract painters called the Irascibles
Although abstract, her monotype makes associations with architectural and mechanical images
Probably employed a straightedge to maintain the regularity of line

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Hedda Sterne (1910–2011).
52

Artwork: Kathy Strauss, Kepler Underneath 1
2.3.19 Kathy Strauss, Kepler Underneath 1, 2007. Monotype over India-inked calculations, Somerset velvet paper, each panel
30 × 23″. Collection of the artist

Kathy Strauss,
Kepler Underneath 1
Strauss first utilized the intaglio process to incise and ink calculus problems in a metal plate
She then painted the Milky Way in ink directly onto the same plate by hand
The result can never be re-created exactly in a second print

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Kathy Strauss’s (b. 1956) monoprint Kepler Underneath 1 painstakingly depicts the Milky Way Galaxy.
54

Print Shops and Digital Reproduction Services
Printmakers sometimes rely on the technical expertise of craftsmen
Print shops work with the artist to find the right paper, surface appearance, and archival qualities
Some shops provide digital reproductions of the original work

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

For example, Printmakers Chicago is a commercial printing service that works with artists and other creative professionals to re-create original imagery
They also provide digital reproductions that replicate the character of the original work, be it a print, painting, or other two-dimensional piece
55

Drying racks at
Skyline Art Editions
2.3.20 Drying racks at Skyline Art Editions, Austin, Texas

Contemporary Directions
in Printmaking
Freedom of expression and new technologies have inspired printmakers to innovate
Much of the innovation rises out of collaborative print shops redefined the nature of printmaking

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

57

Artwork: Rufino Tamayo, Perro de Luna
2.3.21 Rufino Tamayo, Perro de Luna, 1973. Mixograph, edition of 100, 22¼ x 30¼”

Rufino Tamayo,
Perro de Luna
This work was printed on heavily textured hand-made paper
Pushed the boundaries of printmaking beyond a flat surface
Relief surface

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

• Mixografia®, founded in Mexico City by Luis Remba (b. 1932) as Taller de Gráfica Mexicana (TGM), was early innovative print shop that worked with Mexican artists
• Tamayo integrated paper pulp into the process calling it the Mixografia® printing technique
• Moved to Los Angeles in 1984
59

Artwork: Ilana Raviv,
Doll with Toys
2.3.22 Ilana Raviv (Oppenheim), Doll with Toys, 2003. Acrylic on canvas, 29 x 37″

Ilana Raviv,
Doll with Toys
Raviv reproduces her original work for commercial distribution using
the giclée print process
The color permanence and
resolution of this method insures
a lasting piece of art
Encapsulates her gestural style

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

• In the 1980s the introduction of computer graphics introduced new possibilities for artists
• Inkjet printers made it possible for artists to create a fixed image and by the 1990s high-resolution permanent prints became possible
• Jack Duganne (b. 1942) introduced the giclée print process and now runs his own print shop Duganne Atelier
• Israeli artist Ilana Raviv (b. 1945), works in a number of different media
61

Artwork: Kurt Dyrhaug, Unterschieden Tonka
2.3.23 Kurt Dyrhaug, Unterschieden Tonka, 2017. Three-dimensional print,
metal coating, and acrylic paint, 7 × 3 × 3″.
Museo de Arte Contemporano Costa da Morte, Corme, Spain

Kurt Dyrhaug, Unterschieden Tonka
Dyrhaug is an American sculptor
His original computer graphic design is used to create this three-dimensional print
Uses an iron metal coating on the finished print, then applied acrylic paint for textural and surface finish

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

• American sculptor Kurt Dyrhaug (b. 1966)
• The introduction of 3-D modeling software and printers brought a new dimension to printmaking
• 3-D modeling software allows an artist to “draw” a three-dimensional object on a computer
• 3-D printers use a glue-like liquid that is systematically printed in a series of printed layers until the object is created
63

Printmaking
(Media/Processes)

Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.3 Printmaking
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Chapter 2.3 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 2.3

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

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PART 2
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Chapter 2.3 Printmaking

Picture Credits for Chapter 2.3
2.3.1 Ralph Larmann
2.3.2 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Junius Spencer Morgan, 1919, 19.73.209
2.3.3 British Museum, London
2.3.4 Museum of Modern Art, New York. Given anonymously (by exchange), 119.1956. Photo 2012, Museum of Modern Art, New York/Scala, Florence. © Nolde Stiftung Seebüll
2.3.5 Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Prints & Photographs Division, H. Irving Olds collection, LC-DIG-jpd-02018
2.3.6 Courtesy Stanley Donwood/TAG Fine Arts
2.3.7 Ralph Larmann
2.3.8 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Fletcher Fund, 1919, 19.73.1
2.3.9 © DACS 2018
2.3.10 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Mr. and Mrs. De Bruijn-van der Leeuw Bequest, Muri, Switzerland
2.3.11 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1935, 35.42
2.3.12 Print and Picture Collection, Free Library of Philadelphia. Courtesy Fine Arts Program, Public Buildings Service, U.S. General Services Administration. Commissioned through the New Deal art projects
2.3.13 Courtesy Martin-Zambito Fine Art, Seattle
2.3.14 Ralph Larmann
2.3.15 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1920, 20.23
2.3.16 Photo Courtesy Phillips Auctioneers. © 2018 The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc./Licensed by DACS, London
2.3.17 Collection the artist, © Melanie Yazzie
2.3.18 Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Art Museums, Margaret Fisher Fund, M25276. Photo Imaging Department © President & Fellows of Harvard College. © ARS, NY and DACS, London 2018
2.3.19 © Kathy Strauss 2007
2.3.20 Photo courtesy Skyline Printing LLC, Austin, Texas

PowerPoints developed by CreativeMyndz Multimedia Studios
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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.3 (contd.)
2.3.21 Photo courtesy Denis Bloch Fine Art, Los Angeles. © D.R. Rufino Tamayo/Herederos/México/Fundación Olga y Rufino Tamayo, A.C. 2018
2.3.22 © Ilana Raviv (Oppenheim), www.ravivart.com. All rights reserved
2.3.23 Museo de Arte Contemporano Costa da Morte, Corme. Courtesy Kurt Durhaug
 

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PART 2
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Chapter

2

.

4

Sculpture

PART 2

MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

Introduction

Sculptures can be made from many materials: e.g. glass, wax, ice, plastic, neon lights, animals

Sculptures exist in three dimensions and occupy physical space

We can walk around them or become immersed in an environment

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Chapter 2.4 Sculpture

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Sculptors’ methods today still include chiseling (as Michelangelo did), carving, molding, assembling, and constructing

Inventive sculptors are finding new ways to create their art, and new materials to make it with

2

Approaches to Three Dimensions in Sculpture

Sculpture can be freestanding: sculpture in the round

Relief is a type of sculpture specifically designed for viewing from one side

The image in a relief either protrudes from or is sunk into a surface

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3

Freestanding Sculpture

An approach to sculpture that invites us to examine a work on all sides is known as freestanding, or sculpture in the round

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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4

Artwork: Sculpture of the Lady Sennuwy

2.4.1 Sculpture of the Lady Sennuwy, 1971–1926 BCE. Granite, 67 × 45¾ × 18”. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts

Sculpture of the
Lady Sennuwy
This freestanding sculpture is designed to be seen from the front
We can get a sense of the original block of granite
Egyptian figure sculptures often sit very straight and upright, with arms and legs close to the body

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Lady Sennuwy was the wife of a very powerful governor of an Egyptian province.
6

Artwork: Giambologna,
Rape of a Sabine
2.4.2a and 2.4.2b Giambologna, Rape of a Sabine, 1582. Gesso, height 13’8”. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence, Italy

7

Giambologna,
Rape of a Sabine
This work forms a spiral that draws the viewer around its changing planes
A piece of political propaganda that
re-creates an ancient story about the foundation of Rome
Announces that, like Rome, Florence had risen to become a powerful force

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Giambologna (1529–1608), a Flemish artist working in Florence, Italy, designed the Rape of a Sabine at the request of Florence’s ruler, Francesco de’ Medici
The foundation of Rome happened around 753 bce
Most of the early founders of Rome were male; for the city to grow, the Romans needed wives
They solved this problem by inviting their neighbors the Sabines to a festival, during which the Romans seized the Sabine women and forced them to marry
This story symbolized the ability of a small community to become the most powerful city in Italy—as Rome was by Giambologna’s time
8

Bas-Relief and High Relief
In bas-relief (bas means “low” in French) the sculptor’s marks are shallow
When a sculptor chooses to carve more deeply, he or she is working in high relief

PART 2
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Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Artwork: Dying Lioness
2.4.3 Dying Lioness, limestone relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh, Assyrian period, c. 650 BCE. British Museum, London, England

10

Dying Lioness
This relief was found in the North Palace of King Ashurbanipal in Mesopotamia
Assyrian kings ruled over a large territory and had powerful armies
Intended to reflect the great strength and bravery of the king as he hunted and killed the fearsome beast

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Found in the ancient city of Nineveh in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).
11

Artwork: Susan Durant, Memorial to King Leopold of the Belgians
2.4.4 Susan Durant, Memorial to King Leopold of the Belgians, 1867, in Christ Church, Esher, England

12

Susan Durant, Memorial
to King Leopold […]
Durant’s relief commemorates the death of Belgium’s first king
The king and lion (representing power and bravery) are sculpted in high relief
They protrude more deeply than the angels, carved in low relief

