Psychology

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Psychology in Everyday Life

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PowerPoint Slides

Introduction
Introduce yourself
Your goals
Some you want to do in your free time
Favorite food
Personal Relationship with God.

Psychology’s Roots, Big Ideas, and Critical Thinking Tools
Chapter 1

Psychology’s Roots
What is Psychology?
Psychological Science Is Born
Contemporary Psychology

Four Big Ideas in Psychology
Critical thinking is Smart thinking
Behavior is a Biopsychosocial Event
We Operate with a Two-Track Mind (Dual Processing)
Psychology Explores Human Strengths as well as challenges

Why Do Psychology?
The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense
The Scientific Attitude

How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation

Learning Activity 1 B
Defining Psychology
How would you define Psychology?
What is purpose to learn psychology?

Psychology’s Roots
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts. He suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from experience.
http://faculty.washington.edu

Psychological Science is Born
Wilhem Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it today.
Wundt (1832-1920)

Psychological Science is Born
American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.
James (1842-1910)

Mary Calkins

Psychological Science is Born
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.
Freud (1856-1939)

Psychological Science is Born
Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It was, until the 1920s, psychology was defined as the science of mental life.

Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorists
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology.
Watson (1878-1958)
Skinner (1904-1990)

14
“The soul is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the soul.” Aristotle, De Anima, 350 B.C.

“. . . the scientific study of observable behavior.”
Watson and Skinner changed the definition in the 1920’s.

The two major force that rejected behaviorist definition
Humanistic Psychologist
who emphasized the growth potential of healthy people
Cognitive Neuroscience who explore the brain activity linked with mental activity.

Psychological Science Develops
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our need for love and acceptance.
Maslow (1908-1970)
Rogers (1902-1987)

http://facultyweb.cortland.edu
http://www.carlrogers.dk

17
Preview Question 1: How has psychology’s focus changed over time?

Cognitive neuroscience
Scientifically explores how we perceive, process and remember information with the help brain activity.

Psychology Today
Therefore, today we define psychology as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).

Contemporary Psychology

Psychology’s Current Perspective
Text p. 4
Table 1.1
Neuroscience
Evolutionary
Behavior Genetics
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Cognitive
Social-Cultural

4 Big Ideas in Psychology
Critical Thinking
It has led to new and surprising findings as well as disproven other beliefs.

4 Big Ideas in Psychology
2. Behavior is a Biopsychosocial Event

Biopsychosocial Model
Attempting to Explain the Complex Human Condition
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1:4

Shrinking Brains

“When we consider people as individuals, we don’t always get a complete picture of their emotions and motivations. Stepping back to see the same individual in a broader context can provide new insights. With this “bigger picture” (the child’s immediate surroundings and his or her group’s behavior) in mind, can you better understand why each child might be feeling and acting as he or she is? The biopsychosocial model recognizes that there is actually no single cause for our behavior or our mental states. For example, our moods and feelings are often influenced by genetics and neurotransmitters (biological), our learned responses and patterns of thinking (psychological), and our socioeconomic status and cultural views of emotion (sociocultural).”
23

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis

24
James admitted the first woman student Mary Calkins to Harvard and tutored her. Despite his efforts she was not able to attain her PhD from Harvard.

Biopsychosocial
Example: Obesity Notes p. 13
The different levels are not competing but complementary

4 Big Ideas in Psychology
3. We operate with a two-track mind
Dual Processing
Our brain works on 2 tracks, the conscious and unconscious

4 Big Ideas in Psychology
4. Psychology Explores Human Strengths as Well as Challenges

Learning Activity – 3A
What do you mean by Intuition and Common Sense?
without conscious reasoning
Gut feeling
3, 1, 5, 4, 3
Judgment experience
Errors
What are common flaws in intuition and common sense?
What is difference between intuition and common sense. Give examples

Water and Pennies Activity

Why Do Psychology?

Our intuition can fail!

Why Do Psychology?
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

What About Intuition & Common Sense?
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid in solving problems answering questions, but they are not free of error.

32
Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist, James Watson and Skinner were all instrumental in developing the science of psychology and emphasized behavior instead of mind or mental thoughts. From 1920 to 1960, psychology in the US was heavily oriented towards behaviorism.

Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants.

Taxi/ Getty Images

Common Flaws in intuitive Intuition & Common Sense?
Hindsight Bias
Overconfidence
Perceiving patterns in random events

Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did plummet.

Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
?
GRABE
?
ETYRN
?
WREAT
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).

Answers
WATER
ENTRY
BARGE

Perceiving Order in Random Events
To make sense of our world we often perceive patterns
Example – person see a face on the Moon.
Share some of your experiences.

We trust our intuition more than we should.
Our intuitive thinking is flawed by powerful tendencies.
But scientific thinking can help us sift reality from illusion.

The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).

Critical Thinking
Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.
The Amazing Randi
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation

Learning Activity 3B
How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation

How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions?
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.

Theory
A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem will score higher on a depression test.

Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

Research Process

~Example~
Theory: Education levels of school teachers effect income.
Hypothesis: School teachers with a Masters Degree will earn a higher annual income than school teachers with a Bachelor’s Degree.
Research & Observations: Compare the income levels of school teachers with different levels of education.

How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation

Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Is language uniquely human?
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers

Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org

Survey
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

Wording Effects
Could be subjective!

Survey
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
Random Sampling
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

Survey
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Random Sampling

Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation.
Example – Observing and recording the behavior of humans and/or animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli

Descriptive Methods
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.
Summary

How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation

Correlation
Helps to predict how closely two variables are related or unrelated.
This relationship can be either positive or negative.
It is important to remember that no matter how strong the relationship between the two variables is, it does not prove causation.

or
Correlation and Causation
Correlation does not mean causation!

Correlation
“A correlation coefficient helps us see the world more clearly by revealing the extent to which two things relate.”
“Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation.”
“Knowing that two events are associated, need not tell us anything about what causes what.”

How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
The Scientific Method
Description
Correlation
Experimentation

Experimentation
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause and Effect

Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

Evaluating Therapies
Assigning participants to experimental (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Random Assignment

Independent Variable
An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
We can vary it independently-
Without concern for other factors.

Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

Video
Schacter’s Affiliation Experiment
IVTK 1

Experimentation
A summary of steps during experimentation.

Comparison
Below is a comparison of different research methods.

Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology
Q1. How do simplified laboratory conditions help us understand general principles of behavior?
Ans: Simplified or artificial laboratory conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior.

FAQ
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participant ?
Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans. From animal studies, we have gained insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who deal with animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals.
Experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm beyond normal levels encountered in daily life may be carried out.

D. Shapiro, © Wildlife Conservation Society

Video
“Death of a Subject”
IVTK 1

Understanding Stress

Stress and Illness

Stress Management

Health Psychology

CHAPTER 3

Stress and Health Psychology

Real World Psychology
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Things you’ll learn in Chapter 3
Does frequent checking of your email and social media increase your stress?
Q1
Can the stress of growing up in poverty cause changes in your brain?
Does watching televised coverage of natural disasters increase symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder?
Could thinking about the “silver linings” of a stressful event, or sharing it with others, reduce depression?
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Are people with stressful jobs at increased risk of experiencing a heart attack?

Learning Activity 2B
Define Stress. How it is different from stressor?
Is stress good or bad?
List causes of stress.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning Activity 2C
What is General Adaption Syndrome?
Discuss strategies to manage stress.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stress = the interpretation of specific events as threatening or challenging
Stressor = trigger or stimulus that induces stress
Understanding Stress
What is Stress?
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
What stressors cause stress for you?

