5000-4DI

Instructions

This week’s assignment gives you the chance to analyze a specific task related to the learning scenario on which you have been working since Week 2.

The key to success on this assignment is to think narrow and thorough; that is, be sure that you have drilled down to a narrow task and then thoroughly detail the steps to complete that task. Borrowing from the same example as the introduction, you want to focus your assignment on making the sandwich, not an entire meal.

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If you are unsure whether your task is narrow enough, consult the examples in this week’s resources (e.g., Figure 4.1 in Brown & Green, 2015) and your professor. Be sure to address the following:

Define a task analysis.
Summarize the learning need you developed in Week 2.
Name the task you are analyzing.
Describe at least three pre-requisite skills or knowledge needed to complete the task. In the sandwich example, pre-requisite knowledge might include knowing what peanut butter is and a pre-requisite skill might be how to use a knife to spread something on bread.
List the steps needed to complete the task in order, starting with Step 1.

While you may create a Word document with this information, you are also welcomed to use other formats that might engage other skills you are growing. When in doubt, first check with your professor.

Length: 2-3 pages, excluding title and reference pages; for other formats, consult your professor

References: Include a minimum of 2 scholarly resource cited and referenced in APA style.

The task analysis should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts presented in the course by providing new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. The content should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards and should adhere to Northcentral University’s Academic Integrity Policy.

Chapter 3

Needs Analysis

“Why is it that our teacher candidates’ passing rate for the Teacher Performance Assessment is
lower than the state average? Why are 25% not passing?” Hannah asked herself these questions
after reading the summary data provided by the State Department of Education. Although the
answers to these questions were not clear, one thing was: As department chair for elementary edu-
cation, Hannah knew she must address the problem. A teacher candidate who did not pass the
assessment was not eligible for a teaching credential.

At a nonprofit organization, Terrence has been told by his supervisor that the number of
complaints about the call center volunteers had significantly increased over the past three months.
Terrence was given the tasks of exploring why the sudden increase had occurred and what possible
solutions could be implemented to lower the number of complaints.

Both Hannah and Terrence should conduct a needs analysis to gather information that will allow
each to fully understand the problem they face. In doing so, each will be able to clearly identify the
particular needs that must be met in order to solve the problem each is up against.

Guiding Questions

• What is a needs analysis?
• Why is it important to conduct a needs analysis?
• What do experts in instructional design recommend about conducting a needs analysis?

Source: iStock 27512081.

Brown, A. H., & Green, T. D. (2015). The essentials of instructional design : Connecting fundamental principles with process and practice, third
edition. ProQuest Ebook Central http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Created from ncent-ebooks on 2021-02-27 11:16:35.

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44 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

• What steps should an instructional designer follow to conduct a successful needs analysis?
• What is the final outcome of a needs analysis?
• How can an instructional designer evaluate the effectiveness of a needs analysis?

Key Terms

goal analysis (page 50)
needs analysis (page 44)
needs assessment (page 49)
performance analysis (page 47)

Chapter Overview

Instructional design is conducted for a purpose. That purpose is to help produce a desired
change. The change could be many things, such as an improvement in attitudes of employ-
ees toward a particular job task, an increase in knowledge of students taking a high school
history course, or an upgrade of the skill level of consumers using a new word processor.
Therefore, an early step—if not the first step—in the instructional design process is to
identify the change that is requested and the different variables surrounding this change.
These variables include identifying the desired change that needs to occur, who wants
the change, and in what environment this change should occur. This process constitutes
a needs analysis. The information gathered during a needs analysis will help the instruc-
tional designer to be clear about what instruction needs to be developed or if instruction
is even necessary to help bring about the desired change.

As with all phases of the instructional design process, there are various perspectives
for how a needs analysis might be approached and carried out. In this chapter, we will
explore a variety of perspectives held by instructional design experts regarding needs
analysis. Additionally, we will discuss how to conduct a thorough needs analysis to help
ensure that proper data are collected that will accurately inform how the instructional
designer should proceed through the instructional design process. Finally, a number of
different methods for evaluating whether the needs analysis conducted was successful
are described.

Needs Analysis: An Overview

As mentioned in the previous section, instructional design is carried out for a purpose: to
bring about a particular change. Typically, the change is a need to improve performance
of some kind. Attitudes, knowledge, and skills are all areas in which improvement might
be needed. Therefore, the need to improve performance can take on different forms, such
as increasing a student’s knowledge of a particular content area, increasing the productivity
of a factory worker, or increasing consumer ease in using a new product.

It is generally the job of an instructional designer to help determine exactly what the
change is that needs to occur. The instructional designer comes into an environment and
determines what needs to take place based on what is going on in the environment. On
other occasions, however, an instructional designer may be told upfront what change is
needed. Although this may be the case, the instructional designer is wise to confirm that
need by getting others’ perspectives on the situation. With either scenario, the instruc-
tional designer is being asked to solve a problem by identifying the problem and coming
up with a solution to help solve it.

Needs Analysis 45

Instructional designers use a needs analysis process to get at the source of the prob-
lem. In order to do this, specific information is needed. This information is gathered by
the instructional designer through various means, such as interviews, observations, and
reviews of available artifacts. The information gathered is then used to inform how the
rest of the instructional design process will be carried out.

Professionals in Practice

The success of any ID project starts and ends with a person. In my case, it’s a person who
needs to understand how to implement a complex hardware and software solution for
protecting their public-facing web applications (think banks and credit cards, health care
providers, online merchants, etc.) from external threats. The primary ID questions first
invoke a goal statement: What is the goal of this training and how do we measure its suc-
cess? The second is a task analysis tied to the goal: What does someone need to be able
to do in order to successfully implement our solution?

From an ID perspective, we try to ensure that the instructional events impart a knowledge
of “why” a concept is introduced at a specific point of the instruction, and “why” completion
of certain tasks needs to occur before we move to the next concept or task. Knowing “why”
is more important that knowing “what” or “how.” It’s the classical differentiation between
training and education. Think about all of the online transactions you make every day—
checking email, paying bills, shopping—all of these transactions are based on your interactions
with a web application that was designed and engineered to allow you to complete specific
tasks. However, no web applications are created and operated in the same way. Consequently,
our product, a web application firewall, is not implemented in the same way for each applica-
tion that it ultimately protects. So, before beginning any content creation, we need to establish
what successful training outcomes are, and how to achieve those outcomes.

Erik Novak
Technical Training Direct

F5 Networks

Needs Analysis Questions

A typical needs analysis attempts to provide information that will help answer the following
questions:

• What is the change being requested (including who is being asked to change and what
is currently taking place)?

• Who is requesting this change?
• Where will this change need to take place?
• Is instruction the most appropriate means for bringing about the desired change?

It is the job of the instructional designer to find answers to these questions in order to
help design, develop, and implement an elegant solution—one that is both efficient and
effective in providing the appropriate change.

46 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

Professionals in Practice

When beginning a new project, the best place to start is to consult with the instructor
or SME. This is the time for you to get a basic understanding of the topic and find out if
this is a completely new instruction or if it is just a redesign/online translation. For most
of the projects that I work on, it is the latter, meaning that it is material that is already
being delivered face-to-face and is now going to be delivered online. In some ways this is
an advantage because you have a baseline by which you can measure successes and failures
against several course design elements. The most important items that I need to know
from the start are:

1 Who is my audience?
2 What are the goals/learning objectives?
3 How can I get creative with my assessments?

Kara Andrew
Manager, Instructional Design
University Extended Education

California State University, Fullerton

Formal and Informal Needs Analysis

A needs analysis plays a critical role at the beginning of the instructional design process
because it helps an instructional designer identify the problem that needs to be solved. A
needs analysis provides information that allows an instructional designer to get to the core
of the problem. If little or nothing is known about the problem, then a full-scale needs
analysis is necessary. There are situations, however, where an instructional designer does
not carry out a full-scale needs analysis because he or she is brought into the instruc-
tional design process at a stage where the client has already clearly determined what the
problem is and has possibly even identified why it may be occurring. If this is the case,
the instructional designer does not need to conduct a formal needs analysis because infor-
mation that would be gained from doing so most likely currently exists and would be a
waste of resources. Faced with this scenario, the instructional designer would start with
understanding what information has been gathered. After finding this information, the
instructional designer would then determine what additional information is needed.

Professionals in Practice

The first element I like to analyze is the overall outcome. I want to clearly understand
what is the intended outcome of the ID project. Before I can truly analyze anything, I need
to know the desired end result. Understanding this leads me to considering the objective
or objectives of the instruction. As much as possible, I try to analyze the learners who will
be part of the instruction, as well, before I start designing the instruction and developing
instructional materials.

Jody Peerless
Academic Coach in Educational Technology

La Habra City School District

Needs Analysis 47

Professionals in Practice

An instructional design project is just that, a project developing an instructional design
product. When I start an ID project I use standard (as defined by the Project Management
Institute PMBOK Guide) project management methodology. I hold a kickoff meeting with
the key stakeholders of the project to determine several things: what is the business
objective of the project (e.g., be more productive with a new piece of software, meet
compliance regulations, address a performance gap); determine that this objective can be
addressed through a learning intervention; if it can be addressed, for whom, when, where,
and how should it be addressed (size and demographics of the target audience, on-site or
remote, immediately or over time, online or classroom, etc.); and, last but not least, the
budget for the learning solution.

Ken Hubbell
Senior Manager, Learning Technology

Ingersoll Rand University, Ingersoll Rand plc

It is not clear to Hannah the approach she should take. Her instincts are telling her
that training is needed for the instructors in her department who are working with
the teacher candidates on the teaching performance assessments. However, what the
specific training needs may be are not clear. She needs to have a clearer understanding
of what is taking place in the core courses in the credential programs to lead to the
teacher candidates failing the assessment.

Terrence contemplates the problem his organization is having with call center vol-
unteers. He wonders whether instruction is necessary or whether it is a change in
policy that is needed. Terrence is not quite sure. Determining exactly what is taking
place with the volunteers will determine whether instruction or a change in policy
is needed.