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Susan Durant (1827–1873) was unusual in being a successful sculptor at a time when it was not easy for women to break into such a profession
She was in demand for her portraits, which included a bust of Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of the anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Durant became a favorite sculptor to the British royal family, and her memorial to King Leopold I was originally installed in his niece Queen Victoria’s chapel at Windsor Castle in 1867 but was moved to Christ Church, Esher, in 1879
13

Artwork: Maya Lintel showing Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc
2.4.5 Maya lintel showing Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, c. 725 CE. Limestone, 43 × 30¾ × 2⅜”. British Museum, London, England

Maya Lintel: Varying Degrees of Relief for Emphasis
This lintel is carved in high relief
Emphasis of major shapes is created by carving deeper into the stone
Series of glyphs caption the work
Use of different degrees of relief contributes to the image’s realism

Gateway to Art:
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Probably chiseled using stone hammers and wooden drills
Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc reigned from 681-742 CE
Glyphs make up an elaborate written language
15

Michelangelo, Prisoner
2.4.6 Michelangelo, Prisoner, known as the Awakening Slave, 1519–20. Marble, height 8’9⅛”. Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence, Italy

Artwork: Michelangelo, Separation of Light and Darkness
2.4.7 Michelangelo, Separation of Light and Darkness, 1508–12,
detail of the vault, Sistine
Chapel, Vatican City, Italy

17

Artwork: Michelangelo, Tomb of Julius II
2.4.8 Michelangelo, Tomb of Julius II, detail of Moses, 1513–16. Marble, height 7’8½”. San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, Italy

Michelangelo
Michelangelo had a unique mastery of freeing the figure from the stone
He believed sculpture was the finest, most challenging of all the visual arts
Wanted to finish the Sistine Chapel quickly and return to sculptures for the tomb of Pope Julius II

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) used an unconventional technique to “release” the figure, as he saw it, from the stone
His unfinished sculpture, Awakening Slave, gives an insight into the artist’s technique
Michelangelo also excelled in architecture and painting, yet he saw these arts through the eyes of a sculptor
The tomb of Pope Julius II was never completed in the way that Michelangelo intended, but some finished sculptures survive, such as Moses
The figures in the Sistine Chapel ceiling have the appearance of mass, leading some to believe they are looking at sculptures rather than a painting
19

Methods of Sculpture
Subtractive: a sculptor uses a tool to carve, drill, chisel, chip, whittle, or saw away unwanted material
Additive: processes of modeling, casting, or constructing in which sculptors add material to make the final artwork

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Videos about Sculpture
(Media/Processes)
Additive Sculpture
(Media/Processes)
Subtractive Sculpture

Video:
Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Carving
The most ancient works of art that still exist were made using subtractive methods
Most were made of stone or ivory
Worked by chipping, carving, sanding, and polishing

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Artwork: Figure of the war god Ku-ka’ili-moku
2.4.9 Figure of the war god Ku-ka’ili-moku, Hawaii, 18th or 19th century. Wood, height 8’11”. British Museum, London, England

Figure of the war god
Ku-ka’ili-moku
This figure of the Hawaiian war god Ku-ka’ili-moku is carved from larger pieces of wood
A second god, Lono, is symbolized in the figure’s hair
Originally created for the powerful King Kamehameha I

PART 2
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This figure of the Hawaiian war god Ku-ka’ili-moku is nearly nine-foot tall
War god’s name translates as “Ku, the land-grabber”
Exhibits an open mouth (a disrespectful gesture) and was probably intended to gain divine favor
The second god, Lono (god of prosperity) is symbolized by pigs’ heads in Ku’s hair
The combination of the two gods may have represented Kamehameha’s invasions and conquests of adjacent kingdoms
24

Portal Artwork: Henry Moore, Recumbent Figure
4.9.15 Henry Moore, Recumbent Figure, 1938. Green Hornton stone, 35 × 52¼ × 29”. Tate, London, England

Carving is not limited to the ancient world. Twentieth-century sculptor Henry Moore also carved large stone sculptures, such as Recumbent Figure.
25

Artwork: Borglum, Mount Rushmore National Memorial
2.4.10 John G. de la Mothe Borglum, Mount Rushmore National Memorial, 1927–41. Keystone, South Dakota

Borglum,
Mount Rushmore
National Memorial
Mt. Rushmore is one of largest and most famous sculpted portraits
Borglum searched for a mountain with the right kind of carving stone
Mostly carved by miners using dynamite
Image of four US Presidents

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

John G. de la Mothe Borglum (1867-1941) was the son of Danish Mormon immigrants
Project was originally conceived by Doane Robinson, who was the superintendent of the South Dakota State Historical Society
Robinson envisioned images of Chief Red Cloud, Buffalo Bill Cody, Lewis and Clark
27

Modeling
Modeling is an additive process; the artist builds up the work by adding material
Some materials, such as clay or wax, require a temporary skeletal structure for support, called an armature
When clay is dried and fired in a kiln, it becomes very hard and durable

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Many works from antiquity made from clay still exist.
28

Artwork: Sarcophagus
from Cerveteri
2.4.11 Sarcophagus from Cerveteri, c. 520 BCE. Painted terra-cotta, 3’9½” × 6’7”. Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome, Italy

Sarcophagus from Cerveteri
Four separate terra-cotta pieces make up this sarcophagus, which contains the ashes of the deceased
The couple are relaxed, enjoying themselves at an Etruscan banquet
Tells us that women actively participated in social occasions

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Terra-cotta is baked clay
The expressions are stylized and not a likeness of the deceased
Since this sculpture is part of a tomb, it suggests that celebrations took place upon the death of loved ones, although the figures’ joyful expressions may simply indicate the deceased in an eternal state of happiness
30

Casting
This process involves adding a liquid or pliable material to a mold
First, a model of the final sculpture is made; this is used to make a mold into which a casting liquid is poured
When it hardens, the result is a detailed replica of the original model

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
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Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Riace Warrior A
2.4.12 Riace Warrior A, c. 460 BCE. Bronze with copper, silver, and ivory, height 6’6”. Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, Reggio di Calabria, Italy

Riace Warrior A
This sculpture is a fine example of the lost-wax method of casting in bronze (copper and tin)
Discovered in 1972 by scuba divers off the coast at Riace, Italy
Made when the Greeks emphasized the perfection of the human body
Posed in relaxed contrapposto

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
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Bronze is an alloy, or mixture, of copper and tin; it melts at a relatively low temperature (an average of 1,750ºF)
Once formed and cooled it is light (compared to stone) and durable
Contrapposto (Italian for “opposite”) is a pose that uses the natural curvature of the body to enliven the design
By shifting the weight to the right leg, the hips are set at a slight angle, which is countered by small shifts in the shoulders, with the head fractionally tilted
May have been cast to celebrate the victory of the Athenians over the invading Persians
33

Lost-wax Casting Process
2.4.13 Seven steps in the lost-wax casting process

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Lost-wax casting process
The artist begins by building an armature (1)
Then the artist adds clay to it to create the form (2)
A thick layer of wax is added to the armature, and any detail the sculptor wishes to see in the final work is carved into the wax (3)
Clay, sand, and ground-up pieces of old molds are used to cover the surface of the wax form, preserving all the detail. This hard coating, which needs to be strong enough to bear the heat and weight of the metal until it cools, will be the mold (4)
Small holes are drilled in the bottom of the mold, which is then placed in a kiln. In the oven, the wax melts out through the holes in the bottom of the mold, leaving a hollow space inside the mold (5)
Immediately after the mold has been removed from the kiln, very hot molten metal—in this case, bronze—is poured into it (6)
When the metal has cooled, the mold is removed (usually by breaking it with a hammer) to reveal the work—which is still not finished (7)
The artist cuts off any extra metal, then sands and polishes
Over time, exposure to the elements can add surface color, called a patina, to bronze sculpture
Lost-wax casting is called a substitution process because the molten metal takes the place of the wax
Other materials, such as foam or wood, are occasionally used as substitution materials instead of wax, because they can be burnt out of the mold
34

Principal Materials
of Sculpture
Marble (Metamorphic Stone)
Hardwood (Wood)
Plaster (Sulfate of lime)
Ceramic (Clay)
Beeswax (Wax)
Bronze (Metal)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Marble (Metamorphic Stone)
The sculptor can subtract material from the block until it has been reduced to the intended final shape
Finishing can be done by sanding and polishing
Tools: Chisels, files, sandpaper, polishing cloths
Hardwood (Wood)
The sculptor can subtract through carving and sawing or construct by gluing or nailing
Finishing can be done by sanding, polishing, oiling, and then varnishing
Tools: Chisels, wood rasps, sandpaper, penetrating oils, varnish
Plaster (Sulfate of lime)
The sculptor can cast the form or carve a cast block
Finishing is done by sanding
Plaster is sometimes used as a preliminary form if casting clay
Tools: Chisels, files, sandpaper
Ceramic (Clay)
The sculptor can model this pliable material into any shape, or cast it in a mold
Finishing can be done by drying, heating in a kiln, then adding a clay and chemical compound before re-firing to achieve a glaze
Tools: Wire, smoothing tools (like a thin rounded piece of flexible metal called a rib), kiln
Beeswax (Wax)
The sculptor can model this pliable material or make a cast using the material in liquid form
Finishing is achieved by heating the surface and polishing
Wax is sometimes used as the preliminary form for bronze casting
Tools: Carving tools, heated surface (like a griddle), heat gun
Bronze (Metal)
The sculptor can cast molten bronze, weld pieces together using a torch, or hammer, usually with some heat, until it reaches the desired form
Finishing is done by adding a chemical compound to the surface to stabilize oxidation
Tools: Hammers, furnace, welding torches, grinders, sandpaper
35

