SECTION 3.  GOVERNMENT  ARGUMENT / CLASSICAL ARG. FORM

Review of Academic Argument

THE GOAL OF AN ACADEMIC ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY IS TO “PERSUADE”

This persuasion is in the form of academic argument—which is structured argument, based on logic, evidence, analyses,

and consideration of major viewpoints—even opposing views (O.V’s)—so the OV’s can be refuted (argued against successfully)

This form of argumentation is much different than you might see in the “real world”—where argumentation, unfortunately, may often involve threats, lies, misrepresentations, distortions, and logical disconnections….   ACADEMIC ARGUMENT and CLASSICAL ARGUMENTATION is based on logic, clarity, fairness, and evidence.  If you believe a position is true/most correct, you should be able to find the evidence and present the analysis to support that—as well as explain why your position is more valid than others–which may involve a number of different types of viewpoints (ethical, factual, emotional), etc.

>>>>If a person wants to persuade someone else about something, and only argues his/her side of the issue, the listener is always wondering What about other opnions?  Or Why do some people disagree with this position?  The classical argument overcomes these issues by literally presenting both the argument AND the opposing views (which are later refuted/argued against), in order to persuade the reader that the writer’s argumentative position is, overall, better (more persuasive) than the OV’s…

Note that the argumentative position is not necessarily simplistic.  For example, you don’t don’t need to convince the reader that your position is correct all the time, but that overall it is the best position—if the goal of proving “overall best” (as opposed to “always right”) is be established in the thesis.

The THESIS of the argument clearly states your argumentative position.  The thesis does not merely introduce the issue, or claim that people are confused what position to have, or merely mention that the topic is complicated.  THE THESIS PRECISELY STATES WHAT YOU ARE GOING TO PROVE TO THE READER.

The structure of a classical argument is very formal.  It is a format which is most respected, and in many ways similar to courtroom processes.  Following the thesis, there are THREE logical positions in the essay:  your arguments, consideration of opposing views, and refutation (arguing against the opposing views).  Then there is the conclusion, which sums up your position, and adds a final commentary, prediction, or closing statement

Following is a general guide to the classical argument structure.  Your essay MUST follow this guide.  Note that it involves the three positions mention above, but that that opposing views and refutations come together—typically in a single paragraph containing one opposing view and its correlating refutaions.

Often, the effectiveness of the argumentation is often based on the effectiveness of research sources used.  This is true in many court cases as well—the winning party is often the one which has the best expert witnesses and data presentation.   

An argument is also known as an “appeal”—you are appealing to the reader to agree with you.

à Often, a given argument may have simultaneous types of appeals.  You are not restricted to a certain type.  Choose the arguments that you feel overall are best.  Appeals may be to logic, ethics, or emotion.  In the biomedical essay, most of your arguments should be based in scientific logica/data.  (In a philosophy class, some arguments might be based primarily on ethics…)

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY STRUCTURE – PARAGRAPH BY PARAGRAPH MODEL

I.  INTRO:  HOOK/THESIS

II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION  – AS NECESSARY

III ARGUMENTS

1.   FIRST MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                          | *Each of these arguments

2.  SECOND MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                      |  is in a single paragraph

3. THIRD MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                          |  with a topic sentence

4.  FOURTH MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                      |  that indicates the specific

5  FIFTH MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                           |  argument. (Occasionally,

6 .  SIXTH MAJOR ARGUMENT/EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THESIS                         |  a complex argument

(Note:  Your essay could have as few as 4 or as many as 8 specific arguments)                |   will be spread over

| several paragraphs.

IV. OV’S AND REFUTATIONS

1. CONSIDERATION OF FIRST OPPOSING VIEW AND REFUTATION                   | *EACH OV AND ITS

2. CONSIDERATION OF SECOND OPPOSING VIEW AND REFUTATION               |   REFUTION/S GOES

3. CONSIDERATION OF THIRD OPPOSING VIEW AND REFUTATION                  |   IN A SINGLE  

                                                                                                                                                    PARAGRAPH

(Note:  You need 2 Refs (with at least one OV each) at a minimum

V. CONCLUSION

______________________________________________________________________

à *Definition: “Opposing Views” are reasons, held by those who don’t agree with you,  about WHY your argumentative position is not correct, or is not the best position on your topic.  An opposing view is not simply the opposite position.. 

Example:

*Argumentative Thesis:  There should be a California law that no cell phones can be used while driving. 

*Opposing View: We already have a law against distracted driving, and this is enough of a protection.

*Refutation/s (this refutation happens to have 2 parts):

 1) It is not enough protection, because there are too many accidents due to cell phone use while driving; and

2) the definition of “distracted driving” is too vague to be useful and prescriptive.

START GOVERNMENT CONTENT

EXAMPLES OF PREVIOUS TOPICS. 

SOME OF THESE ARE DATED, BUT THEY GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE TOPICS

(YOU CAN USE ANY OF THESE TOPICS, BUT YOU MUST FIND 5 OF YOUR OWN SOURCES—Note that some of the links here may non-functional, as the Internet is constantly changing).  You need to do your own research for any topic. YOU CAN ALSO FIND YOUR OWN TOPIC