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This exam will only cover Unit 8 materials! Please be sure to answer each question fully and include references to your textbook and at least 2 supplemental resources. Each response should be at least 500 words in length. You will have the opportunity to save your work and return to it as needed. The Final Exam is due by Wednesday of Unit 8 at 11:59 PM.

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This exam will only cover Unit 8 materials! Please be sure to answer each question fully and include references to your textbook and at least 2 supplemental resources. Each response should be at least 500 words in length. You will have the opportunity to save your work and return to it as needed. The Final Exam is due by Wednesday of Unit 8 at 11:59 PM.

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Question 1

Define the concept of environmental justice. What effects do environmental problems have on human populations? Which groups face the most threat and why?

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Discuss the role of technology in our lives today. Be sure to include an examination on the benefits and consequences of this technology in our lives and within the larger society.

Ch. 13

Environmental

Problems

Chapter Outline

The Global Context: Globalization and the environment

Sociological Theories of environmental

Problems

●

Social Problems Research Up Close: The Climate Deception Dossiers

environmental Problems: an overview

● The Human Side: Fracking Stories Told by Someone Who isn’t Gagged

Social Causes of environmental Problems

Strategies for action: Responding to environmental Problems

● Self and Society: attitudes toward Government interventions to Reduce Global Warming

Understanding environmental Problems

Chapter Review

The 2015 Indian heat wave is linked to global warming and climate change—one of the most challenging environmental problems of our time. In this chapter, we discuss the causes and consequences of global warming and climate change and other environmental problems that threaten the lives and well-being of people, plants, and animals all over

the world—today and in future generations. After examining how globalization affects environmental problems, we view environ- mental issues through the lens of structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. We then present an overview of major environmental problems, examining their social causes and exploring strategies to reduce or alleviate them.

The Global Context: Globalization and the environment

In looking at environmental problems from a global perspective, we see that many envi- ronmental problems have causes and conse- quences that cross international borders. For example, global warming and climate change affect the entire planet.

Other environmental problems also can extend far beyond their source to affect distant

Toxic chemicals travel thousands of miles from the Southern Hemisphere to the arctic, where they have been found in the breast milk of inuit women.

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CHaPTeR 13

Environmental Problems

regions and even the entire planet. For example, toxic chemicals (such as polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs]) from the Southern Hemisphere have been found in the Arctic. In as few as five days, chemicals from the tropics can evaporate from the soil, ride the winds thou- sands of miles north, condense in the cold air, and fall on the Arctic in the form of toxic snow or rain (French 2000). This phenomenon was discovered in the mid-1980s, when scientists found high levels of PCBs in the breast milk of Inuit women in the Canadian Arctic region.

Bioinvasion

Another cross-border environmental problem is bioinvasion: the intentional or acciden- tal introduction of species in regions where they are not native. Bioinvasion is largely a product of the growth of global trade and tourism (Chafe 2005). Zebra mussels, native to eastern Europe and western Asia, were first discovered in North America in 1988. Zebra mussels were introduced into the Great Lakes in the ballast of a single cargo ship traveling from the Black Sea. This invasive species clogs water supply pipes in industrial facilities, power plants, and public water supply plants and water treatment facilities (U.S. Geological Survey 2015). The invasive kudzu plant, native to east Asia, was brought to the United states in the early to mid-1900s to control soil erosion and feed livestock. Known as the “vine that ate the South,” kudzu now covers more than 7 million acres of U.S. land and costs more than $3 million a year in management efforts and in damage to railway lines, telephone poles, and other infrastructure (Grider 2015). You might be surprised to learn that the domestic cat is considered among the world’s 100 worst inva- sive species. Native to northeast Africa, cats have spread to every part of the world and are responsible for the decline and extinction of many species of birds (Global Invasive Species Database 2015).

Environmental Migrants

Environmental migrants—people who flee from their home region due to environmental problems that threaten their survival or livelihood—are also referred to as “environmen- tal refugees,” “climate refugees,” “environmentally displaced persons,” and “climate mi- grants.” Environmental problems that cause people to migrate include floods, hurricanes, droughts, and other natural disasters which displaced an average of 27 million people each year between 2008 and 2013 (Yonetani 2014). Higher levels of displacement are expected in coming decades, in part because of an increase in extreme weather events related to global climate change.

In some cases,

environmental migrants

find refuge within their home country, but others migrate internationally. Although environmental migrants are sometimes re- ferred to as “refugees,” persons forced to leave their countries because of environmental degradation or the effects of climate change are not, under international law, considered refugees. Under current law, governments are under no obligation to treat an “environ- mental refugee” differently than any other migrant seeking admission into a country. In 2014, a family from the Polynesian island nation of Tuvalu became the world’s first environmental migrants to gain residency in another country (New Zealand). The fam- ily claimed that the rising sea level resulting from climate change is causing salt water to pollute Tuvala’s drinking water (Nuwer 2014). However, this family was not granted residency in New Zealand on the basis of climate change, but rather on humanitarian grounds and, in part, because the family had three generations of relatives living in the country. Another family from the small island nation of Kiribati sought residency in New Zealand on the basis of climate change threatening their island home, but their request was denied (Longeray and Caron 2015). As of this writing, there are no interna- tional policies to protect environmental migrants, and countries are facing the need to develop immigration policies dealing with environmental migration. The Nansen Initia- tive, proposed by Norway and Switzerland in 2011, seeks to develop an international agreement that addresses the needs of environmental migrants (Ferris 2015).

bioinvasion The intentional or accidental introduction of plant, animal, insect, and other species in regions where they are not native.

environmental migrants

People who flee from their home region due to envi- ronmental problems that threaten their survival or livelihood.

Environmental Problems and the Growth of Transnational

Corporations and Free Trade Agreements

As discussed in Chapter 7, the world’s economy is dominated by transnational corpora- tions, many of which have established factories and other operations in developing coun- tries where labor and environmental laws are lax. Transnational corporations have been implicated in environmentally destructive activities—from mining and cutting timber to dumping toxic waste.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) and free trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) have powers that weaken the ability of governments to protect natural resources or to implement environmental legislation (Bruno and Karliner 2002).

Under NAFTA’s Chapter 11 provisions, corporations can challenge local and state en- vironmental policies, federal-controlled substances regulations, and court rulings if such regulatory measures and government actions negatively affect the corporation’s profits. Any country that decides, for example, to ban the export of raw logs as a means of con- serving its forests or, as another example, to ban the use of carcinogenic pesticides, can be charged under the WTO by member states on behalf of their corporations for obstructing the free flow of trade and investment. A secret tribunal of trade officials would then de- cide whether these laws were “trade restrictive” under the WTO rules and should there- fore be struck down. Once the secret tribunal issues its edict, no appeal is possible. The convicted country is obligated to change its laws or face the prospect of perpetual trade sanctions (Clarke 2002, p. 44). For example, in the late 1990s, Ethyl, a U.S. chemical company, used NAFTA rules to challenge Canada’s decision to ban the gasoline additive methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT), which is believed to have harm- ful effects on human health. Ethyl won the suit, and Canada paid $13 million in damages and legal fees to Ethyl and reversed the ban on MMT (Public Citizen 2005).