Pushing beyond
Traditional Methods
Artists have found other ways to enliven sculpture that go beyond conventional additive and subtractive techniques
Earthworks, construction, assemblage, readymades, kinetic and light sculptures, and installation

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Earthworks
This type of art uses the surface
of the Earth as material
Because of their enormous size, earthworks need the collaboration of many artists and workers
Many believe earthworks should represent a sense of harmony between nature and humanity

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Today, earthwork projects are obliged to have permits and community approval, and to involve large groups of workers and heavy equipment
Artists do not earn money from their artworks, but create them as a service to the community
37

Land Art
(History/Themes)

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Artwork: Great Serpent Mound
2.4.15 Great Serpent Mound, c. 800 BCE–100 CE, 1330 × 3’, Locust Grove, Adams County, Ohio

Great Serpent Mound
Prehistoric artists heaped piles of earth to “sculpt” this work onto the Ohio landscape
Resembles a snake with its mouth open, ingesting an egg
Position and alignment suggest that it was used in making solar observations

PART 2
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The identity of the people who created it is still debated
The head of the serpent and the egg are aligned to the position of the setting sun on the summer solstice (the longest day of the year)
40

Artwork: Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty
2.4.16 Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, 1969–70. Black rock, salt crystals, and earth, diameter 160’, coil length 1500 × 15’.
Great Salt Lake, Utah

Robert Smithson,
Spiral Jetty
In the 1960s, artists again became interested in earthworks
The spiral is a shape naturally found in shells, crystals, and even galaxies
The artwork is not static – it constantly evolves as it interacts
with nature

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The best-known modern earthwork is Robert Smithson’s (1938–1973) Spiral Jetty in the Great Salt Lake in Utah
The coiled artwork was made using 6,550 tons of rock and dirt, sourced from dump trucks, to pave a spiraling roadbed out into the salt lake
The artwork drowns and then rises with a new encrustation of salt crystals
42

Construction
Uses a variety of methods to create and put together components
Idea is relatively new; proliferated with the growth of engineered materials, such as plastic and
sheet metal
Soviet Constructivists created an entire movement based on these techniques

PART 2
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Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Constructivists considered art to be a scientific investigation of the social needs of the time
Their sculptural construction techniques were associated more with a factory than with an art studio
43

Artwork: Naum Gabo, Constructed Head No. 2
2.4.17 Naum Gabo, Constructed Head No. 2, 1916. Cor-ten steel, 69 × 52¾ × 48¼”. Tate, London, England

Naum Gabo,
Constructed Head No. 2
The Constructivist artist Gabo investigates the sense of space and form implied by flat planes
More interested in showing interior construction than the exterior surface
Welded the intersecting planes of metal together

PART 2
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Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
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Soviet Constructivist Naum Gabo (b. Naum Neemia Pevsner, 1890–1977), had studied physics, mathematics, and engineering.
45

Artwork: Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living
2.4.18 Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, 1991. Glass, painted steel, silicone, monofilament, shark, and formaldehyde solution, 7’1½” × 17’9⅜” × 5’10⅞”

Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living
A large tank of formaldehyde holds
a suspended dead shark
Hirst is known for creating unusual sculptural objects that contrast life and death

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Contemporary artists have adopted modern-day industrial techniques and unconventional materials to create their sculptures, challenging traditional notions of what sculptures can be
British artist Damien Hirst (b. 1965) did not construct the shark; he had it caught by fishermen
47

Assemblage
The practice of gathering objects and fabricating them into a work
of art is called assemblage
The gathered objects (called found objects) are repurposed so that they support the visual ideas of
the artist

PART 2
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48

Artwork: Betye Saar, The
Liberation of Aunt Jemima
2.4.19 Betye Saar, The
Liberation of Aunt Jemima,
1972. Mixed media assemblage, 11 ¾ × 8 × 2¾”. Collection University of California, Berkeley Art Museum, California

49

Betye Saar, The Liberation of Aunt Jemima
Saar collected a variety of found objects, such as cotton, syrup labels, and a stereotypical “Mammy” doll
Explores themes of identity: her art examines the survival of African traditions in black culture
Challenges stereotypes

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Contemporary African-American artist Betye Saar (b. 1926)
The objects symbolize the relics and memorabilia of both personal and societal history as it relates to issues of gender and race
These pieces represent influences that were important to traditional African groups
50

Readymades
This artistic approach was pioneered by Marcel Duchamp as a way of challenging traditional ideas
He argued that when chosen and presented by an artist, any found object can become a work of art
Appropriation: the object is altered
in a way that changes its original meaning or purpose

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

For French artist Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968) the act of discovery (or of conceiving the artwork) was the most important part of the artist’s process
Appropriation: the deliberate incorporation in an artwork of material originally created by other artists
Creates endless possibilities for artists to redefine art and helps us see things differently
51

Artwork: Pablo Picasso, Bull’s Head
2.4.20 Pablo Picasso, Bull’s Head, 1942. Assemblage of bicycle seat and handlebars,
13¼ × 17⅛ × 7½”. Musée Picasso, Paris, France

Pablo Picasso,
Bull’s Head
This readymade work by Picasso combined the handlebars and the seat of a bicycle
They resemble a bull’s head, yet they are also recognizable as bicycle parts
His intent was both a serious and a humorous attempt to redefine art

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) was following in the footsteps of the French artist Marcel Duchamp.
53

Kinetic and Light Sculpture
Sculpture that moves is called kinetic sculpture
These moving and lighted works rely on mechanical engineering as well as the creative input of the artist

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Sculptors who work with movement and light express their ideas in ways that would not have been possible just a century or two ago.
54

Artwork: George Rickey, Breaking Column
2.4.21 George Rickey, Breaking Column, 1986 (completed by the artist’s estate, 2009). Stainless steel, 9’11⅜” × 5½”. Contemporary Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii

George Rickey,
Breaking Column
Carefully balanced so that it can pivot in a variety of directions
Provides an infinite number of constantly changing views
Moved by the slightest current of air; also has a motor, and moves even when there is no wind

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

American artist George Rickey (1907–2002).
56

Artwork: László Moholy-Nagy, Light Prop for an Electric Stage
2.4.22 László Moholy-Nagy, Light Prop for an Electric Stage, 1929–30. Exhibition replica, constructed 2006, through the courtesy of Hattula Moholy-Nagy. Metal, plastics, glass, paint, and wood, with electric motor, 59½ × 27⅝ × 27⅝”. Harvard Art Museums, Busch-Reisinger Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts

László Moholy-Nagy, Light Prop for an Electric Stage
Initially created as a stage lighting device, it became the main character in a film by the artist
A motor moves a series of perforated discs that cross in front of a light
These changes in lighting influence the surrounding environment

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Hungarian László Moholy-Nagy (1895–1946) was one of the first artists to merge movement, lighting, and performance into a single work
He was interested in the work of the Constructivists and wanted to incorporate technology into his art
Through the use of light an artist can change how a viewer perceives a three-dimensional space
58

Installations
Involve the construction of a space or the assembly of objects to create an environment
The audience is encouraged to experience the work physically using all of the senses, and perhaps by entering the work itself

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Athena Tacha,
Star Fountain
2.4.23 Athena Tacha in collaboration with EDAW of Alexandria, Virginia, Star Fountain (night view), 2009. Sandstone, cast stone, granite, brick, glass, animated RGB-LEDs. Muhammad Ali Plaza, Louisville, Kentucky

Athena Tacha,
Star Fountain
Tacha’s vertical glass columns are organized into a spiraling shape
Colors change over a four-minute time span
Movement in the work recalls the action of dance, as the rhythms of the installation flow in graceful patterns

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

An installation work by the Greek-born artist Athena Tacha (b. 1936) deals with action
The reflecting water and the adjacent work, Dancing Steps (also by Tacha) enliven the surrounding plaza
61

Artwork: Antony Gormley, Asian Field
2.4.24a Antony Gormley, Asian Field, work in progress, 2003. Clay from Guangdong Province, China.
Hand-sized clay elements made in collaboration with people from Xiangshan village. Xiangshan, China

Installation view of Asian Field
2.4.24b Antony Gormley, Asian Field, 2003.
210,000 hand-sized clay elements, installation view, warehouse of former Shanghai No. 10 Steelworks, China

Antony Gormley, Asian Field
Gormley handed out balls of clay and instructed participants to form an image of their own bodies
“They are simply lived moments made into matter”
“My work is at its best when inserted into the stream of everyday life”

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Perspectives on Art:
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Antony Gormley (b. 1950) is a British sculptor whose work is concerned with the human form. He developed the vast installation, Asian Field (1991–2003), as an art project beginning in 1983.
“The figures in my work are not portraits, they are corpographs: a three-dimensional equivalent of a photograph but which is left as a negative, as a void.”
64

Sculpture Videos
For more great sculpture made with a range of processes and for a variety of locations and functions, watch:
(History/Themes)
Ancient Rome: Capital of an Empire
(History/Themes)
Gianlorenzo Bernini:
The Ecstasy of St. Teresa