Stress = the interpretation of specific events as threatening or challenging
Stressor = trigger or stimulus that induces stress
Engage your students: What stressors cause you stress?
Do the stressors students identified on the next slide fit in the 7 major sources of stress?
Engage Your students: Have students complete the Homes and Rahe stress scale. Have them write privately or have a small group/class discussion about the type of stress they experience. How might the stressors change throughout their life? Did some students claim the stressor happened but didn’t affect them negatively? Why might that be? Why are there events that are generally viewed as positive on the stress scale?
5

Understanding Stress
Sources of Stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 3.1
Tutorial Video: Sources of Stress

There are seven major sources of stress
Cataclysmic events
Life changes
Acute/chronic stressors
Acute: severe but short-term (narrowly avoiding an automobile accident)
Chronic: continuous (child abuse, spousal abuse, alcoholism, money problems)
Job stressors
Conflict
Hassles
Frustration
Engage your students: Which category (or categories) most affects you? What resources are available to you to help reduce the stress in that category (or categories)?
Examples: See the counseling department; end a troubling/difficult relationship; seek a job transfer or change; others.
(Students may not feel comfortable sharing some of these to the entire class – but encourage them to think about them)
6

Acute
Generally severe but short-term
Narrowly avoiding an accident
Missing an important deadline
Chronic
Continuous; demands exceed perceived resources
Prejudice and discrimination
Abuse
Financial problems
Understanding Stress
Acute Versus Chronic Stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Alcoholism
War
FIGURE 3.2

ACUTE VS. CHRONIC STRESS
Acute
Generally severe but short-term
Narrowly avoiding an accident
Missing an important deadline
Chronic
Continuous; demands exceed perceived resources
Prejudice and discrimination
Abuse (Child, spousal, sexual…)
Alcoholism
Financial problems
Ongoing war
7

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Does frequent checking of your email and social media increase your stress?
Q1
Making and maintaining friendships require considerable amount of thought and energy (Ehrlich et al., 2016)
Research suggests that your stress level increases with the more social media “friends” you have and the more time you spend on social networking sites. (Beven et al., 2014; Morin-Major et al., 2016)

Making and maintaining friendships require considerable amount of thought and energy (Ehrlich et al., 2016)
Research suggests that your stress level increases with the more social media “friends” you have and the more time you spend on social networking sites. (Beven et al., 2014; Morin-Major et al., 2016)
An online survey of college students’ attitudes about Facebook revealed the following (Charles, 2011):
63% reported delaying responses to friend requests
32% reported that rejecting friend requests made them feel guilty and uncomfortable
12% reported that Facebook made them feel anxious
10% reported disliking receiving friend requests
People who spend more time on social media experience lower levels of day-to-day happiness, lower overall feelings of life satisfaction, and higher levels of depression due to social comparison (Brooks, 2015; Kross et al., 2013; Steers et al., 2014).
See text for additional interested facts related to social comparisons. (Acronym “FOMO” – fear of missing out)
[This developer wearies of seeing some of his friends’ seemingly incessant exotic travels, ongoing fun activities, expensive purchases and the like.  ]
8

Job Stressors
Unemployment
Job change
Job performance concerns
Inherently stressful job/career
e.g., first responder, law enforcement
Role conflict
Role ambiguity
Understanding Stress
Sources of Stress (continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Job Stressors
Unemployment
Job change
Job performance concerns
Inherently stressful job/career
e.g., first responder, law enforcement (also, any military or medical personnel) – studies have shown that people in these professions a higher risk for PTSD and even suicide (Adams, 2015; others)
Role conflict – being forced to take on separate and incompatible roles
Role ambiguity – being uncertain about the expectations and demands of your role

Conflict
Approach-approach
Choosing between two desirable options
Avoidance-avoidance
Choosing between two undesirable options
Approach-avoidance
One option has both positive and negative characteristics
Understanding Stress
Sources of Stress (continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

TABLE 3.1

Conflict – A forced choice between two or more incompatible goals or impulses
At least three major types:
Approach-approach
Choosing between two desirable options (Generally the least stressful to resolve)
Avoidance-avoidance
Choosing between two undesirable options (Moderately difficult choice, often resolved with a partial approach)
Approach-avoidance
One option has both positive and negative characteristics (A difficult and stressful conflict, generally resolved with a long delay and considerable denial
(Note: the text’s example in table 3:1 presents the choice of ‘bad job or no job’ – Increasingly common today are job choices that both have enough ‘negatives’ to make for a stressful situation – i.e. ‘current job or other job’)
10

Hassles
Can lead to burnout
Frustration
Resulting from a blocked goal
Cataclysmic events
Happens suddenly, affecting many people simultaneously
Understanding Stress
Sources of Stress (continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hassles – We all experience them; they can lead to burnout
Frustration – Resulting from a blocked goal
Cataclysmic events – Happens suddenly, affecting many people simultaneously (more on this subject will be covered later in the chapter with PTSD)
Engage your students: a) What ‘hassles’ do you face in everyday life, and what do you do to try to cope with them? Is that coping mechanism adaptive (helpful) or counterproductive (unhelpful or even unhealthy)? B) Describe a time when you were really frustrated. What goal was being blocked and how (or by whom)? How did you ever resolve it – or did you?

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Hans Selye
Our bodies are well designed for temporary stress, but poorly prepared for chronic stress
Three Phases
Alarm
Resistance
Exhaustion
Understanding Stress
Reactions to Stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
PROCESS DIAGRAM 3.1

The SAM System
Understanding Stress
Reactions to Stress (continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
PROCESS DIAGRAM 3.2
The HPA Axis

The SAM (sympatho-adreno-medullary) system and the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical) axis
SEE PROCESS DIAGRAM 3.2
Homeostasis – our body’s tendency to maintain a relatively balanced and stable internal state, such as a constant internal temperature

Stress and the Immune System
Our bodies release cortisol to help combat a stressor; but, chronically high cortisol levels suppress the immune system
Psychoneuroimmunology studies the effects of psychological and other factors on the immune system
Stress and cognitive functioning
Even short-term stress affects our ability to think clearly – It restricts the retrieval of existing memories, and it impedes the creation of new memories
Long-term stress can permanently damage the hippocampus, and a damaged hippocampus can’t provide feedback to the hypothalamus, so cortisol continues to be released
Stress has been linked to gastric ulcers, cancer, cardiovascular disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Can the stress of growing up in poverty cause changes in your brain?
Q2
Researchers have found poverty (a chronic stressor) to be associated with particular differences in certain surface areas of the brain essential for academic success. (Noble et al. 2015)
MRI brain scans of children who grow up in poverty show several important differences in brain structure in areas known to be among the most crucial for academic achievement. (Hair et al., 2015)

Researchers have found poverty (a chronic stressor) to be associated with particular differences in certain surface areas of the brain essential for academic success. (Noble et al. 2015)
MRI brain scans of children who grow up in poverty show several important differences in brain structure in areas known to be among the most crucial for academic achievement. (Hair et al., 2015)
15

Understanding Stress
Reactions to Stress (continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 3.3
Our brain under chronic stress

Chronic stress results in a reduction in the size of neurons in the prefrontal cortex and a diminished performance during cognitive tasks.
Cortisol released in response to immediate stress can be beneficial. However, under chronic stress it can produce a vicious cycle leading to permanent damage to the hippocampus.
16

Eustress
Pleasant, desirable stress
Arouses us to persevere and accomplish challenging goals
Distress
Unpleasant, undesirable stress
Caused by adverse conditions
Understanding Stress
Benefits of Stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Our bodies are nearly always in some state of stress – whether pleasant or unpleasant, whether mild or severe.
When stress is pleasant or perceived as a manageable challenge, it can be beneficial.
Eustress – term given to describe pleasant, desirable stress – that stress that arouses us to persevere and accomplish challenging goals
Distress – term generally given to describe unpleasant, undesirable stress that is caused by adverse conditions
Engage your students: Under what situations and/or in what occupations might stress to be seen as beneficial? (e.g. athletes, business tycoons, entertainers, great leaders)
17

Understanding Stress
Benefits of Stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 3.4

See Figure 3.4 – Stress and task complexity
Stress CAN benefit performance. However, the level of stress should match the complexity of the task. Note how a higher level of stress helps keep us focused during well-learned, very easy tasks, but we may need to intentionally raise our stress levels to better focus on attention when the easy task demands it (A).
During moderate tasks (B), we need a medium level of stress for maximum performance.
In contrast, during complex, demanding tasks (C), we need to lower our stress level. For example, during difficult exams your performance will benefit from deep breathing and other methods of relaxation.
18

Condition: lesions to the lining of the stomach and upper small intestines
How worsened: bacterium (H. plyori) damages the stomach wall
Found in the majority of people, but only in people compromised by stress does it cause ulcers
How aided: antibiotics
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress and Illness
Gastric Ulcers

We look next at four illnesses to which stress can be directly tied.
Stress and Illness
Gastric Ulcers
Ulcers = lesions to the lining of the stomach and upper small intestines
Stress itself does not cause ulcers
Bacterium (H. plyori) damages stomach wall and can be helped with antibiotics
BUT, 75% of control subjects (no ulcers) also have the same bacterium
So, bacteria cause ulcers ONLY in people compromised by stress (Fink, 2011)
19