As this book goes to press, the United States and the European Union (EU) are negotiat- ing the Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)—a free trade agreement that is focused on getting rid of trade barriers by establishing “regulatory cooperation” be- tween the United States and EU member states. The EU has much more stringent laws and regulations regarding the use of pesticides and other chemicals; 82 pesticides are banned in the EU that are used in the United States (Smith et al. 2015). Under the TTIP, such bans could be viewed as “trade irritants,” and the EU could be forced to lift or weaken such bans.

Sociological Theories of environmental
Problems

Next we explore how the three main sociological theories—structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—can be applied to our understanding of environmental problems.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective

Structural functionalism views social systems (e.g., families, workplaces, societies) as composed of different parts that work together to keep the whole system functioning. Likewise, humans are part of a larger ecosystem—which consists of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical components of the environment—such as air, water, soil, and sunlight—that interact to keep the whole ecosystem functioning. Each living and nonliving part of the ecosystem plays a vital role in maintaining the whole; disrupt or eliminate one element of the ecosystem, and every other part could be affected.

Pope Francis (2015) said, “There can be no renewal of our relationship with nature without a renewal of humanity itself.” What does that statement mean to you?

Structural functionalism focuses on how changes in one aspect of the social system affect other aspects of society. For example, as croplands become scarce or degraded, as forests shrink, and as marine life dwindles, millions of people who make their living from these natural resources must find alternative livelihoods.

The structural-functionalist perspective raises our awareness of latent dysfunctions— negative consequences of social actions that are unintended and not always recognized. For example, while the U.S. ban on trans fats in foods (see Chapter 2) is expected to re- duce heart disease and improve health, the ban also means increased demand for palm oil (the leading substitute for trans fat), which means more deforestation as forests are cleared to make way for palm oil plantations (Worland 2015).

Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective focuses on the role that wealth, power, and the pursuit of profit plays in environmental problems and solutions. The capitalistic pursuit of profit encour- ages making money from industry regardless of the damage done to the environment. To maximize sales, manufacturers design products intended to become obsolete. As a result of this planned obsolescence, consumers continually get rid of used products and pur- chase replacements. Perceived obsolescence—the perception that a product is obsolete— is a marketing tool used to convince consumers to replace certain items even though the items are still functional. Fashion is a prime example as consumers are encouraged to buy the latest trends in clothing style every season, even though their current clothing may still be in good condition. Both planned and perceived obsolescence benefit industry profits, but at the expense of the environment, which must sustain the constant produc- tion and absorb ever-increasing amounts of waste.

The conflict perspective is also concerned with environmental injustice (also known as environmental racism)—the tendency for marginalized populations and communi- ties to disproportionately experience adversity because of environmental problems. For example, although developing countries have emitted far more greenhouse gases (which cause global warming and climate change), the effects of global climate change are social problems

rESEArCh

uP CloSE The Climate Deception Dossiers

For nearly three decades, fossil fuel companies have deliberately spread climate misinformation and blocked climate action. A research report called The Climate Deception Dossiers docu- ments the fossil fuel’s climate deception campaign (Mulvey and Shulman 2015).

Sample and methods

The research method used involved col- lecting and analyzing secondary data. The sample consisted of 85 internal com- pany and trade association documents, totaling 336 pages. The documents

had been leaked to the public, revealed through lawsuits, or obtained using the federal Freedom of Information Act.

Selected Findings

The Climate Deception Dossiers report organizes the findings into seven case studies, five of which we summarize below.

Case Study 1: Dr. Wei-Hock Soon’s Research. Documents show that Dr. Wei-Hock Soon, a scientist (with a degree in aerospace engineering, not climatology) at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, received more than $1.2 million in research funding

between 2001 and 2012 from fossil fuel interests including ExxonMobil, the American Petroleum Institute (API), the Charles Koch Foundation, and Southern Company, a large electric utility in At- lanta that generates most of its power from coal. Dr. Soon’s industry-funded “research” found that global warming is due to natural variations in the sun’s energy, and not due to greenhouse gases caused by burning fossil fuels. “Soon sought to portray his research as independent. . . .The fact that he was paid by fossil fuel interests was never publicly disclosed in his published work or testimony to lawmakers” (p. 7).

Case Study 2: american Petroleum institute’s 1998 memo. The Ameri- can Petroleum Institute (API) is the country’s largest oil trade association whose members include ExxonMobil, Shell, BP, ConocoPhillips, and Chev- ron. A 1998 internal API memo titled “Global Climate Science Communica- tions Plan,” described a plan aimed at confusing and misinforming the public about climate change. “Accord- ing to the memo . . . ‘victory’ would be achieved for the campaign when

‘average citizens’ and the media were convinced of ‘uncertainties’ in climate science” and when “recognition of uncertainties becomes part of the ‘conventional wisdom’” (pp. 9–10). The memo outlined tactics to “manufacture uncertainty” in climate science, includ- ing (1) recruiting and funding scientists to publish research that creates doubt about prevailing climate science, and (2) disseminating materials to K–12 science teachers that emphasize the “uncertainties” of climate science.

Case Study 3: Western States Petroleum association’s Deception Campaign. Western States Petroleum Association (WSPA) is a top lobbyist for the oil indus- try and the oldest U.S. petroleum trade association. In 2014, WSPA president Catherine Reheis-Boyd gave a slide presentation to a business group dem- onstrating the organization’s strategy to orchestrate and fund a network of 16 different fake grassroots groups—also known as front groups or Astroturf groups—to falsely represent citizen opposition to policies and proposals

on climate change and renewable energy that threaten fossil fuel industry

“not in my backyard”

Opposition by local resi- dents to a proposed new development in their community, also known as NIMBY.

expected to be felt most severely by poor, developing nations (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2014). In the United States, polluting industries and industrial and waste facilities are often located in minority communities. More than half (56 percent) of people living within 1.8 miles of a commercial hazardous waste site are people of color (Bullard et al. 2007). Rates of poverty are also higher among households located near hazardous waste facilities. In North Carolina, hog industries—and the associated environmental and health risks associated with hog waste—tend to be located in com- munities with large black populations, low voter registration, and low incomes (Edwards and Driscoll 2009). One factor that contributes to environmental injustice is known as “Not in My Backyard,” or NIMBY, which refers to opposition by local residents to a pro- posed new development in their community. Residents who have wealth and political clout may be more successful at stopping developments, such as oil or gas drilling sites or hazardous waste storage facilities, “in their backyard,” which are then located in more impoverished areas where residents have little political influence.