Video:
Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Sculpture Videos (contd.)
(History/Themes)
The Master Sculptors of Benin and Ife
(History/Themes)
Memorial and Controversy:
Maya Lin’s Vietnam Veterans Memorial

Video:
Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

MoMA Videos
To learn more about sculpture, watch these videos of MoMA lecturers talking about sculptures in the
MoMA collection:
Constantin Brancusi
Umberto Boccioni,
Unique Forms of Continuity in Space
Dynamism of a Soccer Player

MoMA Video
MoMA Video
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

MoMA Videos (contd.)
Donald Judd,
Untitled (Stack)
Marcel Duchamp,
Bicycle Wheel

MoMA Video
MoMA Video
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.4 Sculpture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Chapter 2.4 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 2.4

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

PowerPoints developed by CreativeMyndz Multimedia Studios
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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.4
2.4.1 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts/Harvard University – Museum of Fine Arts Expedition/Bridgeman Art Library
2.4.2a Ex S.S.P.S.A.E e per il Polo Museale della città di Firenze – Gabinetto Fotografico
2.4.2b Ex S.S.P.S.A.E e per il Polo Museale della città di Firenze – Gabinetto Fotografico
2.4.3 British Museum, London
2.4.4 Photograph Jacqueline Banerjee, Associate Editor of the Victorian Web www.victorianweb.org
2.4.5 Photo Trustees of the British Museum, London
2.4.6 Photo Scala, Florence, courtesy Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali
2.4.7 Photo 1998/Mondadori Portfolio/akg-images
2.4.8 Photo Scala, Florence, courtesy Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali
2.4.9 Photo Trustees of the British Museum, London
2.4.10 Photo © Lynn Bystrom/123RF.com
2.4.11 Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome
2.4.12 Nimatallah/akg-images
2.4.13 Ralph Larmann
2.4.14 top to bottom: © nagelestock.com/Alamy; Photo courtesy Andrew Early; The New York Historical Society, New York City; Museo del Templo Mayor, Mexico City, CONACULTA- INAH, 10-220302; Undercroft Museum, Westminster Abbey, London; © The Estate of Alberto Giacometti (Fondation Annette et Alberto Giacometti, Paris and ADAGP, Paris), licensed in the UK by ACS and DACS, London 2018
2.4.15 © Richard A. Cooke/Corbis
2.4.16 Photo Tom Smart
2.4.17 Photo Tate, London 2012. The works of Naum Gabo © Nina Williams
2.4.18 Photographed by Prudence Cuming Associates. © Damien Hirst and Science Ltd. All rights reserved, DACS 2018
2.4.19 Collection University of California, Berkeley Art Museum; purchased with the aid of funds from
the National Endowment for the Arts (selected by The Committee for the Acquisition of Afro-American Art). Photograph Joshua Nefsky. Courtesy Michael Rosenfeld Gallery LLC, New York

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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.4 (contd.)
2.4.20 © Succession Picasso/DACS, London 2018
2.4.21 Photo Mark Pollock/Estate of George Rickey. © Estate of George Rickey/DACS, London/VAGA, New York 2018
2.4.22 Harvard Art Museums, Busch-Reisinger Museum, Hildegard von Gontard Bequest Fund, 2007.105. Photo Junius Beebe, President & Fellows of Harvard College
2.4.23 Commissioned by Parking Authority of River City, Louisville; glass fabrication by AGA of Louisville; fountain consulting by Waterline Fountains of Austin, TX; RGB animation by Color Kinetics of Boston. Photo Richard E. Spear. © Athena Tacha
2.4.24a Photograph by Zhang Haier
2.4.24b Photo Dai Wei, Shanghai © the artist
 

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Chapter

2

.5
Architecture

PART 2

MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

Introduction

Architecture is three-dimensional design that surrounds and influences us

Connects us to our history

Suggests feelings of permanence

Produced by architect, interior designer, and landscape architect

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Chapter 2.5 Architecture

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Buildings inevitably have an effect on people who see or enter them, whether or not they are aware of this

Thoughtful design reflects a building’s function and its intended role in the community

The architect is the master planner who creates a building’s overall design

Sometimes an interior designer is responsible for making the space inside appropriate for the building’s intended use

A landscape architect may be employed to organize the outdoor spaces around the building

2

Structure, Function, and Form

Architectural engineers work
to create a balance between tension and compression (push equals pull)

Each building material resists compression or tension differently

If balanced correctly, a building can stand for thousands of years

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

An architect collects information about the planned location of the building, its place in the community, and its purpose

An architect also selects the appropriate building techniques and decides which materials are needed to construct it

Structural integrity dictates some of the design decisions

For example, wood-frame buildings may require waterproof external cladding to protect the timber from damp and rot

The location, or site, influences the design

Artists must consider the availability and cost of building materials

3

Artwork: Süleymaniye mosque

2.5.1 Sinan, Süleymaniye

mosque, 1557, Istanbul, Turkey

Süleymaniye mosque
Designed by Turkish architect Sinan
Elaborate architectural space includes dome and half-domes
Perfectly balanced, enduring design (more than 500 years old)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The Turkish architect Sinan (1489–1588) was chief architect to the Ottoman court under Sultan Süleyman, who commissioned him to design the magnificent Süleimaniye mosque in Istanbul.
5

Artwork: Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center
2.5.2 Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center, 2006

Fumihiko Maki, Sketch of Four World Trade Center
Maki’s complicated buildings begin from the simplicity of drawing
Design for the New World Trade Center in New York City
Shows how his building will fit in with other buildings by continuing a spiral design

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Fumihiko Maki (b. 1928).
7

Artwork: Taos Pueblo
2.5.3 Taos Pueblo, New Mexico, pre-1500

Taos Pueblo
In successful architectural work, the structure reflects the community
Buildings made of adobe brick
Character derives from the available materials (sand and clay)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: SoHo lofts
2.5.4 SoHo lofts, New York City

SoHo lofts
People have admired the coherent composition of the forms of New York City’s skyscrapers and other types of buildings
Resembles a Cubist painting

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Ancient Construction
Ancient cultures derived their building materials from the earth
Stone, wood, and clay must be modified for use in construction
These raw materials can result in architecture that transcends time

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Basic Load-Bearing Construction
This form of construction follows the direct process of piling one stone or brick on top of another
Massive load-bearing works have been built throughout history

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Temple I in
the Great Plaza
2.5.5 Temple I in the Great Plaza, Maya, c. 300–900 CE, Tikal, Guatemala

Temple I in the
Great Plaza
This is one of hundreds of pyramids found in the Guatemalan rain forest
Maya pyramids served as platforms
for temples
A carefully organized stack of stones
Required sophisticated engineering and mathematical skills to construct

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

15

Diagram of Maya pyramid
2.5.6 Basic load-bearing architecture: Maya pyramid

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

16

Post-and-Lintel Construction
To create an interior space, an architect must create a span, or
a distance between two supports
In basic post-and-lintel construction the lintel rests on
top of two posts

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Diagram of Post-and-lintel construction
2.5.7 Post-and-lintel construction

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Artwork: Great Court at Temple of Amun-Re
2.5.8 Great Court at Temple of Amun-Re, Middle Kingdom, c. 950–730 BCE, Karnak, Egypt

Great Court at Temple
of Amun-Re
Hypostyle hall, a room created by using a series of columns to support a flat ceiling
Used by Egyptian priests for rituals
to worship the god Amun-Re
One of the largest religious structures in the world

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Ancient Egyptian architects built the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak by placing a series of post-and-lintel spans side by side to create a spacious interior.
20

2.5.9 Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike, c. 421–415 BCE, Acropolis, Athens, Greece
Artwork: Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike

Kallikrates, Temple of Athena Nike
This ancient Greek temple was built using post-and-lintel construction
The architects must have been aware of similar majestic structures in the Nile Valley
Ancient Greek architects adapted the systems invented by the Egyptians

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

This ancient Greek temple was designed by Kallikrates
Uses thin variant of the Ionic column
The ancient Greeks made a lasting impact on Western traditions in architectural style
Adopted by the Romans
Influenced Renaissance and Baroque
Revived in the 18th century to celebrate the rise of democracy (in the US and France)

22

2.5.10 Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals
Details of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals

Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian capitals
Ancient Greek architects standardized the basic column, an essential point of compression to support the weight of a building
Column: capital, shaft, and base
Orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian

PART 2
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The Doric order is characterized by a simple, round “pillow” capital, a wide, heavy shaft, and the original form did not have a base
The Ionic order is capped with a scroll-like shape called a volute, and has a thin shaft and an ornate base
The Corinthian order’s showy capital is made up of two rows of acanthus leaves with four volutes that protrude out near the top; columns are thin and have an ornate base
24

Portal Artwork: Diagram of the Classical architectural orders
3.1.21 Diagram of the Classical architectural orders

The use of post-and-lintel architecture by the ancient Greeks can be seen in three distinct styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
25

The Acropolis and Parthenon of Athens

(History/Themes)
To explore further the buildings of the Acropolis complex, watch:

Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Arches in Ancient Architecture
In early architecture, lintels could not span large spaces; stone would snap under heavy pressure
Instead, architects used the arch:
Corbeled
(Babylonians, Mycenaeans)
Rounded
(perfected by the Romans)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
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27