Popular Approaches to Needs Analysis

There is a variety of approaches that an instructional designer can utilize for carrying out
a needs analysis. This section will discuss several of these approaches, which have been
developed by respected instructional design scholars. These approaches are worth exam-
ining as you begin to develop your own understanding of, and approach to, the needs
analysis process. As you read the different approaches, it is important to note that each
approach uses varying terminology to refer to the needs analysis process. Despite the vary-
ing terminology used, the outcome of the approaches still remains the same.

Robert F. Mager is an author of instructional design texts that have been popular for
decades. His approach to needs analysis is a good place to start. Mager (1988) describes
a process for determining “the proper course of action in those instances where people
aren’t doing what they should be doing” (p. 24). Mager calls this process performance
analysis. Performance analysis allows an instructional designer to determine what indi-
viduals are now doing and what they should be doing. If a difference exists, then it is the
job of the instructional designer to determine why the difference exists. Differences could
exist because an individual does not know how to do something; if so, then instruction is
necessary. If the individual already knows how to do something and is not doing it, then
another remedy other than instruction is needed.

48 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

Mager (1988, pp. 25–26) recommends the following steps when conducting a perfor-
mance analysis (see Figure 3.1):

1 Describe the person or people whose performance is being questioned.
2 Describe as specifically as possible what it is they are doing that causes someone to say

there is a problem.
3 Describe specifically what it is they should be doing.
4 Determine the cost of the discrepancy by estimating what it is costing in such

things as aggravation, frustration, turnover, scrap, insurance rates, time lost,

Describe
performance
discrepancy

Important?

lgnore

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No

Arrange
practice

Arrange
feedback

Change
job

Arrange
on-job training

Transfer or
terminate

Has
potential?

Select
best

solution

Remove
obstacles

Yes
No

Arrange
consequence

Obstacles?

Performance
matters?

Implement
solution(s)

Simpler
way?

Arrange
formal training

Used
to

do it?

Performance
punishing?

Remove
punishment

Yes

Arrange positive
consequence

Nonperformance
rewarding?

Used
often?

No Yes

Skill
deficiency?

Figure 3.1 Mager’s steps to conducting a performance analysis.

Source: Mager, Robert F. Making instruction work.  1989. Adapted. Lake Publishing, Belmont, CA.

Needs Analysis 49

money lost, equipment damage, customers lost or good will damage, accidents,
and so on.

5 If the estimated cost of the discrepancy is small, stop. In other words, if it is only a prob-
lem because you say it is and it is not having any impact on the rest of the world, stop.

6 If the cost is great enough to warrant going on, determine whether the target people
know how to do what is expected of them. Answer the question, “Could they do it if
their very lives depended on it?”

7 If they could, then they already know how. Now determine why they are not doing
what they already know how to do. This is done by determining the consequences and
obstacles of performing:

a What happens to the performers if they do it right?
b What happens to them if they do it wrong?
c What are the obstacles to performing as desired?

8 If they could not do it, answer these questions:

a Can the task be simplified to the point where they could do it?
b Did they ever know how to do it? (If so, they only need practice.)
c Is the skill used often? (If they do it often and still do not do it right, they need

feedback. If they do not do it often and they used to know how, they need a job aid,
such as a checklist or a piece of sheet music (job aids are described in Chapter 9.)

d Do they have the potential to learn to do it? (If not, they should be transferred or
terminated.)

9 The answer to these questions leads to the drafting of potential solutions. These solutions
must address the problems exposed during the analysis. For example, if it is discovered
that people are not performing because they do not have the authority to perform as
desired, then one part of the solution must propose a way to remove that obstacle.

10 Once potential remedies are drafted, determine how much it will cost to implement
each remedy.

11 Compare the cost of the solutions to the cost of the problem.
12 Select one or more solutions that are (a) less expensive than the problem itself and

(b) practical to apply.

Mager indicates that a performance analysis should generally only take a few minutes
to complete. However, in situations where more time is necessary, it is generally because
information needed to answer the questions must be located.

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2006) approach needs analysis in a more technical manner
through the use of method they call a needs assessment. They treat the process almost as
if it were a study. According to Morrison et al. (2006, p. 32), needs assessment serves four
functions:

1 It identifies the needs relevant to a particular job or task—that is, what problems are
affecting performance.

2 It identifies critical needs. Critical needs include those that have a significant financial
impact, affect safety, or disrupt the work or educational environment.

3 It sets priorities for selecting an intervention.
4 It provides baseline data to assess the effectiveness of the instruction.

When conducting a needs assessment, the following four phases are completed
(Morrison et al., pp. 36–39):

50 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

1 Phase I: Planning. The planning phase begins by defining the audience and what type
of data need to be collected about the audience. Once these two elements have been
established, a decision needs to be made regarding what segment of the audience data
will be collected from. The final step in the planning phase is to establish how data
will be collected. Interviews, questionnaires, focus group meetings, and reviews of
artifacts (e.g., “paper trails”) are all data collection techniques that can be used. This
phase is complete when the data collection instruments (e.g., questionnaires) have
been designed.

2 Phase II: Collecting data. Consideration is given to the sample size and how the data
collection instruments will be distributed and collected. An appropriate representa-
tion of the audience must be selected. The ideal situation would be to include every
individual from the target audience. However, it is virtually impossible to collect
data from the entire audience because of the logistics and costs involved in doing so.
Therefore, a representative sample of the audience is used. (There are statistical prin-
ciples and formulas to help determine the optimal sample size; however, these topics
are beyond the scope of this book. You will get to enjoy exploring these topics—if you
have not done so already—in an advanced statistics course.)

3 Phase III: Analyzing the data. Morrison et al. (2006) indicate that the output of
the data analysis is an identification of needs (of which there are six different types:
normative, comparative, felt, expressed, anticipated, and critical incident) and a pri-
oritization of these needs. They state that needs can be prioritized in various ways,
such as the relative cost to value for a company, the number of people impacted, a
ranking scale, or the frequency that the need is identified. Morrison et al. suggest
using the Delphi Method to prioritize needs. The Delphi Method is a structured pro-
cess for collecting and analyzing knowledge gathered from a group of experts through
the use of a series of questionnaires intermixed with controlled opinion feedback.

4 Phase IV: Compiling a final report. Preparing a final report on the findings is the
concluding phase. Four sections should be included in a final report: (1) summary of
the purpose; (2) summary of the process, including how it was carried out and who
was involved; (3) summary of the results in both quantitative (e.g., charts, graphs) and
qualitative formats (e.g., a brief narrative) if appropriate; and (4) recommendation(s)
based on the data. The recommendation(s) given should be appropriate to the identi-
fied problem. As mentioned, the recommendation(s) may or may not be instruction.

In addition to the needs assessment method, Morrison et al. (2006) describe two other
needs analysis methods: goal analysis and performance assessment (which is similar to
Mager’s performance analysis). They write: “Goal analysis takes less time than a needs
assessment and its focus is typically much narrower. The goal analysis starts with a prob-
lem someone has identified, and then it focuses on a solution” (p. 43). This is the type
of situation that instructional designers are generally involved in (instructional goals and
goal analysis are covered in detail in Chapter 6).

A key element to keep in mind with goal analysis is that the instructional designer is not
being asked to identify the problem (as is the case with a needs assessment). The job of the
instructional designer is to focus primarily on determining an appropriate intervention.
Another key element is that instruction may not always be the appropriate interven-
tion needed for a problem that exists: “Problems that on the surface seem to require an
instructional intervention can often be solved with a change in policy, coaching, or the
environment” (Morrison et al., 2006, p. 31).

Before the instructional goal(s) can be developed, the need or problem that is to be
addressed must be identified through the use of needs assessment and analysis processes:

Needs Analysis 51

After the problem is identified, the designer attempts to identify the causes of the
problem, and then identifies an array of solutions that could be implemented to solve
the problem. Seldom is instruction the single answer to the problem. Usually a combi-
nation of changes is required to solve the problem effectively.

(Morrison et al., 2006, p. 18)

Allison Rossett (1995) writes that instructional designers engage in needs analysis when
they are responding to a request for assistance. A needs assessment allows an instruc-
tional designer to gather information that will allow him or her to make “data-driven and
responsive recommendations” (p. 184) about how to solve a problem, which is typically
the need to improve some type of performance. She states that the needs assessment drives
the entire instructional design process by eventually shaping the decisions made about
design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

Rossett (1995) believes that when a needs analysis is conducted, it allows an instruc-
tional designer to gather information about the following factors:

• Optimal performance: What does an individual who is performing at an optimal level
know or do that allows him or her to perform at this level? Instructional designers
consult a variety of sources—such as experts, documentation, standards, practices,
texts, and tests—to answer this question.

• Actual performance: How is an individual currently performing? What is happen-
ing to cause a particular event to take place? Why is a change being requested? An
instructional designer can use employee performance records, observation, and inter-
views to help gather data to provide answers to these questions.

• Feelings: Instructional designers want to know how individuals feel about the topic,
training about the topic, the topic as a priority, and their confidence surrounding
the topic.

• Cause(s): Rossett identifies four kinds of causes for why individuals may not be per-
forming as they should: (1) they lack the skill or knowledge; (2) the environment is
in the way; (3) there are no, few, or improper incentives; and (4) the employees are
unmotivated.

• Solutions: What solutions are possible?

Rossett (1995) outlines a five-step process for conducting a needs analysis:

1 Step One: Determine purposes based on initiators. There are three types of initiating
situations that may be taking place: performance problems, “new stuff,” and mandates.
The instructional designer must determine what type of situation initiated the problem.
The instructional designer must then determine what purpose(s) need to be addressed in
order to develop a solution for the existing problem. Figure 3.2 presents the relationship
between the three types of initiators and the needs assessment purposes.

2 Step Two: Identify sources. The next step is to identify who has the information that
is needed and where it is located. What constraints are there to gaining access to this
information? What individuals need to know that you are involved in developing a
solution to the existing problem?