The conflict perspective is also concerned with how industries use their power and wealth to influence politicians’ environmental and energy policies. Editors at The Nation explain:

“Follow the money” is a basic rule of American politics. Find out who funds a given candidate’s campaign—and, equally as important, who isn’t funding profits. The presentation, which was subsequently leaked to Bloomberg Businessweek, referred to front groups as “campaigns and coalitions” with names such as Fed Up at the Pump, Californians for Energy Independence, Californians against Higher Oil Taxes, and Oregonians for Sound Fuel Policy. “Through these groups, the industry attempted to create the impression of a consumer backlash against climate legis- lation. . . . Concerns are raised by groups of purportedly everyday citizens when, in fact, they are disguised messages from fossil fuel companies seeking to under- mine climate legislation” (pp. 13–14).

Case Study 4: Forged letters from the Coal industry to lawmakers. In 2009, Congress was debating the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (often known as the Waxman- Markey climate bill), which proposed a federal carbon emissions reduction plan. In an attempt to influence lawmakers to vote against this bill, the American Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity—a front group for the coal industry—

hired a public relations firm that sent members of Congress forged letters purporting to be from nonprofit groups including the NAACP, the American Association of University Women, and

the American Legion. These forged letters misrepresented the nonprofits’ positions on the proposed legislation. For example, Representative Tom Perriello (D-Va.) received a forged letter opposing the climate legislation that was supposedly from Creciendo Juntos, a nonprofit Latino organization based in his district. The letter read:

My organization, Creciendo Jun- tos, represents minorities in your district. . . . We ask you to use your important position to help protect minorities and other consumers in your district from higher electricity bills. Please don’t vote to force cost increases on us, especially in this volatile economy. (p. 16)

A congressional investigation found that 13 fraudulent letters had been sent to members of Congress, who found out the letters were forged after they voted on the climate bill.

Case Study 5: The Global Climate Coali- tion’s 1995 Primer on Climate Change Science. In 2009, a memo was leaked to the New York Times that “presents the strongest evidence yet that major fossil fuel companies knew the reality of human-caused climate change and its implications even as they continued

their deceptive practices” (p. 25). A fossil fuel company scientist wrote the memo, “Predicting Future Climate Change: A Primer,” in 1995 for the ben- efit of the Global Climate Coalition—a fossil fuel industry trade association aimed at opposing mandatory reduc- tions in carbon emissions. Its members included BP, Chevron, ExxonMobil, Shell, and others. The 17-page primer assessed what was known about cli- mate science and unequivocally stated that “the scientific basis for the Green- house Effect and the potential impact of human emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 on climate is well established and cannot be denied” (p. 25, emphasis in original).

Conclusion

The documents presented in The Climate Deception Dossiers show that fossil fuel companies have intention- ally spread climate disinformation and blocked actions to reduce greenhouse gases for decades, and they continue to do so today. Furthermore, “fossil fuel company leaders knew that their products were harmful to people and the planet but still chose to actively deceive the public and deny this harm” (p. 2).

SOURCE: Mulvey and Shulman 2015.

it—and you can make a pretty good guess as to which interests and policies the candidate will support or oppose once in office. (Editors 2015)

In the 2012 elections, oil, gas, and coal industries contributed at least $91 million to presidential and congressional candidates. In the same year, the federal government used $18.5 billion in tax money to subsidize the fossil fuel industry (Editors 2015). As this book goes to press, The Nation has challenged 2016 presidential candidates to neither solicit nor accept campaign contributions from any gas, oil, or coal company.

Do you think that members of Congress, who make and vote on energy policies, should be allowed to own stocks in oil or gas companies? Would you feel the same way about members of Congress who invested in renewable energy industries, such as solar and wind power?

Just as the tobacco industry in the mid-twentieth century used wealth and power to convince the public that tobacco was harmless, so the fossil fuel industry has created a climate denial machine—a well-funded and aggressive misinformation campaign run by the fossil fuel industry and its allies that attacks and discredits climate science. This chapter’s Social Problems Research Up Close feature documents how the fossil fuel in- dustry has deceived the public on the issue of global warming and climate change.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on how meanings, labels, and definitions learned through interaction and through the media affect environmental problems. The words we use reflect and influence how we relate to the environment. Native American Robin Wall Kimmerer (2013) explains that in her native language (Potawatomi), “we speak of the land as emingoyak: that which has been given to us. In English, we speak of the land as ‘natural resources’ or ‘ecosystem services,’ as if the lives of other beings were our property” (p. 383). The indigenous language that conveys that land is a gift teaches people to be grateful for the Earth and its bounty, to respect and care for the Earth, and to use the Earth’s gifts (such as plants that provide food and water that sustains life) for the benefit of all rather than for individual profit or gain.

Large corporations and industries that are environmentally damaging commonly use marketing and public relations strategies to portray their corporation, industry, or prod- ucts as environmentally friendly—a practice known as greenwashing. For example, some brands of household items such as toilet paper and dish soap are advertised as “green,” “all natural,” or “earth-friendly.” Marketing companies know that “green” sells, as con- sumers are becoming more eco-minded. But how valid are the environmental claims made on the labels of the products we buy? The Environmental Working Group’s Guide to Healthy Cleaning warns:

On a cleaning product, the word “natural” can mean anything or nothing at all—there is no regulation of the word’s use. Some manufacturers use the term to mean that some or all of the ingredients come from plants or minerals rather than petroleum, but they rarely disclose how much or little of those ingredients is present. The term “natural” can mislead consumers to think that a product is safer or more environmentally friendly than it actually is. (“Decoding the Labels” 2015)

Greenwashing is commonly used by public relations firms that specialize in damage control for clients whose reputations and profits have been hurt by poor environmental practices. For example, coal is associated with the devastation of communities through the mining practice of mountaintop removal, and burning coal is the biggest contributor to pollution that causes global warming. The coal industry has spent enormous sums to convince the public that coal is clean. The “clean coal” campaign has invited widespread criticism from environmentalists: “Saying coal is clean is like talking about healthy ciga- rettes. There’s no such thing as clean coal” (Beinecke 2009).

Corporations also engage in pinkwashing—the practice of using the color pink and pink ribbons and other marketing strategies that suggest a company is helping to fight breast cancer, even when the company may be manufacturing or selling products linked to cancer. The cosmetic company Estée Lauder was the first company to use the pink ribbon symbol of fighting breast cancer in its marketing, followed by Avon and Revlon. Yet all three cosmetics companies produce and sell products with ingredients that include hormone disruptors and other suspected carcinogens (Lunden 2013). In another blatant example of pinkwashing, Susan G. Komen, a large nonprofit organization dedicated to fighting breast cancer, teamed up with an oilfield corporation, Baker Hughes, to distribute pink drill bits to oilfields worldwide (Jaggar 2014). The drill bits are shipped in contain- ers along with information packets about breast cancer risk factors and screening tips. Baker Hughes’ corporation drills for fossil fuels and conducts fracking—a process for extracting oil and gas using chemicals that include possible carcinogens (discussed later in this chapter).