Corbeled Arch
2.5.11 Corbeled arch

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
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The stepping inward of successive layers of stonework over the doorway allows for the compression created by the weight of the building to be directed outward through cantilevered (secured at only one end) stones, rather than downward
This reduces the pressure on the structure and allows the architect to design and span larger spaces
28

Artwork: Treasury of Atreus
2.5.12 Entrance, Treasury of Atreus, c. 1250 bce, Mycenae, Greece

29

Entrance,
Treasury of Atreus
Early Greek construction using a corbeled arch
Progressive cantilevering of stones above the lintel
Allows more light to enter the chamber

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Early inhabitants of the Greek coastline experimented with ways to open up interior spaces through the use of corbeled arches
The entrance to the Treasury of Atreus (also called the Tomb of Agamemnon), built around 1250 bce, provides a glimpse into ancient construction
30

Arch Construction
2.5.13 Arch construction

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The Romans perfected the rounded arch
More efficient way of distributing compressive stress over the whole of the structure by distributing the weight of the building outward along the entire span of the arc
Its efficiency helped the Romans span wider spaces than any previous architects had managed
31

Artwork: Pont du Gard
2.5.14 Pont du Gard, first century CE, Nîmes, France

32

Pont du Gard, Nîmes
Ancient Roman structure in southern France: an aqueduct and bridge
No mortar; stones perfectly cut
to fit
Benefitted the local community and projected Roman imperial power

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The goal of the aqueduct was to create a consistent downhill path for the water: one inch down for every thirty-three inches along
After conquering an area, the Romans often built aqueducts and roads to allow their armies to move quickly around the new territory
33

Vaults
A vault is an arch that has been extended like a long hallway to create an open space overhead
Common example: barrel vault
Can span larger areas of interior space
Important during the European Middle Ages

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Roman architects used three important architectural structures: the arch, vault, and dome.
34

Barrel Vault
2.5.15 Barrel vault

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

The most common type of vault, the barrel vault, consists of a long, semicircular arch.
35

Church of Sainte-Madeleine
2.5.16 Church of Sainte-Madeleine, 12th century.
Vézelay, France

36

Church of
Sainte-Madeleine
Romanesque church
A stop on a Christian pilgrimage route
Barrel vaults accommodated large numbers of visitors
Required thick walls; windows must be small (dreary interior)

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
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The Church of Sainte-Madeleine at Vézelay in France was a stop along the Christian pilgrimage route to the holy church Santiago de Compostela in Spain
Vaulted aisles counteract the outward pressure on the walls and support both sides of the central nave
Dark and gloomy interior spaces due to the need for thick supporting walls
37

Diagram of Gothic Architectural Features
2.5.17a Gothic architectural features

Diagram of Gothic
architectural construction
2.5.17b Gothic architectural construction, showing flying buttresses

Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, France
2.5.18 Elongated stained-glass windows and soaring rib vaults, Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, France

Abbot Suger and the Dynamics of Gothic Architecture
Abbot Suger believed worshipers:
Should be bathed in divine light
Flying buttresses allowed for large stained-glass windows
Should feel lifted up toward heaven
Pointed arches, rib vaults

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Abbot Suger (1081–1151) had the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, near Paris, France, rebuilt from its original Romanesque style to provide a much grander place for worship
The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis was the national church of France; it housed the remains of the country’s patron saint, Saint Denis, and many French kings
41

Portal Artwork:
Chartres Cathedral
3.2.25 Chartres Cathedral, completed 1260, France

More about Gothic engineering and the role of flying buttresses can be seen the exterior of Chartres Cathedral, France.
42

The Gothic Cathedral of Chartres

Video (History/Themes)
To explore further the features of Gothic architecture, watch:

Video:
PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Domes
Structurally, a dome is like an arch rotated 360 degrees on its vertical axis
Very strong structure
Can span large areas because the weight is dispersed outward toward the walls

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Most dome constructions require the support of thick walls or some other system for distributing the weight.
44

Artwork: Hagia Sophia
2.5.19 Hagia Sophia, 532–35 CE, Istanbul, Turkey

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
Byzantine structure
Impressive, enormous dome roof
Largest interior space of any cathedral for nearly 1,000 years
Illuminated by clerestory windows
Pendentives transfer the load of the circular dome to four massive pillars

PART 2
MEDIA AND PROCESSES
Chapter 2.5 Architecture
Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Abbot Suger had said he wanted his church to be more impressive than the Church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey)
The Hagia Sophia is a magnificent Byzantine (late Roman, with Eastern influences) structure that had already been standing for more than 500 years by Suger’s time
Clerestory windows: a row of windows high up in a church to admit light into the nave
Pendentive: a curving triangular surface that links a dome to a square space below
46

Portal Artwork: The Pantheon
3.1.35 Pantheon, interior view, c. 118–125 CE, Rome, Italy

The Pantheon is an iconic Roman domed building that influenced similar structures that came after it.
47

Pendentives
2.5.20 Pendentives

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Portal Artwork: Hagia Sophia
3.2.6 Hagia Sophia (exterior), 532–35 CE, Istanbul, Turkey

The Hagia Sophia is an architectural marvel that has pendentives to transition from a round dome to a square support.
49

Post-and-Beam (Wooden) Architecture
The post-and-beam construction technique has been used to build some of the world’s finest wooden architecture

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Post-and-beam architecture
2.5.21 Post-and-beam architecture

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51

Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple)
2.5.22 Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple), Kondo and pagoda, c. 7th century, Nara, Japan

Horyu-ji (Horyu Temple),
Kondo and pagoda
First temple in the complex built in 607
Example of the durability of well-constructed wooden buildings
Cross-beams and counter-beams create a series of layers supporting the roof
Enabled impressive height

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The construction of the Horyu-ji complex was the idea of the Japanese emperor Yomei, who hoped to gain spiritual favor so he could recover from illness, but died before work started
In 607 Empress Suiko and Crown Prince Shotoku fulfilled the emperor’s dying wish and built the first temple in the complex
The main building of the complex, the Kondo, is almost 61 feet long by 50 feet wide
The Goju-no-To (Five-story Pagoda) is 122 feet tall
The pagoda’s height was designed to impress rather than serve any practical purpose, since it is not possible to enter the top four floors
53

View of the Taj Mahal
2.5.23 View of the Taj Mahal from the Yamuna River, Agra, India

Taj Mahal Support Structure
2.5.24 Diagram illustrating the support structure of the Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal
Engineering Eternity
Created as a symbol of love
Masterpiece of Islamic symmetry
Built next to the Yamuna River
River levels are dropping, jeopardizing the wooden support structure

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In 1631, the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan’s third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died in childbirth
Jahan’s grief was so profound he dedicated all of his vast resources to the creation of a mausoleum complex in her honor that would endure throughout eternity
The central dome is 58 feet in diameter and 213 feet tall
Four domed chambers emanate from this central dome, balanced on an octagon-shaped platform
Four towers called minarets, each 162 feet high, frame the corners of the large structure
Because the building was so close to the river, which would rise and fall with the seasons, a clever combination of stone filler material and wooden supports was constructed to hold the foundation in place
Many fear that this building, which has so far transcended time, may not be able to survive the realities of the mortal world for ever; the marble is suffering discoloration from polluted air, and cracks are appearing on the surface
56

“The Abode of Paradise”:
The Taj Mahal

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Classical Architectural Styles
Greek and Roman architectural styles
Endured the ravages of time
Inspired Western civilization
Renaissance architects
Revived again in the mid-18th century (Neoclassicism)

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Artwork: Tempietto of
San Pietro
2.5.25 Donato Bramante,
Tempietto of San Pietro,
c. 1502. Rome, Italy

Donato Bramante,
Tempietto of San Pietro
High Renaissance architect
Built a memorial where St. Peter was believed to have been crucified
Centrally planned church in Rome
Reflects influences from ancient Roman domed structures

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One of the great architects of the High Renaissance who drew inspiration from the ancients was Donato Bramante (1444–1514)
The Tempietto (Italian for “small temple”)
Bramante, like many Renaissance architects, particularly sought to design works that used geometric shapes and forms, such as circles, spheres, and cylinders
60

Chiswick House
2.5.26 Lord Burlington, Chiswick House, 1729, Chiswick, London, England

61

Lord Burlington, Chiswick House
Neoclassicism (mid-18th century)
Reaction against opulent Baroque and Rococo styles
Gives orderly attention to simple geometric shapes and forms
Inspired by Classical styles, but also integrates contemporary elements

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One of the first expressions of Neoclassical architecture was designed by an English aristocrat named Richard Boyle, better known as Lord Burlington
His design for Chiswick House reflects an interest in the historical beginnings of Western architecture combined with the practical concerns of the 18th century (which are in evidence in the chimneys that straddle the domed central roof)
62

The Emergence of the Methods and Materials of the Modern World
In the 19th century, iron, steel, and concrete became commonly used
Architects found new ways to control tension and compression
New materials; new types of buildings

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Stick Style house
2.5.27 Stick Style house using balloon framing, Brockville, Ontario, Canada

Stick Style house
Balloon framing, invented in 1832, commonly used in the US today
Lightweight wooden frames support the structure
Fabricated using power saws
The Stick Style: decorative design, asymmetry with steep roofs

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Cast-Iron Architecture
Cast iron has been available since ancient times
Molten iron can be cast in a mold to almost any shape
It was not until the 18th century that it could be smelted in large quantities for building

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Artwork: Crystal Palace
2.5.28 Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace, 1851, London. 19th-century engraving