3 Step Three: Select tools. Gathering various types of data requires different tools.
Careful planning needs to take place in order to select the proper tool that will allow
useful data to be effectively gathered. Interviews, observing employee performance,
examining records and outcomes, group meetings, and questionnaires are tools that
can be used.

52 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

4 Step Four: Conduct the needs assessment in stages. Once you have identified the pur-
pose (Step One), established the sources where data will be collected (Step Two), and
determined the tools that will be used to collect the data (Step Three), you are ready
to conduct the needs assessment. Most needs assessments are done in stages; that is,
data are collected and analyzed and then a determination is made as to whether addi-
tional information is needed. The need for additional information from the identified
sources may be gathered if it is determined that the data collected are not adequate.
Inadequate collection of data may be a result of improper sources or data collection
tools. If so, an instructional designer may need to revisit Steps Two and Three of this
process before conducting another stage of needs assessment.

5 Step Five: Use findings for decision making. The information gathered during the
needs assessment is used to develop a solution that is appropriate.

Smith and Ragan (2004) believe that instructional designers must learn to be “clever
investigators” who are capable of clearly analyzing the learning context. They state
that the analysis of the learning context includes two steps: (1) “the substantiation of
a need for instruction to help learners reach learning goals” and (2) “a description of
the learning environment in which the instruction will be used” (p. 31). They believe
that a needs assessment helps determine whether the need exists for new instruction to
be developed.

Smith and Ragan (2004, pp. 32–35) outline three needs assessment models: the
Discrepancy-Based Needs Assessment Model, the Problem-Finding, Problem-Solving
Model, and the Innovation Model. Instructional designers use the Discrepancy-Based
Needs Assessment Model when learning goals are already identified and instruction is being
offered that is related to these goals. Five phases are carried out when using this approach:

1 List the goals of the instructional system.
2 Determine how well the identified goals are already being achieved.
3 Determine the gaps between “what is” and “what should be.”
4 Prioritize gaps according to agreed-upon criteria.
5 Determine which gaps are instructional needs and which are most appropriate for

design and development of instruction.

INITIATORS PURPOSE

Performance Problems

New Stuff

Mandates

Optimals
Actuals
Causes

Optimals
Feelings

As performance problem

As new stuff

Figure 3.2 The relationship between the three types of initiators and the needs assessment purposes.

Source: Rossett, Allison. “Needs assessment.” In G. Angline (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future,
2nd edition (pp. 183–196).  1995. Print and electronic permission from Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO.

Needs Analysis 53

The Problem-Finding, Problem-Solving Model is used when “someone in management or
administration; some member of the constituency, such as parents, clients, or community
leaders; or some employees or students have identified that a problem exists in the orga-
nization’s achieving its mission” (p. 35). There are four steps to this model: (1) determine
whether there really is a problem; (2) determine whether the cause of the problem is
related to employees’ performance in training environments or to learners’ achievement in
educational environments; (3) determine whether the solution to the achievement/perfor-
mance problem is learning; and (4) determine whether instruction for these learning goals
is currently offered (pp. 35–36).

The Innovation Model is used to examine “changes or innovations in the educational
system or organization” to determine if adding new learning goals is necessary to account
for the changes or innovations. Four steps make up this model: (1) determine the nature of
the innovation or change; (2) determine the learning goals that accompany this innovation;
(3) if there is a choice, determine whether these goals are appropriate and high priority in the
learning system; and (4) begin learning environment analysis design activities (that is, start
the next phase of the instructional design process). With this model, it is extremely impor-
tant to include the stakeholders (e.g., teachers/trainers, managers/administrators) because
an outcome could be the addition of, or the change in, goals for the organization (p. 36).

Needs Analysis Procedure

Although the needs analysis approaches described in the previous section employ different
tactics, they each share a common outcome: to provide useful data that can be used by an
instructional designer to create the best possible solution that helps solve a problem that
exists, meets a given need, or brings about a desired change. To gather the appropriate
data, a thorough needs analysis must be conducted. A needs analysis is conducted by using
various data gathering tools to help answer fundamental questions.

Determining the Desired Change

The first step in a needs analysis is to determine what change is being requested. As men-
tioned early in this chapter, the desired change could be in behavior, skill, or attitude. You
will want to find out information that can help you answer the following questions:

• What problem exists or what change is being requested?
• Who is being asked to change?
• What is currently taking place in this environment with this individual or individuals?

Typically, the client who hired you will be able to provide you with the necessary infor-
mation or access to the information needed to answer these questions. In most cases,
your client will specifically tell you what change is desired and the individuals who are
being asked to change. This information can be gathered through an interview process.
Additionally, through an interview, the client will be able to provide insights into what
is currently taking place in the environment where the individual or individuals are being
asked to change. However, it is good practice for an instructional designer to observe the
environment personally rather than solely relying on the client’s description. Your client
will have a biased opinion on what is taking place and therefore may not provide you with
a completely accurate picture of what is taking place.

It is important to note that not all instructional design projects are this straightforward.
On occasion, you may be asked to come in to an organization to observe what is taking

54 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

place and determine the type of change that needs to take place. This type of activity is
often associated with the field of human performance technology (HPT). According to
the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI), HPT focuses on analyzing
outcomes to identify the causes for why a gap in desired levels of performance exists (ISPI,
2015). Once the causes are identified, an intervention is developed to bridge the perfor-
mance gap. The focus of HPT is on human performance—typically related to activities
that take place in industry and business settings.

The Request for the Desired Change

After developing a clear understanding of the existing problem or the change being
requested, it is important to understand who is asking for the change. This is an extremely
important element to understand because it will help you determine the type of interven-
tion that may need to take place, the emotional and political climate of the situation, and
the level of support that is present and that will most likely be needed for a change to take
place. To come to an understanding of these elements, you will need to answer the follow-
ing question: Who identified the problem or is requesting this change?

This information is generally easy to obtain. It is often the desire of the client who
hired you to have the change occur. It is important to keep in mind that there may be
additional stakeholders who might be interested in having the change. However, talking
to additional stakeholders to clarify how they feel about the problem or the change being
requested may be difficult.

Implementation Location of the Desired Change

Finding out where the desired change will take place is another important element to con-
sider. This will help you to better understand the context of where an intervention will be
needed. Where will the solution or change need to take place? Again, the client is the best
source of information to answer this question. In most cases, it will be extremely obvious
where the change will be needed (e.g., a school, the workplace). It can be very helpful to
visit the location where the change is to take place to help you gain a solid understanding
of the environment. However, this may not always be possible. If not, it is important to
do your research about the environment.

The Intervention

Once you have the appropriate data that allows you to understand the entire context—the
desired change, who is requesting the change, who is being asked to change, and where
the change needs to take place—it is time to determine if instruction is the most appropri-
ate intervention. You will need to answer the following question: Is instruction the most
appropriate means for solving the problem or bringing about the desired change?

The client will be relying on your expertise to determine this. There are no steadfast
rules on whether instruction is the most appropriate intervention because each instruc-
tional design context is different. However, instruction is most appropriate when a
change in skill or knowledge is desired. Based on the information you have gathered
through your needs analysis, you will need to determine an appropriate intervention. It
is important to keep in mind that you may want to offer more than one type of interven-
tion to your client. Allow your client to be part of the decision-making process, but, as
previously mentioned, know that your client will be relying on your expertise to make
the final decision.

Needs Analysis 55

A properly conducted needs analysis contributes significantly to how successful the
entire instructional design process will be. A thorough identification of the problem that
needs to be addressed will lead to an effective and efficient solution being developed.

Evaluating the Success of a Needs Analysis

How do you know when you have successfully conducted a needs analysis? How do you
know that the data gathered accurately describe the problem or the change that needs
to take place (thus helping you to develop an appropriate solution)? One method used to
evaluate the success of a needs analysis is to determine if the solution developed and imple-
mented helped bring about the desired change. In other words, did performance improve?
Although extremely important, this summative evaluation activity poses serious problems
if it is the only method used to evaluate the success of a needs analysis. The most serious
problem is that it is conducted well after the needs analysis has been carried out and con-
sequently does not provide you with corrective feedback. It is an “all or nothing” method.
It helps to determine whether you have succeeded or you have failed. Therefore, it is good
practice to use formative evaluation activities throughout the needs analysis process in
addition to this summative activity.

An important formative evaluation activity to use is sustained communication between
you and the client during the entire needs analysis process. Data gathered should be peri-
odically shared with the client during this process. This formative evaluation activity helps
ensure that you are gathering accurate data by presenting the client with opportunities to
provide feedback. How often the communication should take place is based on the nature
of the project and the availability of the client. There is no typical answer; however, it is
good practice to communicate at least once a week with your client. It is important to real-
ize that it can be difficult to communicate with some clients on a consistent basis.

Another formative evaluation activity that can be conducted is to share data and inter-
pretations of the data with a member of the target audience the change is designed for (or
with someone who has had a similar experience, although this situation is not as ideal).
This can help determine if what you have found matches with what the individual per-
ceives is taking place. If the data and interpretations seem familiar and appropriate to this
individual, it suggests that the needs analysis was successful. This process is referred to as
a member check. A member check is a comparison method of evaluation that comes from
a qualitative research paradigm.

Hannah has decided to gather information about the problem at a faculty meeting.
She realizes that there are multiple issues that might be going on that could be con-
tributing to the low pass rate. Hannah uses an approach that is similar to Rossett’s
approach in which information is gathered on various levels about the problem. With
this approach, optimal performance, actual performance, feelings, and causes are
explored. Hannah will investigate these areas with the faculty in her department in
hopes of clearly identifying the need that must be met in order to increase the pass rate
of the teacher candidates in her department. From this exploration, the department
can identify a solution that Hannah can help the faculty carry out.