These pink drill bits deliver not only barrels of oil, but also good PR and money: Baker Hughes gets to claim it cares about women’s health, and Komen will receive a check from the Houston-based company for $100,000. The campaign has even come up with a cute tagline: “Doing their bit for a cure.” (Jaggar 2014)

Chapter Review

●● What are some examples of cross-border environmental problems? Global warming and climate change affect the entire planet. Bioinvasion—the introduction of species in regions where they are not native—can disrupt and damage ecosystems. When environmental migrants seek refuge in another country, there are no international policies to protect them.

●● How do free trade agreements and transnational corporations contribute to environmental problems? Free trade agreements such as NAFTA and the FTAA provide transnational corporations with privileges to pursue profits, expand markets, use natural resources, and exploit cheap labor in developing countries while weakening the ability of governments to protect natural resources or to implement environmental legislation.

●● How does the conflict perspective view environmental problems and solutions? The conflict perspective focuses on the role that wealth, power, and the pursuit of profit plays in environmental problems and solutions. For example, the fossil fuel indus- try has spent a great deal of money to influence lawmakers to support policies that benefit the fossil fuel industry and to discredit climate science.

●● What does the term environmental injustice refer to? Environmental injustice, also called environmental racism, refers to the tendency for marginalized populations and communities to disproportionately experience adversity due to environmental problems. For example, in the United States, polluting industries, industrial and waste facilities, and transportation arteries (which generate vehicle emis- sions pollution) are often located in minority communities.

●● What is greenwashing? Greenwashing refers to the ways in which environmentally and socially damaging companies portray their corporate image and products as being “environmentally friendly” or socially responsible.

●● Where does most of the world’s energy come from? Most of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuels, which include oil, coal, and natural gas. This is significant be- cause many of the serious environmental problems in

the world today, including global warming and climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, stem from the use of fossil fuels.

●● What are some problems associated with nuclear energy?

Nuclear waste contains radioactive plutonium, a substance linked to cancer and genetic defects. Nuclear waste in the environment remains potentially harmful to human and other life for thousands of years, and disposing of nuclear waste is problematic. Accidents at nuclear power plants, such as the 2011 Fukushima disaster, and the potential

for nuclear reactors to be targeted by terrorists add to the actual and potential dangers of nuclear power plants.

●● What is our environmental footprint? The demands that humanity makes on the Earth’s natural resources are known as the environmental footprint. Since 1970, humanity’s environmental footprint has exceeded the Earth’s capacity to produce useful resources such as water and crops, and to absorb waste, such as CO2 emissions.

●● How often does a species of life on earth become extinct?

One species of life on Earth goes extinct every three hours.

●● What are the major causes and effects of deforestation? The major causes of deforestation are the expansion of ag- ricultural land, human settlements, wood harvesting, and road building. Deforestation displaces people and wild species from their habitats, contributes to global warming, and contributes to desertification, which results in the ex- pansion of desert land that is unusable for agriculture. Soil erosion caused by deforestation can cause severe flooding.

●● What are the effects of air pollution on human health? Indoor and outdoor air pollution, which is linked to heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory ailments, kills about 7 million people a year, or one in eight global deaths.

●● What are some examples of common household, per- sonal, and commercial products that contribute to indoor air pollution? Some common indoor air pollutants include carpeting, mattresses, drain cleaners, oven cleaners, spot removers, shoe polish, dry-cleaned clothes, paints, varnishes, furni- ture polish, potpourri, mothballs, fabric softener, caulking compounds, air fresheners, deodorizers, disinfectants, glue, correction fluid, printing ink, carbonless paper, and felt-tip markers.

●● What is the primary cause of global warming? The prevailing view on what causes global warming is that greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—accumulate in the atmosphere and act like the glass in a greenhouse, holding heat from the sun close to the Earth. The primary greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.

●● What are “climate deniers”? Climate deniers are people who do not accept the scientific consensus that human-caused global warming and climate change are scientific facts.

●● What are the major sources of water pollution? Water pollution is largely caused by fertilizers

and other chemicals used in intensive agriculture, industrial produc- tion, mining, and untreated urban runoff and wastewater. Oil spills and plastics also contribute to water pollution.

●● Why is there increasing public concern over fracking? Fracking involves the use of chemicals that contaminate land, water, and air. Oil and gas companies do not have to disclose to the federal government the chemicals they use in fracking, but scientists find carcinogenic and toxic

Chapter Review
●● What are some examples of cross-border environmental problems? Global warming and climate change affect the entire planet. Bioinvasion—the introduction of species in regions where they are not native—can disrupt and damage ecosystems. When environmental migrants seek refuge in another country, there are no international policies to protect them.
●● How do free trade agreements and transnational corporations contribute to environmental problems? Free trade agreements such as NAFTA and the FTAA provide transnational corporations with privileges to pursue profits, expand markets, use natural resources, and exploit cheap labor in developing countries while weakening the ability of governments to protect natural resources or to implement environmental legislation.
●● How does the conflict perspective view environmental problems and solutions? The conflict perspective focuses on the role that wealth, power, and the pursuit of profit plays in environmental problems and solutions. For example, the fossil fuel indus- try has spent a great deal of money to influence lawmakers to support policies that benefit the fossil fuel industry and to discredit climate science.
●● What does the term environmental injustice refer to? Environmental injustice, also called environmental racism, refers to the tendency for marginalized populations and communities to disproportionately experience adversity due to environmental problems. For example, in the United States, polluting industries, industrial and waste facilities, and transportation arteries (which generate vehicle emis- sions pollution) are often located in minority communities.
●● What is greenwashing? Greenwashing refers to the ways in which environmentally and socially damaging companies portray their corporate image and products as being “environmentally friendly” or socially responsible.
●● Where does most of the world’s energy come from? Most of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuels, which include oil, coal, and natural gas. This is significant be- cause many of the serious environmental problems in
the world today, including global warming and climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, stem from the use of fossil fuels.
●● What are some problems associated with nuclear energy?
Nuclear waste contains radioactive plutonium, a substance linked to cancer and genetic defects. Nuclear waste in the environment remains potentially harmful to human and other life for thousands of years, and disposing of nuclear waste is problematic. Accidents at nuclear power plants, such as the 2011 Fukushima disaster, and the potential
for nuclear reactors to be targeted by terrorists add to the actual and potential dangers of nuclear power plants.
●● What is our environmental footprint? The demands that humanity makes on the Earth’s natural resources are known as the environmental footprint. Since 1970, humanity’s environmental footprint has exceeded the Earth’s capacity to produce useful resources such as water and crops, and to absorb waste, such as CO2 emissions.
●● How often does a species of life on earth become extinct?
One species of life on Earth goes extinct every three hours.
●● What are the major causes and effects of deforestation? The major causes of deforestation are the expansion of ag- ricultural land, human settlements, wood harvesting, and road building. Deforestation displaces people and wild species from their habitats, contributes to global warming, and contributes to desertification, which results in the ex- pansion of desert land that is unusable for agriculture. Soil erosion caused by deforestation can cause severe flooding.
●● What are the effects of air pollution on human health? Indoor and outdoor air pollution, which is linked to heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory ailments, kills about 7 million people a year, or one in eight global deaths.
●● What are some examples of common household, per- sonal, and commercial products that contribute to indoor air pollution? Some common indoor air pollutants include carpeting, mattresses, drain cleaners, oven cleaners, spot removers, shoe polish, dry-cleaned clothes, paints, varnishes, furni- ture polish, potpourri, mothballs, fabric softener, caulking compounds, air fresheners, deodorizers, disinfectants, glue, correction fluid, printing ink, carbonless paper, and felt-tip markers.
●● What is the primary cause of global warming? The prevailing view on what causes global warming is that greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—accumulate in the atmosphere and act like the glass in a greenhouse, holding heat from the sun close to the Earth. The primary greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.
●● What are “climate deniers”? Climate deniers are people who do not accept the scientific consensus that human-caused global warming and climate change are scientific facts.
and other chemicals used in intensive agriculture, industrial produc- tion, mining, and untreated urban runoff and wastewater. Oil spills and plastics also contribute to water pollution.
●● Why is there increasing public concern over fracking? Fracking involves the use of chemicals that contaminate land, water, and air. Oil and gas companies do not have to disclose to the federal government the chemicals they use in fracking, but scientists find carcinogenic and toxic