Joseph Paxton,
Crystal Palace
Designed for the Great Exhibition
of 1851 in London
Skeletal cast-iron structure supports glass walls and roof
Inspired other architects to work with iron, including Gustave Eiffel
Destroyed by fire in 1936

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An important example of the use of cast iron during the Industrial Revolution was the Crystal Palace, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton (1803–1865)
The building was more than a third of a mile long; it was completed in only 8 months by 2,000 men; and it used 4,500 tons of cast iron and 990,000 square feet of glass
It was eventually dismantled and reassembled in south London, where it became an exhibition center and concert hall
68

Steel-Frame Construction
Steel is a material made from iron and a small quantity of carbon
Stronger than pure iron and had even greater potential

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Wainwright Building
2.5.29 Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building, 1890–91, St. Louis, Missouri

Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building
Sullivan, the “father of Modernism”, pioneered the use of steel and the creation of skyscrapers
“Form follows function,” versatile interior space
Exterior of the building reflects the elements of a column

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Louis Sullivan (1856–1924) participated in the rebuilding of Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871
Chicago provided fertile ground for creative young architects, and Sullivan pushed the use of steel frame to new heights
Because the steel frame supports the building, and because it is mostly located at its outer edges, the space of the interior can easily be reconfigured to meet the specific needs of the user
The middle and tallest area shows strong vertical emphasis, with its projecting rectangular-section shafts and high, narrow windows.
The lower section (base) shows little ornamentation and reflects ideas of the time about the frivolous nature of ornament.
71

Neue Nationalgalerie
2.5.30 Mies van der Rohe, Neue Nationalgalerie, 1968, Berlin, Germany

Mies van der Rohe,
Neue Nationalgalerie
Mies van der Rohe: “Less is more”
Because steel frames carry the load of the building, many Modernist architects realized there was no need to use a facing material (stone, brick)
The entire side of the building could be sheathed in glass

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Adrian Smith and Bill Baker,
Burj Khalifa
2.5.31 Adrian Smith and
Bill Baker (Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill),
Burj Khalifa, 2010. Dubai,
United Arab Emirates

Burj Khalifa, Dubai
Became the tallest man-made structure when it opened in 2010
Design was derived from the spiraling minarets of Islamic architecture
Structural framing is tubular steel, making the support lighter

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Designed and built by the architecture and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill under the supervision of American architect Adrian Smith (b. 1944) and engineer Bill Baker (b. 1953).
75

Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye
2.5.32 Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, 1928–31, Poissy, France

Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater
2.5.33 Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, 1939, Bear Run, Pennsylvania

Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture:
Villa Savoye and Fallingwater
Le Corbusier (International Style)
Buildings are a “machine for living”
Inexpensive industrial materials
Strong geometry, unadorned

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Le Corbusier’s (1887–1965) Villa Savoye
The Villa Savoye in Poissy, France was completed in 1931 as a weekend residence for a family that lived in Paris during the week
Le Corbusier was a Swiss–French architect
The International Style was promoted as a universal aesthetic form that could be built in any geographical or cultural environment relatively inexpensively
Le Corbusier wanted nature to be viewed from a comfortable vantage point, and believed that buildings should be designed around the lifestyle of the occupants
78

Contrasting Ideas in Modern Architecture:
Villa Savoye and Fallingwater (contd.)
Frank Lloyd Wright believed in the organic relationship between site and building
Location, materials, design

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Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater
American architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) was commissioned to build Fallingwater in Bear Run, Pennsylvania, as a weekend getaway for the Kaufmann family
Wright placed the house right on top of a waterfall
Many of the materials collected from the surrounding countryside
The design mimics the layers in the rocks around the site, and the reinforced concrete is colored to fit in as well
79

Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum

(History/Themes)

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Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement and ground stone
It is reinforced through the use of a fibrous material or steel rods called rebars; to prevent cracking
Widespread use since the nineteenth century
Poured into a “form”

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Architects began to use reinforced concrete as a way of avoiding the hard, right-angled edges of buildings made from blocks or bricks
In architecture, steel rebar is shaped to the architect’s design specifications; builders make a large wooden mold, and then pour the concrete into the “form”
Reinforced concrete gave rise to shell architecture, which is the use of a solid shell that also provides support for the structure
81

Artwork: Sydney Opera House
2.5.34 Jørn Utzon, Sydney Opera House, 1973, Sydney, Australia

Jørn Utzon,
Sydney Opera House
Testament to the expressive character of reinforced concrete
The rooflines resemble billowing sails
The “sails” were created over precast ribs and then set into place

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When Danish architect Jørn Utzon (1918–2008) designed the Sydney Opera House, overlooking the harbor of Sydney, Australia, he broke away from Modernist rectangular designs
Owing to a succession of technical problems with this innovative building, the project cost fourteen times its intended budget
As controversy surrounding the project escalated, Utzon resigned nine years before its completion
83

The Postmodern Reaction
to Modernism
Postmodernism was a new approach to architecture that began in the 1980s
Postmodernism combined the hard rectangles of Modernism with unusual materials and features of styles from the past

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Artwork: Humana Building
2.5.35 Michael Graves, Humana Building, 1985, Louisville, Kentucky

85

Michael Graves,
Humana Building
Mix of historical styles and references:
Greek: implied columns, portico, cornice and triangular glass structure (pediment)
Baroque: curved portion of the upper building

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The Humana Building in downtown Louisville, Kentucky was designed by American Michael Graves (1934–2015)
Color and texture is varied, unlike the simplicity and purity of Modernism
A piece of Modernist architecture would not include influences from Greek or Baroque architecture because the Modernist idea was to create a new style that was not based on the past
86

Artwork: Quadracci Pavilion
2.5.36 Santiago Calatrava, Quadracci Pavilion, Milwaukee Art Museum, Wisconsin, 2001

Santiago Calatrava,
Quadracci Pavilion
Exhibition space for contemporary art at the Milwaukee Art Museum
Expresses the character of the site (shores of Lake Michigan)
Reminiscent of ships passing by
Kinetic: a moveable sunscreen slowly rises and lowers, like a flapping bird

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In Postmodernist architecture, form no longer follows function
Sometimes the building seems like a huge toy, a playful exploration of what we expect a building to be
Designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava (b. 1951)
A cable-suspended bridge over a beautiful expanse of water also connects the museum to downtown Milwaukee
88

Model of Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati
2.5.37a Zaha Hadid, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. Study model by the architects, experimenting with different structural ideas

Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati
2.5.37b Zaha Hadid,
Contemporary Arts Center,
2003, Cincinnati, Ohio

Zaha Hadid: A Building for Exciting Events
Designed the gallery spaces as a three-dimensional “jigsaw puzzle”; offers organizational flexibility
Visitors are drawn in by the dynamic public space
Seen from the street, the building appears weightless and sculptural

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Perspectives on Art:

Zaha Hadid (b. 1950) was born in Iraq and trained as an architect in London
She describes how an architect thinks about a new building for art exhibitions, performances, and installations in downtown Cincinnati, Ohio
91

Currents in Architecture
Concerns over limited resources, energy conservation, and sustainability have become important issues that will shape the future of architecture

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Artwork: Michelle Kaufmann, Glide House
2.5.38 Michelle Kaufmann, Glidehouse, 2004. Marin County, California

Michelle Kaufmann, Glide House
Inexpensive alternative to costly California homes
Based on a prefab module made of sustainable wood
Double pane windows, roof solar cells, recyclable materials

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American architect Michelle Kaufmann (b. 1962)
Was Artist-in-Residence at Google where she worked on new company buildings and developed innovative ideas through research and development
94

Portal Artwork: Contemporary Architecture
3.9.32 Michael Graves, Portland Public Services Bulding, 1980–82, Portland, Oregon

For more information about the roots of contemporary architecture see: 3.9.16, p.543.
95

Architecture

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Ancient Rome: Capital of an Empire

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Architecture Videos
To explore the construction of some more of the greatest buildings in the world, watch:
St. Peter’s Basilica and the
Sistine Chapel
Teotihuacan:
Ancient Mexico’s “Place of the Gods”

Video:
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Chapter 2.5 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 2.5

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.5
2.5.1 © Jon Arnold Images Ltd/Alamy
2.5.2 Maki and Associates. Courtesy Silverstein Properties
2.5.3 iStockphoto.com
2.5.4 iStockphoto.com
2.5.5 DeAgostini Picture Library/Scala, Florence
2.5.6 Ralph Larmann
2.5.7 Ralph Larmann
2.5.8 Bridgeman Art Library
2.5.9 Index/Bridgeman Art Library
2.5.10 top to bottom: A. Vergani/DeAgostini Picture Library/Diomedia.com; Marco Simoni/imagebroker RM/Diomedia; Photo © Spyros Arsenis/123RF.com
2.5.11 Ralph Larmann
2.5.12 © Natalia Pavlova/Dreamstime.com
2.5.13 Ralph Larmann
2.5.14 © Christophe Boisvieux/Corbis
2.5.15 Ralph Larmann
2.5.16 Photo Scala, Florence
2.5.17a Ralph Larmann
2.5.17b Ralph Larmann
2.5.18 © John Kellerman/Alamy Stock Photo
2.5.19 © Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd/Alamy
2.5.20 Ralph Larmann
2.5.21 Ralph Larmann
2.5.22 © Photo Japan/Alamy
2.5.23 © Martindata/Dreamstime.com
2.5.24 Ralph Larmann