Condition: when cells divide rapidly, forming a tumor and invading healthy tissue
How worsened
Our immune systems attack abnormal cells, but immune systems compromised by stress are less able to fight cancerous growth
Stress increases the spread of cancer cells to other organs
How aided: widely varies (surgery to no cure)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress and Illness
Cancer

Cancer occurs when cells divide rapidly,
forming a tumor and invading healthy
tissue
Immune system checks the uncontrolled
growth by attacking abnormal cells
If immune system is compromised by stress, it is less able to fight cancerous growth
Note: research does not show that stress causes cancer or that positive attitudes can fight it off, but does show that stress increases the spread of cancer cells to other organs
20

Condition: includes coronary heart disease, angina and heart attack
How worsened: stress hormones increase heart rate
Fat and glucose are sent into the blood for energy, but if no physical activity occurs, fat in the bloodstream sticks to the walls of blood vessels
How aided: diet, exercise, reduce stress
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress and Illness
Cardiovascular Disorders

Heart disease includes coronary heart disease, angina, heart attack
Stress hormones (cortisol and adrenaline) in the bloodstream increase heart rate and send fat and glucose into the blood for energy
If no physical activity occurs (fight or flight), fat in bloodstream sticks to walls of blood vessels
Job-related stress = 23% more likely to have heart attack

Condition: long-lasting and trauma- and stressor-related disorder that overwhelms an individual’s ability to cope
Stems from exposure to serious or recurring trauma
How worsened: varies by individual and situation
How aided: counseling/therapy, avoidance of stressors, support, time, medications

Key Characteristics of PTSD
Direct exposure to trauma
– personal experience, witnessing it or learning that it happened to others
2. Recurrent, intrusive symptoms
– thoughts, feelings, memories, bad dreams and/or re- experiencing the trauma via flashbacks
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress and Illness
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (continued)
SEE TABLE 3.2

Exposure to serious trauma (not just military service) or recurring exposure
Recurrent memories, dreams, flashbacks
Persistent avoidance of stimuli related
to event
Negative changes in mood, negative
self-thought, detached from others
Irritability, anger, reckless behavior,
sleep disturbances
Key Characteristics of PTSD
Direct exposure to trauma
– personal experience, witnessing it or learning that it happened to others
2. Recurrent, intrusive symptoms
– thoughts, feelings, memories, bad dreams and/or re- experiencing the trauma via flashbacks
3. Avoidance symptoms
feeling emotionally numb, losing interest in previously enjoyable activities, avoiding memories of the trauma and/or stimuli associated with the traumatic event
4. Chronic heightened arousal and reactivity
– irritability, being easily startled, sleep disturbances, angry outbursts, and reckless / self-destructive behaviors
23

Key Characteristics of PTSD (continued)
3. Avoidance symptoms
feeling emotionally numb, losing interest in previously enjoyable activities, avoiding memories of the trauma and/or stimuli associated with the traumatic event
4. Chronic heightened arousal and reactivity
– irritability, being easily startled, sleep disturbances, angry outbursts, and reckless / self-destructive behaviors
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress and Illness
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (continued)
SEE TABLE 3.2

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Does watching televised coverage of natural disasters increase symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder?
Q3
Research shows that simply watching televised coverage of major natural disasters – such as hurricanes, earthquakes and tornadoes – can increase the number of PTSD symptoms, especially in children who are already experiencing symptoms (Holman et al., 2014; Weems et al., 2012)

Yourself: Recognize your feelings – talk to others
Someone you know: Be willing to listen – encourage
Yourself and others: Be patient and kind – be understanding of reactions to stress
Recognize normal crisis reactions
Be mindful of your time – say ‘no’ – limit watching news – spend time with significant people – do something you enjoy
Plenty of sleep – avoid alcohol and drugs
Study and adopt stress management skills

Tutorial Video: Coping with Stress

Goal: management, not elimination
Primary appraisal
Is the situation (potentially) harmful? If yes:
Secondary appraisal
What (potential) resources are available?
Coping method
Emotion-focused (regulate our reactions to the stressor)
Problem-focused (reduce or eliminate the stressor)

A Cognitive Appraisal of Stress Management
We ALL experience stress – the goal is not to stress (impossible) but of our stress
Primary appraisal – is the situation harmful or potentially harmful?
Secondary appraisal – what resources are available to to assist (or potential resources)?
– Emotion-focused coping – relieve or regulate emotional reaction when stressor can’t be changed
– Problem-focused coping – decrease or eliminate stressor
Even though emotion-focused coping doesn’t change the problem, thinking about the benefits of the stressful event increases positive mood
Must reflect accurate reappraisal, not be overused, and not distort reality
27

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Could thinking about the “silver linings” of a stressful event, or sharing it with others, reduce depression?
Q4
Teenagers were asked to think about the “silver lining” benefits of a recent stressful event show increases in positive mood and decreases in negative mood. (Rood et al., 2012)
Instant messaging (IM) has also been shown to help distressed teenagers by sharing their emotions and receiving immediate social support and advice. (Dolev-Cohen & Barak, 2013)

Q4
While emotion-focused coping can’t change the problem, it can make us feel better about the stressful situation.
Teenagers were asked to think about the “silver lining” benefits of a recent stressful event show increases in positive mood and decreases in negative mood. (Rood et al., 2012)
Instant messaging (IM) has also been shown to help distressed teenagers by sharing their emotions and receiving immediate social support and advice. (Dolev-Cohen & Barak, 2013)
29

Locus of Control
Internal (‘I control my own fate’)
External (‘Outside forces determine my fate’)
Positive Affect
The experience/expression of positive feelings (happiness, joy, enthusiasm, contentment)
Optimism
Expect and see the best in everything
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress Management
Personality and Individual Differences

Tutorial Video: Positive Psychology

Stress Management – Personality and Individual Differences
Locus of Control
Internal (‘I control my own fate’)
External (‘Outside forces beyond my control determine my fate’)
Positive Affect
The experience/expression of positive feelings (happiness, joy, enthusiasm, contentment)
Optimism
Expect and see the best in everything
30

Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
Training aimed at consciously attending to ongoing events in a receptive and non-judgmental way
Social support
Those with greater social support have better health outcomes, greater psychological and physical well-being, faster recoveries and longer life expectancies
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress Management
Resources for Healthy Living

Stress Management – Resources for Healthy Living
Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
Training aimed at consciously attending to ongoing events in a receptive and non-judgmental way
Social support
Those with greater social support have better health outcomes, greater psychological and physical well-being, faster recoveries and longer life expectancies
31

Exercise

Social skills

Behavior
Change

Stressor
Control

Material
Resources

Relaxation
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stress Management
Additional Stress Resources

Video: Older Women and Exercise
Video: Catching up on Sleep

Stress Management – Additional Stress Resources
Exercise
Social skills
Behavior change
Stressor control
Material resources
Relaxation
32

Functions
Study the effects of stress on the immune system
Reduce psychological distress
Eliminate unhealthy behaviors
Educate public about health maintenance
Venues
Medical center staff
Independent clinicians

FIGURE 3.8

SEE FIGURE 3.8
34

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Are people with stressful jobs at increased risk of experiencing a heart attack?
Q5
Some research suggests that job stress and overwork can greatly increase your risk of dying from heart disease and stroke. (Biering et al., 2015; Charles et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2015)
People with stressful jobs are 23% more likely to experience a heart attack than those without stressful jobs. (Kivimäki et al., 2012)
karoshi –
‘death from overwork’

Technostress two definitions:
Stress stemming from overexposure or involvement with technology or
Stress caused by an inability to cope with modern technology
Resources to aid job-related stress
Supportive colleagues
Supporting working conditions
Mentally challenging work
Equitable rewards
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Health Psychology
Technostress and Job Stress

Health Psychology – Technostress and Job Stress
Technostress
Sense of anxiety or mental pressure from overexposure or involvement with technology
Stress caused by an inability to cope with modern technology
Resources of aiding job-related stress
Supportive colleagues
Supporting working conditions
Mentally challenging work
Equitable rewards
36

Psychology in Everyday Life

PowerPoint Slides

Worth Publishers,

Learning
Chapter 6

What is learning? Define
How Do We Learn?
Classical conditioning – Ivan pavlov- association of events
Operant conditioning- B.F Skinner – Reward, punishment
Observational learning- Albert Bandura- Imitation, modelling

Class Activity 6B
Learning

How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov’s Legacy
Learning – Overview

Operant Conditioning
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s Legacy
Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning
Learning- Overview

Biology, Cognition and Learning
Biological Limits on Conditioning
Cognitive influences on Conditioning
Learning by Observation
Bandura’s Experiments
Applications of Observational Learning
Learning-Overview

The process of acquiring , though experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors which bring in a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Defining Learning

Associative Learning: We learn by connecting events that occur in sequence.
The process of learning associations is conditioning, and it takes two main forms:
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
Cognitive Learning: We also learn by acquiring mental information that guides our behavior merely by watching others.
– Observational Learning
Basic forms of learning

By learning we are able to adapt to our environments.
We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain – Classical Conditioning.
We learn to repeat acts that bring good results and to avoid acts that bring bad – Operant Conditioning.
We also learn new behaviors by observing events and by watching others. – Observational Learning.
Basic forms of learning

Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Classical Conditioning –association learning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

10
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate associative learning?