Ch.14 Science

and Technology

The global Context: The Technological revolution

Less than 50 years ago, traveling across state lines was an arduous task, a long-distance phone call was a memorable event, and mail carriers brought belated news of friends and relatives from far away. Today, travelers jour- ney between continents in a matter of hours, and for many, e-mail, faxes, instant messag- ing, texting, and cell phones have replaced previously conventional means of communi- cation.

The world is a much smaller place than it used to be, and it will become even smaller as the technological revolution continues. In 2014, the Internet had 3 billion users in more than 200 countries, with 277 million users in the United States (Internet Statis- tics 2015). Of all Internet users, the highest proportion come from Asia (45.7 percent), fol- lowed by Europe (19.2 percent), North America (10.2 percent), Latin America and the Carib- bean (10.5 percent), Africa (9.8 percent), the Middle East (3.7 percent), and Oceania/ Australia (0 percent) (Internet Statistics 2015).

Although the penetration rate—that is, the percentage of people who have access to and use the Internet in a particular area—is higher in industrialized countries, there is some movement toward the Internet becoming a truly global medium as Africans, Middle Easterners, and Latin Americans increasingly get online. For example, Internet use in the United States grew 182 percent between 2000 and 2013; the number of Internet users in Nigeria increased by 33,560 percent during the same time period (Internet Statistics 2015). In developing nations, at least half of Internet users say they use the Internet daily. The most popular Internet activity for these users was socializing with friends and family (Pew 2015a).

Social media use dominates Internet activity in many parts of the developing world, with users in Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Mexico, and Argentina spending three hours a day or more on social media (Figure 14.1). Social media use is likely to continue its rapid expansion around the world as Google and Facebook work to bring affordable Internet access and wireless technologies to previously unconnected parts of the devel- oping world (Efrati 2013; Internet.org 2015). The duality of expanding wireless technol- ogy use and global social media connections, however, may come at a price to victims of cybercrime. Technology known as “creepware,” software that can be purchased for as little as $40, allows cybercriminals to spy on and steal personal information from victims from anywhere in the world (Perez 2014).

The movement toward globalization of technology is, of course, not limited to the use and expansion of the Internet. The world robot market and the U.S. share of it continue to expand, Microsoft’s Internet platform and support products are sold all over the world, scientists collect skin and blood samples from remote islanders for genetic research, a global treaty regulating trade of genetically altered products has been signed by more than 100 nations, and South Korea’s Samsung leads its competitors in cell phone innova- tions and sales (Noble 2015).

To achieve such scientific and technological innovations, sometimes called research and development (R&D), countries need material and economic resources. Research

entails the pursuit of knowledge; development refers to the production of materials, sys- tems, processes, or devices directed to the solution of practical problems. According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), the United States spends over $400 billion a year in research and development, accounting for about 30 percent of the global total—the largest single-performing country in the world (NSF 2015). As in most other countries, U.S. funding sources are primarily from private industry, 63 percent of the total, followed by the federal government and nonprofit organizations such as research institutes at col- leges and universities (NSF 2015).

The United States leads the world in science and technology, although there is some evidence that we are falling behind (Dutta et al. 2015; Information Technology and Innovation Foundation [ITIF] 2012; Price 2008). For example, a report by the World Economic Forum compares information and communication technologies (ICTs) across countries using a Network Readiness Index (NRI) (Figure 14.2). The NRI is composed of four subsections: (1) the quantity and quality of the environment for ICTs (e.g., political environment, regulatory environment), (2) ICTs’ readiness (e.g., affordability), (3) ICTs’ usage (e.g., individual, business), and (4) the impact of ICTs (e.g., social, economic). In 2015, the NRI results indicated that Nordic coun- tries (Finland, Sweden, Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland) held 5 of the top 10 index positions (Dutta et al. 2015). Asian countries also made a strong showing, with Singapore rated as number 1, and Japan, Taiwan/China, Republic of Korea, and Hong Kong all in the top 18 rankings. The United States ranked number 7 on the overall index but scored higher on the impact subsection and lower on the remaining three subsections.

The decline of U.S. supremacy in science and technology is likely to be the result of several interacting forces (Coleman 2015; ITIF 2009; Lemonick 2006; Price 2008; World Bank 2009). First, the federal government has been scaling back its invest- ment in research and development in response to fiscal deficits (Britt 2015; Plum- mer 2013). Second, corporations, the largest contributors to research and develop- ment, have begun to focus on short-term products and higher profits as pressure from stockholders mounts. Third, developing countries, most notably China and India, are expanding their scientific and technological capabilities at a faster rate than the United States. In 2000, the United States was the leading exporter of ICT goods. By 2012, China had surpassed the United States in the value of ICT exports by

Figure 14.2 Global Network Readiness Index, 2015* SOuRCE: Dutta, Geiger, and Lanvin 2015. *Networked Readiness Index compiles data on the political and regulatory environment, business and innovation environment, infrastructure, affordability, skills, individual and business usage, and economic impacts.

more than $300 billion (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] 2014).

Fourth, there has been concern over science and math education in the United States, both in terms of quality and quantity. More than half of students entering col- lege need remedial-level math courses in order to complete college-level work (NSF 2015). Although the United States awards the highest number of science and engi- neering PhD degrees in the world, about 6 in 10 students receiving degrees in these fields are from foreign nations. The majority of these foreign nationals do not stay in the United States after receiving their degrees, leaving a significant gap between high-skill technology jobs in the United States and American workers able to fill those jobs.