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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.5 (contd.)
2.5.25 SuperStock
2.5.26 © Anthony Shaw/Dreamstime.com
2.5.27 Photo Shannon Kyles, ontarioarchitecture.com
2.5.29 Photo Sandak Inc, Stamford, CT
2.5.30 © Interfoto/Alamy
2.5.31 © Jose Fuste Raga/Corbis
2.5.32 © Bildarchiv Monheim GmbH/Alamy
2.5.33 © Richard A. Cooke/Corbis
2.5.34 © Free Agents Limited/Corbis
2.5.35 Photo courtesy Michael Graves & Associates
2.5.36 © Chuck Eckert/Alamy
2.5.37a Courtesy Zaha Hadid Architects
2.5.37b © Roland Halbe/artur
2.5.38 Photo © John Swain

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Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order

acroterion

metope
triglyph

architrave

abacus
echinus

necking

stylobate

stereobate

pediment

gable
raking

cornice
cornice

frieze

entablature

capital

shaft

base

molding

dentil

volute

acanthus leaf

volute

Chapter

2

.6
The Tradition of Craft

PART 2

MEDIA AND PROCESSES

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

Introduction

During the Renaissance,
a distinction came to be made between art and craft

Unique to Western culture

Crafts came to mean hand-made items meant to be used rather than simply looked at

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Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts, Third Edition, Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Certain media, notably painting and sculpture, came to be considered as art, while ceramics, weaving, and embroidery were termed crafts

Some handcrafted objects, because of their ingenuity and refinement, stand out as artworks that transcend mere utility

The distinction has now broken down in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries

Ask yourself whether you think the objects discussed can be considered art or craft

At the same time, think about whether the makers of the objects, and the people they made them for, could tell the difference either

2

Artwork: Hyo-In Kim,
To Be Modern #2

2.6.1 Hyo-In Kim, To Be Modern #2, 2004. Metal screen, wire, porcelain, acrylic paint, and found objects, slightly over lifesize

2.6.2 Hyo-In Kim

Hyo-In Kim, Art or Craft: What’s the Difference?
A hanbok is a traditional Korean dress worn by women of upper classes
Kim has subtly transformed the materials of the dress and its display
She wants us to see that traditional cultural values are fading away

Perspectives on Art:
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Dress is made out of silver-colored wire mesh (instead of cloth)
Upon close-up inspection, the decoration turns out to be tiny versions of fashionable Western clothing: jeans, skirts, shoes, purses
She decided to suspend it with its sleeves outstretched so that its transparency and weightlessness would be emphasized
What Kim wants us to see and appreciate, both literally and figuratively, is that those traditional cultural values that give structure and form to people’s lives, including our own, are fading away and disappearing as globalization spreads
4

Ceramics
Ceramic comes from the Greek word meaning “pottery,” keramos
Manufacture requires the shaping of clay, a natural material dug from the earth, which is then baked at high temperatures to make it hard
Basic technique date back thousands of years

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5

Pinch Method
This technique is one of the most basic ways of working with clay
Process of squeezing clay between the fingers to push and pull it into the desired shape
A spontaneous and effective way to create a clay object

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6

Artwork: The Mother Goddess
Men Brajut (Hariti)
2.6.3 The Mother Goddess
Men Brajut (Hariti), Indonesian, c. 14th–15th century. Terra-cotta, 18⅞ × 8½ × 8″, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

7

The Mother Goddess
Men Brajut (Hariti)
Uses the Pinch method of clay construction
Work created to honor Hindu gods and goddesses
Originally created as a pillar ornament
Hariti is “protector of children”

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Created during the Majapahit period in Indonesia (1293-1520)
Represents one of the manifested goddesses of Hinduism
8

Ceramics

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Coil Method
This method has been in common usage since ancient times
A coil is created by rolling the clay on a flat surface so that it extends into a long rope-like shape
The coil is wrapped around itself and then fused together by smoothing

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Artwork: Seated Figure
2.6.4 Seated Figure, Oaxaca, Mexico, Zapotec style, 300 BCE–700 CE. Ceramic,12⅝ × 7 × 7⅜”. Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio

Seated Figure, Oaxaca, Mexico
This work is from the Zapotec culture of Mexico
Handcrafted using the coil method
Buried in the tomb of a Zapotec ruler
May portray a god or possibly a companion for the deceased

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On its headdress and chest the artist has carved two calendar dates in Zapotec writing.
12

Throwing
A potter’s wheel consists of a round disk that revolves while the ceramist shapes his or her object
In use by the Chinese since
3000 BCE
The process of making pottery on a wheel is known as throwing

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13

Artwork: Porcelain flask with decoration in blue underglaze
2.6.5 Porcelain flask with decoration in blue underglaze, Ming Dynasty, 1425–35. Palace Museum, Beijing, China

Porcelain Flask with decoration in blue underglaze
The Chinese invented porcelain
Produced on a potter’s wheel during the Ming Dynasty
Multiple glaze layers: first, a blue glaze and then a clear one to provide a luxurious glossy finish

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The Ming Dynasty was almost 600 years ago
Their wares were so fine that the users of Ming Dynasty porcelain included the emperor of China himself
15

Maria Martinez
2.6.6 Maria Martinez, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico, c. 1930–40

16

Julian Martinez
2.6.7 Julian Martinez, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico, c. 1925–45

17

Artwork: Bowl with
plumed serpent
2.6.8 Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez, bowl with plumed serpent, c.1925.
Coiled and burnished earthenware, 6″ × 9½”. Newark Museum, New Jersey

18

San Ildefonso-Style Pottery
Native American pottery is made using hand-building methods
The Martinez family revived the pottery traditions of their ancestors
Famous for their distinctive style
A favorite motif is the avanyu,
a water guardian serpent god

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Dr. Edgar Lee Hewett discovered sherds of pottery near San Ildefonso Pueblo in New Mexico and asked a local potter to produce replicas of the originals
That potter, Maria Martinez (1887–1980), whose Tewa name was Po’ve’ka (“Pond Lily”), and her husband Julian (1879–1943) re-created ceramic objects that their distant ancestors had made
19

Slab Method
In this technique clay is rolled into a flat sheet and cut into shapes
The corners of the different shapes are carefully joined
Lends itself to making boxes and other forms that have large flat sides

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Artwork: Peter Voulkos,
Gallas Rock
2.6.9 Peter Voulkos, Gallas Rock, 1960. Stoneware with slip and glaze, 84 × 37 × 26¾”. University of California at Los Angeles, Franklin D. Murphy Sculpture Garden

Peter Voulkos,
Gallas Rock
Voulkos is known for using clay’s naturalness–its tendency to take on organic forms–and plasticity
Slab construction is evident in
the flat planes
Organic and Expressionistic

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American sculptor Peter Voulkos (1924–2002) created this eight-foot-tall sculptural object.
22

Glass
Glass is produced by melting silica (sand) with lead at intense heat
Probably first used in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (3500 bce)
To create a vessel by forcing air into molten glass is called glassblowing
Used by Syrians in the first century BCE and later perfected by Romans

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Forcing air into molten glass is usually achieved by blowing through a tube.
23

Glass

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Artwork: Portland Vase
2.6.10 Portland Vase, Roman
c. 1–25 CE. British Museum, London, England

Portland Vase
This vase was created in the Roman Empire during first century CE
Made using the dip-overlay method
The blue glass forms the background to the figures in white
Amazing degree of detail

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An elongated bubble of blue glass was partially dipped into a crucible of white glass, before the two were blown together
After cooling, the white layer was cut away to form the design
26

Artwork: Rose window and lancets, Chartres Cathedral
2.6.11 Rose window and lancets, north transept, 13th century. Chartres Cathedral, France

27

Rose window and lancets, Chartres Cathedral
Fine example of Gothic stained glass
Bath the cathedral in colored light
The brilliant blue color is one of the most extraordinary artistic achievements of the early thirteenth century

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The large decorative window is 43 feet in diameter
They are so valued that to prevent them from being damaged during World War II, they were removed and placed in storage until after the war
28

Artwork: Dale Chihuly,
Fiori di Como
2.6.12 Dale Chihuly, Fiori di Como, 1998. Hand-blown glass and steel, 70 × 30 × 12′.
Bellagio Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada

Dale Chihuly,
Fiori di Como
This ceiling was created by the American glass artist Dale Chihuly
2,000 individually blown glass flowers
Strong color enlivens and invigorates the reception area at the Bellagio Hotel in Las Vegas

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30

Metalwork
Metalwork was especially important in the Bronze and Iron Ages
Metal can be heated to a liquid state and poured into molds
It can also be hammered into shape or bent to fit the needs of the artist
Important medium for utilitarian purposes

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Some metals, such as iron or copper, are natural materials
Others are alloys, combinations of two or more naturally occurring metals
Tin mixed with copper produces bronze
Most metals are strong but malleable
31

Metalwork and Jewelry

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Artwork: Death mask
from Mycenae
2.6.13 Death mask from Shaft Grave V, Grave Circle A, Mycenae. Also known
as Mask of Agamemnon,
c. 1550–1500 BCE. Gold, height 12″. National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece

Death mask from Mycenae
This mask was created by laying a thin sheet of gold over an object carved to resemble a human face
The artist then hammered the surface until the shape and texture of the design was imprinted in the metal
Process is called chasing