Terrence has decided to use Mager’s performance analysis process. This will allow
Terrence to determine if a difference exists between what the volunteers should be doing
and what they are doing when answering the phones and talking to clients. If Terrence
determines there is a difference, then he will be able to identify what needs to be done to
fix this problem. It might be that the volunteers are not familiar with what is expected of

56 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

them; thus, training may be needed. The problem could also be that the volunteers know
how to do what they are supposed to be doing but are just not doing it; if this is the case,
then another solution other than instruction will be needed. As Terrence conducts the
performance analysis, he finds out that many of the volunteers have not been through
any training on how to handle certain problems they may encounter while talking on the
phone to a particular segment of clients the nonprofit serves. Thus, Terrence suggests to
his supervisor that training should be developed and provided to the call center volunteers.

Needs Analysis and the Instructional Design Process

A needs analysis is critical in helping the instructional designer determine what instruc-
tion needs to be developed or if instruction is even necessary to help bring about a desired
change. No matter what approach you take, completing a needs analysis should help you
answer the following questions:

• What problem exists or what change is being requested?
• Who is being asked to change?
• What is currently taking place with the individual or individuals being asked to change?
• Who identified the problem or is requesting this change?
• Where will the solution or change need to take place?
• Is instruction the most appropriate means for solving the problem or bringing about

the desired change?
• What is the solution to be developed and implemented?

Summary

Numerous needs analysis methods exist that can be used by instructional designers.
Popular approaches to needs analysis include those outlined by Dick, Carey, & Carey
(2009), Mager (1988), Morrison et al. (2006), Rossett (1995), and Smith and Ragan
(2004). Although these methods vary in how they are carried out, each shares the common
goal of providing an instructional designer with the appropriate data that help inform and
influence the design and development of an effective and efficient solution. This solution is
one that helps solve a problem or bring about some type of change—typically, an improve-
ment in performance. This improvement can be to knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes.

A needs analysis is conducted using various data gathering tools to help answer fundamental
questions. Evaluating the success of a needs analysis is accomplished by using a combination
of formative and summative evaluation techniques to determine if an instructional designer
created the best possible solution, which helped to solve a problem or meet a given need, or
brought about a desired change. A properly conducted needs analysis contributes significantly
to how successfully the entire instructional design process will be carried out.

Connecting Process to Practice Activities

1 You are the lead instructional designer recently hired for a large-scale project. Your
client has asked you to describe why a needs analysis is important to the success of the
project. What do you tell your client? Do not assume your client even knows what a
needs analysis is.

2 Several perspectives on needs analysis were discussed in the chapter. What key elements
for conducting a needs analysis do these perspectives have in common? How do these
perspectives differ?

Needs Analysis 57

3 When examining the approaches taken by Hannah and Terrence, do you believe each
took the appropriate needs analysis approach? Explain why you believe the approach
each took is appropriate or what you might do differently if you were in their positions.

4 What do you believe are the most important data that Hannah must gather in order
to complete a successful needs analysis? Do you foresee any potential issues with
Hannah being able to gather the data she needs? Answer the same questions from
Terrence’s perspective.

5 Describe an instructional design scenario where you believe a formal needs analysis
would not need to be conducted.

6 Is it appropriate to conduct a needs analysis when preparing instruction in a K-12
setting? How might one go about conducting a needs analysis for instruction to be
delivered in a third-grade classroom?

7 Describe how the field of human performance technology approaches needs analyses.
8 You have been hired by a client to work on an instructional design project. The cli-

ent is a company that owns several nursing home facilities located throughout Texas.
Your client has indicated to you that incidents of complaints from those living at
the company’s nursing homes have steadily risen during the past six months. The
client wants the residents of their nursing homes to have comfortable living experi-
ences. Therefore, a solution that will help reduce the number of complaints is needed.
However, your client is not sure what needs to be done. It could be a variety of issues
that could be contributing to why the complaints have increased. Your task is to con-
duct a needs analysis to determine what type of solution(s) may be necessary. Describe
how you would conduct a needs analysis in this situation. Include the steps you would
take, the data you would gather, how you would analyze the information, and how
you would report the findings back to your client, which would include what you feel
needs to be done.

9 You and your grade-level team are planning for the upcoming school year. Your
administrator has told your team that she needs to see a yearlong outline of what will
be taught that includes how the Common Core State Standards in English Language
Arts for your grade level will be addressed. You and your team will use the outline as
a guide to create instruction. Describe how a needs analysis would help you and your
team develop the yearlong outline.

10 Consider a course you are currently taking or have recently completed. How would
you go about conducting a needs analysis for this course? What types of information
would you gather?

Recommended Reading

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Columbus,
OH: Allyn & Bacon.

Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller, J. M. (2004). Principles of instructional design
(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Kaufman, R., Rojas, A. M., & Mayer, H. (1993). Needs assessment: A user’s guide. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Mager, R. F. (1988). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1996). Analyzing performance problems. Belmont, CA: Pitman.
Rossett, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present,

and future (2nd ed.) (pp. 183–196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Rossett, A. (2009). First things fast: A handbook for performance analysis (2nd ed.). New York:

John Wiley & Sons.

58 Needs, Task, and Learner Analysis

Seels, B., & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

References

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2009). The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Columbus,
OH: Allyn & Bacon.

International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI). (2015). What is HPT? Retrieved from
www.ispi.org/content.aspx?id=54&terms=What+is+human+performance+technology.

Mager, R. F. (1989). Making instruction work. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company.
Merrill, M. D. (2013). First principles of instruction: Identifying and designing effective, efficient,

and engaging instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2006). Designing effective instruction (5th ed.).

New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Rossett, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present,

and future (2nd ed.) (pp. 183–196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

http://www.ispi.org/content.aspx?id=54&terms=What+is+human+performance+technology

WEEK 4 READINGS

Work Analysis

Another category of analysis is called work analysis. In the comedy film, Office Space (Judge, 1999), two consultants are interviewing employees and ask each one, “So, what is it you say you do around here?” That question is a great start toward a work analysis.

Job analysis, task analysis, and content analysis are the parts of a work analysis (Rothwell et al., 2016). After a brief overview of each of these three parts of a work analysis, you will take a deeper look at task analyses in preparation for conducting your own task analysis in this week’s assignment.

Figure 14. Elements of Work Analysis.

Job Analysis. Assuming the definition that a job is a “collection of related activities, duties, or responsibilities” (p. 132), a job analysis accomplishes four tasks related to these activities: describes them; specifies the essential qualifications required to perform them at an entry-level; details the tasks while performing them; and establishes standards for assessing the performance of them.

Task Analysis. Task analysis, however, is a more specific look at a “discrete unit of work performed by an individual” (Rothwell et al., 2016, p. 139) within a particular job. You will read more about task analyses later in this introduction.

Content Analysis. A content analysis is one component of a task analysis (Rothwell et al., 2016; Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004). Content analysis identifies the facts, concepts, processes, procedures, and principles (Clark, as cited in Rothwell et al.) that must be translated into work activities through the instructional experience. By the end of a content analysis, the content and structure of the instruction have been identified.

A popular example of a task analysis is the exercise in which one individual writes out the steps to making a sandwich and another individual has to complete those steps exactly as written, even if the individual knows how to do the task or what the instructions are supposed to mean. The first person will write, “Put the peanut butter on the bread.” So, the second individual picks up the jar of peanut butter and sets the jar on the loaf of bread. While such examples are entertaining, they also offer important reminders about using precise language and breaking down every task into its fundamental components.

Analyzing a Task

As mentioned above, a task analysis is a more specific look at a discrete unit of work performed by an individual within a particular job. Task analysis often involves starting at the end state (or what you want learners to be able to do at the end) and then working backward to the first step. This approach helps to ensure that necessary knowledge, skills, and dispositions are included in instruction so that learners can be successful.

While task analysis may sound tedious, it can be rewarding—and maybe even fun—to compare the steps that an expert takes to those of a novice. Think about something as simple as when you first learned to tie a shoe. You may have learned a bunny-ear rhyme. You may have had an expert stand behind you so that they could observe from your vantage point. Today? Could you describe those steps to a novice? It might be more challenging than you imagine!

One of the most challenging aspects of task analysis is the expert path. Getting the expert to verbalize steps can often be tedious, and steps can be left out. These omissions are the result of what is often called the “expert blind spot”; experts often forget what they once didn’t know, so they forget to explain basic steps a novice needs to know.

As Brown and Green (2016) summarize, Jonassen, suggests that a task analysis consists of five discrete functions:

1. Inventory tasks

2. Describe tasks

3. Select tasks

4. Sequence tasks and their components

5. Analyze tasks and content level

Essentially, you want to identify the primary duties of a job, the major tasks required to successfully fulfill each duty, and the supporting sub-tasks required to complete each major task (Rothwell et al., 2016).

There are many ways to conduct a task analysis, and one way includes labeling the major tasks by frequency of performance, level of difficulty, and criticality to the job. You can read more about these three criteria in Rothwell et al. (2016). As you analyze the tasks, you will likely analyze one or more of the following sources of information (Jackson, as cited in Rothwell et al.):

· Performers (those who do the work) include those individuals who are considered master performers, average performers, and lower performers. Analyzing performers at different levels can help you to identify the size of the performance gap.

· Non-performers, who know about the work but do not actually perform the tasks, can offer valuable perspectives on the intended results of the work that are not being achieved.

· Documents that the performers use to carry out the tasks, such as job aids or procedure manuals.

· Environmental features, similar to the learning and performance contexts you learned about last week.

Using these different sources of information, you are likely to employ one of the common approaches to conducting the task analysis: topic analysis, procedural analysis (also known as an information processing analysis), or the critical incident method (essentially interviewing). The approach you would take would depend on the type of knowledge involved. You can read more about each approach through the references provided in this week’s resources. After reading the week’s resources, return to this introduction to check your knowledge of the overall task analysis functions using the interactive below.

Access Directly

There are a few reminders. Recall that people may use different terms than you use, so remember to check with your colleagues, clients, and partners to ensure that you are using terms in similar ways to reduce misunderstanding. Also, remember that, if you are in the MSID program, you will explore learner, task, and context analyses more deeply in the next course.