Find out the meanings for the following words:
Stimulus:.
Response:
Conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Conditioned stimulus(CS)

Classical Conditioning -Class activity 6C
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

11
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate associative learning?

Definations :
Stimulus: An event or situation that evokes a response.
Response: A reaction of an organism to stimulus.
Conditioning: A behavioral process whereby a response become more frequent or more predictable in a given situation or environment as a result of reinforcement.

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

12
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate associative learning?

Definations :
Unconditioned Response (UR): Unlearned, naturally occurring response ( eg. Salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus( eg. Food)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally (unconditionally and automatically triggers a response.
Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus(CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

13
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate associative learning?

Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Pavlov’s 5 Major Conditioning Processes
Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, and Discrimination

Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
Acquisition
In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus (tone) needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus (food).
The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

Time Out!
Take 5 minutes of quiet to gain understanding.

Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

After the rest period, when the CS (tone) occurs, then the CR (salivation) will spontaneously recover.
21

Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.
Pavlov notice that a dog conditioned to the sound of one tone also responded somewhat to the sound of a similar new and different tone.
Example: When toddler taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks and motorcycles.

Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.
Pavlov’s Legacy
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)

Classical Conditioning

Create your own conditioned response!
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response

Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.
Applications of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Discovery
&
Classical Conditioning and the Immune System
Videos

Operant Conditioning – rewards / punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s Legacy
Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning
Learning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
Operant & Classical Conditioning

29
Preview Question 5: What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Operant & Classical Conditioning

Skinner’s experiments emphasize the law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.
Skinner’s Experiments
Yale University Library

Using the law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.
Operant Chamber
Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd
Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission
by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division

The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response.
Operant Chamber

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior.
Shaping

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
Types of Reinforcers

Reuters/ Corbis

35
Preview Question 6: What are the basic types of reinforcers?

Difference between Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imkbuKomPXI

Types of Reinforcers
Reuters/ Corbis

36
Preview Question 6: What are the basic types of reinforcers?

Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink; these are unlearned reinforcers.
Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.
(pushing the light, money)
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.
Reinforcement Schedules

39
Preview Question 7: How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Punishment

40
Preview Question 8: How does punishment affect behavior?

Results in unwanted fears.
Conveys no information to the organism.
Justifies pain to others.
Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence.
Causes aggression towards the agent.
Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.
Thoughts??
Punishment
Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

Difference between Punishment and Negative Reinforcement
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imkbuKomPXI

Punishment

Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

“Using Operant Conditioning to Build Your Own Strengths”

Individual Exercise
Text p. 168

Share with a friend!

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
In School
LWA-JDL/ Corbis

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At work

Applications of Operant Conditioning
At Home
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

There are biological constraints on learning as each species comes predisposed to learn those things to its survival.
Text p.184 Table 6.5

Biology, Cognition and Learning

Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.

Biological Predispositions
Biological Constraints:
Evolved biological tendencies that predispose animal’s behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned by some animals than others.

Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

Learning by Observation
Bandura’s Experiments
Applications of Observational Learning
Learning

Learning by Observation
Higher animals and humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.
© Herb Terrace
©Herb Terrace

Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.

P. 173
57

“Our brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature.”
“Our emotions are contagious.”

Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.

Bandura’s Experiments
Bandura’s Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Television and Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works

Learning:
“Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.”
Classical Conditioning:
Ivan Pavlov
UR
US
CS
CR
Operant Conditioning:
B.F.Skinner
Learning to associate a response and its consequences.
Learning By Observation:
Albert Bandura
Learning by watching others’ experiences and examples.

CHAPTER 6
Personality
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic Theories
Trait Theories
Humanistic Theories
Social-Cognitive Theories
Biological Theories
Personality Assessment

Real World Psychology
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Things you’ll learn in Chapter 11
Are some people with highly negative attitudes toward gay people repressing their own sexual desires?
Q1
Which personality traits are most important for your career and academic success?
Can spending time in a foreign country change your personality?
What parenting skills are also associated with increased marital satisfaction?
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Can social media postings be used to measure your personality?
Q6
Do our genes predict how much we will give to charity?

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality
“Our unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions”
Various theories
Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic
Trait
Humanistic
Social / Cognitive
Biological
Also assessed & measured in various ways
Tutorial Video: Exploring Your Personality
Video: Dog Personality

Personality
Definition – “Our unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions
Various theories
Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic
Trait
Humanistic
Social / Cognitive
Biological
Also assessed and measured in various ways
3

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Findout the difference between
Levels of consciousness
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Three mental structures
Id –
Ego
Superego

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Levels of Consciousness
Conscious – Thoughts or motives that a person is currently aware of or is remembering
Preconscious – Thoughts, motives or memories that exist just beneath the surface of awareness and can be called to consciousness when necessary
Unconscious – The reservoir of largely unacceptable thoughts, feelings, memories and other information that lies beneath conscious awareness
Three mental structures that help to form our personalities
Id – The personality structure that is present at birth, completely unconscious and striving to meet basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression; operates on the pleasure principle
Ego – The personality structure that is largely conscious, and the “executive,” which deals with the demands of reality; operates on the reality principle
Superego – The personality structure that serves as the center of morality, providing internalized ideals and standards for judgment; often referred to as the “conscience”
4

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
FIGURE 11.1
The tip of the iceberg would be analogous to the conscious mind, which is above the water and open for easy inspection
The preconscious mind (the area only shallowly submerged) contains information that can be viewed with a little extra effort
The large base of the iceberg is somewhat like the unconscious, completely hidden from personal inspection
Freud’s three levels of consciousness

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
See Figure 11.1 and caption
Note that Freud never used this analogy personally

Defense mechanisms
How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally
– oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development
5

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
FIGURE 11.3
Note how the ego is primarily conscious whereas the id is entirely unconscious
ID (pleasure principle)
Ego (reality principle)
Superego (the conscience)
Freud’s personality structures

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s personality structures
See Figure 11.3 and caption
– ID (pleasure principle)
– Ego (reality principle)
– Superego (the conscience)
Note that Freud never used this analogy personally
6

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
Defense mechanisms
How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally
If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Defense mechanisms
How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally
– oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development
7

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
Defense mechanisms can be healthy and helpful if we use them in moderation or on a temporary basis
Defense mechanisms
FIGURE 11.4

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Defense mechanisms
How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality
See Figure 11.4 and captions
These physicians may intellectualize and distance themselves from the gruesome aspects of their work to avoid personal anxieties.
Unfortunately, defense mechanisms generally distort reality and they create some of our most dangerous habits through a vicious self-reinforcing cycle. For instance, an alcoholic who uses his paycheck to buy drinks may feel very guilty, but he can easily reduce this conflict by rationalizing that he deserves to relax and unwind with alcohol because he works so hard.
8

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Repression Preventing painful or unacceptable thoughts from entering consciousness (e.g. forgetting the details of a traffic accident)
Sublimation Redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities (e.g. redirecting aggressive impulses by becoming a professional fighter)
Denial Refusing to accept an unpleasant reality (e.g. Alcoholics refusing to admit their addiction)

TABLE 11.1a
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)

See Table 10.1a
9

DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Rationali- zation Creating a socially acceptable excuse to justify unacceptable behavior (e.g. Justifying cheating on an exam by saying “everyone else does it”)
Intellectu- alization Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words or ideas (e.g. Discussing your divorce without emotion by ignoring the hidden, underlying pain)
Projection Transferring unacceptable thoughts, motives or impulses to others (e.g. Becoming unreasonably jealous of your mate while denying your attraction to others)