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Artwork: Chalice with Apostles Venerating the Cross
2.6.14 Chalice with
Apostles Venerating
the Cross, c. 600 CE,
Syria (Byzantine). Silver repoussé, partial gilt, 6⅝ × 5½” diameter at rim. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

Chalice with Apostles Venerating the Cross
To achieve this relief design the artist hammered a blunt tool against the back of the image
The opposite side was pushed out to form the images
Technique is called repoussé

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Artwork: Benvenuto Cellini, Salt Cellar of Francis I
2.6.15 Benvenuto Cellini, Salt Cellar of Francis I, 1540–43. Gold, enamel, ebony, ivory, 11¼ × 8½ × 10⅜”.
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria

Benvenuto Cellini,
Salt Cellar of Francis I
The Italian goldsmith Cellini created this piece for the king of France
Complex process where molten gold was poured into a mold
Salt was held next to Neptune (god of the sea) and pepper next to the symbolic image of Mother Earth

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Magnificent example of Renaissance metalwork
It took Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571) more than two years to make it
38

Portal Artwork: Riace Warrior A
2.4.12 Riace Warrior A, c. 460 BCE. Bronze with copper, silver, and ivory, height 6’6”. Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, Reggio di Calabria, Italy

More information about the process of metal casting can be found in chapter 2.4: see 2.4.12, p.250.
39

Fiber
Fibers are threads made from
animal or vegetable materials (fur, wool, silk, cotton, flax, or linen) or synthetic materials (nylon, polyester)
Can be spun into yarn, string, or thread, then woven or knitted into textiles

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40

Fiber Art

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Artwork: Mary Linwood, detail from Hanging Partridge
2.6.16 Mary Linwood,
detail from Hanging
Partridge, late 18th century. Crewelwork embroidery, approximately 24½ × 28″. Private collection

Mary Linwood, detail from Hanging Partridge
To create this work Linwood used crewel embroidery: a process that uses free-form, fine wool-thread stitching on a drawn design
Like “painting with thread”
Intricate and slow; artist shows great patience and skill

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Embroidery is the process of stitching an image into a fabric surface using a needle and thread (or yarn)
British artist Mary Linwood (1755–1845) was held in high esteem, and was popular with royalty in England and Russia
43

2.1.21 Hishikawa Moronobu, Papermaking in Japan, showing the vatman and
the paper-drier, 1681. Woodblock print from the four-volume Wakoku Shōshoku Edzukushi, 1681
Portal Artwork: Hishikawa Moronobu, Papermaking in Japan

A diverse range of materials can be used in the creation of fiber art, including paper.
44

Artwork: Faith Ringgold,
Tar Beach
2.6.17 Faith Ringgold, Tar Beach, 1988. Acrylic on canvas, bordered with printed, painted, quilted, and pierced cloth, 6’2⅝” × 5’8½”. Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

Faith Ringgold,
Tar Beach
Tells the story of a girl named Cassie
Ringgold relates the African-American experience through memories of her own childhood in New York

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Made in collaboration with her mother: she painted the scene and her mother sewed the quilted border.
46

Artwork: Tlingit Chilkat dancing blanket
2.6.18 Tlingit Chilkat dancing blanket, 19th century

Tlingit Chilkat
dancing blanket
Woven entirely by hand from goat wool and cedar bark
Traditional Chilkat style: a weaving intended to be a two-dimensional portrayal of totem carving
Worn on ceremonial occasions by high-ranking Tlingit tribe members

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The Tlingit people live on the western coast of Canada and Alaska
These blankets are highly prized and very expensive
48

2.6.19 Sheila Hicks, The Silk Rainforest, c. 1975. Silk, linen, and cotton, 96 × 270 × 3″,
Smithsonian American Art Museum, Renwick Gallery, Washington, D.C.
Artwork: Sheila Hicks,
The Silk Rainforest

Sheila Hicks,
The Silk Rainforest
This work by Hicks is a large-scale installation
Fiber is raw and irregular
Originally installed at the AT&T Headquarters in New Jersey
Conjures physical sense of touch paired with visual experience

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American born Sheila Hicks (b. 1934) is considered a modern master of fiber art.
50

Artwork: MacAdam,
Knitted Wonder Space II
2.6.20 Toshiko Horiuchi MacAdam, Knitted Wonder Space II, 2009. Braided nylon 6–6; hand crochet, 49’2″ × 29’6″ × 21’3″.
Woods of Net Pavilion, Hakone Open Air Museum, Hakone, Japan

51

MacAdam,
Knitted Wonder Space II
Toshiko Horiuchi MacAdam knits large-scale interactive environments, such as children’s playgrounds
Viewers are invited to touch the artwork
Challenges preconceived ideas
of what fiber art can be

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Knitting is a process of creating a fabric using loops and stitching
Japanese artist Toshiko Horiuchi MacAdam (b. 1940) builds these large-scale fiber constructions in her studio in Canada
Installs them in many countries
52

Wood
This material deteriorates over time, so few ancient examples exist
Trees provide different woods that vary in color and hardness
Innate beauty can be brought out by cutting, carving, sanding, and polishing

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Artwork: Detail of studiolo,
Ducal Palace
2.6.21 Detail of studiolo from the Ducal Palace in Gubbio, Italy, by Giuliano da Maiano, after a design by
Francesco di Giorgio Martini, c. 1480. Walnut, beech, rosewood, oak, and fruit woods in walnut base,
15’11” × 16’11” × 12’7¼”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Detail of studiolo,
Ducal Palace
To create this work the artist used the technique of intarsia, a kind of mosaic using woods of different colors
Creates an illusion of depth
Symbols are included to reflect the Duke of Urbino’s achievements as a ruler, military commander, collector
of books, and patron of the arts

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The Italian artist Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439–1501) used intarsia in the design of this studiolo (a private room, often a library or study), which he created in c. 1480
Guiliano da Maiano executed the work with such skill, it is not clear where reality ends and illusion begins
Federico da Montefeltro, the Duke of Urbino, commissioned Martini to create this work
55

Artwork: Captain Richard Carpenter, bent-corner chest
2.6.22 Captain Richard Carpenter, bent-corner chest, c. 1860.
Yellow cedar, red cedar, and paint, 21¼ × 35¾ × 20½”. Seattle Art Museum, Washington

Captain Richard Carpenter, bent-corner chest
Created by a Native American of the Heiltsuk tribe
The wood was made flexible by steam, bent at the notches (kerfs), and joined
After that, the chest was carved and painted with an elaborate design

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Notches (kerfs) were cut at three corners of a smooth plank of cedar
A separate base and top were then fitted to the whole
57

Artwork: Andrew Early,
turned bowl
2.6.23 Andrew Early, turned bowl, 2010. Indian mahogany, 13¾ × 29½”

Andrew Early,
turned bowl
Turning is the fashioning of a wooden object using a lathe (a power-driven spinning support)
Wood is prepared by seasoning (careful aging and drying)
Early leaves irregularities to preserve the innate “personality” of the wood

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Andrew Early, a South African wood turner (b. 1970), who learned the craft from his father, John, has become one of today’s most collected and exhibited wood turners.
59

Chapter 2.6 Copyright Information
This concludes the PowerPoint slide set for Chapter 2.6

Gateways to Art: Understanding the Visual Arts
Third Edition
By Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larmann, and M. Kathryn Shields

Copyright © 2015 Thames & Hudson

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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.6
2.6.1 Courtesy Trudy Labell Fine Art, Florida. © the artist
2.6.2 Photo Trudy Labell
2.6.3 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Jaap Polak, 2009, 2009.321
2.6.4 Cleveland Museum of Art, Gift of the Hanna Fund, 1954.857
2.6.5 Palace Museum, Beijing
2.6.6 Photo Tyler Dingee. Courtesy Palace of the Governors Photo Archives (NMHM/DCA), Neg. No. 073453
2.6.7 Photo T. Harmon Parkhurst. Courtesy Palace of the Governors Photo Archives (NMHM/DCA), Neg. No. 055204
2.6.8 Newark Museum, Gift of Amelia Elizabeth White, 1937. 37.236 © 2014. Photo The Newark Museum/Art Resource/Scala, Florence
2.6.9 Courtesy the Voulkos & Co. Catalogue Project, www.voulkos.com
2.6.10 British Museum, London
2.6.11 © Angelo Hornak/Corbis
2.6.12 Photo Teresa Nouri Rishel © Dale Chihuly
2.6.13 National Archaeological Museum, Athens
2.6.14 The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Acquired by Henry Walters, 1929
2.6.15 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
2.6.16 Private Collection
2.6.17 The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, New York, 88.3620. Faith Ringgold © 1988
2.6.18 © Christie’s Images/Corbis
2.6.19 Photo Smithsonian American Art Museum/Art Resource/Scala, Florence. © Sheila Hicks
2.6.20 Collaborators: Charles MacAdam with Interplay Design & Manufacturing, Inc, Nova Scotia, Canada (design & production); Norihide Imagawa with T.I.S. & Partners., Co. Ltd, Tokyo (structural design). Photo Masaki Koizumi. Courtesy the artist
2.6.21 Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1939, 39.153. Photo Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource/Scala, Florence

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Picture Credits for Chapter 2.6 (contd.)
2.6.22 Seattle Art Museum, Gift of John H. Hauberg and John and Grace Putnam, 86.278. Photo Paul Macapia
2.6.23 Photo courtesy Andrew Early
 

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