Finally, Mooney and Kirshenbaum (2009) document “unscientific America”—the tremendous disconnect between the citizenry, media, politicians, religious leaders, education, and the entertainment industry (e.g., CSI, The Big Bang Theory, Grey’s Anatomy), on the one hand, and science and scientists, on the other. Post–World War II America, in part because of the Cold War, invested in R&D, leading to such scientific and technological advances as the space program, the development of the Internet, and the decoding of the genome. Yet, despite these significant contributions and the recognition of the significance of STEM disciplines, most Americans know very little about science (NSF 2015) (see this chapter’s Self and Society). Table 14.1 displays the gaps in opinions about scientific issues between professional scientists and the American public.

One hundred years after the invention of the automobile, a new invention is poised to change society again: the driverless car. Pioneered by Google, early tests indicate that self-driving cars are less prone to accident than those driven by humans (S. Johnson 2015). Convenience for those on long commutes and improved safety, particularly in the age of distracted, cell-phone-wielding drivers, are just a few advantages of the driverless car (The Economist 2015). However, technological automation can also have disadvantages. If driverless cars become commonplace, how do you think they will change society?

Postmodernism and the Technological Fix

Many Americans believe that social problems can be resolved through a technological fix (Weinberg 1966) rather than through social engineering. For example, a social engineer might approach the problem of water shortages by persuading people to change their lifestyle: use less water, take shorter showers, and wear clothes more than once before washing. A technologist would avoid the challenge of changing people’s habits and mo- tivations and instead concentrate on the development of new technologies that would increase the water supply.

Social problems can be tackled through both social engineering and a technologi- cal fix. In recent years, for example, social engineering efforts to address the problem of date rape on college campuses have included sexual assault awareness campaigns and public service announcements about binge drinking and the definition of “consent.” An example of a technological fix for the same problem was developed by four students at North Carolina State University who invented a type of nail polish that, when a woman dips her finger into a drink, would change color if common date rape drugs were present (Sullivan 2014).

Not all individuals, however, agree that science and technology are good for soci- ety. Postmodernism is a worldview that holds that rational thinking and the scientif- ic perspective have fallen short in providing the “truths” they were once presumed to hold. During the industrial era, science, rationality, and technological innovations were thought to hold the promises of a better, safer, and more humane world. Today, postmod- ernists question the validity of the scientific enterprise, often pointing to the unforeseen

and unwanted consequences of resulting technologies. Automobiles, for example, began to be mass-produced in the 1930s, in response to consumer demands. But the prolifera- tion of automobiles has also led to increased air pollution and the deterioration of cities as suburbs developed, and, today, traffic fatalities are the number one cause of accident- related deaths.

Sociological Theories of Science

and Technology

Each of the three major sociological frameworks helps us to better understand the nature of science and technology in society.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective

Structural functionalists view science and technology as emerging in response to societal needs—that “science was born indicates that society needed it” (Durkheim 1973/1925). As societies become more complex and heterogeneous, finding a common and agreed-on knowledge base becomes more difficult. Science fulfills the need for an assumed objec- tive measure of “truth” and provides a basis for making intelligent and rational decisions. In this regard, science and the resulting technologies are functional for society.

Scientific knowledge has grown at a more rapid rate over time; during each of three historical periods—from about 1650–1750, 1750–1950, and 1950–2012—scientific knowledge grew at triple the rate of the previous phase (Bornmann and Mutz 2015). If society changes too rapidly as a result of science and technology, however, problems may emerge. When the material part of culture (i.e., its physical elements) changes at a faster rate than the nonmaterial part (i.e., its beliefs and values), a cultural lag may de- velop (Ogburn 1957). For example, the typewriter, the conveyor belt, and the computer expanded opportunities for women to work outside the home. With the potential for economic independence, women were able to remain single or to leave unsatisfactory relationships and/or establish careers. But although new technologies have created new opportunities for women, beliefs about women’s roles, expectations of female behavior, and values concerning equality, marriage, and divorce have lagged behind.

Robert Merton (1973), a structural functionalist and founder of the subdiscipline soci- ology of science, also argued that scientific discoveries or technological innovations may be dysfunctional for society and may create instability in the social system. For example, the development of time-saving machines increases production, but it also displaces workers and contributes to higher rates of employee alienation. Defective technology can have disastrous effects on society. For example, defective airbags from Japanese automo- bile parts provider Takata resulted in deaths and serious injuries, and the recall of more than 34 million cars (BBC 2015).

Conflict Perspective

Conflict theorists, in general, argue that science and technology benefit a select few. For some conflict theorists, technological advances occur primarily as a response to capital- ist needs for increased efficiency and productivity and thus are motivated by profit. As McDermott (1993) predicted, most decisions to increase technology are made by “the im- mediate practitioners of technology, their managerial cronies, and for the profits accruing to their corporations” (p. 93). In the United States, private industry spends more money on research and development than the federal government does. The Dalkon Shield (an intrauterine device, or IUD, a form of contraception) and silicone breast implants are examples of technological advances that promised millions of dollars in profits for their developers. However, the rush to market took precedence over thorough testing of the products’ safety. Subsequent lawsuits filed by consumers resulted in large damage awards for the plaintiffs.

Science and technology also further the interests of dominant groups to the detriment of others. The need for scientific research on AIDS was evident in the early 1980s, but the required large-scale funding was not made available so long as the virus was thought to be specific to homosexuals and intravenous drug users. Only when the virus became a threat to mainstream Americans were millions of dollars allocated to AIDS research. Hence, conflict theorists argue that granting agencies act as gatekeepers to scientific dis- coveries and technological innovations. These agencies are influenced by powerful inter- est groups and the marketability of the product rather than by the needs of society.

When the dominant group feels threatened, it may use technology as a means of social control. For example, the use of the Internet is growing dramatically in China, the world’s largest Internet market. Censorship has been consolidated under the State Council In- formation Office, also known as the “great firewall of China” (Chen 2011). A study by Harvard Law School researchers indicates that, of the 204,000 websites accessed, nearly 20,000 were inaccessible. Top Google search results for such words as Tibet, equality, Taiwan, and democracy China were consistently blocked (Associated Press 2010). China is not alone, however. The OpenNet Initiative, a collaborative effort of three academic institutions, reports that Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Syria, and Ethiopia also have pervasive political censorship of the Internet (OpenNet 2015).

Finally, conflict theorists as well as feminists argue that technology is an extension of the patriarchal nature of society that promotes the interests of men and ignores the needs and interests of women. As in other aspects of life, women play a subordinate role in reference to technology in terms of both its creation and its use. For example, washing machines, although time-saving devices, disrupted the communal telling of stories and the resulting friendships among women who gathered together to do their chores. Bush (1993) observed that, in a “society characterized by a sex-role division of labor, any tool or technique . . . will have dramatically different effects on men than on women” (p. 204).

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Knowledge is relative. It changes over time, over circumstances, and between societies. We no longer believe that the world is flat or that the Earth is the center of the universe, but such beliefs once determined behavior because individuals responded to what they thought to be true. The scientific process is a social process in that “truths”—socially constructed truths—result from the interactions among scientists, researchers, and the lay public.