TABLE 11.1b
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

See Table 11.1b

DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Reaction formation Not acknowledging unacceptable impulses and overemphasizing the opposite (e.g. Promoting a petition against adult bookstores even though you are secretly fascinated by pornography)
Regression Reverting to immature ways of responding (e.g. Throwing a temper tantrum when a friend doesn’t want to do what you’d like)
Displace- ment Redirecting impulses from the original source toward a less threatening person or object (e.g. Yelling at a coworker after being criticized by your boss)

TABLE 11.1c
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

See Table 11.1c
11

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
(continued)
Oral (0-18 mos.) – Mouth (Weaning from breast or bottle)
Anal (18 mos.-3 yrs.) – Anus (Toilet training)
Phallic (3-6 yrs.) – Genitals (Overcoming Oedipus complex by identifying with same-sex parent)
Latency (6 yrs.-puberty) – None (Interacting with same-sex peers)
Genital (puberty-adult) – Genitals (Establishing intimate relationships with the opposite sex)
Freud’s Five Psychosexual Stages
PROCESS DIAGRAM 11.1

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s Five Psychosexual Stages
See Process Diagram 11.1 and captions
– Oral (0-18 mos.) – Mouth (Weaning from breast or bottle)
– Anal (18 mos.-3 yrs.) – Anus (Toilet training)
– Phallic (3-6 yrs.) – Genitals (Overcoming Oedipus complex by identifying with same-sex parent)
– Latency (6 yrs.-puberty) – None (Interacting with same-sex peers)
– Genital (puberty-adult) – Genitals (Establishing intimate relationships with the opposite sex)
Note that the Oedipus complex refers to Freud’s term for believing that, during the phallic stage, a young boy develops a sexual attraction to his mother and rivalry with his father.
12

Alfred Adler
Behavior is purposeful and goal-directed
Inferiority complex
Carl Jung
Personal vs. collective unconscious
Archetypes
Karen Horney
Adult personalities are shaped by childhood relationships with parents
Basic anxiety
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic/Neo-Freudian Theories
FIGURE 11.6

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic/Neo-Freudian Theories
Alfred Adler
Developed individual psychology
Instead of seeing behavior as being motivated by unconscious forces, he believed that our behaviors to be purposeful and goal-directed
Inferiority complex – Adler’s idea that feelings of inferiority develop from early childhood experiences of helplessness and incompetence
Carl Jung (pronounced YOONG)
Developed analytical psychology
Believed that our unconscious contains positive and spiritual motives as well as sexual and aggressive forces
Hence, he divided the unconscious into two forms – the personal (created from our individual experiences) and the collective ( identical in each person, inherited and consists of archetypes (primitive images and patterns of thought, feeling and behavior) – For instance, there are common similarities in religion, art and dream imagery across cultures, such as the repeated symbol of the snake in the pictured Egyptian tomb painting. (Engage your students: Are there other possible explanations? Perhaps because snakes pose a danger that the symbol has been used across time and cultures.)
Karen Horney (pronounced HORN-eye)
Blended Freudian, Alderian and Jungian theory
Believed that most of Freud’s ideas about female personality reflected male bias and misunderstanding
Women’s everyday experiences with social inferiority led not to penis envy but to power envy
Felt personality development depends largely on social relationships, particularly on the relationship between the parent and the child
Basic anxiety – the feelings of helplessness and insecurity that adults experience because as children they felt alone and isolated in a hostile environment; we cope with this anxiety by moving toward, away from or against other people – to be psychologically healthy, we must strike a balance among these three styles
13

Major criticisms of Freud
Inadequate empirical support
Many concepts can’t be scientifically tested
Overemphasis on various things
Sexuality
Biology
Unconscious forces
Corresponding reduced focus on other things
Learning
Culture
Sexism and derogatory view of women
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories
FIGURE 11.7

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories
Major criticisms of Freud
Inadequate empirical support
Many concepts can’t be scientifically tested (In the picture, is this an example of Freud’s first stage of psychosexual development or just a natural part of all infants’ attempts to self-soothe, or their evolutionary adaptive sucking behaviors?
Overemphasis on various things
Sexuality
Biology
Unconscious forces
Corresponding reduced focus on other things
Learning
Culture
Sexism and derogatory view of women

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Are some people with highly negative attitudes toward gay people repressing their own sexual desires?
Q1
People who identify as having a heterosexual orientation but show a strong sexual attraction to same-sex people in psychological tests tend to have more sexual prejudice and higher levels of hostility toward gay people. (Weinstein et al., 2012)

Trait Theories
Early Trait Theories
(continued)
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cattell’s 16 Source Traits

Trait Theories
Early Trait Theories
Cattell’s 16 Source Traits
Note that each of the 16 are on a continuum between low (1) and high (10)
16

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trait Theories
Modern Trait Theory
The five-factor model (FFM)
Includes five basic dimensions
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Informally referred to as “The Big Five”
Note that the first letter of these five dimensions forms the acronym O-C-E-A-N

Trait Theories
Modern Trait Theory
The five-factor model (FFM)
Includes five basic dimensions
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Informally referred to as “The Big Five”
Note that the first letter of these five dimensions forms the acronym O-C-E-A-N
17

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trait Theories
Modern Trait Theory
The five-factor model (FFM)
Do you think these five factors accurately reflect your key personality traits?
Each of the five factors exist on a continuum (from low to high)
FIGURE 11.8

Trait Theories
Modern Trait Theory
The five-factor model (FFM)
Includes five basic dimensions
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Each of these five factors exist on a continuum (from low to high)
Engage your students: Do you think these five factors accurately reflect your key personality traits? Why or why not? Also, some have said that scoring high on the first four factors are the “nice” traits. Under what conditions could scoring low on extraversion (being introverted) be advantageous? (various possible responses)
18

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Which personality traits are most important for your career and academic success?
Q2
Conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness are reliable predictors for success.
Conscientiousness is most strongly linked with academic grade point average (GPA), especially in subjects that students generally find uninteresting. (Dumfart & Neubauer, 2016; Rahafar et al., 2016; Vecchione et al., 2016)

Engage your students: Based on your own college experience, can you see why this makes intuitive sense? How would you explain why extraversion does not positively correlate with GPA?
19

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories
Wide-ranging support exists for the FFM
Demonstrates a high degree of shared preferences for certain traits
Strong cross-cultural support
Allows for the prediction of real-life preferences and behaviors
Criticisms of the FFM
Fails to consider situational determinants
Offers insufficient explanation for why people develop specific traits

Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories
Wide-ranging support exists for the five-factor model (FFM)
Demonstrates a high degree of shared preferences for certain traits
Strong cross-cultural support
Allows for the prediction of real-life preferences and behaviors
Criticisms of the FFM
Fails to consider situational determinants
Offers insufficient explanation for why people develop specific traits
24

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories (continued)
Mate Preferences and the Five-Factor Model
WHAT MEN MOST WANT IN A MATE
1. Mutual attraction – love 6. Education & intelligence
2. Dependable character 7. Sociability
3. Emotional stability & maturity 8. Desire for home & children
4. Pleasing disposition 9. Refinement, neatness
5. Good health 10. Good looks (*)

TABLE 11.2a
* – Not on women’s top 10

Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories
See Table 11.2
25

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories (continued)
Mate Preferences and the Five-Factor Model
WHAT WOMEN MOST WANT IN A MATE
1. Mutual attraction – love 6. Sociability (7)
2. Dependable character 7. Good health (5)
3. Emotional stability & maturity 8. Desire for home & children
4. Pleasing disposition 9. Ambition & industriousness (-)
5. Education & intelligence (6) 10. Refinement, neatness (9)

TABLE 11.2b
– – Not on men’s top 10
# – Ranking on men’s top 10

Trait Theories
Evaluating Trait Theories
See Table 11.2
26

Class Activity
HumanisticTheories
How did Abraham Maslow and Carl Roger define personality?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self concept – Real Self Vs Ideal Self

Trait Theories
Early Trait Theories
Trait defined – “a relatively stable personality characteristic that describes a pattern of thinking, feeling and acting”
Allport
trait hierarchy, with a person’s most pervasive or important traits on top
Cattell
16 source traits
Eysenck – 3 basic types of traits
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism (the tendency toward insecurity, anxiety, guilt and moodiness)
Psychoticism (being out of touch with reality)
27

Class Activity
Social- Cognitive Theories
Biological Theories

How did Albert Bandura from Socia – cognitive perspective and Eyenck from biological perspective viewed personality?