References

Judge, M. (Director). (1999). Office space [Motion Picture].

Rothwell, W. J., Kazanas, H. C., Benscoter, B., King, M., & King, S. B. (2016). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Weekly Resources and Assignments

Review the resources from the Course Resources link, located in the top navigation bar, to prepare for this week’s assignments. The resources may include textbook reading assignments, journal articles, websites, links to tools or software, videos, handouts, rubrics, etc.

4 Mastering the Instructional Design Process

EXHIBIT 1

1. TEN KEY ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN COMPETENCIES

• Assumption 1: Instructional designers are those persons who demonstrate design
competencies on the job regardless of their job title or training.

• Assumption 2: Instructional design (ID) competencies pertain to persons working
in a wide range of settings.

• Assumption 3: Instructional design is a process most commonly guided by sys-
tematic design models and principles.

• Assumption 4: Instructional design is most commonly seen as resulting in transfer
of training and organizational performance improvement.

• Assumption 5: Instructional design competence spans novice, experienced, and
expert designers.

• Assumption 6: Few instructional designers, regardless of their levels of expertise,
are able to successfully demonstrate all ID competencies.

• Assumption 7: ID competencies are generic and amenable to customization.
• Assumption 8: ID competencies define the manner in which design should be

practiced.
• Assumption 9: ID competencies reflect societal and disciplinary values and ethics.
• Assumption 10: ID competencies should be meaningful and useful to designers

worldwide.

Source: R. Richey, D. Fields, and M. Foxon, Instructional Design Competencies: The Standards, 3rd
ed. (Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology, 2001), 36–42. Copyright
1993 by the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction. All rights
reserved. Used with permission.

remainder of the book. We shall also address important critiques of
traditional instructional design approaches.

Instructional Design: An Emerging Profession

Instructional design is an emerging profession. People can—and do—
enter jobs as instructional designers and work in that capacity for their
entire careers. That is especially true when many organizations are convert-
ing their training to online, blended, and e-learning-based approaches.
Instructional designers are often tasked to lead or facilitate such projects.

Employment advertisements for instructional designers and closely
aligned jobs frequently appear online and in print. (See, for instance,
the job search websites run by the International Society for Perfor-
mance Improvement at www.ispi.org and by the Association for Talent
Development at www.astd.org.)

Rothwell, William J., et al. Mastering the Instructional Design Process : A Systematic Approach : A Systematic Approach, Center for Creative
Leadership, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ncent-ebooks/detail.action?docID=4205818.
Created from ncent-ebooks on 2021-02-27 11:23:33.

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http://www.ispi.org

http://www.astd.org

An Overview of Instructional Design 5

Many organizations across a broad spectrum of industries employ
instructional designers. Jobs bearing this title are often positioned at the
entry level. They often occupy the first rung on a career ladder leading
to such higher-level jobs as instructor, project supervisor of instructional
design, and Chief Learning Officer (CLO). But variations of this career
ladder exist. Job titles also vary. Alternative job titles may include talent
developer, performance technologist, performance consultant, human
performance improvement specialist, human performance enhancement
professional, instructional developer, education specialist, educational
technologist, employee educator, trainer, staff development specialist,
instructional technologist, or instructional systems specialist. Because vari-
ations exist in work duties, in modes of occupational entry, in educational
preparation, and in career paths, instructional design is an emerging,
rather than an established, profession. It is called a field of practice,
though it has been researched (see Rothwell, Zaballero, Asino, Briskin,
Swaggerty, and Bienert 2015).

However, the trend has been toward certification in the field. That
trend suggests increasing professionalism. For instance, the International
Society for Performance Improvement supports a program leading to the
Certified Performance Technologist (CPT) designation (for a description,
see www.certifiedpt.org/WhatisCPT.htm). That follows a growing trend for
certification of many kinds, ranging from individual (such as the CPT) to
product or process accreditation (see www.iacet.org). ATD also offers the
Certified Performance and Learning Professional (CPLP) designation to
certify practitioners in a broad range of areas of expertise in the field (see
www.td.org/Certification).

Instructional Design: Focused on Establishing
and Maintaining Efficient and Effective
Human Performance

The chief aim of instructional design is to improve employee performance
and to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Instructional
designers should be able to define such important terms as performance,
efficiency, and effectiveness.

What Is Performance?

Performance is perhaps best understood as the achievement of results, the
outcomes (ends) to which purposeful activities (means) are directed (see

http://www.certifiedpt.org/WhatisCPT.htm

http://www.iacet.org/

http://www.td.org/Certification

http://www.certifiedpt.org/WhatisCPT.htm

http://www.iacet.org

http://www.td.org/Certification

Chapter 1

What is Task Analysis?

Purpose of Task Analysis

“The first step in the design of any instruction is a task analysis to detennine what should
be taught” (Polson, 1993, p

219). Task analysis for instructional design is a process of
analyzing and articulating the kind of learning that you expect the learners to know how to
perform. Instructional designers perform task analysis in order to determine:

• the goals and objectives of learning
• the operational components of jobs, skills, learning goals or objectives, that is, to de-

scribe what task performers do, how they perform a task or apply a skill and how
they think before, during, and after learning

• what knowledge states (declarative, structural, and procedural knowledge) character-
ize a job or task

• which tasks, skills, or goals ought to be taught, that is, how to select learning out-
comes that are appropriate for instructional development

• which tasks are most important – which have priority for a commitment of training re-
sources

• the sequencc in which tasks are performed and should be learned and taught.
• how to select or design instructional activities, strategies, and techniques to foster

learning
• how to select appropriate media and learning environments
• how to construct performance assessments and evaluation

In order to design instruction that will support learning, it is essential that we understand
the nature of the tasks that learners will be performing. This is true whether you are de-
signing traditional, direct-instruction or problem-based constructivist learning environ-
ments. If you are unable to articulate the ways that you want learners to think and the act,
how can you believe that you can design instruction that will help them?

Assumptions of Task Analysis

This book is premised on a few important assumptions.

Task analysis is essential to good instructional design. Intellectually and practi-
cally, task analysis is probably the most important part of the instructional systems design
(IS D) process, and it has been thought so for some time. “If I were faced with the problem
of improving training, I should not look for much help from the well-known learning prin-
ciples like reinforcement, distribution of practice, response familiarity, and so on. I should
look instead at the technique of task analysis, and at the principles of component task
achievement, intratask transfer, and the sequencing of subtask learning to find those ideas
of greatest usefulness in the design of effective learning” (Gagne, 1963). Task analysis
provides the intellectual foundation for instructional design. It guides the process by ar-
ticulating the goal or mission for the design process. Nearly every one of the instructional
design models that were listed by Andrews and Goodson (1980), which is the most com-
prehensive list of ISD procedures, includes some task analysis process. Some prominent
design models ignore task analysis, relying (we suppose) on inspiration to direct the design
process. We have seen too many instructional design projects fail to produce effective in-
struction or learning because the designers did not understand the learning outcomes.

Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. H. (1998). Task analysis methods for instructional design. ProQuest Ebook Central http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Created from ncent-ebooks on 2021-02-27 11:27:58.

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4 Task Analysis Processes

Although task analysis emerged as a process in the behaviorist era of instructional
design, task analysis methods have followed the paradigm shifts to cognitive psychology
and onto constructivism. We argue that task analysis is just as important to the design of
constructivist learning environments as it is to direct instruction, performance support sys-
tems, or any other form of learning support. Obviously, designing learning environments
to support constructive learning requires different analysis methods. However, whether
designing programmed instruction, intelligent tutoring systems, or constructivist learning
environments, designers must understand the nature of the learning they are directing,
guiding, or supporting (depending on your philosophical perspective).

Task analysis is the least understood component of the instructional design
process. Instructional design, as a process, is often generically described by the ADDIE
Model-Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (Gustafson &
Branch, 1997). Of those processes, implementation is probably the most poorly per-
formed, however the analysis procedures are most often under-performed. Although analy-
sis procedures, including needs analysis, learner analysis, context analysis (Tessmer &
Richey, 1997) and task analysis are taught in most preparation programs, most instruc-
tional designers possess insufficient skills in performing task analysis methods. They learn
about task analysis, but they too seldom do task analysis. Most programs provide insuffi-
cient design cases and practice in performing task analyses. When they do, they most often
teach a single method. Probably two thirds of all task analyses that are conducted in prac-
tice use some form of procedural analysis, so most instruction is procedurally oriented de-
spite the cognitive needs of the learner. Procedural analysis is the methode de jour not be-
cause it is the most appropriate, but because that is the only method the designers know.
The primary purpose of this book is to show designers that there are numerous, more ap-
propriate, and effective methods for conducting task analysis.

The apparent ambiguity of task analysis results from a lack of clear conceptions
about the task analysis process. For instance, some (Miller, 1962) have argued that task
analysis is an art, and as an art, is most dependent upon the skill of the task analyst. If task
analysis is to be conceived of and performed scientifically, then some predictability needs
to be added to the decision making process. Military and corporate operations reject the
artistic conception, claiming that task analysis is a series of operations that must be per-
formed in a consistent manner (too often defaulting to the procedural).

The ambiguity of task analysis also results from the confusing array of methods for
performing it. Zemke and Kramlinger (1982) described the five most common ways of
doing task analysis: the look-and-see (observation) approach, structure-of-the knowledge
(hierarchical analysis) approach, critical incident approach, the process/decision flowchart
(information processing) approach, and the use of consumer research techniques
(surveying, interviewing). In this book we describe these and many other task analysis
methods.

Task analysis also appears ambiguous because there are so many applications that
result in so many methods. Task analysis, in some form, is performed by personnel psy-
chologists, human factors engineers (including human-computer interaction designers, oc-
cupational safety inspectors, and many others), curriculum developers, and, of course, in-
structional designers. Task analysis is recognized as an essential process in the design of
human-computer interactions (Diaper, 1989). However, most of the methods used to de-
sign human-computer interactions focus on specific, procedural tasks to support computer
interfaces and so do not transfer to instructional design. Task analysis methods for in-
structional design are relatively specific to instructional design.