Kuhn (1973) argued that the process of scientific discovery begins with assumptions about a particular phenomenon (e.g., the world is flat). Because unanswered questions al- ways remain about a topic (e.g., why don’t the oceans drain?), science works to fill these gaps. When new information suggests that the initial assumptions were incorrect (e.g., the world is not flat), a new set of assumptions or framework emerges to replace the old one (e.g., the world is round). It then becomes the dominant belief or paradigm.

Symbolic interactionists emphasize the importance of this process and the effect that social forces have on it. Lynch et al. (2008) describe the media’s contribution in framing societal beliefs about racial discrimination, racism, and genetic determinism. Social forc- es also affect technological innovations, and their success depends, in part, on the social meaning assigned to any particular product. As social constructionists argue, individu- als socially construct reality as they interpret the social world around them, including the meaning assigned to various technologies. If claims makers can successfully define a product as impractical, cumbersome, inefficient, or immoral, the product is unlikely to gain public acceptance. Such is the case with RU-486, an oral contraceptive known as the “abortion pill” that is widely used in France, Great Britain, China, and the United States but is opposed by many Americans (National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League [NARAL] 2013). Similarly, widespread media coverage of the potential risks as- sociated with eating genetically modified (GM) food likely contributes to the disparity between U.S. adults and scientists in the belief that they are unsafe—57 percent versus 11 percent, respectively (Pew 2015b). social problems

ReSeARCH

uP CloSe Gender and the Internet

When the Internet first came into common usage at the turn of the 21st century, there were significant gender differences in the use of and attitudes toward the Internet. Men used the Internet more than women, were more likely to identify their ability to use the Internet as important to their self- concept, and experienced less anxiety about Internet use than women (Joiner et al. 2005). Ten years later, Internet use has dramatically changed. Dominant trends in Internet use such as social networking, mobile technology, and micro-blogging have led some to argue that the Internet has become “femi- nized.” Has the supposed feminization of the Internet closed the gender gap in Internet use? In 2012, Joiner and col- leagues revisited their original study to answer this question.

Sample and Methods

Joiner et al. (2012) researched gender differences in Internet use through survey questionnaires distributed to 501 first-year psychology undergradu- ate students from six uK universities. The sample included 389 women, 100 men, and 12 individuals who did not specify their gender, with a mean age

of 20.1 years. The sample was selected to as closely resemble the 2002 study sample as possible.

Survey questionnaires are a pre- ferred method of collecting quanti- tative data from a large number of individuals. The survey asked students to identify what types of computer technology they owned and used (e.g., laptop, tablet, smartphone, etc.), at what age they first started using the Internet, what kinds of activities they performed (e.g., social networking, shopping, gaming, banking etc.), and how many hours on average they spent using the Internet every day.

Findings and Conclusions

In many ways, the gender gap in In- ternet usage has closed. In 2002, re- searchers found that men had stronger Internet identification and less Internet anxiety than women. Ten years later, there were no gender differences in Internet identification or anxiety. The researchers found no gender differ- ences in the age at which men and women first started using the Internet (mean age 5 11 years); their likelihood of owning laptops, smartphones, or tablets; or the amount of time they

spend using the Internet per day (mean 5 3.4 hours).

However, important gender dif- ferences in Internet use remain. First, men used the Internet for a broader range of activities than women. Sec- ond, there were differences in the types of activities that men and women engaged in on the Internet. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for health information and banking; however, women were more likely than men to use the Internet for communication, social networking, and travel reservations. Men were more likely to use the Internet for entertain- ment, gaming, gambling, downloading music and videos, and visiting websites with adult content. The authors con- clude that gender differences in Inter- net usage reflect broader sociocultural gender differences. Thus, while young people in general share some com- monalities in their relationship to tech- nology, it is not accurate to assume that all young people use Internet technology in the same way or share the same abilities and experiences with Internet use.

SOuRCE: Joiner et al. 2012.

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CHAPTeR 14

Not only are technological innovations subject to social meaning, but who becomes involved in what aspects of science and technology is also socially defined. Men, for example, far outnumber women in earning computer science degrees, as many as 10 to 1 at some schools. Some of the disparity can be explained by variations in interest. In a sample of first-year college students, although fluctuating over time, women consis- tently expressed less interest in computer science than men (Sax et al. 2015). Societal definitions of men as rational, mathematical, and scientifically minded may have con- tributed to the interest gender gap. This chapter’s Social Problems Research Up Close feature highlights the similarities and differences between how men and women use the Internet.

Technology and the Transformation

of Society

A number of modern technologies are considerably more sophisticated than techno- logical innovations of the past. Nevertheless, older technologies have influenced the nature of work as profoundly as the most mind-boggling modern inventions. Post- man (1992) described how the clock—a relatively simple innovation that is taken for

Science and Technology

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(3) mandates that the Department of Health and Human Services maintain, review, and update guidelines in support of human stem cell research; and (4) prohibits public funds from being used for human cloning (Stem Cell Research Advancement Act 2013).

Of late, two areas of concern have required increased government scrutiny: the Na- tional Security Agency (NSA) surveillance programs and international and domestic cyber-threats. After lengthy debate, Congress voted in June 2015 to reform the NSA’s surveillance program to prevent the agency from collecting phone records of millions of Americans, while still allowing the agency broad powers to monitor both foreign and domestic cyber-threats (Diamond 2015). Further, confirming the fears of many, in June 2015, the government announced that the records of 4 million federal employees were breached by hackers working for the Chinese government (Nakashima 2015). Not surpris- ingly, between 2011 and 2014, more than 200 cybersecurity bills were introduced into either the U.S. House of Representatives or the U.S. Senate, five of which were enacted (Fischer 2015).

The government studies and makes recommendations on the use of science and tech- nology through several boards and initiatives, including the National Science and Tech- nology Council, the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, and the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative. These agencies advise the president on matters of science and technology, including research and development, implementation, national policy, and coordination of differ- ent initiatives. Based on the advice of these initiatives, the Obama administration has outlined five key priorities to address cybersecurity (White House 2015b):

1. Protect infrastructure and information systems from cyber threats. 2. Improve ability to identify and report cyber incidents. 3. Build international partnerships to promote Internet freedom and secure, reliable

cyberspace. 4. Secure federal networks. 5. Partner with the private sector to build a cyber-savvy workforce.

Understanding Science and Technology

What are we to understand about science and technology from this chapter? As structural functionalists argue, science and technology evolve as a social process and are a natural part of the evolution of society. As society’s needs change, scientific discoveries and tech- nological innovations emerge to meet these needs, thereby serving the functions of the whole. Consistent with conflict theory, however, science and technology also meet the needs of select groups and are characterized by political components. As Winner (1993) noted, the structure of science and technology conveys political messages, including “power is centralized,” “there are barriers between social classes,” “the world is hierar- chically structured,” and “the good things are distributed unequally” (p. 288).