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Humanistic Theories
Roger’s Theory
Self concept
The way we see and feel about ourselves
The most important component of personality
Unconditional positive regard
Love and acceptance with ‘no strings attached’
Such an atmosphere is essential to help children develop to their fullest potential
Tutorial Video: Applying Rogerian Techniques

Humanistic Theories
Roger’s Theory
Self concept
The way we see and feel about ourselves
The most important component of personality
Unconditional positive regard
Love and acceptance with ‘no strings attached’
Such an atmosphere is essential to help children develop to their fullest potential
29

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Humanistic Theories
Roger’s Theory (continued)
According to Rogers, in order to be regarded as a well-adjusted individual, there needs to be a great deal of overlap (congruence) between one’s real and ideal selves.
According to Rogers, poor mental health and personality maladjustment result when there is an incongruence – or mismatch – between our ideal and real selves.

Humanistic Theories
Roger’s Theory
See ‘Psychology and You’ dialogue box
According to Rogers, in order to be regarded as a well-adjusted individual, there needs to be a great deal of overlap (congruence) between one’s real and ideal selves.
According to Rogers, poor mental health and personality maladjustment result when there is an incongruence – or mismatch – between our ideal and real selves.
30

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
What parenting skills are also associated with increased marital satisfaction?
Q3
Interestingly, parents who in responsive caregiving also tend to show this same pattern of behavior (unconditional regard) toward their spouses, which in turn leads to higher levels of relationship satisfaction. (Millings et al., 2013)
This suggests that unconditional positive regard is important in all types of relationships.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Humanistic Theories
Maslow’s Theory
We have a basic human tendency to pursue self-actualization (an inborn drive to develop our talents and capacities)
Personality development results from the natural progression of seeking to meet higher and higher levels of needs
Only a few, rare individuals ever become fully self-actualized (e.g. Einstein, Gandhi)

Humanistic Theories
Maslow’s Theory
We have a basic human tendency to pursue self-actualization (an inborn drive to develop our talents and capacities)
Personality development results from the natural progression of seeking to meet higher and higher levels of needs
Only a few, rare individuals ever become fully self-actualized (e.g. Albert Einstein, Mahandas Gandhi. Eleanor Roosevelt)
32

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Humanistic Theories
Maslow’s Theory (continued)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Although the natural progression is upward, regression toward a lower level can occur – especially under stressful conditions – such as during natural disasters or a period of unemployment.
FIGURE 11.10

Humanistic Theories
Maslow’s Theory
See ‘Psychology and You’ dialogue box
33

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Humanistic Theories
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
Lasting impacts
Valuable insights useful for personal growth and self-understanding
Strong impact in the areas of contemporary counseling and psychotherapy, childrearing, education and managerial practices
Criticized in areas of naïve assumptions, poor testability, inadequate evidence and narrowness of focus

Humanistic Theories
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
Have provided valuable insights useful for personal growth and self-understanding
Strong impact in the areas of contemporary counseling and psychotherapy, childrearing, education and managerial practices
Criticized in areas of naïve assumptions, poor testability, inadequate evidence and narrowness of focus

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social-Cognitive Theories
Bandura and Rotter
Albert Bandura
Self-efficacy (his term for self-confidence)
Reciprocal determinism – the interplay of:
Internal personal factors
Environment
Behavior
Julian Rotter
Your behavior and personality are determined by:
What you expect to happen following an action
The reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes

Social-Cognitive Theories
Bandura and Rotter
Albert Bandura
Self-efficacy (his term for self-confidence)
Reciprocal determinism – the interplay of:
Internal personal factors
Environment
Behavior
Julian Rotter
Your behavior and personality are determined by:
What you expect to happen following an action
The reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes
35

Social-Cognitive Theories
Bandura (continued)
Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism
FIGURE 11.11
According to Bandura, personality is determined by a three-way, reciprocal interaction of the internal characteristics of a person, the external environment and the person’s behavior.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social-Cognitive Theories
Bandura
See Figure 11.11 and caption
According to Bandura, personality is determined by a three-way, reciprocal interaction of the internal characteristics of a person, the external environment and the person’s behavior.
36

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social-Cognitive Theories
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories
Contributions
Offer testable, objective hypotheses
Provide operationally defined terms
Reliance on empirical data
Believe that both personality and situations predict behavior in real-world situations
Criticisms
Too great of a focus on situational influences
Doesn’t adequately acknowledge the stability of personality or sociocultural, emotional and biological influences

Social-Cognitive Theories
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories
Contributions
Offer testable, objective hypotheses
Provide operationally defined terms
Reliance on empirical data
Emphasize the role of cognitive processes in personality
Believe that both personality and situations predict behavior in real-world situations
Criticisms
Too great of a focus on situational influences
Doesn’t acknowledge personality stability
Doesn’t consider sociocultural, emotional and biological influences
37

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Can spending time in a foreign country change your personality?
Q4
High school students who study abroad (thereby experiencing a change in environment) show greater changes in personality than those who do not. (Hutteman et al., 2015)
Exchange students showed substantial increases in their self-esteem compared to those who stayed home.

The Biological Bases of Personality (Eysenck)
Brain structures that correlate with particular traits
Impulsiveness
Risk-aversive vs. risk-seeking
2. Neurochemistry
Sensation-seeking is linked to levels of MAO
Novelty-seeking/extraversion is linked to dopamine
3. Genetics
Behavioral genetics – Fraternal twins Vs Identical twins
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality
Video: Shy Brains

Biological Theories
Three Major Contributors to Personality
The Biological Bases of Personality (Hans Eysenck)
The Biological Bases of Personality (Eysenck)
Brain structures that correlate with particular traits
Impulsiveness
Risk-aversive vs. risk-seeking
2. Neurochemistry
Sensation-seeking is linked to levels of MAO (monoamine oxidase) – an enzyme that regulates levels of neurotransmitters such as dopamine
Novelty-seeking/extraversion is linked to dopamine (along with addictive personality traits)
40

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)
The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)
3. Genetics
Behavioral genetics
Studies of identical and fraternal twins suggested that about 40-50% of our personality traits are genetic
Studies of parents and their biological and adopted children showed that parents’ traits correlated moderately to their biological children and hardly at all to their adopted children

Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality
The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)
3. Genetics
Behavioral genetics
Studies of identical and fraternal twins suggested that about 40-50% of our personality traits are genetic
Studies of parents and their biological and adopted children showed that parents’ traits correlated moderately to their biological children and hardly at all to their adopted children
41

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Do our genes predict how much we will give to charity?
Q5
One study found that individuals with a “niceness gene” were more likely to report engaging in various types of prosocial behaviors, such as:
– giving blood
volunteering
donating to charitable organizations
(Poulin et al., 2012)

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)
Identical versus fraternal twins

FIGURE 11.13
100% shared genes
Share the same placenta
Are always the same sex
Around 50% shared genes
No more genetically similar than non-twin siblings
Share environment in the womb (“womb mates”)

Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality
Identical vs. fraternal twins
See figure 11.13 and caption
43

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)
Adoption Studies
FIGURE 11.14

Biological Theories
3 Major Contributors to Personality
The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)
Adoption studies
See Figure 11.14 and captions
44

Benefits
Exciting insights with clear links between some traits and various brain areas, neurotransmitters and/or genes
Recognition that traits are never the result of a single biological process
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
Evaluating Biological Theories
Drawbacks
Potential to overemphasize genetics
The role of the unshared environment – even in the same family – has been overlooked

Biological Theories
Evaluating Biological Theories
Benefits
Exciting insights with clear links between some traits and various brain areas, neurotransmitters and/or genes
Recognition that traits are never the result of a single biological process
Drawbacks
Potential to overemphasize genetics
The role of the unshared environment – even in the same family – has been overlooked
45

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories
Evaluating Biological Theories (continued)
Multiple influences on personality
FIGURE 11.15
What factors help to contribute to this girl being shy?
40-50% Genetics
27% Nonshared environment
7% Shared environment
16-26% Unknown

Biological Theories
Evaluating Biological Theories
Multiple influences on personality
What makes this girl shy? At least 3 factors:
Genetic factors (40-50%)
Nonshared environmental factors (27%)
Shared environmental factors (7%)
…plus a health dose of the ‘unknown’ (16-26%)

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Interviews and Observation
Observation
Direct
Methodical
Interviews
– Unstructured
Permit greater free exploration of personality
– Structured
Specific questions asked
Allow objective evaluation of responses and comparison to others
FIGURE 11.17

Personality Assessment
Interviews and Observation
Psychologists use interviews to evaluate personality:
Unstructured interviews allow greater free exploration of personality
Structured interviews use specific questions to objectively evaluate responses and compare to others
Psychologists directly and methodically observe behavior
47

Personality Assessment
Interviews and Observation
(continued)
FIGURE 11.18
Facebook test of your personality
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Personality Assessment
Interviews and Observation
The “Facebook personality test”
See Figure 11.18 and caption
48

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Can social media postings be used to measure your personality?
Q6
An examination of Facebook likes can accurately predict a number of traits and attributes, including:
sexual orientation
ethnicity
religious beliefs
political views
personality
intelligence
happiness
use of addictive substances
parental separation
age
gender
(Kosinski et al., 2013)

Standardized tests
Examples
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Most widely used and researched; self-report
Mainly used to diagnose psychological disorders
The NEO Personality Inventory
Assesses using the five-factor model
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Objective Tests

Personality Assessment
Objective Tests
Standardized tests
Examples
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Most widely used and researched; self-report
Mainly used to diagnose psychological disorders
The NEO Personality Inventory
Assesses using the five-factor model
50

Entrepreneurship in the United States
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Objective Tests (continued)
Does the higher measure of “entrepreneurial spirit” in the Western U.S. reflect America’s historical migration patterns of people moving from the East to the West?