The ambiguity of task analysis also results from the myriad of contextual con-
straints imposed by the setting in which the analysis is being performed. Task analysis is
used in higher education resources centers, in training centers, and in management devel-
opment and corporate board rooms. Instruction is needed in virtually every type of public
and private agency. Where instruction is needed, task analysis should be performed.

What is Task Analysis? 5

However, each of these venues provides a different set of physical, sociocultural, organ-
izational constraints. Tessmer and Richey (1997) have identified the range of factors that
can affect the design process. The most troublesome constraint is the lack of commitment
to task analysis. Too often training organizations design instruction without any compre-
hensive understanding of the nature of the learning outcome.

The values accorded to task analysis is often low. Even when designers are skilled
in performing task analysis, time constraints prevent them from undertaking any kind of
analysis. Project managers do not perceive the need or importance of adequately articulat-
ing tasks, preferring to begin development in order to make the process more efficient. We
have seen too many elaborately packaged task analyses that clearly indicated an inadequate
understanding of the cognitive and performance requirements of the task. Again, if you are
unable to articulate how you expect learners to think and perform, how can you believe that
you can design effective instruction?

Task analyses is uncertain. The irony of the ambiguity just discussed is that task
analysis, as a process, seeks to reduce ambiguity in instruction by conscientiously defining
the paramcters of any performance or learning situation. Yet, instructional design is replete
with uncertain knowledge and multiple interpretations. So is task analysis. Not every as-
pect of human thought and behavior can be identified or articulated. How can we reconcile
this discrepancy? We cannot, so live with it. That is the nature of the design process.

If we attempted to eliminate all ambiguity in the task analysis, we would have to
over-proceduralize a complex set of decisions – to develop a cookbook of task analysis.
To develop recipes for task analysis would treat the vast variety of instructional problems
the same. Although instructional design is not an art, McCombs (1986) claims that the
success of the design process is largely dependent upon the reasoning ability of the de-
signer. Instructional designers, including task analysts, need to be able to “think on their
feet” in order to make effective decisions. Instructional design is a problem solving proc-
ess, not a procedure. As part of this problem solving process, task analysis helps to iden-
tify and structure what must be learned. Task analysis, we assume, is most effective when
the right techniques and tools are carefully selected and applied by intelligent and well in-
formed designers while solving instructional problems. Designers need to be informed
about what task analysis procedures are available and given guidelines for selecting and
using them. That is the purpose of this book.

Different contexts demand different task analysis methods; one size do es
not fit all. Again, instructional designers too often leam only one or two methods for
performing task analysis and thereafter try to force-fit all learning situations into those
methods, often without success. As we said before, different instructional goals and con-
tents require different approaches to deigning instruction, including task analysis. First,
you need to decide what kind of analysis to perform Gob analysis, learning analysis, cog-
nitive, activity, or subject matter analysis) and to learn how to select the appropriate
method. There are many methods for performing each. Then, you must decide which of
the many methods will produce the most appropriate outcomes for the given context. Each
method for performing task analysis yields a different outcome that will result in a different
kind of instruction. It is important to keep in mind the goal of all forms of instructional task
analysis – producing better instruction.

We are not suggesting that designers become skilled in every method described in
this book. Rather, we believe that it is important that instructional designers learn to per-
form a variety of task analysis approaches Gob, learning, cognitive, activity, and subject
matter) and investigate specific methods once a decision about the kind of desired instruc-
tion a has been made. This book is designed as a handbook in order to facilitate that proc-
ess – to provide just-in-time instruction on how to perform a variety of task analysis
methods for the purpose of designing different kinds of instruction. So, let’s begin with
definitions.

6 Task Analysis Processes

Task Analysis: A Description

Task analysis has many definitions, depending on the purpose for conducting it, the con-
text in which it is performed, and the performers involved. Definitions of task analysis
range in clarity from “the breakdown of performance into detailed levels of specificity” to
“front-end analysis, description of mastery performance and criteria, breakdown of job
tasks into steps, and the consideration of the potential worth of solving performance prob-
lems” (Harless, 1979, p.7). Task analysis means many things because it is a complex
process.

There are several purposes for conducting task analysis. Task analysis is used ex-
tensively in developing job descriptions (job analysis). While the time-motion studies used
to decompose jobs into assembly-line activities are no longer prevalent, employers still
systematically analyze the jobs that are performed in their organizations in order to integrate
workers’ efforts more efficiently, especially in the military. Task analysis is used exten-
sively in designing human-computer interactions. Designing software interfaces requires
detailed analysis of users’ needs and actions. Finally, task analysis is used extensively in
designing different forms of instruction, including performance support, direct instruction,
and open-ended learning environments. This final application of task analysis is the focus
of this book.

In this book, we describe five general classes or kinds of task analysis that have
emerged: job or performance analysis, learning analysis, cognitive task analysis, content or
subject matter analysis, and a new class of analysis, activity-based methods (see FIG. 1.1).
Not only do these approaches involve different procedures for fulfilling the purposes of
task analysis, they also make different assumptions about how people learn and so provide
different recommendations for how they should be instructed. They also delineate the ma-
jor parts of this book (see Table of Contents).

FIG. 1.1. Domain of task analysis

Activity
Analysis

Cognitive
Task
Analysis

Learning
Analysis

Subject
Matter/
Content
Analysis

Job/
Procedural
Analysis

What is Task Analysis? 7

Job analysis is a broad category of processes that evolved from the industrial revo-
lution. Industrialization brought about a reduction of jobs into elemental tasks that are per-
formed by individuals in isolation. Industrial engineers used time-motion study techniques
to reduce jobs to their simplest activities so that they could be learned quicker and per-
formed more reliably. This approach produced a variety of job oriented task analysis tech-
niques that were intended to describe the elemental behaviors involved in performing a job.
Job analysis techniques (Part II) evolved as a planning tool for technical training. Although
the trend injob design is to add complexity and constructive components to many industrial
jobs, the same techniques can be used to describe those procedures.

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, subject matter analysis evolved as the dominant
curriculum planning tool in education. Bruner and his disciples focused on the structure of
the discipline in order to plan curricula. This entailed analyzing subject matter content for
its constructs and more importantly for how those constructs were related. The structure of
subject matter became the focus of instruction. Subject matter remains a popular method
for structuring instruction. Several methods are described in this book for performing
subject matter analysis (Part VI) .

The revolution in learning psychology in the 1960s focused the attention of design-
ers on the way learners were processing information as they performed tasks. Techniques
such as learning hierarchy analysis and information processing and path analysis were de-
veloped as part of this movement. Later, when learning psychology assumed a more cog-
nitive psychological basis, methods for conducting cognitive task analysis (Part IV)
emerged. The growth of cognitive task analysis methods was fueled by military efforts in
designing intelligent tutoring systems. The human-computer-interaction research commu-
nity contributed to the movement as well, albeit to a much lesser extent. Cognitive task
analysis is a distinct enough kind of learning analysis with different enough assumptions
and methods for other leaming analysis methods, so we have included their chapters in a
separate part of the book.

More recently, anthropological mcthods have been applied to analyzing the learning
process, ushering in situated and everyday conceptions of the human activity, only some of
which are briefly described in this book. These activity analysis approaches (Part V) ana-
lyze how people perform in natural, everyday settings. They attempt to document how
humans act and the social and contextual values that affect that activity.

Each of these general approaches to task analysis focuses on a different aspects of
the job or task being learned. Job analysis focuses on the behaviors engaged in by the per-
former. Content analysis examines the concepts and relationships of the subject matter.
Learning analysis approaches focus on the cognitive activities required to efficiently learn.
Activity analysis examines human activity and understanding in context. Cognitive task
analysis focuses on the performances and their associated knowledge states. Each ap-
proach entails a different set of assumptions about how learner acquire skills and knowl-
edge and how they ought to be instructed. Each of these approaches are represented by a
variety of techniques that we describe in each section of this book.

Task Analysis for Instructional Design

Within the ADDIE Model instructional designers perform many different kinds of analysis,
including needs analysis, task analysis, learner analysis, and context or environmental
analysis. All of these forms of analysis are intended to define the requirements and pa-
rameters of the learning situation – who the learners are, what they need to know, how
they should perform, what skills they need to develop, and how the context may affect the
design and learning processes.

Task analysis is most often confused with needs assessment. Why? Sometimes
task analysis (or job analysis) is considered a type or part of needs assessment (Rossett,
1987), while others (Kaufman, 1977, 1986) distinguish between needs analysis

8 Task Analysis Processes

(prioritizing needs and determining their training and non-training solutions) and needs as-
sessment that generates the needs for analysis . Also, task analysis and needs assessment
use the same knowledge elicitation tools (see Part VII) and frequently the same or similar
techniques to produce the same or similar results. In many respects, needs analysis mirrors
task analysis. However, there are two basic differences between task analysis and needs
analysis: purpose or function and sequence.

The purpose of needs analysis is to determine if learning is a solution to an identi-
fied need, and if so, how serious the learning need is. The result is a prioritized inventory
of learning goals. Essentially, needs assessment is the data gathering and decision-making
process that instructional designers go through to determine the goals of any instructional
system. Needs analysis identifies the present capability of prospective learners or trainees,
the desired outcomes, and the discrepancies between those (Kaufman & English, 1979).

Task analysis, on the other hand, determines what must be learned to achieve those
goals. So, starting with a statement of learning goals, task analysis is used to determine
what actually gets taught or trained. It analyzes the learning situation for the purpose of
making instructional design decisions. Its major function is organizing tasks and task com-
ponents, as well as sequencing them.

Needs analysis first determines that an instructional need exists; task analysis ana-
lyzes that need for the purpose of developing the instruction and assessment. In cases
where a needs analysis is not conducted, when training goals are mandated or already es-
tablished, then the analysis process usually begins with task analysis.