The demographics of video games is changing, with women, racial and ethnic minorities, and people over age 30 playing more video games than ever before. However, game developers are predominantly young, white, men. Recent threats of violence against female gamers and game reviewers have raised new questions about sexism, racism, and diversity in gaming: “Are games a technology product or a cultural experience?” (Alexander 2014, p. 1). To what extent do you think developers have a social responsibility to be culturally sensitive in their video game designs?

The scientific discoveries and technological innovations that society does or does not embrace are socially determined. Research indicates that science and the resulting tech- nologies have both negative and positive consequences—a technological dualism. Tech- nology saves lives, time, and money; it also leads to death, unemployment, alienation, and estrangement. Weighing the costs and benefits of technology poses ethical dilemmas, as does science itself. Ethics, however, “is not only concerned with individual choices and acts. It is also and, perhaps, above all concerned with the cultural shifts and trends of which acts are but the symptoms” (McCormick and Richard 1994, p. 16).

Thus, society makes a choice by the very direction it follows. These choices should be made on the basis of guiding principles that are both fair and just, such as those listed here:

1. Science and technology should be prudent. Adequate testing, safeguards, and im- pact studies are essential. Impact assessment should include an evaluation of the social, political, environmental, and economic factors.

2. No technology should be developed unless all groups, and particularly those who will be most affected by the technology, have at least some representation “at a very early stage in defining what that technology will be” (Winner 1993, p. 291). Tradi- tionally, the structure of the scientific process and the development of technologies have been centralized (i.e., decisions have been made by a few scientists and engi- neers); decentralization of the process would increase representation.

3. Means should not exist without ends. Each new innovation should be directed to fulfilling a societal need rather than the more typical pattern in which a technol- ogy is developed first (e.g., high-definition television) and then a market is created (e.g., “You’ll never watch a regular TV again!”). Indeed, from the space program to research on artificial intelligence, the vested interests of scientists and engineers, whose discoveries and innovations build careers, should be tempered by the de- mands of society (Buchanan et al. 2000; Eibert 1998; Goodman 1993; Murphie and Potts 2003; Winner 1993).

What the 21st century will hold, as the technological transformation continues, may be beyond the imagination of most of society’s members. Technology empowers; it in- creases efficiency and productivity, extends life, controls the environment, and expands individual capabilities.

Balancing technology with our humanity will continue to be the challenge of the next generation. As humans come to rely on technological automation, the skills, cre- ativity, and innovation that characterize our humanity become dulled. However, it is possible to reconcile technological advancement with the advancement of humanity, as author Nicholas Carr argues, from a technology-centered automation, in which the role of people is to support technology, to a human-centered automation, in which the talents and needs of people direct technological development (Carr 2014). As we proceed further into the first computational millennium, one of the great concerns of civilization will be the attempt to reorder society, culture, and government in a manner that exploits the digital bonanza yet prevents it from running roughshod over the checks and balances so delicately constructed in those simpler pre-computer years.

Chapter review

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What are the three types of technology?

The three types of technology, escalating in sophistication, are mechanization, automation, and cybernation. Mechanization is the use of tools to accomplish tasks previously done by hand. Automation involves the use

of self-operating machines, and cybernation is the use of machines to control machines.

What are some of the reasons the United States may be “losing its edge” in scientific and technological innovations? The decline of U.S. supremacy in science and technology is likely to be the result of five interacting social forces. First, the federal government has been scaling back its

investment in research and development. Second, corpo- rations have begun to focus on short-term products and higher profits. Third, there has been a drop in science and math education in U.S. schools in terms of both quality and quantity. Fourth, developing countries, most notably China and India, are expanding their scientific and techno- logical capabilities at a faster rate than the United States. Finally, as documented in the book Unscientific America (Mooney and Kirshenbaum 2009), there is a disconnect be- tween American society and the principles of science.

● What are some Internet global trends? In 2014, the Internet had 3 billion users in more than 200 countries, with 277 million users in the United States (Internet Statistics 2015). Of all Internet users, the high- est proportion come from Asia (45.7 percent), followed by Europe (19.2 percent), North America (10.2 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (10.5 percent), Africa (9.8 per- cent), the Middle East (3.7 percent), and Oceania/Australia (0 percent) (Internet Statistics 2015).

● according to Kuhn, what is the scientific process? Kuhn (1973) describes the process of scientific discovery as occurring in three steps. First are assumptions about a particular phenomenon. Next, because unanswered ques- tions always remain about a topic, science works to start filling in the gaps. Then, when new information suggests that the initial assumptions were incorrect, a new set of assumptions or framework emerges to replace the old one. It then becomes the dominant belief or paradigm until it is questioned and the process repeats.

● What is meant by the computer revolution? The silicon chip made computers affordable. Today, over 75 percent of U.S. households report having a computer in the home compared to 61.8 percent just a decade ago (File 2014).

● What is the Human genome Project? The U.S. Human Genome Project is an effort to decode human DNA. The 13-year-old project is now complete, al- lowing scientists to “transform medicine” through early diagnosis and treatment as well as possibly preventing dis- ease through gene therapy. Gene therapy entails identifying a defective or missing gene and then replacing it with a healthy duplicate that is transplanted to the affected area.

● How does technology impact laws about abortion? Abortion laws are premised on fetal viability, and techno- logical advancements have made the likelihood of a pre- mature baby surviving a second-trimester birth more likely, leading many states to pass more restrictive abortion laws.

Test Yourself

1. Which of the following technologies is associated with industrialization?

a. Mechanization b. Cybernation c. Hibernation d. Automation

2. Analysis of data over time suggests that the science and technology gap between poorer and richer nations is get- ting greater rather than shrinking.

a. True

b. False 3. The U.S. government, as part of the technological revolu-

tion, spends more money on research and development than educational institutions and corporations combined.

a. True

b. False 4. Which theory argues that technology is often used as a

means of social control? a. Structural functionalism b. Social disorganization c. Conflict theory d. Symbolic interactionism

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How are some of the problems of the Industrial revo- lution similar to the problems of the technological revolution? The most obvious example is unemployment. Just as the Industrial Revolution replaced many jobs with technologi- cal innovations, so too has the technological revolution. Furthermore, research indicates that many of the jobs cre- ated by the Industrial Revolution, such as working on a factory assembly line, were characterized by high rates of alienation. Rising rates of alienation are also a consequence of increased estrangement as high-tech employees work in “white-collar factories.”

What is meant by outsourcing, and why is it important? Outsourcing is the practice of a business subcontracting with a third party, often in low-wage countries such as China and India, for services. The problem with outsourc- ing is that it tends to lead to higher rates of unemployment in the export countries.

What is the digital divide?

The digital divide is the tendency for technology to be most accessible to the wealthiest and most educated. For example, some fear that there will be “genetic stratifica- tion,” whereby the benefits of genetic testing, gene therapy, and other genetic enhancements will be available to only the richest segments of society.

What is meant by the commercialization of technology? The commercialization of technology refers to profit- motivated technological innovations. Whether in regard to the isolation of a particular gene, genetically modified organisms, or the regeneration of organ tissues, where there is a possibility for profit, private enterprise will be there.