Personality Assessment
Objective Tests
Entrepreneurship in the United States
See Figure 11.20 and caption

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Projective Tests
Subject is presented with a standardized set of ambiguous stimuli
– The responses are assumed to reveal inner feelings, motives and conflicts
Examples
The Rorschach Inkblot Test
The Murray Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Personality Assessment
Projective Tests
Projective tests = a method of personality assessment in which an individual is presented with a standardized set of ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or abstract drawings, that allow the test taker to project his or her unconscious unto the test material; the individual’s responses are assumed to reveal inner feelings, motives, and conflicts
Rorschach Inkblot Test by Hermann Rorschach (1921) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Henry Murray (1938)
52

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Projective Tests (continued)
Sample Projective Tests – not standard

The Rorschach Inkblot Test The Thematic Apperception Test

Personality Assessment
Projective Tests
Sample Projective tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test by Hermann Rorschach (1921)
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Henry Murray (1938)
53

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments
Interviews and Observation
– Benefits
Potential for a wide array of data
– Drawbacks
Quite costly
Very time consuming
Little agreement on interpretation
Virtual Field Trip: Personality Research
Tutorial Video: Measuring Personality

Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments
Interviews and Observation
– Benefits
Potential for a wide array of data
– Drawbacks
Costly
Time consuming
Little agreement on interpretation (differs depending upon who is administering the interview or doing the observation; subjectivity)

Objective Tests
Benefits
Can be administered to a large number of people
Standard assessment – allows for comparisons
Drawbacks
Deliberate deception and social desirability bias
Diagnostic difficulties
Cultural bias and inappropriate use
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments (continued)

Personality Assessment
Objective Tests
Objective Tests
Benefits
Can be administered to a large number of people
Standard assessment – allows for comparisons
Drawbacks
Deliberate deception and social desirability bias
Diagnostic difficulties
Cultural bias and inappropriate use
55

Projective Tests
Benefit
Believed to serve as a “psychological X-ray” when respondents may be unable or unwilling to express their true feelings
Drawbacks
Extremely time-consuming to administer and interpret
Low reliability and validity
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments (continued)

Personality Assessment
Projective Tests
Benefit
Believed to serve as a “psychological X-ray” when respondents may be unable or unwilling to express their true feelings
Drawbacks
Extremely time-consuming to administer and interpret
Low reliability and validity
56

Summary
Each type of test has its limits; hence, psychologists typically combine the results of various scientific methods to create a fuller picture of an individual’s personality
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cautions
Beware of pseudo-personality quizzes
Employ common logical fallacies:
Barnum effect
Confirmation bias
Self-serving biases
Critical thinking is important when evaluating personality tests
Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments (continued)

Personality Assessment
Evaluating Personality Assessments
Summary
Each type of test has its limits; hence, psychologists typically combine the results of various scientific methods to create a fuller picture of an individual’s personality
Cautions
– Beware of pseudo-personality quizzes
– Employ common logical fallacies:
Barnum effect
Confirmation bias
Self-serving biases
57

Psychology in Everyday Life
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides

Worth Publishers

Developing Through the Life Span
Chapter 3

Developing Through the Life Span
OVERVEIW
Learning Activity 4B
Explore the Prenatal Development and the Newborn
Conception
Prenatal Development
The Competent Newborn

Learning Activity 5A
Developing Through the Life Span
OVERVIEW
Explore
Infancy ( 0 – 2yrs) and Childhood (2-12rs)
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Thinking About Nature and Nurture

Developing Through the Life Span
OVERVIEW
Adolescene
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Emerging Adulthood
Thinking About Continuity and Stages

Developing Through the Life Span
OVERVIEW
Adulthood
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Thinking About Stability and Change

Prenatal Development and the Newborn
How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth, development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence.

*
Preview Question 2: How does life develop before birth?

Genes: Our Codes for Life
Chromosomes containing DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are situated in the nucleus of a cell.

Genes: Our Codes for Life
Segments within DNA consist of genes that make proteins to determine our development.

Genome
Genome is the set of complete instructions for making an organism, containing all the genes in that organism. Thus, the human genome makes us human.

Conception
A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell.
Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company
Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company

Prenatal Development
A zygote is a fertilized egg with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b).
Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company
Biophoto Associates/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Prenatal Development
At 9 weeks, an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.
Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company
Lennart Nilsson/ Albert Bonniers Publishing Company

VIDEO CLIP
Prenatal Animation: Fetal Development

The Competent Newborn
Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food.

*
Preview Question 3: What are some of the newborn’s abilities and traits?

The Competent Newborn
Offspring cries are important signals for parents to provide nourishment. In animals and humans such cries are quickly attended to and relieved.
Carl and Ann Purcell/ Corbis
Lightscapes, Inc. Corbis

Learning Activity 5A
Explore the following development
Infancy (0-2)and Childhood( 2-12)
Physical Development
Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
Social Development

Twin and Adoption Studies
Studying the effects of heredity and environment on two sets of twins, identical and fraternal, has come in handy.

*
Preview Question 4: How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects of nature and nurture?

Separated Twins
A number of studies compared identical twins reared separately from birth, or close thereafter, and found numerous similarities.
Separated Twins
Personality, Intelligence
Abilities, Attitudes
Interests, Fears
Brain Waves, Heart Rate

Separated Twins
Critics of separated twin studies note that such similarities can be found between strangers. Researchers point out that differences between fraternal twins are greater than identical twins.
Bob Sacha

VIDEO CLIP
“Nature and Nurture”

Biological Versus
Adoptive Relatives
Adoption studies, as opposed to twin studies, suggest that adoptees (who may be biologically unrelated) tend to be different from their adoptive parents and siblings.

Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years, the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.
Stage Span
Infancy Newborn to toddler
Childhood Toddler to teenager

Physical Development
Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand the developing brain.

*
Preview Question 5: How do the brain and motor skills develop during infancy and childhood?

Brain Development
At birth, most brain cells are present. After birth, the neural networks multiply resulting in increased physical and mental abilities.

Motor Development
First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. Experience has little effect on this sequence.
Renee Altier for Worth Publishers
Jim Craigmyle/ Corbis
Phototake Inc./ Alamy Images
Profimedia.CZ s.r.o./ Alamy

Maturation
The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation.
Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.

Brain Maturation and Infant Memory
The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (Bauer, 2002). A 5-year-old has a sense of self and an increased long-term memory, thus organization of memory is different from 3-4 years.
Amy Pedersen
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier

Cognitive Development
Piaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make.
Both photos: Courtesy of Judy DeLoache

*
Preview Question 6: How did Piaget view the development of a child’s mind, and how do current researchers’ views differ?

Schemas
Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.

Assimilation and Accommodation
The process of assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into our current understanding (schema). The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it is called accommodation.
Jean Piaget with a subject
Bill Anderson/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Jean Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking

Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of sight are also out of mind.
Doug Goodman

Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they do not have any abstract concepts or ideas.
However, recent research shows that children in the sensorimotor stage can think and count.
Children understand the basic laws of physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear.

Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
2. Children can also count. Wynn (1992, 2000) showed that children stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones.

Preoperational Stage
Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations.
Ontario Science Center

VIDEO CLIP
“Piaget’s Conservation-of-Liquid Task”

Preoperational Stage: Criticism
DeLoache (1987) showed that children as young as 3 years of age are able to use mental operations. When shown a model of a dog’s hiding place behind the couch, a 2½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-old did.