Task Analysis Functions

Much of the confusion about task analysis that frustrates inexperienced instructional de-
signers results from a lack of agreement about what the process of task analysis involves.
What exactly do designers do when they conduct a task analysis? That varies greatly be-
tween situations and contexts. In some contexts, task analysis is limited to developing an
inventory of steps routinely performed on a job. In others, task analysis may include all of
the instructional design procedures prior to determining instructional strategies. Hersch-
back (1976) described task inventory, description and analysis as the fundamental activi-
ties. According to Romiszowski (1981), task analysis procedures pervade different levels
of instructional design. At the course level, task analysis defines overall objectives. At the
lesson level, objectives are refined and sequenced, and entry level requirements are speci-
fied by task analysis. At the instructional event level, the detailed behaviors are classified.
And at the learning step level, task statements are elaborated on, as individual steps in the
task are identified. Each step of this top-down, macro-to-micro instructional design proc-
ess is heavily dependent on task analysis.

Task analysis occurs in two separate phases. The task description phase consisted
of identifying, refining and ordering tasks. The instructional phase consists of the proc-
esses of (a) specifying goals, needs, and objectives; (b) developing analysis tools (such as
taxonomies and learning hierarchies); and finally (c) identifying outcome specifications
(such as product descriptions and training considerations). There is considerable disparity
among instructional development models in terms of the components each includes as part
of the task analysis process.

Next, we perform a simple task analysis of the task analysis process. We believe
that task analysis consists of five distinct functions:

• Inventorying tasks
• Selecting tasks
• Decomposing tasks
• Sequencing tasks and task components
• Classifying learning outcomes

What is Task Analysis? 9

These are functional descriptions of what designers do while performing task analysis.
The task analysis process, as performed in different settings, may involve some or all of
these functions. The combination of functions that are performed depends upon the context
or situation in which instruction is being designed. Likewise, each function may be ac-
complished by using the different techniques that we describe in this book. Just as the
function being performed constrains the technique, each technique constrains each func-
tion. So we must exercise care in selecting a procedure for accomplishing each of the task
analysis functions. But first, let us describe the task analysis functions.

Inventorying Tasks and Content

The task inventory involves a process of identifying or, in some cases, generating a list of
the relevant tasks that should be considered for instructional development. This inventory
may result from a variety of processes, such as job analysis, concept hierarchy analysis,
needs assessment procedures, and so on. How we arrive at the list of topics or tasks to be
included in our system depends on the instructional context, the sociocultural context, the
audience we are training/educating, and the organizational context and the goal orientation
of the educational system (Tessmer & Richey, 1997). The inventory function of task analy-
sis (discussed earlier) frequently functions similarly to determining optimals in needs as-
sessment (Rossett, 1987).

JOB

Inventotng Tasks

TASK

Descr;lng Tasks

ACTIONS

FIG. 1.2. Task analysis and outcomes.

Selecting Tasks for Analysis

Some instructional development models, especially those in the military, include a separate
procedure for selecting from the task inventory those tasks for which training should be
developed. Since it is impossible to train every person on every task to a level of profi-
ciency that might be required by the job, developers often must select certain tasks for
training that are feasible and appropriate. According to Tracey, Flynn, and Legere (1966),
tasks that are feasible and appropriate for on-the-job, school, and follow-up training should
be selected. This selection process may also result from a consideration of various con-
textual constraints, such as available time and resources, and so on (Tessmer & Richey,
1997). In order to select tasks for training, developers need to rank or assign priorities to
their training objectives. Task selection is also performed to avoid instructing or training
students on material they already know. Thus, those tasks that have already been acquired

10 Task Analysis Processes

are eliminated from the list of training objectives. As illustrated in Figure 1.3, task selec-
tion normally follows the task inventory. It is not part of most task analysis methods.
Rather it is part of the process of planning for task analysis and so is described in

Chapter 2

in this first part of the book. There is no sense in describing or further elaborating tasks that
learners do not need to know or which the organization cannot begin to train or assess.
The result of the task selection is the final list of training objectives. In many design mod-
els, selection is an implicit function, not one that is performed systematically. Having se-
lected tasks for development, they need to be described and later sequenced.

Select Task
Analysis
Method

Chapter 2

Inventory
Tasks

Select
Tasks

Chapter 3

Discarded
Tasks

Select Task
Analysis
Method
Chapter 2

Describel
Decompose

Tasks
Parts II – VI

FIG. 1.3. Sequence of task analysis process.

Describing Tasks, Learning and Content

Sequence
Tasks

Classify
Tasks

Chapter 4

Task description is the process of identifying and describing the components of the tasks,
goals, or objectives identified in the inventory. Task descriptions may include listing: (a)
the tasks included in performing a job, (b) the knowledge required to performs a task, or
(c) the enabling objectives for a terminal objective. The exact motive for performing the
task description function depends upon the nature of the information provided in the in-
ventory. Task description always involves an elaboration of the tasks/goals stated in the
inventory to a greater degree of specificity or detail. The emphasis here is thoroughness-
ensuring that important instructional components are not excluded. This, in fact, is a pri-
mary rationale for conducting the task analysis process.

Sequencing Tasks, Learning, and Content

Task sequencing is often implied by the inventory and description. However, the task se-
quence is more than a simple description of the sequence in which the task is performed. It
indicates the sequence in which the instruction should occur. Frequently, the sequence for
performing the task implies an appropriate instructional sequence. For example, in training
employees to perform certain jobs, the most appropriate sequence of tasks may be the one
that models the job. However, the task performance sequence does not always imply the
instructional sequence. The instructional sequence may also be determined by the content
analysis or learning analysis processes or by the design model being used. For instance,
elaboration theory (Reigeluth & Stein, 1983) prescribes a specific top-down, general-to-
specific conceptual sequence for presenting material. According to other taxonomies of

What is Task Analysis? 11

learning, the lowest levels of skills are taught first. Other methods suggest a procedural
sequence identified in a flowchart form while other approaches, such as situated learning,
prescribe a more concurrent learning of tasks and their subordinates, so the sequence is
more simultaneous. The sequence that is recommended by any method depends on the as-
sumptions that it makes about learning, which vary considerably.

Classifying Learning Outcomes

The final function in the task analysis process is where the performance and knowledge
states required of learners are classified as to the kind of learning outcome required. What
kind of information processing, cognitive activity, or physical performance is required to
accomplish the task being analyzed? This usually takes the form of classifying the task
statement using various learning taxonomies. Beginning with the lowest level or most fun-
damental forms of behavior (reflexes), they describe increasingly more complex mental re-
sponses or behavior (evaluation, problem solving, or strategies). The purpose of classify-
ing learning varies with different instructional design models. Normally, however, taxo-
nomic classification of tasks has at least three functions. Classifying learning tasks helps to
ensure that there is (a) congruity between the tasks and the assessment; (b) congruity be-
tween the task and the instructional methods (especially practice) that support learning the
task; and (c) prerequisite sequencing (not requiring more complex task performances prior
to learning simpler, prerequisite skills and knowledge).

Classifying learning outcomes pervades the task analysis process. That is, it is per-
formed throughout the process. The classes of learning outcomes mayor may not be spe-
cific to the kind of task analysis being performed, but since it is a requirement of virtually
all forms of task analysis, it is described in Chapter 3 in this first part of the book.

Objectives: The Outcome of Task Analysis

Another component of the task analysis process that could arguably be included in the list
of functions is the writing of behavioral, instructional, learning, or performance objectives.
They are the most common component of all instructional development models (Andrews
& Goodson, 1980). However, objectives are not a process; they are an important product
of the task analysis process. Learning objectives may result from task analysis or from
some other process, such as needs assessment. Kaufman (1986) claims that needs as-
sessment is the birthplace of objectives, that is, objectives are often determined by needs
assessment prior to the instructional developer being consulted. However, task analysis
also is frequently responsible for identifying the learning objectives that guide instruction.
as well as the standards and conditions that should be specified in the objective. Task
analysis may start with objectives, or task analysis may produce objectives, but objectives
are an epiphenomenon of the task analysis process.

Sequence of the Task Analysis Process

Task analysis, as performed in various instructional development models, involves some or
all of the functions that we just described. The point is that the task analysis process varies
as it is performed in different settings. So performing task analysis may entail only one, a
few, or perhaps all of these functions. Not all task analysis processes involve all five
functions. However, we believe that all task analysis procedures, regardless of the design
model employed, can be described by one or more of these functions. That is, these func-
tions are distinct enough to be identified in any task analysis process. An analyst perform-
ing task analysis may perform two or more functions simultaneously.

12 Task Analysis Processes

A concern of this chapter is the sequence in which the functions are performed
when conducting a task analysis. Romiszowski (1981) recommended a top-down se-
quence: inventory-sequencing-analysis-description. Many designers perform the inventory
first, followed by a description. The point is that task analysis, however it is performed,
includes one or more of the functions described above. Because the inventory, description,
selection, sequencing and classification functions are the most universally performed, they
are the ones that we recommend for conducting task analysis.

Although there is no universal temporal sequence in which task analysis functions
are performed, we recommend the following as a general sequence that can be applied in
most situations.

1) Inventory Tasks

The obvious first step is to identify the tasks for analysis. First, you must select a task
analysis method that is appropriate for inventorying tasks (recommendations are available
in each chapter). The inventory of training or instructional tasks frequently results from the
needs assessment process. However, the inventory produced by the needs assessment
process may be too vague. In other cases, training is mandated or automatic, so no needs
assessment is conducted. The tasks involved in automatic training need to be identified.
In many cases, an inventory results from the normal conduct of task analysis. Generally,
when a needs assessment has not been performed, the first step is to inventory the tasks to
be trained or taught.

2) Select Tasks for Analysis

Having identified all of the tasks involved in a job or curriculum, it is usually obvious that
there are too many tasks to analyze or to develop training for, so the inventory needs to be
evaluated in order to select the tasks. Feasibility is the primary concern here. Given limited
resources, the analyst must evaluate the tasks identified in the inventory to determine which
have priority in terms of criticality, frequency, or client preference (Chapter 2).”

3) Describe or Decompose Tasks

Having decided which tasks to further analyze and develop, the next step is to break down
those selected tasks into their component parts. This is the step or function that most peo-
ple associate with task analysis. This is where the type of task analysis is selected one of
its methods utilized for task analysis. First, you must select a task analysis method that is
appropriate for describing tasks (recommendations are available in each chapter). In de-
scribing the task, you are identifying the operations (physical, mental, or activity) required
to complete the task, the sequence of prerequisite tasks, or the constituent parts of a concept
or principle. Description of a task is important because you want to avoid omitting an im-
portant part of the instruction.

4) Sequence Task Components

Having broken down the task into its components parts, you next need to determine the
instructional sequence that best conveys the task or that best facilitates learning the task. It
is important to note that the instructional sequence does not always recapitulate the se-
quence in which the task is performed. Many task analysis techniques recommend an in-
structional sequence that contradicts the task performance sequence. The instructional se-
quences most often recommended by task analysis techniques are top-down, bottom-up, or
procedural.

What is Task Analysis? 13

5) Classify Learning Outcomes

Each of the tasks and task components need to be analyzed for the type of learning re-
quired. Analyzing tasks serves to verify the sequencing of the tasks, particularly bottom-
up or prerequisite sequences. The types oflearning are also used for determining appropri-
ate instructional strategies, designing test items, and other instructional design operations.
Analyzing tasks and components is used primarily to ensure that objectives, test items, and
instruction are equivalent. Taxonomies for classifying learning outcomes are described in
Chapter 3.

The sequence of task functions above provides a model which is applicable in many
or most situations, but not all. As we indicated before, there is no universal temporal se-
quence in which task analysis functions are performed. Analyzing tasks frequently pre-
cedes the sequencing. In some cases, when tasks are already specified by a curriculum
guide, the inventory and sometimes description and sequencing are not performed. The
functions that are performed and their sequence are specific to the setting in which they are
performed.

Selecting Task Analysis Methods

Parts II through VI describe 21 different methods for conducting task analysis for instruc-
tion design. There are many more methods for conducting task analysis that are described
in the literature, but we believe that they are too task-specific and therefore not generally
appropriate for instructional design. These 21 methods may be thought of as the best task
analysis methods for instructional design (we did not address many of the knowledge
elicitation methods used in artificial intelligence and expert systems design). Understanding
of any combination of the methods that we describe will likely expand your repertoire. Our
primary goal in this book is to convince you that there are many methods for conducting
task analysis. You should become familiar or facile with as many as possible. At the very
least, you should be familiar with one or more methods of each kind Oob, learning, cogni-
tive, activity, and subject matter).

Since we presume that you are currently familiar with only a few of these methods
and therefore unable to accurately prescribe which method to use in any given instructional
design context, an important question is probably which method should you use. Next, we
briefly describe a decision-making process that reduces some, but not all, of the uncertainty
in selecting a method for conducting task analysis. That is, we provide some suggested
questions to ask. However, in order to make the best recommendation, you need to ex-
periment with them. In order to select a task analysis procedure, you need to consider:
• What kind of instruction do you plan to design?

– For performance support or procedural instruction, use a job analysis method.
– For direct instruction, use a learning analysis method.
– For problem solving or guided learning, use a cognitive task analysis method.
– For more constructivist learning environments, use an activity-based method.
– For content, subject, or topic-oriented instruction, use a subject matter analysis

method.
• What task analysis function (described before) do you need to perform (inventorying, se-

lecting, describing, sequencing, or classifying)? Most methods in this book focus on in-
ventorying and describing tasks. Many of them also provide suggestions about se-
quencing tasks for instruction.

• What is the scope of the design – macro or micro (single task or complex performance in-
volving many tasks)? The methods used to inventory tasks are more effective for macro-

14 Task Analysis Processes

level analysis, while the methods that focus on describing tasks are better for micro-level
analysis .

• What context will instruction be delivered in? Leaming situations vary dramatically from
assembly lines to large classroom to independent home study.

– For workplace learning, use ajob analysis method.
– For direct instruction, use a learning analysis or subject matter analysis method.
– For more constructivist learning environments, use a cognitive task analysis or an

activity-based method.
– For information retrieval, use a subject matter analysis method.

• What experience or training do you or other designers have in conducting task analysis?
Since most instructional design preparation programs provide limited opportunities to
learn how to conduct task analysis and many design groups de-emphasize the importance
task analysis, this will vary. The more skilled that you are in task analysis, the better will
be the instruction that you design.

• How much time and what resources are available in any instructional design context to
support different forms of task analysis, since they vary in complexity. The more com-
plex a process is, the costlier it will be to perform. Cost is closely tied to the time re-
quired for analysis, because analysis is a labor-intensive process. We believe that time
invested in competent task analysis is easily justified. When instruction is inadequate,
more often than not, it is because the task analysis did not identify important instructional
requirements.

• What resources are available? Some TA methods will require access to subject matter ex-
perts, workplace observations, considerable time to analyze the data, or multiple partici-
pants at different stakeholder levels. Be sure that your project has the resources for the
specific task analysis method chosen. Each chapter has an Advantages and a Disadvan-
tages section to help you make this decision

Conclusion

Task analysis, we believe, is an essential part of any instructional design process, regard-
less of whether you are designing technical training or constructivist learning environ-
ments. Understanding and articulating the ways that learners need to think or perform is
absolutely essential to designing effective instruction or learning environments. Too often,
instruction fails to support learning because the instructional designers fail to perform a
competent task analysis, resigning themselves to redundant, inappropriate, reproductive
forms of instruction that do not support the kind of learning that the designers had really
intended but were unable to analyze and articulate. Instructional design is premised on the
congruity between learning objectives and instruction. That is, every theory and model of
instructional design assumes that different learning outcomes require different forms of in-
struction. We argue that different learning outcomes require different forms of task analy-
sis. Just as no form of instruction fits all objectives, no form of task analysis fits all objec-
tives or instruction. So it is important that instructional designers become competent with a
variety of different forms of task analysis. Why? If you, as an instructional designer, are
unable to articulate the ways that learners need to think and perform using appropriate task
analysis methods, you have no business designing instruction to support their learning or
performance.

This chapter has described the purposes, assumptions, and kinds of task analysis.
We intend this handbook to function as a resource for instructional designers – to intro-
duce them to methods for conducting task analysis and provide informational supports to
help them begin to better articulate learning outcomes during the instructional design proc-
ess. If you are one of those people, we hope that we provide some assistance through this
book.

What is Task Analysis? i5

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tional Technology: Research and Development, 45 (3).
Tracey, W. R., Flynn, E. B., & Legere, e. L. (1966). The development of instructional

systems. Fort Devens, MA: u.S. Army Security Agency Training Center.
Zemke, R. (1981). Needs analysis: A concept in search of content. Training, i8(8), 57-58.
Zemke, R., & Kramlinger, T. (1982). Figuring things out: A trainer’s guide to needs and

task analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

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WEEK 4 RESOURCES

1. ISBN: 9781315757438

Publication Date: 2015-06-26

Brown, A. H., & Green, T. D. (2015). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting fundamental principles with process and practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge

Read Chapter 4: Needs Analysis (pp. 41-58) and pay particular attention to Figure 3.1, which is a flow chart for conducting a needs analysis for a performance problem.

2. Rothwell, W. J., Kazanas, H. C., Benscoter, B., King, M., & King, S. B. (2016). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Examine the ten key assumptions in Exhibit 1.1 on Page 4. These assumptions relate to ID and ID competencies.

3. ISBN: 9781410602657

Publication Date: 1998-10-01

Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. H. (1998). Task
analysis methods for instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Routledge.

While this book is older, it is a seminal text on task analysis methods for instructional design. Read Chapter 1: What is task analysis? for an overview that may assist you in analyzing your task in this week’s assignment.

Week 4_Rubric

10 points possible
Length: 1-2 pages, excluding title and reference pages; for other formats, consult your professor References: Include a minimum of 1 scholarly resource cited and referenced in APA style

Defines task analysis, though details are insufficient or inaccurate (0. 75 points)

Task Name (5%)

Criterion	Proficient (100%)	Needs Improvement (75%)	Not Evident (0%)
Definition of Task Analysis (10%)	Defines task analysis with thorough and accurate details (1.0 point)		Defines task analysis, though details are insufficient or inaccurate (0. 75 points)
Summary of Learning Need (10%)	Summarizes the learning need with thorough and accurate details, including any necessary revisions from instructor (1.0 point)	Summarizes the learning need, though details are insufficient or inaccurate; may not include necessary revisions from instructor (0.75 points)	Does not summarize learning need. (0 points)
	Task Name (5%)	Not applicable	Does not name task. (0 points)
Pre-Requisites (25%)	Describes at least three pre- requisite skills or knowledge needed to complete the task with thorough, relevant, and accurate details (2.5 points)	Describes some pre-requisite skills or knowledge needed to complete the task, though several skills are missing, inaccurate, or irrelevant; may describe fewer than three (1.875 points)	Does not describe pre-requisite knowledge or skills. (0 points)
List of Steps (30%)	Lists all or most of the steps needed to complete the task in order, starting with Step 1 (3.0 points)	Lists some of the steps needed to complete the task, though steps may be missing, inaccurate, irrelevant, or not in order (2.25 points)	Does not list steps. (0 points)
Integration of Resources (10%)	Integrates required number and type of resources with few, if any, errors in APA formatting, including in-text citations and references list (1.0 point)	Integrates resources, though there are multiple errors in APA formatting or assignment does not meet the minimum requirement for number or type of resources (0.75 points)	Does not integrate resources. (0 points)
Communication (10%)	Assignment has few, if any, errors related to organization, paragraph development, sentence structure, grammar, or spelling (1.0 points)	Assignment has errors related to organization, paragraph development, sentence structure, grammar, or spelling that slightly impact readability or understanding of ideas (0.75 points)	Assignment has errors that significantly impact understanding of ideas (0 points)

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