Egocentrism
Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.
When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her eyes.

Theory of Mind
Preschoolers, although still egocentric, develop the ability to understand another’s mental state when they begin forming a theory of mind.
The problem on the right probes such ability in children.

Concrete Operational Stage
In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities.
Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4 = 8, is also easily doable.

Formal Operational Stage
Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking.

Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. However, today’s researchers believe the following:
Development is a continuous process.
Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age.

Social Development
Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face.
© Christina Kennedy/ PhotoEdit

*
Preview Question 7: How do the bonds of attachment form between parents and infants?

Origins of Attachment
Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and not because of nourishment.
Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin

Attachment Differences
Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their mother leave, they show distress.
The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment.

Secure Attachment
Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure attachment.
Berry Hewlett

VIDEO CLIP
“Attachment & Separation Anxiety”

Insecure Attachment
Harlow’s studies showed that monkeys experience great anxiety if their terry-cloth mother is removed.
Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin

Attachment Differences: Why?
Why do these attachment differences exist?
Factor Explanation
Mother Both rat pups and human infants develop secure attachments if the mother is relaxed and attentive.
Father In many cultures where fathers share the responsibility of raising children, similar secure attachments develop.

Separation Anxiety
Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children are home or sent to day care.

Deprivation of Attachment
What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments?
In such circumstances children become:
Withdrawn
Frightened
Unable to develop speech

Prolonged Deprivation
If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels.

Child-Rearing Practices
Practice Description
Authoritarian Parents impose rules and expect obedience.
Permissive Parents submit to children’s demands.
Authoritative Parents are demanding but responsive to their children.

Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like common genes may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an authoritative parenting style.

How Much Credit (or Blame) Do Parents Deserve?
Parental influence is largely genetic. This support is essential in nurturing children. However, other socializing factors also play an important role.
Although raised in the same family,
some children are greater risk takers.
Miquel L. Fairbanks

PARENTS VS. PEERS
WHO HAD MORE OF AN INFLUENCE ON YOU?

Peer Influence
Children, like adults, attempt to fit into a group by conforming. Peers are influential in such areas as learning to cooperate with others, gaining popularity, and developing interactions.
Ole Graf/ zefa/ Corbis

Learinig Activity 5A
Explore Adolescence (12 – 19)
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Emerging Adulthood
Thinking About Continuity and Stages

Adolescence
Many psychologists once believed that our traits were set during childhood. Today psychologists believe that development is a lifelong process. Adolescence is defined as a life between childhood and adulthood.
AP Photo/ Jeff Chiu

Physical Development
Adolescence begins with puberty (sexual maturation). Puberty occurs earlier in females (11 years) than males (13 years). Thus height in females increases before males.

*
Preview Question 9: What major physical changes occur during adolescence?

Primary Sexual Characteristics
During puberty primary sexual characteristics — the reproductive organs and external genitalia — develop rapidly.
Ellen Senisi/ The Image Works

Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Also secondary sexual characteristics—the non-reproductive traits such as hips in girls and facial hair and deepening of voice in boys develop. Pubic hair and armpit hair grow in both sexes.

Brain Development
Until puberty, neurons increase their connections. However, at adolescence, selective pruning of the neurons begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient.

Frontal Cortex
During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness.

Cognitive Development
Adolescents’ ability to reason gives them a new level of social awareness. In particular, they may think about the following:
Their own thinking.
What others are thinking.
What others are thinking about them.
How ideals can be reached. They criticize society, parents, and even themselves.

*
Preview Question 10: How did Piaget and Kohlberg describe cognitive and moral development during adolescence?

Developing Reasoning Power
According to Piaget, adolescents can handle abstract problems, i.e., they can perform formal operations. Adolescents can judge good from evil, truth and justice, and think about God in deeper terms.
William Thomas Cain/ Getty Images
AP/Wide World Photos

Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.
AP Photo/ Dave Martin

VIDEO CLIP
“Do Adolescents Lack Empathy?”

3 Basic Levels of Moral Thinking
Preconventional Morality: Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.
Conventional Morality: By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake.
Postconventional Morality: Affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.

Morality
As our thinking matures, so does our behavior in that we become less selfish and more caring. People who engage in doing the right thing develop empathy for others and the self-discipline to resist their own impulses.

Social Development
Who Do you know in each stage?

*
Preview Question 11: What social tasks and challenges do adolescents face en route to mature adulthood?

Forming an Identity
In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves before settling into a consistent and comfortable identity. Having such an identity leads to forming close relationships.
Leland Bobble/ Getty Images
Matthias Clamer/ Getty Images

Parent and Peer Influence
Although teens become independent of their parents as they grow older, they nevertheless relate to their parents on a number of things, including religiosity and career choices. Peer approval and relationships are also very important.

WHO AM I?
~Top 10 Things~
You may respond in terms of your roles of responsibilities, the groups you belong to, your beliefs, personality traits or qualities, your needs, feelings, or behavior patterns.

Only list the things that are really important to you, those that, if lost, would make a real difference in your sense of identity.

Consider each item listed individually.
What would life be like if it were no longer true?
For example, what would it be like if you lost your parents for those of you who wrote down, “son” or “daughter”?
*Rank-order the items in terms of importance.

Handout 3-13
“Erikson’s Stages”

Think-Pair-Share
Get together with a partner and share who you are!!!

Emerging Adulthood
Emerging adulthood spans ages 18-25. During this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work. On average, emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties.
Ariel Skelley/ Corbis

Adulthood (20 -40 yrs)
Late Adulthood ( 40 – end 90)
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Social Development
Thinking About Stability and Change

Adulthood
Although adulthood begins sometime after a person’s mid-twenties, defining adulthood into stages is more difficult than defining the stages of childhood or adolescence.
Rick Doyle/ Corbis

Physical Development
The peak of physical performance occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us.

*
Preview Question 12: How do our bodies from early to late adulthood?

Middle Adulthood
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities and cardiac output begin to decline after the mid-twenties. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility.
Batting performance of Willie Mays.
Bettman/ Corbis

Old Age: Sensory Abilities
After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. After 80, neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks.
Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit

Old Age: Motor Abilities
At age 70, our motor abilities also decline. A 70-year-old is no match for a 20-year-old individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age.

Cognitive Development
Do cognitive abilities like memory, creativity, and intelligence decline with age the same way physical abilities do?

*
Preview Question 13: In what ways do memory and intelligence change as we age?

Aging and Memory
As we age, we remember some things well. These include recent past events and events that happened a decade or two back. However, recalling names becomes increasingly difficult.

Aging and Memory
Recognition memory does not decline with age, and material that is meaningful is recalled better than meaningless material.
David Myers

Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age, but crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) does not. We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.

Aging and Intelligence
A number of cognitive abilities decline with age. However, vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age.

Social Development
Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work.

*
Preview Question 14: What are adulthood’s two primary commitments, and how do the social clock and chance events influence us in these areas?

Adulthood’s Ages and Stages
Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of age-bound stages. Mid-life crises at 40 are less likely to occur than crises triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage).

Adulthood’s Commitments
Love and work are defining themes in adult life. Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitment has survival value. Parents that stay together are likely to leave a viable future generation.
JLP/ Jose Pelaez/ zefa/ Corbis

Adulthood’s Commitments
Happiness stems from working in a job that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.
Charles Harbutt/ Actuality

Well-Being Across the Life Span
Well-being and people’s feelings of satisfaction are stable across the life span.

*
Preview Question 15: What factors affect our well-being in later life?

Successful Aging

Death and Dying
The “normal” range of reactions or grief stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. Grief is more severe if death occurs unexpectedly. People who view their lives with a sense of integrity (in Erikson’s terms) see life as meaningful and worthwhile.
Chris Steele-Perkins/ Magnum Photos

Reflections on Two Major Developmental Issues
Researchers who view development as a slow, continuous process are generally those who emphasize experience and learning. Those with a biological perspective, on the other hand, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages. These include psychologists like Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson.
Continuity and Stages

Developmental Issues
Lifelong development requires both stability and change. Personality gradually stabilizes as people age. However, this does not mean that our traits do not change over a lifetime. Some temperaments are more stable than others.
Stability and Change

Handout 3-15
“Life/Values/Goals”

Death Bed
Imagine you have lived a rich, meaningful life, and now are on your death bed. As you reflect back, what memories fill you with happiness, pride, and satisfaction?

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